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Engineering drawing
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Engineering drawing of a machine tool part
An engineering drawing is a type of technical drawing that is used to convey information about
an object. A common use is to specify the geometry necessary for the construction of a
component and is called a detail drawing. Usually, a number of drawings are necessary to
completely specify even a simple component. The drawings are linked together by a master
drawing or assembly drawing which gives the drawing numbers of the subsequent detailed
components, quantities required, construction materials and possibly 3D images that can be used
to locate individual items. Although mostly consisting of pictographic representations,
abbreviations and symbols are used for brevity and additional textual explanations may also be
provided to convey the necessary information.
The process of producing engineering drawings is often referred to as technical drawing or

drafting (draughting).[1] Drawings typically contain multiple views of a component, although
additional scratch views may be added of details for further explanation. Only the information
that is a requirement is typically specified. Key information such as dimensions is usually only
specified in one place on a drawing, avoiding redundancy and the possibility of inconsistency.
Suitable tolerances are given for critical dimensions to allow the component to be manufactured
and function. More detailed production drawings may be produced based on the information
given in an engineering drawing. Drawings have an information box or title block containing
who drew the drawing, who approved it, units of dimensions, meaning of views, the title of the
drawing and the drawing number.
Contents
 1 History
 2 Standardization and disambiguation
 3 Media
 4 Systems of dimensioning and tolerancing
 5 Common features
o 5.1 Line styles and types
o 5.2 Multiple views and projections
 5.2.1 Multiview projection
 5.2.2 Auxiliary views
 5.2.3 Isometric projection
 5.2.4 Oblique projection
 5.2.5 Perspective projection
 5.2.6 Section Views
o 5.3 Scale
o 5.4 Showing dimensions
o 5.5 Sizes of drawings
o 5.6 Technical lettering
 6 Conventional parts (areas)
o 6.1 Title block
o 6.2 Revisions block
o 6.3 Next assembly

o 6.4 Notes list
 6.4.1 General notes
 6.4.2 Flagnotes
o 6.5 Field of the drawing
o 6.6 List of materials, bill of materials, parts list
o 6.7 Parameter tabulations
o 6.8 Views and sections
o 6.9 Zones
 7 Abbreviations and symbols
 8 Example
 9 Legal instruments
 10 Relationship to model-based definition (MBD/DPD)
 11 See also
 12 References
 13 Bibliography
 14 Further reading
 15 External links
History
Technical drawing has existed since ancient times. Complex technical drawings were made in
renaissance times, such as the drawings of Leonardo da Vinci. Modern engineering drawing,
with its precise conventions of orthographic projection and scale, arose in France at a time when
the Industrial Revolution was in its infancy. L. T. C. Rolt's biography of Isambard Kingdom
Brunel[2] says of his father, Marc Isambard Brunel, that "It seems fairly certain that Marc's
drawings of his block-making machinery (in 1799) made a contribution to British engineering
technique much greater than the machines they represented. For it is safe to assume that he had
mastered the art of presenting three-dimensional objects in a two-dimensional plane which we
now call mechanical drawing. It had been evolved by Gaspard Monge of Mezieres in 1765 but
had remained a military secret until 1794 and was therefore unknown in England."[2]
Standardization and disambiguation
Engineering drawings specify requirements of a component or assembly which can be
complicated. Standards provide rules for their specification and interpretation. Standardization
also aids internationalization, because people from different countries who speak different
languages can read the same engineering drawing, and interpret it the same way.
One major set of engineering drawing standards is ASME Y14.5 and Y14.5M (most recently
revised in 2009). These apply widely in the United States, although ISO 8015 (Geometrical
product specifications (GPS) — Fundamentals — Concepts, principles and rules) is now also
important.
In 2011, a new revision of ISO 8015 (Geometrical product specifications (GPS) —

Fundamentals — Concepts, principles and rules) was published containing the Invocation
Principle. This states that, "Once a portion of the ISO geometric product specification (GPS)
system is invoked in a mechanical engineering product documentation, the entire ISO GPS
system is invoked." It also goes on to state that marking a drawing "Tolerancing ISO 8015" is
optional. The implication of this is that any drawing using ISO symbols can only be interpreted
to ISO GPS rules. The only way not to invoke the ISO GPS system is to invoke a national or
other standard. Britain, BS 8888 (Technical Product Specification) has undergone important
updates in the 2010s.
Media
For centuries, until the post-World War II era, all engineering drawing was done manually by
using pencil and pen on paper or other substrate (e.g., vellum, mylar). Since the advent of
computer-aided design (CAD), engineering drawing has been done more and more in the
electronic medium with each passing decade. Today most engineering drawing is done with
CAD, but pencil and paper have not entirely disappeared.
Some of the tools of manual drafting include pencils, pens and their ink, straightedges, T-
squares, French curves, triangles, rulers, protractors, dividers, compasses, scales, erasers, and
tacks or push pins. (Slide rules used to number among the supplies, too, but nowadays even
manual drafting, when it occurs, benefits from a pocket calculator or its onscreen equivalent.)
And of course the tools also include drawing boards (drafting boards) or tables. The English
idiom "to go back to the drawing board", which is a figurative phrase meaning to rethink
something altogether, was inspired by the literal act of discovering design errors during
production and returning to a drawing board to revise the engineering drawing. Drafting
machines are devices that aid manual drafting by combining drawing boards, straightedges,
pantographs, and other tools into one integrated drawing environment. CAD provides their
virtual equivalents.
Producing drawings usually involves creating an original that is then reproduced, generating
multiple copies to be distributed to the shop floor, vendors, company archives, and so on. The
classic reproduction methods involved blue and white appearances (whether white-on-blue or
blue-on-white), which is why engineering drawings were long called, and even today are still
often called, "blueprints" or "bluelines", even though those terms are anachronistic from a literal
perspective, since most copies of engineering drawings today are made by more modern methods
(often inkjet or laser printing) that yield black or multicolour lines on white paper. The more
generic term "print" is now in common usage in the U.S. to mean any paper copy of an
engineering drawing. In the case of CAD drawings, the original is the CAD file, and the
printouts of that file are the "prints".
Systems of dimensioning and tolerancing

Almost all engineering drawings (except perhaps reference-only views or initial sketches)
communicate not only geometry (shape and location) but also dimensions and tolerances[1] for
those characteristics. Several systems of dimensioning and tolerancing have evolved. The
simplest dimensioning system just specifies distances between points (such as an object's length
or width, or hole center locations). Since the advent of well-developed interchangeable
manufacture, these distances have been accompanied by tolerances of the plus-or-minus or min-
and-max-limit types. Coordinate dimensioning involves defining all points, lines, planes, and
profiles in terms of Cartesian coordinates, with a common origin. Coordinate dimensioning was
the sole best option until the post-World War II era saw the development of geometric
dimensioning and tolerancing (GD&T), which departs from the limitations of coordinate
dimensioning (e.g., rectangular-only tolerance zones, tolerance stacking) to allow the most
logical tolerancing of both geometry and dimensions (that is, both form [shapes/locations] and
sizes).
Common features
Drawings convey the following critical information:
 Geometry – the shape of the object; represented as views; how the object will look when it is
viewed from various angles, such as front, top, side, etc.
 Dimensions – the size of the object is captured in accepted units.
 Tolerances – the allowable variations for each dimension.
 Material – represents what the item is made of.
 Finish – specifies the surface quality of the item, functional or cosmetic. For example, a mass-
marketed product usually requires a much higher surface quality than, say, a component that
goes inside industrial machinery.
Line styles and types

Standard engineering drawing line types
A variety of line styles graphically represent physical objects. Types of lines include the
following:
 visible – are continuous lines used to depict edges directly visible from a particular angle.
 hidden – are short-dashed lines that may be used to represent edges that are not directly visible.
 center – are alternately long- and short-dashed lines that may be used to represent the axes of
circular features.
 cutting plane – are thin, medium-dashed lines, or thick alternately long- and double short-
dashed that may be used to define sections for section views.
 section – are thin lines in a pattern (pattern determined by the material being "cut" or
"sectioned") used to indicate surfaces in section views resulting from "cutting". Section lines are
commonly referred to as "cross-hatching".
 phantom – (not shown) are alternately long- and double short-dashed thin lines used to
represent a feature or component that is not part of the specified part or assembly. E.g. billet
ends that may be used for testing, or the machined product that is the focus of a tooling
drawing.
Lines can also be classified by a letter classification in which each line is given a letter.
 Type A lines show the outline of the feature of an object. They are the thickest lines on a
drawing and done with a pencil softer than HB.
 Type B lines are dimension lines and are used for dimensioning, projecting, extending, or
leaders. A harder pencil should be used, such as a 2H pencil.
 Type C lines are used for breaks when the whole object is not shown. These are freehand drawn
and only for short breaks. 2H pencil
 Type D lines are similar to Type C, except these are zigzagged and only for longer breaks. 2H
pencil
 Type E lines indicate hidden outlines of internal features of an object. These are dotted lines. 2H
pencil
 Type F lines are Type F[typo] lines, except these are used for drawings in electrotechnology. 2H
pencil
 Type G lines are used for centre lines. These are dotted lines, but a long line of 10–20 mm, then
a 1 mm gap, then a small line of 2 mm. 2H pencil
 Type H lines are the same as type G, except that every second long line is thicker. These indicate
the cutting plane of an object. 2H pencil
 Type K lines indicate the alternate positions of an object and the line taken by that object. These
are drawn with a long line of 10–20 mm, then a small gap, then a small line of 2 mm, then a gap,
then another small line. 2H pencil.
Multiple views and projections
Main article: Graphical projection
Image of a part represented in first-angle projection
Symbols used to define whether a projection is either first-angle (left) or third-angle (right).
Several types of graphical projection compared

Various projections and how they are produced
Isometric view of the object shown in the engineering drawing below.
In most cases, a single view is not sufficient to show all necessary features, and several views are
used. Types of views include the following:
Multiview projection
A multiview projection is a type of orthographic projection that shows the object as it looks from
the front, right, left, top, bottom, or back (e.g. the primary views), and is typically positioned
relative to each other according to the rules of either first-angle or third-angle projection. The
origin and vector direction of the projectors (also called projection lines) differs, as explained
below.
 In first-angle projection, the parallel projectors originate as if radiated from behind the viewer
and pass through the 3D object to project a 2D image onto the orthogonal plane behind it. The
3D object is projected into 2D "paper" space as if you were looking at a radiograph of the object:
the top view is under the front view, the right view is at the left of the front view. First-angle
projection is the ISO standard and is primarily used in Europe.
 In third-angle projection, the parallel projectors originate as if radiated from the far side of the
object and pass through the 3D object to project a 2D image onto the orthogonal plane in front
of it. The views of the 3D object are like the panels of a box that envelopes the object, and the
panels pivot as they open up flat into the plane of the drawing. [3] Thus the left view is placed on
the left and the top view on the top; and the features closest to the front of the 3D object will
appear closest to the front view in the drawing. Third-angle projection is primarily used in the
United States and Canada, where it is the default projection system according to ASME standard
ASME Y14.3M.
Until the late 19th century, first-angle projection was the norm in North America as well as
Europe;[4][5] but circa the 1890s, third-angle projection spread throughout the North American
engineering and manufacturing communities to the point of becoming a widely followed
convention,[4][5] and it was an ASA standard by the 1950s.[5] Circa World War I, British practice
was frequently mixing the use of both projection methods.[4]
As shown above, the determination of what surface constitutes the front, back, top, and bottom
varies depending on the projection method used.
Not all views are necessarily used.[6] Generally only as many views are used as are necessary to
convey all needed information clearly and economically.[7] The front, top, and right-side views
are commonly considered the core group of views included by default,[8] but any combination of
views may be used depending on the needs of the particular design. In addition to the six
principal views (front, back, top, bottom, right side, left side), any auxiliary views or sections
may be included as serve the purposes of part definition and its communication. View lines or
section lines (lines with arrows marked "A-A", "B-B", etc.) define the direction and location of
viewing or sectioning. Sometimes a note tells the reader in which zone(s) of the drawing to find
the view or section.
Auxiliary views
An auxiliary view is an orthographic view that is projected into any plane other than one of the
six primary views.[9] These views are typically used when an object contains some sort of
inclined plane. Using the auxiliary view allows for that inclined plane (and any other significant
features) to be projected in their true size and shape. The true size and shape of any feature in an
engineering drawing can only be known when the Line of Sight (LOS) is perpendicular to the
plane being referenced. It is shown like a three-dimensional object. Auxiliary views tend to make
use of axonometric projection. When existing all by themselves, auxiliary views are sometimes
known as pictorials.
Isometric projection
An isometric projection shows the object from angles in which the scales along each axis of the
object are equal. Isometric projection corresponds to rotation of the object by ± 45° about the
vertical axis, followed by rotation of approximately ± 35.264° [= arcsin(tan(30°))] about the
horizontal axis starting from an orthographic projection view. "Isometric" comes from the Greek
for "same measure". One of the things that makes isometric drawings so attractive is the ease
with which 60° angles can be constructed with only a compass and straightedge.
Isometric projection is a type of axonometric projection. The other two types of axonometric
projection are:
 Dimetric projection
 Trimetric projection
Oblique projection
An oblique projection is a simple type of graphical projection used for producing pictorial, two-
dimensional images of three-dimensional objects:
 it projects an image by intersecting parallel rays (projectors)

 from the three-dimensional source object with the drawing surface (projection plan).
In both oblique projection and orthographic projection, parallel lines of the source object produce
parallel lines in the projected image.
Perspective projection
Perspective is an approximate representation on a flat surface, of an image as it is perceived by

the eye. The two most characteristic features of perspective are that objects are drawn:
 Smaller as their distance from the observer increases

 Foreshortened: the size of an object's dimensions along the line of sight are relatively shorter
than dimensions across the line of sight.
Section Views
Projected views (either Auxiliary or Multiview) which show a cross section of the source object
along the specified cut plane. These views are commonly used to show internal features with
more clarity than may be available using regular projections or hidden lines. In assembly
drawings, hardware components (e.g. nuts, screws, washers) are typically not sectioned. Section
view is a half side view of object.
Scale
Main articles: Architect's scale, Engineer's scale, and Metric scale
Plans are usually "scale drawings", meaning that the plans are drawn at specific ratio relative to
the actual size of the place or object. Various scales may be used for different drawings in a set.
For example, a floor plan may be drawn at 1:50 (1:48 or 1⁄4″ = 1′ 0″) whereas a detailed view may
be drawn at 1:25 (1:24 or 1⁄2″ = 1′ 0″). Site plans are often drawn at 1:200 or 1:100.
Scale is a nuanced subject in the use of engineering drawings. On one hand, it is a general
principle of engineering drawings that they are projected using standardized, mathematically
certain projection methods and rules. Thus, great effort is put into having an engineering drawing
accurately depict size, shape, form, aspect ratios between features, and so on. And yet, on the
other hand, there is another general principle of engineering drawing that nearly diametrically
opposes all this effort and intent—that is, the principle that users are not to scale the drawing to
infer a dimension not labeled. This stern admonition is often repeated on drawings, via a
boilerplate note in the title block telling the user, "DO NOT SCALE DRAWING."
The explanation for why these two nearly opposite principles can coexist is as follows. The first
principle—that drawings will be made so carefully and accurately—serves the prime goal of why
engineering drawing even exists, which is successfully communicating part definition and
acceptance criteria—including "what the part should look like if you've made it correctly." The
service of this goal is what creates a drawing that one even could scale and get an accurate
dimension thereby. And thus the great temptation to do so, when a dimension is wanted but was
not labeled. The second principle—that even though scaling the drawing will usually work, one
should nevertheless never do it—serves several goals, such as enforcing total clarity regarding
who has authority to discern design intent, and preventing erroneous scaling of a drawing that
was never drawn to scale to begin with (which is typically labeled "drawing not to scale" or
"scale: NTS"). When a user is forbidden from scaling the drawing, s/he must turn instead to the
engineer (for the answers that the scaling would seek), and s/he will never erroneously scale
something that is inherently unable to be accurately scaled.
But in some ways, the advent of the CAD and MBD era challenges these assumptions that were
formed many decades ago. When part definition is defined mathematically via a solid model, the
assertion that one cannot interrogate the model—the direct analog of "scaling the drawing"—
becomes ridiculous; because when part definition is defined this way, it is not possible for a
drawing or model to be "not to scale". A 2D pencil drawing can be inaccurately foreshortened
and skewed (and thus not to scale), yet still be a completely valid part definition as long as the
labeled dimensions are the only dimensions used, and no scaling of the drawing by the user
occurs. This is because what the drawing and labels convey is in reality a symbol of what is
wanted, rather than a true replica of it. (For example, a sketch of a hole that is clearly not round
still accurately defines the part as having a true round hole, as long as the label says "10mm
DIA", because the "DIA" implicitly but objectively tells the user that the skewed drawn circle is
a symbol representing a perfect circle.) But if a mathematical model—essentially, a vector
graphic—is declared to be the official definition of the part, then any amount of "scaling the
drawing" can make sense; there may still be an error in the model, in the sense that what was
intended is not depicted (modeled); but there can be no error of the "not to scale" type—because
the mathematical vectors and curves are replicas, not symbols, of the part features.
Even in dealing with 2D drawings, the manufacturing world has changed since the days when
people paid attention to the scale ratio claimed on the print, or counted on its accuracy. In the
past, prints were plotted on a plotter to exact scale ratios, and the user could know that a line on
the drawing 15mm long corresponded to a 30mm part dimension because the drawing said "1:2"
in the "scale" box of the title block. Today, in the era of ubiquitous desktop printing, where
original drawings or scaled prints are often scanned on a scanner and saved as a PDF file, which
is then printed at any percent magnification that the user deems handy (such as "fit to paper
size"), users have pretty much given up caring what scale ratio is claimed in the "scale" box of
the title block. Which, under the rule of "do not scale drawing", never really did that much for
them anyway.
Showing dimensions
Sizes of drawings
Main article: Paper size
ISO paper sizes
ANSI paper sizes
Sizes of drawings typically comply with either of two different standards, ISO (World Standard)
or ANSI/ASME Y14.1 (American).
The metric drawing sizes correspond to international paper sizes. These developed further
refinements in the second half of the twentieth century, when photocopying became cheap.
Engineering drawings could be readily doubled (or halved) in size and put on the next larger (or,
respectively, smaller) size of paper with no waste of space. And the metric technical pens were
chosen in sizes so that one could add detail or drafting changes with a pen width changing by
approximately a factor of the square root of 2. A full set of pens would have the following nib
sizes: 0.13, 0.18, 0.25, 0.35, 0.5, 0.7, 1.0, 1.5, and 2.0 mm. However, the International
Organization for Standardization (ISO) called for four pen widths and set a colour code for each:
0.25 (white), 0.35 (yellow), 0.5 (brown), 0.7 (blue); these nibs produced lines that related to
various text character heights and the ISO paper sizes.
All ISO paper sizes have the same aspect ratio, one to the square root of 2, meaning that a
document designed for any given size can be enlarged or reduced to any other size and will fit
perfectly. Given this ease of changing sizes, it is of course common to copy or print a given
document on different sizes of paper, especially within a series, e.g. a drawing on A3 may be
enlarged to A2 or reduced to A4.
The U.S. customary "A-size" corresponds to "letter" size, and "B-size" corresponds to "ledger"
or "tabloid" size. There were also once British paper sizes, which went by names rather than
alphanumeric designations.
American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) ANSI/ASME Y14.1, Y14.2, Y14.3, and
Y14.5 are commonly referenced standards in the U.S.
Technical lettering
Technical lettering is the process of forming letters, numerals, and other characters in technical
drawing. It is used to describe, or provide detailed specifications for an object. With the goals of
legibility and uniformity, styles are standardized and lettering ability has little relationship to
normal writing ability. Engineering drawings use a Gothic sans-serif script, formed by a series of
short strokes. Lower case letters are rare in most drawings of machines. ISO Lettering templates,
designed for use with technical pens and pencils, and to suit ISO paper sizes, produce lettering
characters to an international standard. The stroke thickness is related to the character height (for
example, 2.5mm high characters would have a stroke thickness - pen nib size - of 0.25mm, 3.5
would use a 0.35mm pen and so forth). The ISO character set (font) has a seriffed one, a barred
seven, an open four, six, and nine, and a round topped three, that improves legibility when, for
example, an A0 drawing has been reduced to A1 or even A3 (and perhaps enlarged back or
reproduced/faxed/ microfilmed &c). When CAD drawings became more popular, especially
using US American software, such as AutoCAD, the nearest font to this ISO standard font was
Romantic Simplex (RomanS) - a proprietary shx font) with a manually adjusted width factor
(over ride) to make it look as near to the ISO lettering for the drawing board. However, with the
closed four, and arced six and nine, romans.shx typeface could be difficult to read in reductions.
In more recent revisions of software packages, the TrueType font ISOCPEUR reliably
reproduces the original drawing board lettering stencil style, however, many drawings have
switched to the ubiquitous Arial.ttf.
Conventional parts (areas)

Title block
The title block (T/B, TB) is an area of the drawing that conveys header-type information about
the drawing, such as:
 Drawing title (hence the name "title block")

 Drawing number
 Part number(s)
 Name of the design activity (corporation, government agency, etc.)
 Identifying code of the design activity (such as a CAGE code)
 Address of the design activity (such as city, state/province, country)
 Measurement units of the drawing (for example, inches, millimeters)
 Default tolerances for dimension callouts where no tolerance is specified
 Boilerplate callouts of general specs
 Intellectual property rights warning
Traditional locations for the title block are the bottom right (most commonly) or the top right or
center.
Revisions block
The revisions block (rev block) is a tabulated list of the revisions (versions) of the drawing,
documenting the revision control.
Traditional locations for the revisions block are the top right (most commonly) or adjoining the
title block in some way.
Next assembly
The next assembly block, often also referred to as "where used" or sometimes "effectivity
block", is a list of higher assemblies where the product on the current drawing is used. This block
is commonly found adjacent to the title block.
Notes list
The notes list provides notes to the user of the drawing, conveying any information that the
callouts within the field of the drawing did not. It may include general notes, flagnotes, or a
mixture of both.
Traditional locations for the notes list are anywhere along the edges of the field of the drawing.
General notes
General notes (G/N, GN) apply generally to the contents of the drawing, as opposed to applying
only to certain part numbers or certain surfaces or features.
Flagnotes
Flagnotes or flag notes (FL, F/N) are notes that apply only where a flagged callout points, such
as to particular surfaces, features, or part numbers. Typically the callout includes a flag icon.
Some companies call such notes "delta notes", and the note number is enclosed inside a
triangular symbol (similar to capital letter delta, Δ). "FL5" (flagnote 5) and "D5" (delta note 5)
are typical ways to abbreviate in ASCII-only contexts.
Field of the drawing
The field of the drawing (F/D, FD) is the main body or main area of the drawing, excluding the
title block, rev block, P/L and so on
List of materials, bill of materials, parts list
The list of materials (L/M, LM, LoM), bill of materials (B/M, BM, BoM), or parts list (P/L, PL)
is a (usually tabular) list of the materials used to make a part, and/or the parts used to make an
assembly. It may contain instructions for heat treatment, finishing, and other processes, for each
part number. Sometimes such LoMs or PLs are separate documents from the drawing itself.
Traditional locations for the LoM/BoM are above the title block, or in a separate document.
Parameter tabulations
Some drawings call out dimensions with parameter names (that is, variables, such a "A", "B",
"C"), then tabulate rows of parameter values for each part number.
Traditional locations for parameter tables, when such tables are used, are floating near the edges
of the field of the drawing, either near the title block or elsewhere along the edges of the field.
Views and sections
Each view or section is a separate set of projections, occupying a contiguous portion of the field
of the drawing. Usually views and sections are called out with cross-references to specific zones
of the field.
Zones
Often a drawing is divided into zones by a grid, with zone labels along the margins, such as A,
B, C, D up the sides and 1,2,3,4,5,6 along the top and bottom. Names of zones are thus, for
example, A5, D2, or B1. This feature greatly eases discussion of, and reference to, particular
areas of the drawing.
Abbreviations and symbols

Main article: Engineering drawing abbreviations and symbols
As in many technical fields, a wide array of abbreviations and symbols have been developed in
engineering drawing during the 20th and 21st centuries. For example, cold rolled steel is often
abbreviated as CRS, and diameter is often abbreviated as DIA, D, or ⌀.
With the advent of computer generated drawings for manufacturing and machining, many
symbols have fallen out of common use. This poses a problem when attempting to interpret an
older hand-drawn document that contains obscure elements that cannot be readily referenced in
standard teaching text or control documents such as ASME and ANSI standards. For example,
ASME Y14.5M 1994 excludes a few elements that convey critical information as contained in
older US Navy drawings and aircraft manufacturing drawings of World War 2 vintage.
Researching the intent and meaning of some symbols can prove difficult.
Example
Example mechanical drawing
Here is an example of an engineering drawing (an isometric view of the same object is shown
above). The different line types are colored for clarity.
 Black = object line and hatching

 Red = hidden line
 Blue = center line of piece or opening
 Magenta = phantom line or cutting plane line
Sectional views are indicated by the direction of arrows, as in the example right side.
Legal instruments
An engineering drawing is a legal document (that is, a legal instrument), because it
communicates all the needed information about "what is wanted" to the people who will expend
resources turning the idea into a reality. It is thus a part of a contract; the purchase order and the
drawing together, as well as any ancillary documents (engineering change orders [ECOs], called-
out specs), constitute the contract. Thus, if the resulting product is wrong, the worker or
manufacturer are protected from liability as long as they have faithfully executed the instructions
conveyed by the drawing. If those instructions were wrong, it is the fault of the engineer.
Because manufacturing and construction are typically very expensive processes (involving large
amounts of capital and payroll), the question of liability for errors has legal implications.
Relationship to model-based definition (MBD/DPD)

For centuries, engineering drawing was the sole method of transferring information from design
into manufacture. In recent decades another method has arisen, called model-based definition
(MBD) or digital product definition (DPD). In MBD, the information captured by the CAD
software app is fed automatically into a CAM app (computer-aided manufacturing), which (with
or without postprocessing apps) creates code in other languages such as G-code to be executed
by a CNC machine tool (computer numerical control), 3D printer, or (increasingly) a hybrid
machine tool that uses both. Thus today it is often the case that the information travels from the
mind of the designer into the manufactured component without having ever been codified by an
engineering drawing. In MBD, the dataset, not a drawing, is the legal instrument. The term
"technical data package" (TDP) is now used to refer to the complete package of information (in
one medium or another) that communicates information from design to production (such as 3D-
model datasets, engineering drawings, engineering change orders (ECOs), spec revisions and
addenda, and so on).
It still takes CAD/CAM programmers, CNC setup workers, and CNC operators to do
manufacturing, as well as other people such as quality assurance staff (inspectors) and logistics
staff (for materials handling, shipping-and-receiving, and front office functions). These workers
often use drawings in the course of their work that have been produced from the MBD dataset.
When proper procedures are being followed, a clear chain of precedence is always documented,
such that when a person looks at a drawing, s/he is told by a note thereon that this drawing is not
the governing instrument (because the MBD dataset is). In these cases, the drawing is still a
useful document, although legally it is classified as "for reference only", meaning that if any
controversies or discrepancies arise, it is the MBD dataset, not the drawing, that governs.
See also
 Architectural drawing
 B. Hick and Sons – Notable collection of early locomotive and steam engine drawings
 CAD standards
 Descriptive geometry
 Document management system
 Engineering drawing symbols
 Geometric tolerance
 ISO 128 Technical drawings – General principles of presentation
 Linear scale
 Patent drawing
 Scale rulers: architect's scale and engineer's scale
 Specification (technical standard)
 Structural drawing
References
1.
 M. Maitra, Gitin (2000). Practical Engineering Drawing. 4835/24, Ansari Road, Daryaganj, New Delhi -
110002: New Age International (P) Limited, Publishers. pp. 2–5, 183. ISBN 81-224-1176-2.
  Rolt 1957, pp. 29–30.
  French & Vierck 1953, pp. 99–105
  French 1918, p. 78.
  French & Vierck 1953, pp. 111–114
  French & Vierck 1953, pp. 97–114
  French & Vierck 1953, pp. 108–111
  French & Vierck 1953, p. 102.
1.  Bertoline, Gary R. Introduction to Graphics Communications for Engineers (4th Ed.).

New York, NY. 2009
Bibliography
 French, Thomas E. (1918), A manual of engineering drawing for students and draftsmen (2nd
ed.), New York, New York, USA: McGraw-Hill, LCCN 30018430.
 French, Thomas E.; Vierck, Charles J. (1953), A manual of engineering drawing for students and
draftsmen (8th ed.), New York, New York, USA: McGraw-Hill, LCCN 52013455.
 Rolt, L.T.C. (1957), Isambard Kingdom Brunel: A Biography, Longmans Green, LCCN 57003475.
Further reading
 Basant Agrawal and C M Agrawal (2013). Engineering Drawing. Second Edition, McGraw Hill
Education India Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi. [1]
 Paige Davis, Karen Renee Juneau (2000). Engineering Drawing
 David A. Madsen, Karen Schertz, (2001) Engineering Drawing & Design. Delmar Thomson
Learning. [2]
 Cecil Howard Jensen, Jay D. Helsel, Donald D. Voisinet Computer-aided engineering drawing
using AutoCAD.
 Warren Jacob Luzadder (1959). Fundamentals of engineering drawing for technical students and
professional.
 M.A. Parker, F. Pickup (1990) Engineering Drawing with Worked Examples.
 Colin H. Simmons, Dennis E. Maguire Manual of engineering drawing. Elsevier.
 Cecil Howard Jensen (2001). Interpreting Engineering Drawings.
 B. Leighton Wellman (1948). Technical Descriptive Geometry. McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Construction drawings.
 Examples of cubes drawn in different projections

 Animated presentation of drawing systems used in technical drawing (Flash animation)
 Design Handbook: Engineering Drawing and Sketching , by MIT OpenCourseWare
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a rh d positiv
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If you're rhesus positive (RhD positive), it means that a protein (D antigen) is found on the surface of
your red blood cells. Most people are RhD positive. If you're rhesus negative (RhD negative), you do not
have the D antigen on your blood cells.
What is my rhesus status, and how will it affect my pregnancy ...
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Blood groups - NHS

www.nhs.uk › conditions › blood-groups
Red blood cells sometimes have another antigen, a protein known as the RhD antigen. If this is present,
your blood group is RhD positive. If it's absent, your ...
Blood type - Wikipedia
en.wikipedia.org › wiki › Blood_type
An Rh D-negative patient who does not have any anti-D antibodies (never being previously sensitized to
D-positive RBCs) can receive a transfusion of D-positive ...
Rh blood group system · Clinical significance · Blood transfusion · Red blood cell ...
Blood types: What are they and what do they mean?
www.medicalnewstoday.com › articles
Apr 25, 2017 - AB positive blood, on the other hand, contains no anti-A/anti-B/RhD antibodies, so
patients with this blood type can, therefore, receive nearly ...
Rh factor blood test - Mayo Clinic
www.mayoclinic.org › rh-factor › about › pac-20394960

Jun 14, 2018 - If your next baby is Rh positive, these Rh antibodies can cross the placenta and damage
the baby's red blood cells. This could lead to life- ...
What does an Rh D-positive mean? - Quora
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3 answers
Sep 18, 2017 - The Rh antigen is way more complex than a simple positive or negative. One of the
components, and the antigen that specifically defines whether a blood ...
What kind of blood is B RhD positive? - Quora
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What is “O RhD positive” blood? - Quora
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What does it mean to have an O RhD positive blood type ...
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Rhesus D negative in pregnancy | Pregnancy Birth and Baby
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These blood types are further identified as being either positive or negative. This shows your 'Rhesus
factor' (RhD), which indicates if you have a protein known ...
The Significance of Being Rh Negative or Rh Positive
www.carterbloodcare.org › the-significance-of-being-rh-negative-or-r...
May 1, 2016 - This protein is also often called the D antigen. When it comes to blood transfusion, anyone
who is Rh positive can receive blood from someone ...
Blood types - NHS Blood Donation - Give Blood
www.blood.co.uk › why-give-blood › blood-types
Dec 14, 2017 - Uploaded by NHS Give Blood
If you have the Rh D antigen, your blood type is positive. If you lack the Rh D antigen, your blood type
is ...
ABO and Rhesus (D) blood group distribution among blood ...
bmcresnotes.biomedcentral.com › articles
by RO Apecu - 2016 - Cited by 15 - Related articles

Dec 21, 2016 - In Rhesus (D) system, blood groups are Rh-positive or Rh-negative on the basis of
presence or absence of Rhesus D antigens on red cell surface ...
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o 19.1 Spill frequency-volume
o 19.2 Benzene fate and transport
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Oil and natural gas

See also: List of oil pipelines and List of natural gas pipelines
It has been suggested that this section be split out into another article titled Oil pipeline.
(Discuss) (June 2019)
transport of crude oil cost about $5 per barrel, while rail transport cost about $10 to $15 per
barrel.[5] Trucking has even higher costs due to the additional labor required; employment on
completed pipelines represents only "1% of that of the trucking industry."[6]
In the United States, 70% of crude oil and petroleum products are shipped by pipeline. (23% are
by ship, 4% by truck, and 3% by rail) In Canada for natural gas and petroleum products, 97% are
shipped by pipeline.[5]
Natural gas (and similar gaseous fuels) are lightly pressurized into liquids known as Natural Gas
Liquids (NGLs). Small NGL processing facilities can be located in oil fields so the butane and
propane liquid under light pressure of 125 pounds per square inch (860 kPa), can be shipped by
rail, truck or pipeline. Propane can be used as a fuel in oil fields to heat various facilities used by
the oil drillers or equipment and trucks used in the oil patch. EG: Propane will convert from a
gas to a liquid under light pressure, 100 psi, give or take depending on temperature, and is
pumped into cars and trucks at less than 125 psi (860 kPa) at retail stations. Pipelines and rail
cars use about double that pressure to pump at 250 psi (1,700 kPa).
An elevated section of the Alaska Pipeline.
The distance to ship propane to markets is much shorter, as thousands of natural-gas processing
plants are located in or near oil fields. Many Bakken Basin oil companies in North Dakota,
Montana, Manitoba and Saskatchewan gas fields separate the NGLs in the field, allowing the
drillers to sell propane directly to small wholesalers, eliminating the large refinery control of
product and prices for propane or butane.
The most recent major pipeline to start operating in North America, is a TransCanada natural gas
line going north across the Niagara region bridges with Marcellus shale gas from Pennsylvania
and others tied in methane or natural gas sources, into the Canadian province of Ontario as of the
fall of 2012, supplying 16 percent of all the natural gas used in Ontario.
This new US-supplied natural gas displaces the natural gas formerly shipped to Ontario from
western Canada in Alberta and Manitoba, thus dropping the government regulated pipeline
shipping charges because of the significantly shorter distance from gas source to consumer. To
avoid delays and US government regulation, many small, medium and large oil producers in
North Dakota have decided to run an oil pipeline north to Canada to meet up with a Canadian oil
pipeline shipping oil from west to east. This allows the Bakken Basin and Three Forks oil
producers to get higher negotiated 137 kilometers to the Canada–US border and Manitoba.
Mutual funds and joint ventures are big investors in new oil and gas pipelines. In the fall of 2012,
the US began exporting propane to Europe, known as LPG, as wholesale prices there are much
higher than in North America. Additionally, a pipeline is currently being constructed from North
Dakota to Illinois, commonly known as the Dakota Access Pipeline.
As more North American pipelines are built, even more exports of LNG, propane, butane, and
other natural gas products occur on all three US coasts. To give insight, North Dakota Bakken
region's oil production has grown by 600% from 2007 to 2015.[7] North Dakota oil companies are
shipping huge amounts of oil by
will also refine some of this western Canadian crude and export some crude and refined oil to
Europe from its deep water oil ULCC loading port.
Although pipelines can be built under the sea, that process is economically and technically
demanding, so the majority of oil at sea is transported by tanker ships. Similarly, it is often more
economically feasible to transport natural gas in the form of LNG, however the break-even point
between LNG and pipelines would depend on the volume of natural gas and the distance it
travels.[9]
The Enbridge Sandpiper pipeline is proposed to transfer valuable oil from Western North Dakota
through northwestern Minnesota. The pipeline will be 24-30 inches in diameter. It will carry over
300,000 barrels of oil a day with a volatility of 32.[10]
Growth of market
Gas pipe in the dry region of Antofagasta, Chile.
The market size for oil and gas pipeline construction experienced tremendous growth prior to the
economic downturn in 2008. After faltering in 2009, demand for pipeline expansion and
updating increased the following year as energy production grew.[11] By 2012, almost 32,000
miles of North American pipeline were being planned or under construction.[12]. When pipelines
are constrained, additional pipeline product transportation options may include the use of drag
reducing agents, or by transporting product via truck or rail.
Construction and operation
Oil pipelines are made from steel or plastic tubes with inner diameter typically from 4 to 48
inches (100 to 1,220 mm). Most pipelines are typically buried at a depth of about 3 to 6 feet
(0.91 to 1.83 m). To protect pipes from impact, abrasion, and corrosion, a variety of methods are
used. These can include wood lagging (wood slats), concrete coating, rockshield, high-density
polyethylene, imported sand padding, and padding machines.[13]
Crude oil contains varying amounts of paraffin wax and in colder climates wax buildup may
occur within a pipeline. Often these pipelines are inspected and cleaned using pigging, the
practice of using devices known as "pigs" to perform various maintenance operations on a
pipeline. The devices are also known as "scrapers" or "Go-devils". "Smart pigs" (also known as
"intelligent" or "intelligence" pigs) are used to detect anomalies in the pipe such as dents, metal
loss caused by corrosion, cracking or other mechanical damage.[14] These devices are launched
from pig-launcher stations and travel through the pipeline to be received at any other station
down-stream, either cleaning wax deposits and material that may have accumulated inside the
line or inspecting
The world's longest ammonia pipeline from Russia to Ukraine
Highly toxic ammonia is theoretically the most dangerous substance to be transported through
long-distance pipelines.[citation needed] However, incidents on ammonia-transporting lines are
uncommon – unlike on industrial ammonia-processing equipment.[citation needed] A major ammonia
pipeline is the Ukrainian Transammiak line connecting the TogliattiAzot facility in Russia to the
exporting Black Sea-port of Odessa.
Alcohol fuels
See also: Biobutanol
Pipelines have been used for transportation of ethanol in Brazil, and there are several ethanol
pipeline projects in Brazil and the United States.[15] The main problems related to the transport of
ethanol by pipeline are its corrosive nature and tendency to absorb water and impurities in
pipelines, which are not problems with oil and natural gas.[15][16] Insufficient volumes and cost-
effectiveness are other considerations limiting construction of ethanol pipelines.[16][17] In the US
minimal amounts of ethanol are transported by pipeline. Most ethanol is shipped by rail, the
main alternatives being truck and barge. Delivering ethanol by pipeline is the most desirable
option, but ethanol's affinity for water and solvent properties require the use of a dedicated
pipeline, or significant cleanup of existing pipelines.
Alternative Fuels Pipelines

This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (June 2019)
Proposed US Ethanol and Butanol pipelines
Coal and ore

Slurry pipelines are sometimes used to transport coal or ore from mines. The material to be
transported is closely mixed with water before being introduced to the pipeline; at the far end,
the material must be dried. One example is a 525-kilometre (326 mi) slurry pipeline which is
planned to transport iron ore from the Minas-Rio mine (producing 26.5 million tonnes per year)
to the Port of Açu in Brazil.[18] An existing example is the 85-kilometre (53 mi) Savage River
Slurry pipeline in Tasmania, Australia, possibly the world's first when it was built in 1967. It
includes a 366-metre (1,201 ft) bridge span at 167 metres (548 ft) above the Savage River.[19][20]
Hydrogen
Main article: Hydrogen pipeline transport
Hydrogen pipeline transport is a transportation of hydrogen through a pipe as part of the

hydrogen infrastructure. Hydrogen pipeline transport is used to connect the point of hydrogen
production or delivery of hydrogen with the point of demand, with transport costs similar to
CNG,[21] the technology is proven.[22] Most hydrogen is produced at the place of demand with
every 50 to 100 miles (160 km) an industrial production facility.[23] The 1938 Rhine-Ruhr 240-
kilometre (150 mi) hydrogen pipeline is still in operation.[24] As of 2004, there are 900 miles
(1,400 km) of low pressure hydrogen pipelines in the US and 930 miles (1,500 km) in Europe.
Water
See also: Aqueduct (watercourse) and History of water supply and sanitation
allowed gravity to push the water along until it reached its destination. Hundreds of these were
built throughout Europe and elsewhere, and along with flour mills were considered the lifeline of
the Roman Empire. The ancient Chinese also made use of channels and pipe systems for public
works. The famous Han Dynasty court eunuch Zhang Rang (d. 189 AD) once ordered the
engineer Bi Lan to construct a series of square-pallet chain pumps outside the capital city of
Luoyang.[25] These chain pumps serviced the imperial palaces and living quarters of the capital
city as the water lifted by the chain pumps was brought in by a stoneware pipe system.[25][26]
Pipelines are useful for transporting water for drinking or irrigation over long distances when it
needs to move over hills, or where canals or channels are poor choices due to considerations of
evaporation, pollution, or environmental impact.
The 530 km (330 mi) Goldfields Water Supply Scheme in Western Australia using 750 mm
(30 inch) pipe and completed in 1903 was the largest water supply scheme of its time.[27][28]
Examples of significant water pipelines in South Australia are the Morgan-Whyalla pipeline
(completed 1944) and Mannum-Adelaide pipeline (completed 1955) pipelines, both part of the
larger Snowy Mountains scheme.[29]
There are two Los Angeles, California aqueducts, the Owens Valley aqueduct (completed 1913)
and the Second Los Angeles Aqueduct (completed 1970) which also include extensive use of
pipelines.
The Great Manmade River of Libya supplies 3,680,000 cubic metres (4,810,000 cu yd) of water
each day to Tripoli, Benghazi, Sirte, and several other cities in Libya. The pipeline is over 2,800
kilometres (1,700 mi) long, and is connected to wells tapping an aquifer over 500 metres
(1,600 ft) underground.[30]
Other systems
District heating
District heating pipeline in Austria with a length of 31 km [31]

Main article: District heating
District heating or teleheating systems consist of a network of insulated feed and return pipes
which transport heated water, pressurized hot water, or sometimes steam to the customer. While
steam is hottest and may be used in industrial processes due to its higher temperature, it is less
efficient to produce and transport due to greater heat losses. Heat transfer oils are generally not
used for economic and ecological reasons. The typical annual loss of thermal energy through
distribution is around 10%, as seen in Norway's district heating network.[32]
District heating pipelines are normally installed underground, with some exceptions. Within the
system, heat storage may be installed to even out peak load demands. Heat is transferred into the
in September 2016 to reduce truck traffic on the city streets.[33]
Brine
The village of Hallstatt in Austria, which is known for its long history of salt mining, claims to
contain "the oldest industrial pipeline in the world", dating back to 1595.[34] It was constructed
from 13,000 hollowed-out tree trunks to transport brine 40 kilometres (25 mi) from Hallstatt to
Ebensee.[35]
Milk
Between 1978 and 1994, a 15 km milk pipeline ran between the Dutch island of Ameland and
Holwerd on the mainland, of which 8 km beneath the Wadden Sea. Every day, 30,000 litres of
milk produced on the island were transported to be processed on the mainland. In 1994, the milk
transport was abandoned.[36]
Marine pipelines
Main article: Submarine pipeline
In places, a pipeline may have to cross water expanses, such as small seas, straits and rivers.[37] In
many instances, they lie entirely on the seabed. These pipelines are referred to as "marine"
pipelines (also, "submarine" or "offshore" pipelines). They are used primarily to carry oil or gas,
but transportation of water is also important.[37] In offshore projects, a distinction is made
between a "flowline" and a pipeline.[37][38][39] The former is an intrafield pipeline, in the sense that
it is used to connect subsea wellheads, manifolds and the platform within a particular
development field. The latter, sometimes referred to as an "export pipeline", is used to bring the
resource to shore.[38] The construction and maintenance of marine pipelines imply logistical
challenges that are different from those onland, mainly because of wave and current dynamics,
along with other geohazards.
Functions
In general, pipelines can be classified in three categories depending on purpose:
Gathering pipelines
Group of smaller interconnected pipelines forming complex networks with the purpose of
bringing crude oil or natural gas from several nearby wells to a treatment plant or
processing facility. In this group, pipelines are usually short- a couple hundred metres-
and with small diameters. Sub-sea pipelines for collecting product from deep water
production platforms are also considered gathering systems.
Transportation pipelines
Mainly long pipes with large diameters, moving products (oil, gas, refined products)
between cities, countries and even continents. These transportation networks include
several compressor stations in gas lines or pump stations for crude and multi-products
pipelines.
Distribution pipelines
Composed of several interconnected pipelines with small diameters, used to take the
products to the final consumer. Feeder lines to distribute gas to homes and businesses
downstream. Pipelines at terminals for distributing products to tanks and storage facilities
are included in this groups.
Development and planning

When a pipeline is built, the construction project not only covers the civil engineering work to
lay the pipeline and build the pump/compressor stations, it also has to cover all the work related
to the installation of the field devices that will support remote operation.
The pipeline is routed along what is known as a "right of way". Pipelines are generally developed
and built using the following stages:
1. Open season to determine market interest: Potential customers are given the chance to
sign up for part of the new pipeline's capacity rights.
2. Route (right of way) selection
3. Pipeline design: The pipeline project may take a number of forms, including the
construction of a new pipeline, conversion of existing pipeline from one fuel type to
another, or improvements to facilities on a current pipeline route.
4. Obtaining approval: Once the design is finalized and the first pipeline customers have
purchased their share of capacity, the project must be approved by the relevant regulatory
agencies.
5. Surveying the route
6. Clearing the route
7. Trenching – Main Route and Crossings (roads, rail, other pipes, etc.)
8. Installing the pipe
9. Installing valves, intersections, etc.
10. Covering the pipe and trench
11. Testing: Once construction is completed, the new pipeline is subjected to tests to ensure
its structural integrity. These may include hydrostatic testing and line packing.[40]
Russia has "Pipeline Troops" as part of the Rear Services, who are trained to build and repair
pipelines. Russia is the only country to have Pipeline Troops.[41]
Operation
Field devices are instrumentation, data gathering units and communication systems. The field
instrumentation includes flow, pressure, and temperature gauges/transmitters, and other devices
to measure the relevant data required. These instruments are installed along the pipeline on some
specific locations, such as injection or delivery stations, pump stations (liquid pipelines) or
compressor stations (gas pipelines), and block valve stations.
The information measured by these field instruments is then gathered in local remote terminal
units (RTU) that transfer the field data to a central location in real time using communication
systems, such as satellite channels, microwave links, or cellular phone connections.
Pipelines are controlled and operated remotely, from what is usually known as the "Main Control
Room". In this center, all the data related to field measurement is consolidated in one central
database. The data is received from multiple RTUs along the pipeline. It is common to find
RTUs installed at every station along the pipeline.
The SCADA System for pipelines.
The SCADA system at the Main Control Room receives all the field data and presents it to the
pipeline operator through a set of screens or Human Machine Interface, showing the operational
conditions of the pipeline. The operator can monitor the hydraulic conditions of the line, as well
as send operational commands (open/close valves, turn on/off compressors or pumps, change
setpoints, etc.) through the SCADA system to the field.
To optimize and secure the operation of these assets, some pipeline companies are using what is
called "Advanced Pipeline Applications", which are software tools installed on top of the
SCADA system, that provide extended functionality to perform leak detection, leak location,
batch tracking (liquid lines), pig tracking, composition tracking, predictive modeling, look ahead
modeling, and operator training.
Technology
Components
The Trans Alaska Pipeline crossing under the Tanana River and over ridge of the Alaska Range
Pipeline networks are composed of several pieces of equipment that operate together to move
products from location to location. The main elements of a pipeline system are:
Initial injection station

Known also as "supply" or "inlet" station, is the beginning of the system, where the
product is injected into the line. Storage facilities, pumps or compressors are usually
located at these locations.
Compressor/pump stations
Pumps for liquid pipelines and compressors for gas pipelines, are located along the line to
move the product through the pipeline. The location of these stations is defined by the
topography of the terrain, the type of product being transported, or operational conditions
of the network.
Partial delivery station
Known also as "intermediate stations", these facilities allow the pipeline operator to
deliver part of the product being transported.
Block valve station
These are the first line of protection for pipelines. With these valves the operator can
isolate any segment of the line for maintenance work or isolate a rupture or leak. Block
valve stations are usually located every 20 to 30 miles (48 km), depending on the type of
pipeline. Even though it is not a design rule, it is a very usual practice in liquid pipelines.
The location of these stations depends exclusively on the nature of the product being
transported, the trajectory of the pipeline and/or the operational conditions of the line.
Regulator station
This is a special type of valve station, where the operator can release some of the pressure
from the line. Regulators are usually located at the downhill side of a peak.
Final delivery station
Known also as "outlet" stations or terminals, this is where the product will be distributed
to the consumer. It could be a tank terminal for liquid pipelines or a connection to a
distribution network for gas pipelines.
Leak detection systems
Since oil and gas pipelines are an important asset of the economic development of almost any
country, it has been required either by government regulations or internal policies to ensure the
safety of the assets, and the population and environment where these pipelines run.
Pipeline companies face government regulation, environmental constraints and social situations.
Government regulations may define minimum staff to run the operation, operator training
requirements, pipeline facilities, technology and applications required to ensure operational
safety. For example, in the State of Washington it is mandatory for pipeline operators to be able
to detect and locate leaks of 8 percent of maximum flow within fifteen minutes or less. Social
factors also affect the operation of pipelines. Product theft is sometimes also a problem for
pipeline companies. In this case, the detection levels should be under two percent of maximum
flow, with a high expectation for location accuracy.
Various technologies and strategies have been implemented for monitoring pipelines, from
physically walking the lines to satellite surveillance. The most common technology to protect
pipelines from occasional leaks is Computational Pipeline Monitoring or CPM. CPM takes
information from the field related to pressures, flows, and temperatures to estimate the hydraulic
behavior of the product being transported. Once the estimation is completed, the results are
compared to other field references to detect the presence of an anomaly or unexpected situation,
which may be related to a leak.
The American Petroleum Institute has published several articles related to the performance of
CPM in liquids pipelines. The API Publications are:
 RAM 1130 – Computational pipeline monitoring for liquids pipelines

 API 1149 – Pipeline variable uncertainties & their effects on leak detectability
Where a pipeline containing passes under a road or railway, it is usually enclosed in a protective
casing. This casing is vented to the atmosphere to prevent the build-up of flammable gases or
corrosive substances, and to allow the air inside the casing to be sampled to detect leaks. The
casing vent, a pipe protruding from the ground, often doubles as a warning marker called a
casing vent marker.[42]
Implementation
Pipelines are generally laid underground because temperature is less variable. Because pipelines
are usually metal, this helps to reduce the expansion and shrinkage that can occur with weather
changes.[43] However, in some cases it is necessary to cross a valley or a river on a pipeline
bridge. Pipelines for centralized heating systems are often laid on the ground or overhead.
Pipelines for petroleum running through permafrost areas as Trans-Alaska-Pipeline are often run
overhead in order to avoid melting the frozen ground by hot petroleum which would result in
sinking the pipeline in the ground.
Maintenance
Maintenance of pipelines includes checking cathodic protection levels for the proper range,
surveillance for construction, erosion, or leaks by foot, land vehicle, boat, or air, and running
cleaning pigs, when there is anything carried in the pipeline that is corrosive.
US pipeline maintenance rules are covered in Code of Federal Regulations(CFR) sections, 49

CFR 192 for natural gas pipelines, and 49 CFR 195 for petroleum liquid pipelines.
Regulation
An underground petroleum pipeline running through a park
In the US, onshore and offshore pipelines used to transport oil and gas are regulated by the
Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration (PHMSA). Certain offshore pipelines
used to produce oil and gas are regulated by the Minerals Management Service (MMS). In
Canada, pipelines are regulated by either the provincial regulators or, if they cross provincial
boundaries or the Canada–US border, by the National Energy Board (NEB). Government
regulations in Canada and the United States require that buried fuel pipelines must be protected
from corrosion. Often, the most economical method of corrosion control is by use of pipeline
coating in conjunction with cathodic protection and technology to monitor the pipeline. Above
ground, cathodic protection is not an option. The coating is the only external protection.
Pipelines and geopolitics

Pipelines for major energy resources (petroleum and natural gas) are not merely an element of
trade. They connect to issues of geopolitics and international security as well, and the
construction, placement, and control of oil and gas pipelines often figure prominently in state
interests and actions. A notable example of pipeline politics occurred at the beginning of the year
2009, wherein a dispute between Russia and Ukraine ostensibly over pricing led to a major
political crisis. Russian state-owned gas company Gazprom cut off natural gas supplies to
Ukraine after talks between it and the Ukrainian government fell through. In addition to cutting
off supplies to Ukraine, Russian gas flowing through Ukraine—which included nearly all
supplies to Southeastern Europe and some supplies to Central and Western Europe—was cut off,
creating a major crisis in several countries heavily dependent on Russian gas as fuel. Russia was
accused of using the dispute as leverage in its attempt to keep other powers, and particularly the
European Union, from interfering in its "near abroad".
Oil and gas pipelines also figure prominently in the politics of Central Asia and the Caucasus.
Hazard identification
Because the solvent fraction of dilbit typically comprises volatile aromatics like naptha and
benzene, reasonably rapid carrier vaporization can be expected to follow an above-ground spill
—ostensibly enabling timely intervention by leaving only a viscous residue that is slow to
migrate. Effective protocols to minimize exposure to petrochemical vapours are well-established,
and oil spilled from the pipeline would be unlikely to reach the aquifer unless incomplete
remediation were followed by the introduction of another carrier (e.g. a series of torrential
downpours).
The introduction of benzene and other volatile organic compounds (collectively BTEX) to the
subterranean environment compounds the threat posed by a pipeline leak. Particularly if
followed by rain, a pipeline breach would result in BTEX dissolution and equilibration of
benzene in water, followed by percolation of the admixture into the aquifer. Benzene can cause
many health problems and is carcinogenic with EPA Maximum Contaminant Level (MCL) set at
5 μg/L for potable water.[44] Although it is not well studied, single benzene exposure events have
been linked to acute carcinogenesis.[45] Additionally, the exposure of livestock, mainly cattle, to
benzene has been shown to cause many health issues, such as neurotoxicity, fetal damage and
fatal poisoning.[46]
The entire surface of an above-ground pipeline can be directly examined for material breach.
Pooled petroleum is unambiguous, readily spotted, and indicates the location of required repairs.
Because the effectiveness of remote inspection is limited by the cost of monitoring equipment,
gaps between sensors, and data that requires interpretation, small leaks in buried pipe can
sometimes go undetected
Pipeline developers do not always prioritize effective surveillance against leaks. Buried pipes
draw fewer complaints. They are insulated from extremes in ambient temperature, they are
shielded from ultraviolet rays, and they are less exposed to photodegradation. Buried pipes are
isolated from airborne debris, electrical storms, tornadoes, hurricanes, hail, and acid rain. They
are protected from nesting birds, rutting mammals, and stray buckshot. Buried pipe is less
vulnerable to accident damage (e.g. automobile collisions) and less accessible to vandals,
saboteurs, and terrorists.
Exposure
Previous work[47] has shown that a 'worst-case exposure scenario' can be limited to a specific set
of conditions. Based on the advanced detection methods and pipeline shut-off SOP developed by
TransCanada, the risk of a substantive or large release over a short period of time contaminating
groundwater with benzene is unlikely.[48] Detection, shutoff, and remediation procedures would
limit the dissolution and transport of benzene. Therefore, the exposure of benzene would be
limited to leaks that are below the limit of detection and go unnoticed for extended periods of
time.[47] Leak detection is monitored through a SCADA system that assesses pressure and volume
flow every 5 seconds. A pinhole leak that releases small quantities that cannot be detected by the
SCADA system (<1.5% flow) could accumulate into a substantive spill.[48] Detection of pinhole
leaks would come from a visual or olfactory inspection, aerial surveying, or mass-balance
inconsistencies.[48] It is assumed that pinhole leaks are discovered within the 14-day inspection
interval, however snow cover and location (e.g. remote, deep) could delay detection. Benzene
typically makes up 0.1 – 1.0% of oil and will have varying degrees of volatility and dissolution
based on environmental factors.
Even with pipeline leak volumes within SCADA detection limits, sometimes pipeline leaks are
misinterpreted by pipeline operators to be pump malfunctions, or other problems. The Enbridge
Line 6B crude oil pipeline failure in Marshall, Michigan on July 25, 2010 was thought by
operators in Edmonton to be from column separation of the dilbit in that pipeline. The leak in
wetlands along the Kalamazoo River was only confirmed 17 hours after it happened by a local
gas company employee in Michigan.
D 2369 Test method for volatile content of coatings
ASTM D 2371 Test method for pigment content of solvent-

reducible paints
ASTM D 3359 Method for measuring adhesion by tape test
TM D 3418 Standard Test Method for Transition Temperatures and

Enthalpies of Fusion and Crystallization of Polymers by
Differential Scanning Calor- imetry
ASTM D3451 Standard Guide for Testing Coating Powders and

Powder Coatings
TM D 4060 Standard test method for abrasion resistance of organic

coatings by the Taber abraser
TM D4228 Standard Practice for Qualification of Coating Applicators for

Application of Coatings to Steel Surfaces.
ASTM D 4285 Test method for indicating oil or water in

compressor air
TM D 4414 Standard Practice for Measurement of Wet Film Thickness by

Notch Gages
ASTM D 4417 Method C Test method for Field Measurement
of Surface Profile
TM D 4541 Test method for pull-off strength of coatings using portable

adhesion testers.
TM D 4752 Standard Test Method for Measuring MEK Resistance of Ethyl

Silicate (Inorganic) Zinc-Rich Primers by Solvent Rub.
TM D 4940 Standard Test Method for Conductimetric Analysis of Water

Soluble Ionic Contamination of Blasting Abrasives
TM D5144 Standard Guide for Use of Protective Coating Standards in

Nuclear Power Plants
TM D7490 Standard Test Method for Measurement of the Surface

Tension of Solid Coatings, Substrates and Pigments using
Contact Angle Measurements
TM E 337 Standard Test Method for Measuring Humidity with a

Psychrometer (Wet and Dry Bulb Temperatures)
ASTM F 21 Standard Test Method for Hydrophobic Surface

Films by Atomiser Test
TM G 53 Recommended practice for operating light – and water –

exposure apparatus (fluorescent UV-condensation type) for
exposure of nonmetallic materials
TM G65 Standard Test Method for Measuring Abrasion Using the Dry
Sand/ Rubber Wheel Apparatus
ASTM G99 Standard Test Method for Wear Testing with a Pin-
on-Disk Apparatus
WWA C-203 Coal tar protective coatings and linings for steel water
pipelines- enamel and tape-hot applied
WWA C213 Standard for Fusion-Bonded Epoxy Coating for the Interior
and Exterior of Steel Water Lines
BS 381C Colour for Identification, Coding and Special Purposes
BS 1710 Identification of Pipelines and Services
BS 2451 Chilled Iron, Shot and Grit
BS 2482 Whirling Hygrometers
BS 3900 Methods for Testing Coatings
4164 Specification for coal tar based, hot applied coating materials for
protecting iron and steel including suitable primers.
BS 4800 Specification for Paint Colours for Building Purposes
BS 5378 Safety Signs and Colours: Colour and Design.
5493 Code of Practice for Protective Coating of Iron and Steel against
Corrosion
5973 Code of Practice for Access and Working Scaffolds and Special
Scaffold Structures in Steel
BS 6374 Lining of Equipment with Polymeric Materials for the

Process Industries
CSA–Z245.20-06 External Fusion Bond Epoxy Coating for Steel
Pipe
CSA Z245.21-06 External polyethylene coating for pipe
DIN 32521 Acceptance test and quality control for thermal

spraying equipment.
DNV CN 33.1 Corrosion prevention of tanks and holds
DNV OS–F101 Submarine pipeline systems
C 20 Organic and Inorganic Coatings for Corrosion Prevention - Research

and Experience
C 54 Innovative pre-treatment techniques to prevent corrosion of

metallic surfaces
Standards CEN has adopted most of the ISO standards issued by ISO/TC35 Paints and varnishes, but for simplicity they are not
shown here.
EN 582 Thermal spraying. Determination of tensile adhesive

strength
1403 Corrosion protection of metals - Electrodeposited coatings -

Method of specifying general requirements
10142 Specification for continuously hot-dip zinc coated low carbon

steel sheet and strip for cold forming: technical delivery
conditions
10147 Continuously hot-dip zinc coated structural steels strip and sheet.
Technical delivery conditions
10240 Internal and/or External Protective Coatings for Steel Tubes -
Specification for Hot Dip Galvanized Coatings Applied in
Automatic Plants
12540 Corrosion protection of metals - Electrodeposited coatings of

nickel, nickel plus chromium, copper plus nickel and copper
plus nickel plus chromium
13143 Metallic and other inorganic coatings - Definitions and

conventions concerning porosity
13144 Metallic and other inorganic coatings – Method for quantitative

measurement of adhesion by tensile test
EN 22063 Metallic and Other Inorganic Coatings – Thermal

Spraying
O MSC.215(82) Performance standard for protective coatings for

dedicated seawater ballast tanks in all types of ships and
double-side skin spaces of bulk carriers
O MSC.244(83) Performance standard for protective coatings for void

spaces on bulk carriers and oil tankers
O A.798(19) Guidelines for the selection, application and maintenance of

corrosion prevention systems of dedicated seawater ballast
tanks
O MSC.1/Circ.1279 Guidelines for corrosion protection of permanent

means of access arrangements
IMO MSC.1/Circ.1330 Guidelines for maintenance and repair
of protective coatings
IS-5 Colour coding
IS-101 Methods for test for ready mixed paints and enamels
IS-2379 Indian Standard for Pipe line identification-colour

code
ISO 62 Plastics – Determination of water absorption
O 179-2 Plastics – Determination of Charpy impact properties – Part 2:

Instrumented impact test
O 306 Plasctics – Thermoplastic materials – Determination of Vicat

softening temperature
O 527-1 Plastics – Determination of tensile properties – Part 1: General

principles
O 527-2 Plastics – Determination of tensile properties – Part 2: Test

conditions for moulding and extrusion plastics
O 787-10 General methods of test for pigments and extenders - Part 10:
Determination of density. Pyknometer method
O 868 Plastics and ebonite – Determination of indentation hardness by

means of a Durometer (Shore hardness)
O 1133 Plastics – Determination of the melt-mass flow rate (MFR) and

melt- volume flow rate (MVR) of thermoplastics

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Engineering drawing

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Engineering drawing of a machine tool part

The process of producing engineering drawings is often referred to as technical drawing or

 2 Standardization and disambiguation

 4 Systems of dimensioning and tolerancing

o 5.1 Line styles and types

o 5.2 Multiple views and projections

 5.2.1 Multiview projection

 5.2.2 Auxiliary views

 5.2.3 Isometric projection

 5.2.4 Oblique projection

 5.2.5 Perspective projection

 5.2.6 Section Views

o 5.4 Showing dimensions

o 5.5 Sizes of drawings

o 5.6 Technical lettering

 6 Conventional parts (areas)

o 6.1 Title block

o 6.2 Revisions block

o 6.3 Next assembly

 6.4.1 General notes

o 6.5 Field of the drawing

o 6.6 List of materials, bill of materials, parts list

o 6.7 Parameter tabulations

o 6.8 Views and sections

 7 Abbreviations and symbols

 10 Relationship to model-based definition (MBD/DPD)

In 2011, a new revision of ISO 8015 (Geometrical product specifications (GPS) —

Systems of dimensioning and tolerancing

Line styles and types

Multiple views and projections

Main article: Graphical projection

Image of a part represented in first-angle projection

Several types of graphical projection compared

Isometric view of the object shown in the engineering drawing below.

 it projects an image by intersecting parallel rays (projectors)

Perspective is an approximate representation on a flat surface, of an image as it is perceived by

 Smaller as their distance from the observer increases

Main articles: Architect's scale, Engineer's scale, and Metric scale

ISO paper sizes

ANSI paper sizes

Conventional parts (areas)

 Drawing title (hence the name "title block")

Field of the drawing

List of materials, bill of materials, parts list

Views and sections

Abbreviations and symbols

Example mechanical drawing

 Black = object line and hatching

Relationship to model-based definition (MBD/DPD)

  French & Vierck 1953, pp. 99–105

  French 1918, p. 78.

  French & Vierck 1953, pp. 111–114

  French & Vierck 1953, pp. 97–114

  French & Vierck 1953, pp. 108–111

  French & Vierck 1953, p. 102.

1.  Bertoline, Gary R. Introduction to Graphics Communications for Engineers (4th Ed.).

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Construction drawings.

 Examples of cubes drawn in different projections

Visualization of technical information

People  Jacques Bertin