Geographic

Information
Systems (GIS)
Concepts

What is GIS ?
• A computer system for
- collecting,
- storing,
- manipulating,
- analyzing,
- displaying, and
- querying
geographically related
information.

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 Functions of a GIS
Data Collection
Field data
Satellite data Data Storage Data Manipulation
Arial Photos Creation of Reclassification
Analog Maps database Scale Change
Reports Registration
Line Smoothening
Data Analysis
Modeling
Statistical Analysis
Data Display Overlaying
Buffer Analysis
Images
Graphs
Maps
Tables
ASCI Files

GIS begins and ends

with the real world.

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 In general GIS cover 3
components
• Computer system
– Hardware
• Computer, plotter, printer, digitizer
– Software and appropriate procedures
• Spatially referenced or geographic data
• People to carry out various management
and analysis tasks

Geographic Data

 Geospatial data tells

you where it is and
attribute data tells you
what it is. Metadata
describes both
geospatial and attribute
data.

In GIS, we call geographic data as GIS data or spatial data

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 Traditional method
• To represent the geographic data is paper-
based maps

• Geology map
• Topographic map
• City street map (we still use it a lot)
• ...

Characteristics of spatial data

• “mappable” characteristics:
– Location
– Size is calculated by the amount (length, area,
perimeter) of the data
– Shape is defined as shape (point, line, area) of the
feature
• Discrete or continuous
• Spatial relationships

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GIS: a simplified view of the real world

• Points
Discrete features • Lines
• Areas
• Networks
– A series of interconnecting lines
• Road network
• River network
• Sewage network
Continuous features • Surfaces
– Elevation surface
– Temperature surface

Problems caused by the simplified

features may still exist, but let’s live on it
• Dynamic nature (not static)
– Forest grow
– River channel change
– City expand or decline
• Identification of discrete and continuous features
– Road to be a line or a area?
• Scale
• Some may not fit to any type of features: fuzzy
boundaries
– Transition area between woodland and grassland

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 DIGITAL SPATIAL DATA

• RASTER

• VECTOR

• Real World

Source: Defense Mapping School

National Imagery and Mapping Agency

Why Spatial Data Model?

Real world is an infinitely complex world

To transform real world information to a format computers can use

Computers need specific formats for organizing data for processing and storage

To derive information from objects and phenomenon around us

Use it to for spatial reasoning and decision making

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 Spatial Data Model ?
A Spatial data model represents geographic objects or
surface features as geometrical objects or numerical
data. An abstraction of real world scenario to the
digital world. A way to both store and manipulate
geographic & other auxiliary data for our applications
and use.
We need Spatial Data Types to represent
• Continuous phenomenon
e.g., surface reflectance, elevation contours, rainfall,
salinity etc.
• Discrete Objects
Unbounded: Land cover, soils and rock types
Bounded : state boundaries, land parcel ownership
moving: air masses, school of fishes
• Networks:
Eg., roads, railways, river streams, drain channels
• Points:
Static : e.g., state capitals, wells and street lamps,
Post offices
Dynamic: e.g., Cars, Disease incidence & spread.

Discrete & Continuous Data

Discrete data represents objects in both the feature and
raster data formats. A discrete data has know and
definable boundaries.

A continuous data represents natural phenomena in which

each location on the surface is a measure of some variable
associated with it. Also known as field, nondiscrete,
surface data.

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 Understanding Raster Data Model
Raster Data Model

 A raster image is defined by pixels. A pixel is the smallest

display element that makes up the images seen on a
computer monitor or television. In raster images, the more
pixels an image contains, the higher its resolution. A line is
made up of a row of pixels with each pixel having a color
value.

 Raster images are the best choice for creating subtle

gradations of shades and color, such as in a satellite image
or aerial photograph.

 A raster image is resolution-dependant because it contains

a fixed number of pixels that are used to create the image.
Since there is a fixed and limited number of pixels, a raster
image will lose quality if enlarged beyond that number of
pixels as the computer will have to 'make up' the missing
information. This is usually the cause of the image
becoming fuzzy or "steppy".

Point as Cells

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Line as a sequence of cells

Polygon as a zone of cells

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 No Data Cells

Grid Zones Raster

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 Floating Point Raster

Continuous data surfaces using floating or decimal numbers

Value attribute Table for

Categorical (integer) grid Data

Attributes of Grid zones

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 Issue of Resolution

2X 2

4X 4

8X 8

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 Raster Data Types

Continuous Raster Thematic Raster

Generating Raster Surfaces

• Raster Surfaces represent phenomenon that have
value at every point across there extent.
• Raster surface are generated using interpolation
methods using a sampled set of points with
values of the measurand. The measured
parameter could be elevation, spectral
reflectance, temperature or rainfall.
• The interpolation technique generate continuous
cell values based on certain observed values
taken at discrete locations across the surface.

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 Interpolation Continued....

• Inverse Weighted Distance

• Natural Neighbours
• Spline
• Trend

Example: Discrete raster

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Example: continuous raster

Xie et al. 2005

Types of Data Represented in Cells

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16
Representing Geography with Rasters

Forms of Raster Data

Use of Raster Data : Terrain Analysis

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 Understanding Vector Data Models
Vector Data Model
 A vector image is defined by objects which are made of lines and Vector
curves that are defined mathematically in the computer. Vectors
can have various attributes such as line thickness, length and
color. Programs such as PowerPoint, Illustrator and Freehand
all work with vectors.
 Vector graphics are resolution-independent because the vector
Point
objects are drawn mathematically in the computer. They can be
made larger or smaller without any loss of quality to the image.
Vectors can be printed at any size, on any output device, at any
resolution, without losing detail and without altering the Line
resolution of the image.
 Vector images are the best choice for typefaces, charts and
graphs, drawings, and other graphics that must have sharp lines
when scaled to various sizes.
 Even though word processing programs such as MSWord are not
drawing programs, they too use vectors because they use fonts
and fonts are vector files!
Polygon

Vector Data : Points, lines & polygons

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Selecting points to Digitize

Many ways to Model Rivers

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 Georelational Data Model
The Georelational data model stores spatial and attribute data separately in a split
system; spatial data (“geo”) in graphic files and attribute data (“relational”) in a
relational database.

Typically, a Georelational model uses the feature label or ID to link the two
components. The two components must be synchronized so that they can be
queried, analyzed, and displayed in unison.

Limitations of Georelational Model

• While the behavior of streams, roads, and

other real-world objects are different, they
are represented only by a line

• When two road cross, an intersection is

formed even if there is an overpass or
underpass

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 3-D Data Representation

Triangulated Irregular Network (TIN)

TIN is a vector data structure that partitions geographic space into

contiguous, non-overlapping triangles. The vertices of each triangle are
sample data points with x, y and z values. These points are connected by
lines to form Delaunay triangles.

• TIN is a vector topological data model for representing surfaces

• TIN represents a surface as a set of interconnected triangular facets
derived from sample points
• Associated Data tables:
- Node table - lists each triangle and its defining nodes
- Edge table - lists 3 adjacent triangles for each facet
- XY coordinate table - stores nodes coordinates

Triangulated Irregular
Network (TIN)

Node Face

Edge

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Contours TIN

All together

© Paul Bolstad, GIS Fundamentals

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Advantages
 Slope and Aspect calculated for each triangle and stored as
attributes of the facet
 For areas of complex relief, TIN works better than raster
• More detailed representation for higher density of data
points
Disadvantages
 Significantly more processing required to generate the TIN file
to start (but then more efficient representation)
 Errors along edges often need correction

Thank You
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References

1. Principles of Geographical Information System for Land Resource

Assessment by P.A. Burrough, Oxford University Press
2. Concepts and Techniques of GIS (2nd Edition) by Chor Pang Lo, Albert K
W Yeung, Published by Prentice Hall
3. GIS Basics, Stephen wise, Taylor & Francis 2002.
4. Introduction to Geographic Systems, Kang-tsung Chang, Tata McGraw
Hill 2008
5. ArcGIS Desktop help.

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