Lesson 1.

1: Introduction

Lesson Summary
First, we must thoroughly understand what is combustion and how it does
happen. This lesson briefly explains the process of combustion, classifications
of combustion process, and some applications of it related to the field of
mechanical engineering.

Learning Outcomes
1. Define combustion and explain how it works.
2. Identify classifications of combustion phenomena.

Motivation Question
Combustion: how does it work?

Discussion
What is Combustion?
Combustion is a rapid chemical reaction between an oxidizer and a fuel,
producing heat and light during the process. A fuel is any combustible material
such as wood, petroleum, or even metals. An oxidizer is a (chemical) substance
which reacts with the fuel to burn. As the word implies, oxygen is the most
common oxidizer. During combustion, the chemical energy stored in the fuel
(energy in chemical bonds) is transformed into heat energy. A very common
example is a birthday candle, Fig. 1-1, where chemical energy stored in the
candle wax is converted into both heat and light.

What is fire?
Fire or flame is the visible effect
of the process of combustion. It
occurs somewhere between the
oxygen in the air and the fuel.
After the chemical reaction, the
products are completely different
from the starting material. The
fuel needs to be heated to
its ignition temperature before
combustion can occur. The
reaction will keep going as long
Figure 1 - 1. Chemical energy stored in candle wax as there is enough fuel, heat, and
is converted into both heat and light.
oxygen, or also known as the fire
triangle.
 Figure 1 - 2. The fire triangle.

The Process of Combustion

Fuels can be in solid, liquid or gaseous form, though only gases can react in
combustion. During the combustion process, the fuel (if not already a gas) is
heated to such an extent that it releases gases from its surface. When these
gases reach ignition temperature, the molecules in the gases separate and
fragments of molecules combine with oxygen from the air to create new product
molecules. The products of combustion are water molecules (H2O) and carbon
dioxide molecules (CO2), and other products if burning is not complete.

Figure 1 - 3. How things ignite.

The reaction generates heat, and this heat sustains the fire. The heat of the
flame will also keep the remaining fuel at ignition temperature. The fire will keep
burning as long as there is enough fuel and oxygen.
Fuel + oxygen (from the air) = combustion products (mainly CO2 + H2O) + heat
energy.

Classifications of Combustion Phenomena

Complete vs Incomplete Combustion: In complete combustion, the products
are only water and carbon dioxide (no smoke or other products). In most cases,
the flame is typically blue. This happens when there is enough oxygen to
combine completely with the fuel gas.
Most homes make use of methane gas (CH4), commonly known as natural gas,
for cooking. In order to start the flame, the gas is heated (by another flame or
spark). If there is enough oxygen in the air, the methane molecules will break
apart and reform totally as water and carbon dioxide.
CH4(g) + 2O2(g) + heat = CO2(g) + 2H2O(g) + heat
Methane + oxygen + heat = carbon dioxide + water + heat

Figure 1 - 4. Complete combustion exhibits blue flame.

Otherwise, if there is not enough oxygen available during the combustion

process, incomplete combustion occurs. Incomplete combustion still produces
water and carbon dioxide, but with the addition of carbon (C) and carbon
monoxide (CO). The carbon accumulates in the pan or kettle creating a thin
black layer of soot. In this type of combustion, less heat energy is released.
Incomplete combustion produces smoke, and the flame is typically yellow to
red orange in color.

Figure 1 - 5. Incomplete combustion produces yellow flame and smoke.

Premixed vs Nonpremixed Combustion: We know that a combustion system

consists of two reactants: an oxidizer and a fuel. It is required that the reactants
are brought together and mixed at the molecular level before reaction can take
place. Therefore, the process of mixing is an essential element in influencing
combustion. Premixing is important for efficient combustion, so that the
molecules of the reactant can spread around those of the other reactant. It
implies that at least one of the reactants should be in the liquid or gaseous
form.
The importance of molecular mixedness has a great influence on the design of
combustion systems. For example, motorcycles use a carburetor to premix air
and vaporized gasoline, while cars with diesel engines do not take advantage
of premixing, but instead uses a fuel injector. In premixed systems, the
reactants are already well mixed before reaction is started. Otherwise, in
nonpremixed systems the reactants are initially separated and are mixed
together through the process of diffusion and the bulk convective motion, in a
common region where mixing and reaction take place.
A Bunsen flame, shown in Figure 1-6, gives an illustration of both premixed and
nonpremixed flames. Here, air is entrained through the adjustable air intake
port as the fuel gas exits from the fuel orifice. The air is then mixed with the fuel
gas as they travel along the burner tube. Assuming that the air flow rate can be
controlled, then the resulting flame can either be fuel rich or fuel deficient
depending on whether the fuel or oxygen can be totally consumed. If the
mixture is deficient in fuel, then the excess oxygen will pass through the flame
unreacted and will be “exhausted” to the atmosphere. However, if it is fuel rich,
the excess fuel can further react with the oxygen in the ambient air after passing
through the premixed flame.
When the air intake port is completely closed, only fuel passes through the
burner tube, and, as such, only the nonpremixed flame exists.
Premixed flame is usually characterized by a non-luminous blue color due to
complete combustion, while nonpremixed flame is bright yellow to orange in
color due to incomplete combustion. Premixed flames do not occur naturally in
the environment. On the other hand, we can observe nonpremixed flames
everyday. Since oxygen is readily available in the atmosphere, then all
materials that can burn in air are considered fuels. Examples are cellulosic
materials such as paper and cloth, metallic substances such as aluminum and
magnesium, and common fuels we use today which comes from fossil
deposits.

Laminar versus Turbulent Combustion: A flame is also classified by the nature

of the flow, whether it is turbulent or laminar. In turbulent flow streamlines do
not exist such that at any point in the flame the flow quantities randomly
fluctuates. While in laminar flow distinct streamlines exist for the bulk,
convective motion. Figure 1-7 shows the difference between laminar and
turbulent flame.
 Figure 1 - 6. Combustion in a Bunsen burner. (Law, 2006)

Figure 1 - 7. Turbulent nonpremixed flame (left) and laminar premixed flame (right).

Applications of Combustion Engineering

Today, combustion engineering is not just a course but a career in other
countries due to its importance. Combustion engineering is applied in almost
everything, from combustion engines and in all area of manufacturing, to
commercial home heating. Most machineries make use of combustion for
power generation, such as:
(a) Steam Engine
(b) Power Plants
 (c) Process Engineering
(d) Internal and External Combustion Engines
(e) Gas Turbines
(f) Transportation Systems (such as aviation)
Despite the large variety of alternate energy sources available, such as
geothermal, solar, nuclear, hydroelectric, wind, and OTEC (ocean thermal
energy conversion), chemical energy derived from burning fossil fuels supplies
a disproportionately large fraction of the total world energy need of the US —
around 80 percent at present. This trend will continue in the foreseeable future
because of its economics, convenience, and the high energy density.

Figure 1 - 8. US primary energy consumption source, 2019.

References
1) TING, D. 2018. Engineering Combustion Essentials, Cambridge
Scholars Publishing, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE6 2PA, UK.
2) LAW, C. 2006. Combustion Physics, Cambridge University Pres, New
York.