Rautaruukki Steels Under Critical Conditions 2005

RAUTARUUKKI STEELS
UNDER CRITICAL CONDITIONS

2005
3nd EDITION
ISBN 952-5010-30-9
Manuscript Erkki Huhdankoski, MSc(Eng)
Typesetting Rautaruukki Steel, RAAHE
Translation Kieliverstas Oy
Printers Otava, Keuruu
Orders RUUKKI STEEL

P.O.Box 93
FIN-92101 RAAHE
Tel. int. +358 8-849 11
Telefax int. +358 8-849 2491
RUUKKI STEELS UNDER CRITICAL CONDITIONS
Preface
This guide has been drawn up to facilitate the choice of the correct steel material for the most demanding conditions.
The production programme of the Raahe Steel Works of Rautaruukki Steel covers a wide range of non-alloy and
low-alloy steels and the wide range of use under extreme conditions is also briefly described here. This is the second
edition of this booklet, the contents of which have been partly taken from material that is already well-known to many
of our customers, because the source material used was largely drawn from product history data and instructions
previously published by Rautaruukki Steel and from reprints and bulletins on different subjects. Supplementary ma-
terial has been collected and assembled on a number of special subjects, on which the Technical Customer Service
Department of Rautaruukki Steel constantly passes on information, including answers to telephone inquiries.
The booklet was compiled by a working group drawn from Rautaruukki Steel’s research and advisory personnel
under the editorial supervision of Erkki Huhdankoski. Other members of the working group included Tassi Annala,
Risto Laitinen, Reijo Liimatainen, Sakari Silvennoinen, Olli Vähäkainu, Jorma Paavilainen, Annamaria Lehtosalo and
Johanna Tuiremo. Expert help was generously supplied by Kim Wallin from VTT, Martti Tuovinen from IVO and Vesa
Mikkonen from Toivalan Konepaja Oy, to whom we are gratefully indebted.
The purpose of the operation has been to guide the choice of material with the help of tables and simplified rules of
thumb so that the reader can avoid the most common mistakes and find references in the relevant literature to sup-
port decisions. Several complex questions have been treated in more detail.
Part 3 of this second edition has been extended to include information on abrasion resistant steels. Part 9, dealing
with metal fatigue, has been added.
The accuracy of the contents has been checked as carefully as possible, but Rautaruukki Steel and the compilers
of the booklet cannot take responsibility for any possible errors or for any direct or indirect loss or damage due to
incorrect application of the data provided.
The booklet will be updated again in two years’ time. We welcome any suggestions regarding improvements to the
contents.
Editorial Board
Raahe, 8 November 1999
3
Preface 3
Contents 4
1 LOW-TEMPERATURE CONDITIONS ........................................................................................................ 8

1.1 Transition Behaviour of Steel ...................................................................................................................... 8
1.1.1 Ductile Fracture and Brittle Fracture ........................................................................................................... 8
1.1.2 Intercrystalline Fracture and Cleavage Fracture ......................................................................................... 8
1.1.3 Nucleation of a Brittle Fracture ................................................................................................................... 8
1.1.4 Propagation of Brittle Fracture .................................................................................................................. 10
1.2 Test Methods to Determine the Conditions that Release a Brittle Fracture .............................................. 10
1.2.1 Charpy V Test ........................................................................................................................................... 10
1.2.2 Charpy U Test ........................................................................................................................................... 11
1.3 Methods Measuring the Propagation of Brittle Fracture ........................................................................... 12
1.3.1 Pellini Drop Weight Test ............................................................................................................................ 12
1.3.2 DWT Test ................................................................................................................................................... 12
1.3.3 DT Test ...................................................................................................................................................... 12
1.4 Fracture Mechanics .................................................................................................................................. 13
1.4.1 Critical Stress Intensity KIC ...................................................................................................................... 14
1.4.2 J Integral .............................................................................................................................................. ...... 15
1.4.3 Crack Tip Opening Displacement ............................................................................................................. 15
1.4.4 Fracture Toughness Correlations .............................................................................................................. 15
1.5 Effect of Microstructure on the Resistance to Brittle Fracture .................................................................. 18
1.5.1 Deoxidation of Steel .................................................................................................................................. 18
1.5.2 Effect of Grain Size on Impact Strength .................................................................................................... 18
1.5.3 Effect of the Composition of Steel on Impact Strength ............................................................................. 18
1.5.4 Strain Ageing ............................................................................................................................................. 19
1.5.5 Effect of Heat Treatment on the Impact Strength of Steel ........................................................................ 20
1.6 Selection of Material with a View to Its Resistance to Brittle Fracture ...................................................... 21
1.6.1 Classification of Steels by Impact Strength ............................................................................................... 22
1.6.2 Finnish Building Code B7, Steel Structures .............................................................................................. 24
1.6.3 SFS-ENV 1993-1-1:1992 Annex C ........................................................................................................... 25
1.6.4 Eurocode 3. Part 2: Steel Bridges ............................................................................................................. 27
1.6.5 Consideration of the Resistance to Brittle Fracture in Pressure Vessel Design ....................................... 28
1.7 Welding under Subzero Conditions .......................................................................................................... 30
1.7.1 Microstructure and Properties of Welded Joint ......................................................................................... 30
1.7.2 Problems Caused by Moisture .................................................................................................................. 31
1.8 Low Temperature and Bendability ............................................................................................................. 32
1.9 References ................................................................................................................................................ 33
2 HIGH-TEMPERATURE CONDITIONS ..................................................................................................... 35

2.1 The Strength of Steel ................................................................................................................................ 35
2.1.1 Measurement of the Stress-Strain Curve .................................................................................................. 35
2.1.2 High-Temperature Strength ....................................................................................................................... 35
2 2.2 Creep ........................................................................................................................................................ 40
2.2.1 Creep Failure ............................................................................................................................................ 40
2.2.2 Factors Affecting Creep Resistance .......................................................................................................... 41
2.2.3 Creep Strength .......................................................................................................................................... 41
2.3 Graphitization ............................................................................................................................................ 46
2.4 Scaling ...................................................................................................................................................... 46
2.5 Temper Embrittlement ............................................................................................................................... 47
2.6 Materials for Hot-Dip Galvanizing Pots ..................................................................................................... 48
2.6.1 The Chemical Composition of the Zinc Bath ............................................................................................. 48
2.6.2 The Chemical Composition of the Material for the Galvanizing Pot ......................................................... 48
2.7 References ................................................................................................................................................ 49
4
3 RESISTANCE TO SURFACE PRESSURE AND WEAR ......................................................................... 50

3.1 Adhesive Wear .......................................................................................................................................... 50
3.2 Abrasive Wear ........................................................................................................................................... 50
3.3 Wear Caused by Surface Fatigue ............................................................................................................. 52
3.4 Tribochemical Erosion ............................................................................................................................... 53
3.5 Resistance to Surface Pressure ............................................................................................................... 53
3.6 Pointed and Piercing Loads ...................................................................................................................... 54
3.6.1 Nailing ....................................................................................................................................................... 54
3.6.2 Protective Structures ................................................................................................................................. 55
3.7 Hardened, Abrasion Resistant RAEX AR Steels ...................................................................................... 55
3.7.1 Background ............................................................................................................................................... 55
3.7.2 Properties of Hardened Abrasion Resistant RAEX AR Steels .................................................................. 57
3.7.3 The Mechanical Cutting and Bending of RAEX AR Steels ....................................................................... 57
3.7.4 The Machining of RAEX AR Steels ........................................................................................................... 58
3.7.5 Abrasion Resistant RAEX AR Steels. Thermal Cutting and Welding ........................................................ 61
3.8 Hardening RAEX B Boron Steels .............................................................................................................. 62
3.8.1 Properties of Boron Steels ........................................................................................................................ 62
3.8.2 Cutting and Sheet Metal Work .................................................................................................................. 63
3.8.3 Thermal Cutting and Welding of Boron Steels .......................................................................................... 63
3.8.4 Heat Treatment of Boron Steels ................................................................................................................ 66
3.9 References ................................................................................................................................................ 68
4 CORROSION ............................................................................................................................................ 69
4.1 Definition ................................................................................................................................................... 69
4.2 Types of Corrosion .................................................................................................................................... 69
4.3 Corrosion Environments ........................................................................................................................... 70
4.3.1 Classification of Environments according to Corrosivity ........................................................................... 70
4.4 Corrosion Protection ................................................................................................................................. 71
4.4.1 Anti-corrosive Painting .............................................................................................................................. 71
4.4.1.1 Preparation Standards .............................................................................................................................. 71
4.4.1.2 Corrosion protection of steel structures by protective paint systems ........................................................ 71
4.4.2 Zinc Coating .............................................................................................................................................. 73
4.4.3 Electric Protection ..................................................................................................................................... 74
4.5 Corrosion Allowance ................................................................................................................................. 75
4.5.1 Corrosion in Air ......................................................................................................................................... 75
4.5.2 Corrosion in Water .................................................................................................................................... 76
4.5.3 Underground Corrosion ............................................................................................................................ 77
4.5.4 Corrosion in Process Production Plant ..................................................................................................... 77
4.6 References ................................................................................................................................................ 78
5 THE USE OF WEATHERING STEELS .................................................................................................... 79

5.1 Chemical Composition and Mechanical Properties .................................................................................. 79
5.2 Protective Patina Layer ............................................................................................................................. 80
5.3 The Most Usual Applications ..................................................................................................................... 82
5.4 Weathering Steel under Flue Gas Conditions ........................................................................................... 82
5.5 Determination of the Dew Point of Sulphuric Acid in Flue Uptakes .......................................................... 82
5.6 Dew Point Corrosion ................................................................................................................................. 83
5.7 Corrosion above the Dew Point ................................................................................................................ 84
5.8 Other Corrosion Phenomena .................................................................................................................... 85
5.9 Structural Considerations .......................................................................................................................... 86
5.10 Design, Manufacture and Maintenance .................................................................................................... 86
5.11 Welding ..................................................................................................................................................... 88
5.12 Painting ..................................................................................................................................................... 88
5.13 Conditions of Successful Application ........................................................................................................ 89
5.14 References ................................................................................................................................................ 89
5
6 STRESS CORROSION ............................................................................................................................ 90

6.1 Stress Corrosion Caused by Ammonia ..................................................................................................... 90
6.1.1 Effect of Oxygen on Stress Corrosion in Ammonia ................................................................................... 91
6.1.2 Effect of Nitrogen on Stress Corrosion in Ammonia .................................................................................. 92
6.1.3 Effect of Water Content on Stress Corrosion in Ammonia ........................................................................ 92
6.1.4 Selection of the Steel Grade for an Ammonia Tank .................................................................................. 92
6.1.5 Means of Increasing the Resistance to Stress Corrosion ......................................................................... 93
6.2 Caustic Brittleness .................................................................................................................................... 93
6.3 References ................................................................................................................................................ 94
7 ACID AND ALKALINE ENVIRONMENTS ................................................................................................ 95

7.1 Sulphuric Acid ........................................................................................................................................... 95
7.2 Hydrochloric Acid ...................................................................................................................................... 95
7.3 Fluorhydric Acid ........................................................................................................................................ 95
7.4 Caustic Solutions ...................................................................................................................................... 95
7.4.1 Choice of Material for a Black Lye Container ............................................................................................ 96
7.5 References ................................................................................................................................................ 97
8 HYDROGEN SULPHIDE ENVIRONMENT .............................................................................................. 98

8.1 Potential Modes of Cracking in Hydrogen Sulphide Environment ............................................................ 98
8.1.1 Hydrogen Induced Cracking (HIC) ............................................................................................................ 98
8.1.2 Sulphide Stress Corrosion Cracking (SSC) .............................................................................................. 98
8.1.3 Stress Oriented Hydrogen Induced Cracking (SOHIC) and Soft Zone Cracking (SZC) ........................... 98
8.2 Effect of the Environment on Hydrogen Cracking ..................................................................................... 99
8.3 Effect of the Properties of Material on Hydrogen Cracking ..................................................................... 100
8.3.1 SSC Cracking ......................................................................................................................................... 100
8.3.2 HIC, SOHIC and SZC Cracking .............................................................................................................. 100
8.4 Test Method for HIC and SSC Resistance .............................................................................................. 100
8.4.1 HIC Test .................................................................................................................................................. 100
8.4.2 SSC Tests ............................................................................................................................................... 100
8.4.2.1 Tensile Stress Test .................................................................................................................................. 100
8.4.2.2 Quadruple Point Bending Test ................................................................................................................ 101
8.4.3 Full Ring Test .......................................................................................................................................... 101
8.5 References .............................................................................................................................................. 101
9 METAL FATIGUE .................................................................................................................................... 102

9.1 The Initiation and Propagation of Fatigue Cracks ................................................................................... 102
9.2 Identification of Fatigue Fracture ............................................................................................................ 103
9.3 Variables Describing Fatigue .................................................................................................................. 104
9.3.1 Effective Stress Range ........................................................................................................................... 104
9.3.2 Intensity of Stress ................................................................................................................................... 105
9.3.3 Stress Cycle and Resistance Factor ....................................................................................................... 105
9.4 The Effect of the Consistence and Mechanical Properties of Steel on Fatigue Strength ....................... 105
9.4.1 Strength .................................................................................................................................................. 105
9.4.2 Thickness ................................................................................................................................................ 105
9.4.3 Surface Quality ....................................................................................................................................... 105
9.4.4 Microstructure ......................................................................................................................................... 105
9.4.5 Composition ............................................................................................................................................ 106
9.5 Fatigue in Welded Constructions ............................................................................................................ 106
9.5.1 Residual Stresses ................................................................................................................................... 106
9.5.2 Significance of the Reinforcement Angle ................................................................................................ 107
9.5.3 Root Shape ............................................................................................................................................. 108
9.5.4 Potential Initial Points for Fatigue Cracks . .............................................................................................. 108
9.5.5 Welding Procedures and the Significance of Welding Defects ............................................................... 109
9.5.6 Means of Improving the Fatigue Strength of Welded Joints ................................................................... 109
9.6 The Effect of the Environment on Fatigue Strength ................................................................................ 110
9.6.1 Temperature ............................................................................................................................................ 110
9.6.2 Corrosion ................................................................................................................................................ 110
9.7 Further Factors Contributing to Fatigue ................................................................................................... 111
9.7.1 The Effect of Hot Dip Galvanizing ............................................................................................................ 111
9.7.2 The Effect of Cut Edge ............................................................................................................................ 112
6
9.8 Method for Measuring Fatigue Strength ................................................................................................. 112

9.8.1 Wöhler Curves ........................................................................................................................................ 112
9.8.2 Method Based on Fracture Mechanics ................................................................................................... 113
9.8.3 Live-amplitude Stress ............................................................................................................................. 115
9.9 Fatigue Test Results with Rautaruukki Steels ......................................................................................... 116
9.9.1 Unwelded Structural Members ................................................................................................................ 116
9.9.2 Welded Structural Members ................................................................................................................... 118
9.9.3 Crack Growth Rates ................................................................................................................................ 119
9.10 Design Codes and Standards ................................................................................................................. 122
9.11 References .............................................................................................................................................. 124
7
1 LOW-TEMPERATURE CONDITIONS
1.1 Transition Behaviour of Steel
1.1.1 Ductile Fracture and Brittle Fracture
The microstructure of non-alloyed and low-alloyed steels is mostly ferritic. Therefore, it is typical of these steels that
their fracture behaviour changes from ductile to brittle within the transition temperature area. For low-alloyed steels,
this process is of importance because the transition temperature is typically between room temperature and -100°C,
which means that even normal atmospheric conditions place special demands on the material. The transition tem-
perature is not to be considered as an unequivocal property of the material, but its value depends on the test method
used and on the criteria imposed on the brittleness. The brittleness or ductility of steel is mostly expressed in terms
of impact strength but, depending on the test method, it may also be referred to as fracture toughness or simply the
ductility of the material.
Impact strength does not correlate with the formability nor with the elongation of the steel. Therefore, when referring
to the ductile behaviour of steel, it is important to distinguish between the plastic deformability and the low tem-
perature resistance of the structure. Low strength steel with high formability may have modest impact strength and,
respectively, steel with high deformability may have excellent impact strength and modest deformability.
Ductile fracture consumes a lot of energy for the plastic deformation in the vicinity of the area of fracture and calls for
major dislocations in order to propagate. The ductile behaviour of a steel structure favours safety, as in that case the
calculation formulae for the mechanics of the structure function with good accuracy. In addition, the ultimate tensile
strength condition produces plastic mechanisms in the structure which change the distribution of load and are even
able to confine the damage locally.
Brittle fracture consumes little energy, in theory, only the energy needed to overcome the bonding forces of atoms
remaining on the different sides of the fracture surface. Brittle fracture may propagate almost at the speed of sound
because the energy required to release its propagation can be stored in the elastic deformation of the material under
stress. In fact, the low rate of energy absorption makes it extremely difficult to assess the state of load resulting in
fracture by the traditional means of structural analyses. The high speed of crack propagation also prevents the redis-
tribution of loads through plastic mechanisms. Therefore, a brittle fracture is always disasterous.
1.1.2 Intercrystalline Fracture and Cleavage Fracture
A brittle fracture may proceed in steel basically in two ways: either as an intercrystalline fracture, in which case the
fracture surface follows the grain or phase boundaries in ferrite or conventional austenite, or as cleavage fracture, in
which case the crack propagates through crystals. Of these types of fracture, a 100 percent intercrystalline fracture
is uncommon. It is only possible in the case of a segregation of atoms at grain boundaries or a brittle phase resulting
from intercrystalline segregation at grain boundaries.
A cleavage fracture is preceded by local plastic deformation that nucleates a microcrack in a segregation, in an
inclusion or at a grain boundary capable of propagation under certain conditions. Also a crack that has proceeded as
an intercrystalline fracture may continue propagation as a cleavage fracture. The cleavage fracture is the most com-
mon form of brittle fracture and in literature, brittle fracture generally refers to cleavage fracture.
1.1.3 Nucleation of a Brittle Fracture
In the formation of brittle fractures, two stages are distinguished; the nucleation and the propagation. Nucleation
refers to a crack formation in sound metal. It represents a sort of surpassing of a threshold value, whereupon the
crack continues to propagate in the brittle material very fast at a low rate of energy absorption as long as there is
any energy left. It is further provided for a crack to propagate that the state of stress near the tip of the crack is suf-
ficiently high and, in practice, also that the state of stress is three-dimensional. The crack may stop at a more ductile
material because its point has turned blunt or because the state of stress is relieved when the fracture proceeds into
a thicker material.
8
The material used for steel structures is selected so that the nucleation of brittle fracture is made impossible under
the expected operating conditions. However, this does not guarantee that the propagation of brittle fracture would
not be possible under similar conditions, if a fracture nevertheless were initiated, for example, by an accidental load.
Depending on the conditions, the resistance to brittle fracture is ensured in terms of verified safety in respect of either
nucleation or propagation. Certain knowledge about the propagation is important, e.g. in the case of gas pipelines,
where local damage in the worst case may result in a fracture kilometres long.
A brittle fracture is nucleated in the material if the dislocation mechanisms fail to work efficiently enough. Plastifica-
tion also takes place in connection with brittle fracture, but only in a very small area at the crack tip. The factors
contributing to the nucleation of brittle fracture are as follows:
- high tensile stress

- low temperature
- great material thickness
- three-dimensional state of stress
- brittle material
- residual stresses
- impact loads
- stress concentrations
- initial crack-type defects.
The first five factors mentioned are relatively easy to measure or calculate. A one-dimensional nominal stress is
enough to cause a three-dimensional state of stress in a notched body given a notch geometry that prevents any
reduction of the cross section in directions perpendicular to the stress as seen, for example, at the bottom of crack
type notches. The thickness of material contributes to the nucleation of a three-dimensional state of stress in a
multi-facetted body. On the other hand, given a complex load, the state of stress may be three-dimensional even in
structures made of thin materials.
Residual stresses usually result from welding or flame cutting. The effect of residual stresses on the resistance to
brittle fracture is taken into consideration in the selection of the impact strength category of the material so that weld-
ed or flame cut materials that have not been heat treated are made subject to higher requirements than unwelded
materials or heat treated materials.
Impact load is dangerous for two reasons: an increased speed of loading contributes to the nucleation of brittle frac-
ture; the dynamics of the impact load, on the other hand, cause a momentary increase in the altitude of stress. The
impact load is difficult to handle mathematically, because it should be made possible to handle separately the impact
of an increase in the stress altitude that is caused by the impact load and the impacts of the speed of increase in the
stress altitude. On the other hand, the impact of the speed of increase in the state of stress on the impact strength
requirement is hardly mentioned in any design instructions. In practice, this impact is usually taken into consideration
by presenting enhanced impact strength requirements for materials to be exposed to ”high-speed loading ”.
In elastic material under stress, stress concentrations are caused by joints, by acute transformations of cross sec-
tion, and by welds. For structures such as ships and pressure vessels, there are detailed design instructions to
limit the amount of stress concentrations. The impact of stress concentrations on the resistance to brittle fracture is
adequately considered by following such instructions.
Crack-type defects tend to cause heavy stress concentrations, but the designer mostly can do little to affect the
causes or existence of such defects. Crack-type defects may result from welding imperfections, fatigue, stress cor-
rosion, corrosion fatigue, etc. and they can be found by inspecting the material. The primary cause of brittle fracture
may, in fact, be related to operating conditions such as fatigue stress that initiate a sharp-tipped inital crack of critical
size for a brittle fracture to extend under suitable conditions.
There are a number of NDT (Non-Destructive Testing) inspection methods for the detection of crack-type initial de-
fects. NDT is used for the verification of the soundness of both new and existing structures. In some special cases,
it is possible to derive from calculations the minimum crack size to be found in the inspection or the maximum crack
size which can be accepted in a structure as presenting no risk to safety. The inspection frequency of a structure
exposed to a known varying load can be assessed on the basis of the speed at which a fatigue crack can reach the
critical size.
Impact strength is one of the most essential criteria in the selection of material. The more ductile the material, the
higher its resistance to difficult conditions and the larger the stress concentrations and crack-type initial defects that
can be accepted. The classification of steels by impact strength is generally based on Charpy V test results.
9
1.1.4 Propagation of Brittle Fracture
The propagation of a brittle fracture is possible under conditions different from the nucleation of a fracture. This is
due to the increasing stress intensity of extending fracture and to the fact that the tip of the crack is sharp, thus induc-
ing three-dimensionality in the state of stress, even in the case of relatively thin material thicknesses.
The surface of a brittle fracture is rather smooth and visibly crystalline. Major fractures feature a distinguishable ”river
pattern” of streaks running in the direction of fracture. The point of crack nucleation may possibly be concluded from
those streaks. The fracture may also branch out if there is enough elastic energy in the structure at the moment of
failure. A brittle fracture has no chance to propagate if the material is ductile to such a degree that the plastic defor-
mation of the surface around the fracture absorbs more energy than is released from the structure in consequence
of deformation. In other words, it is the size of the plastic area formed at the crack tip that is to be considered. Struc-
tures where safety is critical, such as pressure vessels containing highly dangerous gas or liquid, are so designed
that propagation of a brittle fracture is inhibited.
The Charpy V test used for the purposes of quality control determines the conditions under which a brittle fracture
may nucleate and propagate. The evaluation of the conditions of propagation cannot be based on Charpy V test re-
sults because of the small size of specimens and because the tip of the notch is rather blunt. More suitable methods
have been developed for this purpose; these are discussed under 1.3.
1.2 Test Methods to Determine the Conditions that Release a Brittle Fracture
1.2.1 Charpy V Test
In a Charpy V test, an impact test specimen with a 2 mm deep V-notch is cracked with a pendulum type machine at
a given temperature and the energy absorbed is measured. The test temperature at which a breaking energy of 27 J
is required for a 10 x 10 mm specimen is called the transition temperature. For high-strength fine-grained steels also
the criteria 40 J and 50 J are commonly used. In special cases, the requirement may be made for a certain percent-
age of ductile fracture of the total area of fracture.
Fig. 1.1 illustrates the brittle-ductile behaviour of two different structural steels as measured by the Charpy V test.
The energy absorption in lower shelf behaviour is only a few joules, the upper shelf representing 150 ... 200 J or even
more, depending on the composition of the steel.
Upper shelf
U-notch (R = 1 mm)
Energy absorption
10 x 10 mm 200
Fine-grain steel
S355J0G3 V-notch
(R = 0,25 mm)
10 x 10 mm
100
ΔT = 30-40 °C
Lower shelf
-100 -50 0 50
Temperature Temperature °C
Fig. 1.1 The transition behaviour of two Fig. 1.2 The typical transition behaviour of structural
different structural steels steel at Charpy U and Charpy V tests.
10
The Charpy V test result depends on the main direction of the rolling of the steel, i.e. a higher degree of energy
absorption is achieved with specimens taken longitudinally to the main direction of rolling than with transversal
specimens. The difference especially depends on the sulphur contents of the steel and on the geometry of sulphide
inclusions. A difference of 20 degrees in the transition temperature can be considered as a rule of thumb. Material
standards and the rules of classification societies generally provide for the use of specimens taken longitudinally to
the main direction of rolling. Also transversal specimens are used, for example, for the testing of pressure vessel
steels and for welding procedure tests on joints.
If the material to be tested is too thin to permit the preparation of a 10 x 10 mm specimen, a thinner specimen of
minimum 5 mm thickness may be used. According to EN standards, the energy corresponding to the transition tem-
perature depends directly on the specimen thickness. The impact strengths of shipbuilding steels are assessed by
means of either 7.5 x 10 mm or 5 x 10 mm specimens, the respective impact energy requirements being 5/6 or 2/3
of the values specified for 10 x 10 mm specimens. At the notch bottom of a 5 mm thick specimen, the state of stress
is three-dimensional to a lower degree than in the case of a 10 mm specimen. Also the probability for an inclusion
contributing to crack nucleation to hit the notch bottom in a 5 mm thick specimen is smaller than in the case of a 10
mm specimen, which means the impact test result is always somewhat optimistic. It is technically possible to carry
out the Charpy V test with specimens of less than 5 mm thickness, but for the above mentioned reasons, the test
results will not be reliable. The impact strength of steel sheet of less than 5 mm thickness can be guaranteed so that
its microstructure and chemical composition are made equal to those of a thicker product that is tested.
The transition behaviour determined by the Charpy V test depends on the composition of the steel. In the case of
conventional carbon steels and carbon-manganese steels such as S235JRG2 and S355J0G3, the transition area is
narrow and the impact energy increases sharply as the function of the temperature above the transition temperature.
In the case of high-strength micro-alloyed fine-grained steels such as RAEX 355N and RAEX 420M, the transition
curve is less gradient, especially near the lower shelf area. It is not possible to extrapolate the transition temperature
reliably on the basis of impact strengths; when necessary, the impact testing must be carried out at the specified
transition temperature, Fig. 1.1.
As test results are always scattered, the Charpy V test is carried out on sets of three specimens. In most standards,
it is provided for the acceptance of test results that the average of test energies is higher than the specified value and
also that no more than one test result is inferior to that value by maximum 30%.
The European standard dealing with the Charpy V test is EN 10045. The test temperature and the required impact
energy are presented in material standards. The corresponding test in accordance with the standard GOST 9454 is
carried out with specimens of type IV.
1.2.2 Charpy U Test
A Charpy U test specimen differs from a Charpy V test specimen in the way that the initial crack is 5 mm deep and
the notch bottom corner radius is 1 mm instead of the 0.25 mm radius used in the Charpy V tests. The Charpy U
test assesses the nucleation of brittle fracture more exclusively than the Charpy V test. There is no simple correla-
tion between the results of Charpy U and Charpy V tests, although both tests are good for establishing the transition
behaviour of steel. A transition temperature determined by the U-notch test is significantly lower than that determined
by the V-notch test. The Charpy U test is rarely used, but it may become useful in the case of some high-strength
quenched and tempered steels. The standard for the Charpy U test is EN 10045. In some old GOST standards, the
impact test is ordered to be carried out in accordance with GOST 9454 with a Unotched specimen of type I, in which
the notch depth is 2 mm. The equivalent of a Charpy U test to Standard EN 10045 is a test with a specimen of type
III in accordance with GOST 9454.
11
1.3 Methods Measuring the Propagation of Brittle Fracture

1.3.1 Pellini Drop Weight Test
The Pellini drop weight test (ASTM E 208-95) measures the propagation of a fracture, from which it is possible to
determine the so-called nil-ductile or NDT temperature of the steel. The test specimen is prepared by furnishing it
with a weld run of high-strength filler material and by cutting a transverse notch in the run. After having cooled down
to the test temperature, the specimen is supported to represent a three-point bending specimen and bent to a small
radius by means of drop hammer. The fracture initiated in brittle weld extends into the base material being tested.
The advance of the fracture indicates the ductility of the material being tested so that the NDT temperature is the
highest temperature at which the fracture propagates unto the edge of the specimen on the side exposed to tensile
stress. The smallest recommended material thickness for the test is 15.9 mm. Usually the NDT temperature of steels
is lower in proportion to material thickness, because thin-gauge products have undergone a higher degree of work-
ing and more rapid cooling that reduce their grain size.
The NDT temperature is the temperature at which a low nominal stress (ca. 50 N/mm2) is enough to cause the
propagation of brittle fracture. It represents a type of lower shelf, as above it, the energy level required to release
crack propagation starts increasing. The NDT is not commonly used as a design value, but as a study method, the
drop weight test is quick and illustrative. The drop weight test is also used as a quality control test for steels intended
for transport vessels for liquified gas (LPG steels).
1.3.2 DWT Test
The American Petroleum Institute (API) has published the recommendation API RP 5L3 for DWT test procedures.
The DWT (Drop Weight Tear) test has been developed for use as a measuring method in testing the materials of
pressurized pipelines with respect to the propagation of brittle fracture.
A DWT test specimen conforming to API is a three-point bending specimen the bearing distance of which is 10
inches and height 3 inches. The width of the specimen shall either be the same as the thickness of the material to
be tested or machined to 0.75 inch. At the centre of the test specimen, a 0.2 inch deep notch is made on the tension
side. The specimen is snapped by hitting it with a pendelum type machine or drop hammer at the test temperature.
The ductility of the fractured surface of the steel is assessed on the basis of the percentage share of ductile fracture.
A test lot shall consist of 2 specimens taken in the transverse direction to the pipe axis.
The API 5L pipeline standard makes it an option for ductility testing that minimum 80% of the test lot shall meet the
specification ”an average of 40% of ductile fracture” when the test temperature is 10°C or a lower temperature speci-
fied by the buyer. DIN 2470, Part 2 specifies for gas pipes an average degree of 85% ductile fracture in each test lot,
which is to be verified at 0°C.
1.3.3 DT Test
The DT (Dynamic Tear) test is described in detail in Standard ASTM E 604. The DT test is in principle similar to the
Charpy V test, except that the test piece is considerably larger. The height of the specimen in direction of the impact
is 41 mm, the thickness may be 5...16 mm and notch depth 15.9 mm. The energy absorbed in breaking is registered
as in the Charpy V test. Thickness of the test piece and a large notch contribute to the nucleation of fracture, so
the impact energy registered illustrates the energy absorbed in the propagation of fracture markedly better than the
Charpy V test. The result of the DT test depends on the temperature but also on the material thickness so that the
transition temperature is lower in thinner specimens than in thick ones.
The DT test is mainly used as a research tool. It enables the determination of the CAT value (Crack Arrestion Tem-
perature) for steel, i.e. the lowest temperature at which the propagation of a brittle fracture under a nominal stress
lower than the yield point is not possible. CAT corresponds to the DT test temperature, which gives 30...50% ductile
fracture of total fracture or half of the maximum value of impact energy for a ductile fracture.
12
100 100
%
max. breaking energy
Ductile fracture %
Breaking energy
80 80
JRG2
m
m
12 m
m
20 m
60 m
S235
25 m
60 60
CAT ( σy )
40 40
NDT
20 20
-60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60

Temperature °C
Fig. 1.3 The NDT range and DT transition curves for RAEX 355N steel
1.4 Fracture Mechanics

Crack type defects may occur in steel structures for many different reasons. There always are some kinds of inher-
ent imperfections in steel, the detection of which depends on the accuracy of test methods. Large and expensive
structures or structures critical for public safety are inspected by non-destructive tests in the manufacturing stage.
Some structures are also inspected regularly during operation. For the assessment of the risk imposed by the defect
detected, calculation methods based on fracture mechanics have been developed, which, depending on the condi-
tions, provide for certain material parameters to be known. Fracture mechanical material parameters are used for
measuring the preconditions for fracture at the tip of a crack initiated by an imperfection such as cold crack in weld,
fatigue failure or stress corrosion.
Although fracture mechanics have been studied and developed for decades, their successful use still calls for a high
level of expertise. In the case of fracture mechanics, just as in the case of other material parameters measuring im-
pact strength, it is to be taken into consideration that the values established for unwelded materials are not good for
the weld metal nor for the heat affected zone where crack type defects most typically occur. Depending on the condi-
tions, the HAZ may contain brittle local zones that are difficult to determine by the Charpy V test, although low values
could be obtained by some other test, e.g. CTOD. In addition, material parameters related to fracture mechanisms
measured on different zones of the weld tend to scatter rather widely, complicating the interpretation of results.
13
1.4.1 Critical Stress Intensity KIC
The basic parameter of a linear-elastic fracture mechanics is the stress intensity factor K introduced by Irwin 1957,
a quantity taking into consideration both the state of stress and the crack size and orientation. A brittle fracture
starts propagating when the stress intensity reaches the critical value typical of the material, KIC. The critical stress
intensity can be used for computing either the critical size or the critical nominal stress of the crack, if one of these
is known. For the calculation of the stress intensity in some basic situations, ready-derived formulas are presented
in handbooks /1/.
In the general
Yleisessä muodossafromon KI = F s pa (1.1)
σ = nominal stress perpendicular to crack direction

a = depth of edge crack or half length of through-thickness crack in plate
F = case factor
e.g., for edge crack in semi-infinite plate, F gets the value 1.12.
The linear-elastic fracture mechanics is valid only in case the plastic area at the crack tip remains small in relation
to the material thickness, making it possible to determine the critical crack size only in the case of very heavy-gauge
or very high-strength steels.
The limit for the scope of validity is defined according to the material thickness/diameter of plastic zone relation
(which should be minimum 50) at the crack tip. For example, in the case of S355 NL steel, the length of a half-elliptic
surface crack should be approx. 200 mm or in the case of an edge crack the material thickness should be approx.
200 mm for the linear-elastic fracture mechanics to apply.
The critical stress intensity of material can be determined, for example by a three-point bending bar or CT bar,
Fig. 1.4. A sharp-tipped crack is produced under application of a fatiguing load on the bottom of a notch made on
the specimen by machining. The specimen is first brought to the test temperature and then loaded by increasing
intensity until the crack starts to extend. The stress intensity corresponding to the nucleation of crack represents the
critical material parameter. In recent years, the method of measurement has been under development in order to
enable the achievement of reliable results with specimens of moderate size.
Ø 25W ± 0,005W
± 0,005W
0,275W
63
63
± 0,005W
0,275W
a
63
63
125
W
B= ± 0,010W
W ± 0,005W 2
1,25W ± 0,010W
W = discretionary variable
Fig 1.4 CT (Compact Test) specimen
14
1.4.2 J Integral
The J integral is the fracture parameter of the elastic-plastic and plastic fracture mechanics. The J integral is a quan-
tity of energy that can be calculated from the change of potential energy in virtual crack extension. The value of the
J integral covers the plastic deformation in the immediate crack surroundings and is valid for cases involving both
stress and plane elongation, i.e. also for relatively thin-gauge material. The lower limit for the validity of the J integral
with respect to material thickness is thought to represent ca. 5% compared with a linear-elastic case, or concerning
the aforementioned S355 NL steel, ca. 8 mm at a temperature of -20°C.
The calculation of the value of the J integral for true cases is very laborious. Therefore, the use of the J integral as
an arithmetic value is limited to special cases. In the R6 /2/ method, for example, the J integral is used indirectly
when certain assumptions hold true. The measurement of the material-specific critical J integral Jc in accordance
with Standard ASTME 1737-96 is rather complicated. For some years, the method of measurement has been under
development to make it simpler, so we may expect to have a quicker, less expensive and more versatile testing
method available by the end of the century.
1.4.3 Crack Tip Opening Displacement
The crack tip opening displacement or the CTOD value is also indicated by δ. It is used for the same purpose as the
KIC and Jc, i.e. for the evaluation of the critical defect size. The critical CTOD value of a material can be measured
in accordance with Standard BS 7448 part 1 or ASTME 1290 with a three-point bending specimen by the same
principle as KIC. CTOD is best used in the elastic-plastic area, when the specimen can be of reasonable size and
the tip of the notch made on the specimen by fatiguing can become blunt considerably earlier than the fracture starts
propagating. Physically, the crack tip opening displacement is the distance between the surfaces of the crack at the
crack tip just before the fracture starts propagating.
The critical defect size can be calculated by means of CTOD when the strength of the steel and its state of loading
are known. Suitable directions for the design are provided in the English PD 6493 /3/ and in the INSTA code /4/ pre-
pared in collaboration among the Nordic countries.
1.4.4 Fracture Toughness Correlations
The fracture mechanical material parameters can be determined in accordance with the above-mentioned stand-
ards, if this is agreed upon in connection with the order. So far, such a determination has been limited to special
cases where the rather high demand on time and costs is acceptable.
In order to enable the assessing of critical defect size on the basis of simple and inexpensive Charpy V tests and still
remain on the safe side, a correlation between the Charpy V test results and the KIC rates has been sought after. Al-
though there is a multitude of different correlations for steels of different type, their scope of validity is usually strictly
restricted. In this connection, let us look at some connections applied to low-alloyed steels /5, 6/.
TK100MPam = TK28 J- 18C (1.2)
TK100MPam = temperature at which

IC receives
K the value 100 m
MPa
TK28 J = temperature at which the result of Charpy V test is 28 J.
S tandarddeviation of correlation C.
is 15
15
The average correlation of the critical stress intensity on temperature can be derived from formula 1.3
KIC = 30+ 70e

(0,019 (T- TK100 MPam )) (1.3)
T = reference temperature
T = tarkastelulämpötila
.
Formula 1.3 is valid for sheet of 25 mm thickness. Thickness corrections can be made by the formula
0,25
B1
KB2 = (KB1 - Kmin) + Kmin (1.4)
ŁB2ł
Kmin = 20 MPam
B
B = levyn
= plate paksuus.
thickness
The probability of damage Pf at stress intensity rate K can be assessed by the formula
Ø K-K 4ø
min
– Œ œ
ŁK0-Kminł œ
Œ
Pf = 1- e º ß (1.5)
Kmin = 20 MPam
K00
K == toughness
63 % todennäköisyydellä toteutuva
to be achieved at a probability murtumissitkeys,
of 63% and jokatoon
being equal noin11, KIC .
approx.
1,1 · KIC
A rate to be on the safe side can be calculated for KIC direct from the energy of the Charpy V impact test using for-
mula 1.6. Given a Charpy V impact energy of 28 J and 25 mm material thickness the lowest 5% fractile of the critical
stress intensity is exercised with 90% reliability:
KIC = 12 MPam Cv (1.6)
C
Cv == Charpy
Charpy V impact energy
V- iskuenergia.
v
By formula 1.7, the critical stress intensity can with equal reliability be established on the basis of the transition tem-
perature measured by the Charpy V test:
T - TK28J
KIC = 25MPa m + 37MPa m e 526

, C
(1.7)
By means of the thickness correction factor RZ the results of both formulae, 1.6 and 1.7, can be altered to make them
valid for cases in which the material thickness (width of the crack) clearly deviates from 25 mm.
16
20MPam Ø B 0,25ø B 0,25

Rz = Œ1- œ+ Ł ł (1.8)
Ł KICmin ł º ŁZ ł ß Z
KIC = KICmin Rz (1.9)
The KIC rate calculated from formula 1.6 or 1.7 is placed in formula 1.8 so as to represent the value of KIC min and
the thickness corrected critical stress intensity is then calculated by formula 1.9. In formula 1.8, B represents the
material thickness of the specimen, i.e. 25 mm when using the correlation formulae 1.6 and 1.7, and Z is the material
thickness or the width of the crack.
The interdependence of KIC and Jc can be calculated by formula 1.10:
KIC = E Jc (1.10)
E
E == elastic modulus
kimmokerroin.
The connection between CTOD and the critical intensity of stress is of the configuration:
KIC = m s y E d (1.11)
In the formula 1.11, m gets the value 1 in simple plane stress and the value 2 in simple plane strain. In practice,
results obtained with the value of m in the area 1.5 ... 1.7, correlate satisfactorily. The connection between Jc and δ
can be solved using the formulae 1.10 and 1.11. The correlation has been found to function satisfactorily, when σy is
replaced by the average of the tensile strength and yield strength. In plane stress, m gets the value 1.2 and in plane
strain the value 1.6 /7/.
17
1.5 Effect of Microstructure on the Resistance to Brittle Fracture

Transition behaviour is typical of ferritic steels. A marked effect can be brought about on the impact strength of ferritic
steels both through alloying and heat treatments.
1.5.1 Deoxidation of Steel
Deoxidation of steel refers to the removal of oxygen dissolved in liquid steel in connection with the steel converting
process. Unless deoxidation is carried out before the liquid metal solidifies, the steel is left with a high rate of iron
oxide inclusions that impair the mechanical properties of the steel. Rimmed steel easily turns out with coarse grain
size, which reduces its impact strength.
The deoxidation of steel is mostly done with silicon or aluminium, or both. In the composition of silicon killed steel,
the content of Si is more than 0.1%. The Al-content of aluminium killed steel is more than 0.02%. Silicon may also be
used, with contents up to 0.5%, in order to increase the strength of steel. Aluminium reacts in the melt with oxygen
but also with nitrogen. This is good for the toughness of steel for two reasons: aluminium nitrides retard grain growth
in austenite at the rolling temperature and thus reduce the grain size, while the decrease in the amount of free nitro-
gen reduces the tendency of steel to strain ageing. Strain ageing is discussed under 1.5.4.
Rimmed steel contains no significant quantities of silicon nor of aluminium. Due to its poor impact strength and low
resistance to ageing, rimmed steel is not suitable for use in welded steel structures.
1.5.2 Effect of Grain Size on Impact Strength
Fine-grained structure contributes to the impact strength of steel. The manufacturing process of fine grained steels
includes micro-alloying and heat treatments. Besides aluminium, micro-alloying elements such as Nb and Ti act
as formers of nitrides and carbides and even low contents of these retard grain growth in rolling and normalizing.
In addition to micro-alloying, the fine-grain treatment involves either normalizing, normalizing rolling or thermome-
chanical rolling. Because improper heat treatments may promote grain growth and reduce impact strength even in
fine-grained steel, it is advisable to follow the steel manufacturer’s instructions concerning the normalizing and hot
working of fine-grained steel.
1.5.3 Effect of the Composition of Steel on Impact Strength
Alloying elements that increase the impact strength include manganese and nickel. The contents of manganese can
be up to 1.6% without having the weldability of steel unreasonably reduced. Manganese is used as alloying element
in practically all structural, pressure vessel and shipbuilding steels.
Nickel reduces the transition temperature of steel very efficiently; 0.5% Ni combined with microalloying is enough
to reduce the transition temperature down below -80°C. However, nickel being an expensive metal and sensitive to
economic fluctuations, it is used as an alloying element in low-alloy steels only in special cases such as the materials
for pressure vessels for the storage and transport of liquidified gases.
Carbon, sulphur and phosphorus are alloying elements that reduce impact strength. Carbon is the most important al-
loying element measured by the strength of steel. Even with a relatively high carbon content, the transition tempera-
ture of steel can be kept under -20°C by means of manganese alloying. In steels for very low service temperatures,
the carbon content must be restricted in order to achieve better impact strength and weldability.
Many standards allow maximum contents of sulphur and phosphorus in the ladle analysis up to 0.050%, which must
be considered as an excessively high rate by today’s criteria. Good impact strength provides for a P content below
0.025% and S content below 0.020%. For instance, with a phosphorus content of 0.1%, the weathering steels COR-
TEN A and COR-TEN HIGH-TEMP can be supplied with a comfortable degree of strength and weather reistance, but
no guaranteed minimum rate for impact strength.
18
1.5.4 Strain Ageing
The cold working of steels causes lattice irregularities and pile-ups of dislocations. The heavy pile-up of disloaca-
tions disrupts their propagation, something that can be noticed as work hardening and the reduced impact strength
of the steel.
The heating of steel after cold working accelerates diffusion and the movement of free nitrogen and carbon atoms in
the steel. Such free atoms seek dislocations formed during the cold working which leaves the steel with enhanced
static strength, impaired formability and reduced impact strength. This phenomenon is called ageing. It takes a tran-
sient temperature increase to approx. 100°C to release the ageing effect of nitrogen, while ageing caused by carbon
only begins at a temperature higher than 250°C /8/.
A prolonged storage of steel at room temperature is enough for nitrogen to cause a mild degree of ageing. The
resistance to the effect of nitrogen can be improved by using aluminium and titanium for deoxidation. Therefore, the
deoxidation agents used for ”fully killed” or ”special killed” steel usually include aluminium or titanium in addition to
silicon. Some publications in the field refer to titanium-killed steels as non-ageing steels, because the titanium alloy-
ing also weakens the ageing effect of carbon.
The decline of impact strength as a consequence of work hardening and ageing depends on the degree of forming.
For normalized silicon+aluminium-killed steel, the approximate rule of thumb is that a 10% degree of forming is likely
to raise the transition temperature by 20...30°C, and the subsequent ageing, e.g. during 1 hour at 250°C, roughly by
another 20°C. In the case of conventional steels deoxidized without aluminium or titanium, the increase in transition
temperature may be even twice as high as that mentioned above.
Many steel structures assembled of cold formed components by welding have in spite of ageing proved reliable at
subzero temperatures, the main reasons for this being as follows:
- before working and welding, the transition temperature of steel was very low
- the materials used for cold formed structures are typically thin and the risk of brittle fracture is therefore low
- cold formed parts are not located at any of the most critical spots in the structure from the stress point of view.
Transition temperature °C
Si-killed
+20
-20
Al-killed
-60 Cold forming
Cold forming +
ageing treatment
0 10 20 30
Deformation %
Fig. 1.5 The effect of cold forming and ageing treatment (250°C) on the transition temperature of steel
19
1.5.5 Effect of Heat Treatment on the Impact Strength of Steel
Steel structures assembled from flame cut parts by welding can be treated by stress relieving or normalizing in order
to improve their resistance to brittle fracture. Stress relieving is carried out at ca 550...700°C. Small details can be
stress relieved in a stationary furnace, large structures in a collapsable furnace or locally, by means of resistance
mates. The increase and reduction of the temperature must take place slowly in order to minimize deformation and
residual stresses. In accordance with Standard SFS 1105, the permissible speed of temperature increase for prod-
ucts of less than 25 mm thickness is 200°C per hour and for products of 50 mm thickness no higher than ca 100°C
per hour. The cooling rate may be higher by approximately 40%.
The relieving of residual stresses essentially contributes to the resistance of the structure in respect of the nucleation
of brittle fracture. In the case of heavy-thickness materials, the favourable effect of stress relieving allows a reduction
of up to 40°C of the permissible service temperature of a welded structure. Stress relieving also eliminates the effect
of natural ageing in a cold formed structural part. The effect of stress relieving on the mechanical properties of steel
is more or less insignificant. Normalizing may reduce the yield strength of steel by just a few percentage points, while
the strength decrease in thermomechanically rolled steels may be more than that if the maximum temperature in
stress relieving exceeds 600°C.
The normalizing of low-alloy steels is carried out at ca 910...940°C. The temperature requirement being so high,
normalizing must be carried out in furnace, which limits the size of the items to be normalized. Even so, rather bulky
structures may be normalized in a collapsable furnace. Normalizing cancels the effects of cold forming on steel and,
if carried out properly, also reduces the grain size of steel. Normalizing is usually carried out in order to restore the
mechanical properties of heavily formed components such as the dished ends of pressure vessels. It must be noted,
however, that the use of normalized parts for pressure vessels made by welding in no way compensates the stress
relieving possibly needed after assembly welding. It further must be taken into account that normalizing affects the
mechanical properties of thermomechanically rolled steel, its yield strength, for example, being reduced by approx.
100...150 N/mm2 depending on the grade.
20
1.6 Selection of Material with a View to Its Resistance to Brittle Fracture

The design of steel structures to meet high requirements from the users’ and public safety point of view, is generally
controlled by the authorities. Standards, as well as instructions of the authorities concerned, give guidance on the
assessment of buildings, pressure vessels, cranes, flammable liquids containers, ships, etc. for their susceptibility to
brittle fracture. In Finland, building construction is governed by the Finnish Building Code B7 and Eurocode 3 (ENV
1993-1-1:1992), pressure vessels by Standards BS 5500 and SFS 3324, hoisting appliances by Standard SFS 4028,
tanks for flammable liquids by Standard SFS 2740, and shipbuilding by the rules of Classification Societies.
Steel is used as material for many other high-specification products for which the design and selection of materials
is not ruled by standards nor advised in any other way. In order to ensure of the integrity of any such product, it is
recommended that some of the procedures mentioned as examples below be followed.
21
1.6.1 Classification of Steels by Impact Strength
Steels are classified on the basis of impact strength measured by the Charpy V test. The test includes three vari-
ables: the test temperature, the absorbed energy and the direction of the test specimen v. rolling direction.
Table 1.1 presents the impact test temperatures and energy requirements as well as their symbols in the designa-
tions of steel grades.
Table 1.1 The testing of impact strength and the symbols of impact strength in the designations of steel
grades continued…
Impact strength Symbols in designations
Longitudinally Transversally
Steel grade t, °C KV, J t, °C KV, J
EN 10025, 1993. Structural steels
SnnnJR 20 27 - - S = Structural steel
SnnnJ0 0 27 - - nnn = Minimum ReH for thickness range ≤16 mm, N/mm2
SnnnJ2 -20 27 - - J = 27 J and K = 40 J
SnnnK2 -20 40 - - R = 20°C, 0 = 0°C and 2 = -20°C
S185 - - - - E = Machine steel
E295 - - - -
RAEX MILDSTEEL 20 27 - -
RAEX MULTISTEEL -20 40 - -
EN 10025, 1991. Structural steels
Fe nnn B 20 27 - - nnn = Minimum Rm for thickness range <3 mm, N/mm2
Fe nnn C 0 27 - -
Fe nnn D1, Fe nnn D2 -20 27 - -
Fe nnn DD1, Fe nnn DD2 -20 40 - -
SFS 200, 1986. Structural steels
Fe nn B 20 27 - - nn = Symbol for tensile strength in thickness range <3 mm
Fe nn C 0 27 - -
Fe nn D -20 27 - -
SFS 250, 1977. Fine-grain structural steels
Fe nnn C 0 27 - - nnn = Minimum ReL, N/mm2
Fe nnn D -20 27 - -
Fe nnn E -40 27 - -
High strength formable steels
RAEX 240 HR -20 40 - - nnn = Minimum ReH, N/mm2
RAEX nnn HS -20 40 - -
RAEX nnn HSF -20 40 - -
QStE nnn -20 40 - -
Weathering steels. Cor-Ten
Cor-Ten A - - - - Minimum ReL = 345 N/mm2
Cor-Ten AF - - - -
Cor-Ten High Temp - - - -
Cor-Ten B - - - -
Cor-Ten B-D -20 27 - -
Weathering steels. EN 10155
SnnnJ0W 0 27 - - S = Structural steel
SnnnJ2W -20 27 - - nnn = Minimum ReH for thickness range ≤16 mm, N/mm2
SnnnJ0WP 1) 0 27 - - J = 27 J and K = 40 J
SnnnJ2WP 1) -20 27 - - 0 = 0°C and 2 = -20°C
SnnnK2G1W, SnnnK2G2W -20 40 - - W = Weathering steel
P = Higher phosphorus content
G1 = Supply condition normalized or normalized rolled
G2 = Supply condition at manufacturer’s option
1) Impact strength verified by agreement only.
EN 10113-2. Normalized fine-grain steels
SnnnN 1) -20 40 -20 20 S = Structural steel
SnnnNL 1) -50 27 -50 16 nnn = Minimum ReH for thickness range ≤16 mm, N/mm2
RAEXnnnN -20 40 - - N = Supply condition normalized or normalized rolled
RAEXnnnNL -40 2) 40 - - L = Low impact test temperature
RAEXnnnNL -50 27 - - 1) Unless otherwise agreed, longitudinal specimen is used.
RAEXnnnNL ARCTIC -60 40 - - 2) This test temperature is subject to separate agreement.
continued...
22
…continued
Impact strength Symbols in the designation
Longitudinally Transversally
Steel grade t, °C KV, J t, °C KV, J
EN 10113-3. Thermomechanically rolled fine-grain steels
SnnnM 1) -20 40 -20 20 S = Structural steel
SnnnML 1) -50 27 -50 16 nnn = Minimum ReH for thickness range ≤16 mm, N/mm2
RAEXnnnM -20 40 - - M = Supply condition, thermomechanically rolled
RAEXnnnML -50 27 - - L = Low test temperature for impact strength
1) Unless otherwise agreed, longitudinal specimen is used.
EN 10207. Steels for simple pressure vessels

SPHnnn -20 28 - - S = Simple pressure vessel
SPHLnnn -50 28 - - P = Pressure vessel steel
H = High service temperature
L = Low service temperature
nnn = Minimum ReH for thickness range ≤16 mm, N/mm2
EN 10028-2. High-temperature non-alloy pressure vessel steels
PnnnGH - - 0 27 P = Pressure vessel steel
16Mo3 - - 20 31 1) nnn = Minimum ReH for thickness range ≤16 mm, N/mm2
G = Non-alloy steel
1) KV is 27 J, when material thickness is >60≤150 mm.
DIN 17 155, 1983

HI - - 0 31 1) KV is 27 J, when material thickness is >60≤150 mm
H II - - 0 31
17 Mn 4 - - 0 31
19 Mn 6 - - 0 31
15 Mo 3 - - 20 31 1)
EN 10028-3. Normalized fine-grain pressure vessel steels
PnnnN, PnnnNH 1) -20 40 -20 20 P = Pressure vessel steel
PnnnNL1 1) -40 34 -50 16 nnn = Minimum ReH for thickness range ≤16 mm, N/mm2
PnnnNL2 1) -40 40 -50 27 N = Normalized or normalized rolled
L = Low service temperature
1) Unless otherwise agreed, transversal specimen is used.
RAEX pressure vessel steels
RAEX nn3 P 0 40 - - nn = ReH, kp/mm2
RAEX nn4 P -20 40 - -
RAEX nn5 P -40 40 - -
RAEX nn6 P ARCTIC -60 40 - - 1) By agreement, a longitudinal impact test can be carried
RAEX LT 1) - - -60 27 out, in which case the rating is 40 J.
SFS 1100, 1970. General pressure vessel steels
Fe nn B P 0 27 - - nn = Symbol for tensile strength
Fe nn D P -20 27 - -
SFS 1150, 1977. Fine-grain pressure vessel steels
Fe nnn CP 0 27 - - nnn = Minimum ReL, N/mm2
Fe nnn DP -20 27 - -
Fe nnn EP -40 27 - -
DIN 17 102, 1983
StE nnn 1) -20 39 -20 21 1) Unless otherwise agreed, a transversal impact test
WStE nnn 1) -20 39 -20 21 specimen is used.
TStE nnn 1) -40 31 -50 16
EStE nnn 1) -40 40 -50 27
Shipbuilding steels approved by Classification Societies
A - - - -
B 0 27 - -
D -20 27 - -
E -40 27 - -
F -60 27 - -
RAEX 40 A - - 0 40
RAEX 40 B - - -20 40
RAEX 40 D - - -40 40
RAEX 32E POLAR -40 31 - -
RAEX 36E POLAR -40 34 - -
23
1.6.2 Finnish Building Code B7, Steel Structures
The selection of the impact strength level is considered by five criteria. In the first place, the designer must decide on
material thickness, the tensile strength and the impact strength rating of the steel. The lowest service temperature is
determined by environmental factors, the risk of brittle fracture is taken into account through proper choice of con-
struction; the effect of residual stresses is assessed on the basis of whether the structure contains welded or flame
cut parts. It further must be separately taken into consideration that cold forming, welding or other measures during
fabrication of the steel structure may reduce the impact strength of steel. The effect of other than the above-men-
tioned factors, e.g. the effect of a high speed of loading or a triaxial state of stress resulting from complex structure
must be separately taken into account in the design by specifying higher impact strength for the steel.
Structural class 1 covers buildings repeatedly exposed to heavy traffic loads, and other structures the failure of which
could result in great human or financial loss.
Structural class 3 covers buildings with occasional traffic, such as warehouses.
Structural class 2 covers buildings that do not belong to any of the structural classes 1 and 3.
Table 1.2 Selection of the quality (impact strength) of steel in accordance with Code B7
DEFINITION OF WEIGHTING FACTOR Z Z = Za + Zb + Zc + Zd
Influencing factor Weight. Influencing factor Weight. Influencing factor Weight. Influencing factor Weight.
factor factor factor factor
Structural class Za Service temperature T Zb Material thickness t Zc Tensile stress σ at Zd
°C (selected on the basis the point of rupture
of thickest component N/mm2
to be joined) mm
1 7 +100 >T ≥ 0 0 t < 15 0 σ < 235 0
2 4 0 >T ≥ -20 5 15 ≤ t < 25 2 235 ≤ σ < 275 1
3 1 -20 >T ≥ -30 8 25 ≤ t < 35 4 275 ≤ σ < 355 2
-30 >T ≥ -40 10 35 ≤ t < 45 6 355 ≤ σ 3
45 ≤ t < 100 8
LOWEST QUALITY OF STEEL
Sum of weighting factors Structural member with welds or Structural member without welds or
Z = Za + Zb + Zc + Zd flame cut components flame cut components
Z ≤ 12 B (JR) B (JR)
12 < Z ≤ 18 C (J0) B (JR)
18 < Z ≤ 22 D (J2) B (JR)
22 < Z ≤ 24 E (J4) C (J0)
24
1.6.3 SFS-ENV 1993-1-1:1992 Annex C
Design against brittle fracture as presented in SFS-ENV 1993 (Eurocode 3) Annex C takes into account the strength
of steel, the material thickness, the speed of loading, the service temperature, the toughness of material and the type
of structural member.
The calculation method must not be applied to temperatures below -40°C.
Service conditions are divided into three categories:
S1: - Structure without welds.

- Welded structure under no local tensile stress higher than 0.2 times the yield point.
- Welded structure that has been stress relieved and is exposed to no local tensile stress higher than 0.67 times
the yield point.
S2: - Welded structure under local tensile stresses lower than 0.67 times the yield point.
- Structures, stress relieved after welding, under local stress concentrations (computational) lower than 2 times
the yield point.
S3: - Welded structure under (computational) tensile stresses lower than 2 times the yield point.
- Structures, stress relieved after welding, under local stress concentrations (calculatory) lower than 3 times the
yield point.
Conventional welded steel structures are represented by classes S2 and S3, class S2 standing for a statically deter-
mined structure of simple geometry. In the ultimate limit state, structures of class S3 develop plastic hinges.
The speed of loading is taken into consideration according to the type of load:
R1: - Normal static load, floor load, traffic load, wind or wave load, elevator load.
R2: - Impact load = explosion, collision
The seriousness of the consequences of failure is taken into account according to the consequence:
C1: - Non-critical members the failure of which results in local damage.
C2: - Critical members in which local damage results in the complete collapse of the structure thereby endangering
human life or major financial values.
The computational yield point fyl is calculated on the basis of material thickness:
t fy0
fyl = fy0 - 0, 25 (1.12)
t1 235
fyy00 ==basic
myötölujuuden perusarvo
value of yield strength
tt ==thickness
paksuus (mm) (mm)
tt11 ==1 1
mm.mm.
The values of the factors to be used in calculations are established as follows:
Stress class S1 S2 S3
ka 0,18 0,18 0,10
kb 0,40 0,15 0,07
kc 0,03 0,03 0,04
Speed of loading R1 R2
kd 10-3 1,0
Consequences of damage C1 C2
γc 1,0 1,5
25
The lowest permitted service temperature for the structure is derived from the formula:
(
Tmin = 1,4 Tcv + 25+ b + 83- 0,08fyl kd0,17 ) (1.13)
b = 100(ln KIC - 8,06) (1.14)
Tcv
Tcv
Charpy
== °C Charpy VV
- test
koelämpötila,
tempereture jossa
at whichiskuenergia saavuttaa
the pempact energy reaches thearvon 27
value 27 J. J.
0,55 fyl t0,5

KIC = (gca ) (1.15)
1,226
1
a = 0,5
(1.16)
t t
ka + kbln + kc
Łt1ł Łt1ł
Table 1.3 presents the lowest permissible service temperatures for some of the most common structural steels
calculated in accordance with the aforementioned procedure, presuming stress class S2, speed of loading R1 and
consequences of damage C2. The case represents, for example, the frame of a statically simple building.
Table 1.3 The lowest permissible service temperatures of some structural steels
Material thickness Lowest permissible service temperature °C 1)
S235JRG2 S355J2G3 S420 ML
(Fe 37 B) (Fe 52 D) (RAEX 420ML)
5 -66 -83 -110
10 -44 -62 -88
15 -31 -49 -75
20 -21 -39 -65
25 -13 -31 -58
30 -7 -25 -52
35 -2 -19 -46
40 3 -15 -41
45 7 -10 -37
50 11 -7 -33
60 17 0 -27
80 28 10
100 36 18
120 42 25
150 50 33
1) Stress class = S2
Speed of loading class = R1
Consequences of damage class = C2
26
1.6.4 Eurocode 3. Part 2: Steel Bridges
The material is required with sufficient resistance to brittle fracture at the lowest service temperature that can be
expected during the useful life of the structure. The lowest service temperature is to be determined in the raw data
for design.
If the specifications of Table 1.4 are met, brittle fracture need not be considered separately.
The table has been compiled using the calculation method presented in ENV 1993-2:1997 Annex C /9/.
Table 1.4 Maximum material thicknesses of EN standard steels at different service temperatures
Standard Maximum material thickness mm
Service temperature °C
EN 10025 EN 10113 1) EN 10137 EN 10155 2) 0 -10 -20 -30 -40 -50
S235J0 S235J0W 100 85 75 60 55 45
S235J2 S235J2W 140 120 100 85 75 60
S275J0 90 80 65 55 50 40
S275J2 130 110 90 80 65 55
S275N/M 150 130 110 90 80 65
S275NL/ML 200 170 150 130 110 90
S355J0 S355J0W 80 65 55 45 40 30
S355J2 S355J2W 110 90 80 65 55 45
S355K2 S355K2W 130 110 90 80 65 55
S355N/M 130 110 90 80 65 55
S355NL/ML 175 150 130 110 90 80
S420N/M 115 95 80 70 55 45
S420NL/ML 155 135 115 95 80 70
S460N/M 105 90 75 60 50 40
S460NL/ML 150 125 105 90 75 60
S460Q 90 75 60 50 40 35
S460QL 125 105 90 75 60 50
S460QL1 170 150 125 105 90 75
1) The thicknesses are valid for N steels in accordance with EN 10113 Part 2. Maximum thickness for M steels is 63 mm.
2) Maximum thickness for all EN 10155 steels is 100 mm.
27
1.6.5 Consideration of the Resistance to Brittle Fracture in Pressure Vessel Design
SFS 3324 sets a norm for the design of pressure vessels with reference to their resistance to brittle fracture. The
norm is applicable to low alloy steels with yield point < 500 MPa and material thickness < 100 mm. The norm is in-
tended to prevent the nucleation of brittle fracture in pressure vessels not subjected to fatigue stress or impact loads.
It is also provided that the pressure vessel, before taken into use, has been hydraulically tested at a sufficiently high
temperature.
The standard specifically points out that pressure vessels intended to carry very hazardous contents must also be
designed so as to prevent crack propagation. As the standard includes no instructions concerning the propagation
of brittle fracture, the designer shall consider case by case the possiblity of applying, for example, the standard
specifications for gas pipe.
It is recommended that the minimum impact strength requirement on pressure vessels under fatigue loading be so
determined that the pressurized body tolerates a crack type flaw caused by a percievable leak without risk of tank
explosion.
Table 1.5 The lowest permissible service temperature for a welded, not heat treated, pressure vessel in
accordance with SFS 3324 as a function of the dominant material thickness and the temperature
of the steel
Dominant Lowest permissible service temperature of the pressure vessel, °C SFS 3324
material thickness Transition temperature of steel, °C
-60 -40 -20 0 20
2,5 -98 -62 -26
5 -107 -79 -51 -23
6 -98 -72 -47 -22
7 -90 -66 -43 -20
8 -110 -83 -61 -39 -17
10 -91 -71 -52 -33 -14
12 -80 -63 -45 -28 -11
14 -68 -54 -38 -23 -8
16 -60 -46 -32 -18 -4
18 -53 -40 -27 -14 -1
20 -45 -34 -21 -10 2
22 -38 -27 -17 -6 5
24 -32 -22 -12 -2 8
26 -28 -18 -8 1 11
28 -23 -15 -6 3 12
30 -20 -12 -3 5 14
32 -17 -9 -1 7 15
34 -15 -7 0 8 16
38 -11 -4 2 10 17
Table 1.6 The lowest premissible service temperature of a welded and heat treated (stress relieved or
normalized) pressure vessel as a function of the transition temperature of the material and the
dominant material thickness
Dominant The lowest permissible service temperature of a welded and heat treated pressure vessel °C
material thickness Transition temperature of steel °C
-60 -40 -20 0 20
2,5 -127 -117 -107 -97 -87
5 -122 -112 -102 -92 -82
8 -117 -107 -97 -87 -77
10 -114 -104 -94 -84 -74
12 -111 -101 -91 -81 -71
14 -107 -97 -87 -77 -67
16 -104 -94 -84 -74 -64
18 -101 -91 -81 -71 -61
20 -97 -87 -77 -67 -57
22 -95 -85 -75 -65 -55
25 -90 -80 -70 -60 -50
32 -85 -75 -65 -55 -45
50 -80 -70 -60 -50 -40
75 -75 -65 -55 -45 -35
100 -70 -60 -50 -40 -30
28
In tables 1.5 and 1.6, the criterion of transition temperature is 27 J for steels of yield strength < 320 MPa and 40 J for
steels of 320…500 MPa yield strength on a longitudinal specimen to the principal direction of rolling. The dominant
material thickness refers to the greatest thickness of a pressurized body. As an exception, the dominant material
thickness of flanges, flange rings and flat ends is assumed to be one fourth of actual thickness.
BS 5500
The lowest permissible service temperature, θR , should be lower than θD + θS+ θC + θH
θD represents the lowest permissible service temperature for the pressure vessel
θS is a correction term that takes into account the state of stress:
given a membrane stress of 2/3 of permissible stress or higher, θS = 0°C
given a membrane stress of over 50 MPa but less than 2/3 of permissible stress,
θS = +10°C
given a membrane stress of less than 50 MPa, θS = +50°C
θC is a correction term with a value of 0°C for class1 components and -10°C for class 2
components
θH is a correction term that receives the value +15°C, in case each component is heat treated
before the butt joints are welded but the butt joints are not heat treated after welding.
Table 1.6 Impact strength as specified by BS 5500 for the material of welded and heat treated pressure
vessels
Dominant Lowest permissible service temperature of pressure vessel °C, BS 5500
material thickness Transition temperature of steel °C
mm -60 -40 -20 0 20
2 -110 -90 -70 -70 -70
4 -110 -90 -70 -55 -55
6 -110 -90 -70 -50 -40
8 -110 -90 -70 -50 -35
10 -110 -90 -70 -50 -30
15 -105 -85 -65 -45 -25
20 -100 -80 -60 -40 -20
30 -90 -70 -50 -30 -10
40 -80 -60 -40 -20 0
50 -70 -50 -30 -10 10
≥60 -60 -40 -20 0 20
As to welded and not heat treated pressure vessels, the rates of SFS 3324 Table 1.4 and BS 5500 are very much
in congruence.
29
1.7 Welding under Subzero Conditions

The first step needed to ensure successful welding under subzero conditions is the provision for tolerable working
conditions. The area being welded should be shielded against wind, rain and snow. In practice, however, welding
conditions may vary from totally unprotected spots to heated and ventilated cabins. The structural steelwork norm
RIL 90-1981 /10/ sets a limit of -5°C for temperature. If the temperature of the workpiece or ambient air is lower than
-5°C, the orderer and steel manufacturer should be consulted as to the proper mode of welding. The welding condi-
tions should also be arranged so that as much of the welding as possible can be carried out in flat position.
Subzero conditions complicate welding at least in the following ways:
- the welder gets easily cold which affects his performance

- the welder’s face shield gets frosted
- moisture condensates on the steel surfaces to be welded
- the risk of hydrogen cracking increases
- voids and slag inclusions occur in larger numbers
- the surface of runs is left more uneven and there are more thickness variations in individual runs
- disturbances occur in welding equipment; electrode liners and cables get stiff
1.7.1 Microstructure and Properties of Welded Joint
The chemical composition of steel is the main factor of the microstructure generated in a welded joint. The work-
ing temperature in welding influences upon the microstructure of the HAZ through the cooling rate. The lower the
temperature in welding, the shorter the cooling time, t8/5 (t8/5 = time required for passing the temperature range
800…500°C), which is a critical factor in the formation of the microstructure. The cooling time further depends on
factors such as heat input (welding energy), plate thickness and the type of joint. Table 1.7 gives examples of the ef-
fect of the working temperature on the cooling time t8/5. A reduction of the working temperature from +20°C to -40°C
has rather little effect on the cooling time t8/5. However, the temperature difference compared with room temperature
having grown sufficiently wide, it starts gradually influencing upon the microstucture of HAZ. Thereby the share of
harder and more brittle structures (bainite and martensite) increases as the share of the more ductile ferrite-pearlite
structure decreases.
Table 1.7 The effect of working temperature on the cooling time t8/5 of a surface weld run in manual metal-
arc welding /11/. Welding energy E = 1.8 kJ/mm.
Working temperature °C Cooling time t8/5 s
Plate thickness
10 mm 40 mm
20 30 7,6
0 27 7,2
-20 25 6,9
-40 23 6,6
According to studies made by Rautaruukki /12/, low temperature has little effect on the HAZ microstructure of general
structural steels (S235, S275, S355). The impact strength rates of a properly welded joint meet the requirements on
the parent metal in frost conditions (-40°C). The maximum hardness of a welded joint, depending on plate thickness
and steel grade, ends up higher by 10…25 HV at -40°C than in joints welded in the workshop. In multi-run welding,
the thermal effect of previously welded runs in practice restricts the increase in hardness. This increase may be pre-
vented through pre-heating, by using higher current frequencies or lower travel speed in welding, and yet taking into
consideration any heat intput limitations required to ensure a sufficient impact strength.
30
1.7.2 Problems Caused by Moisture
Although the relative humidity of air is generally rather low under subzero conditions, moisture keeps condensing
on the surfaces exposed to welding. Any heating of workpieces by gas fans or the bringing of cold electrodes or
workpieces into a warm space will immediately cause the frosting of their surfaces. In Fig. 1.6, the temperature
difference required for condensation is presented as a function of the relative humidity of air. Condensation water,
as well as ice, water and frost function as hydrogen sources. In addition, they accelerate the cooling of the joint.
The diffusion speed of hydrogen is very low under subzero conditions. Moisture on the surfaces to be welded thus
increases susceptibility to hydrogen cracking and the formation of voids. When planning the inspections of welded
joints, it should be taken into consideration that, in practice, a delayed fracture caused by hydrogen may be initiated
several days after welding.
50
Temperature °C
40 Tcond. °C
30
30
25
20
20
15
10
10
5
0
0
-5
-10
-10
-15
-20
-20
-25
-30
-30
-40
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Relative humidity %
Fig. 1.6 Dew point as a function of the relative humidity of air /13/.
In order to avoid problems with hydrogen cracking and void formation, the weld location should be preheated to
+50… +100°C even when this is not necessitated by the hardenability of the parent metal. It is recommended that
the actual groove and a ca. 300 mm wide zone on both sides of the groove be made completely clean and dry. Also
backings, if used, must be dehydrated. It is essential that dry low-hydrogen basic filler materials are used when weld-
ing under subzero conditions.
31
1.8 Low Temperature and Bendability

The smallest permitted inside bending radii to be specified for steel are valid under normal workshop conditions.
Bendability is usually not guaranteed for plates of over 20 mm thickness, but it does not mean that such plates can-
not be bent by flanging for example. In bending, cut edges represent the most critical areas for crack nucleation, so
it is important to have the flame cut surfaces as clean as possible or to have the smoother edge of a mechanically
cut plate on the stretched side.
Should the plate still crack for some reason or another, a crack starting from the edge is usually just a few millimeters
long and can in most cases be accepted as repaired by welding. The best way to ensure successful bending is to
provide the edge as ground. The bendability of plate may also be reduced by surface roughness due to sand blasting
or scratches. Worn tools and an excessively sharp-shaped top presser may also cause cracking. Cracks on plate
occur more easily at subzero temperatures than at room temperature. Therefore, it is recommended that during cold
seasons plates be taken into the workshop early enough for them to reach room temperature before being subjected
to forming. The graph in Fig. 1.7 represents the time needed for a plate to warm up when brought from outdoor frosty
air indoors to a temperature of +20°C. Measurements for the graph were carried out on plate pieces of the size A4.
The warming up of stacked plates takes significantly longer.
Bending operations are the more demanding the greater the thickness and the higher the strength of the steel plate
to be bent and the smaller the specified bending radius. A fracture nucleated in thick material is likely to propagate
and lead to a brittle fracture extending over the whole length of the edge and thereby spoil the product. It is not possi-
ble to evaluate the bendability of a thick plate on the basis of the percentage elongation because the impact strength
of the material also influences the behaviour of the material in case of local cracking in connection with bending.
Brittle fracture in bending is considered just as brittle fracture in general.
It is known by experience that in close shave cases a crack may initiate from quite small a scratch. Therefore, the
less scratched plate surface should always be chosen as the stretched side. Especially when large and expensive
plates are to be bent, the grinding of plate edges is an inexpensive precaution. Any guarantee or normative values
for the plate concerning its bending radius/static strength/impact strength/working temperature can hardly be given,
as there are several factors influencing the final result. Some individual cases indicate that the bending of an S355
plate of 50 mm thickness to a bending radius of 270 mm is difficult when the impact strength is 27J/-20°C and the
working temperature ca. +10°C. The same applies to 60 mm plate with ca. 450 mm radius.
Especially in the case of high-strength steel, the required shape in bending should preferably be achieved by a
single push. If the bending force is disconnected and reconnected, e.g. for shape measurements, the surface being
stretched undergoes a cycle on the press side, in consequence of which the deformability of the surface declines and
the likelihood of cracking increases when forming continues.
Proper working temperatures are essential for successful bending. As implied under 1.6 concerning the selection of
steel, elevated working temperatures can be used to compensate for the risk of cracking involved in too low impact
strength.
m m t = 50 mm
0m t = 30 m
20 t=1
Temperature °C
15
10
0
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240
-5
-10
-15
-20
Time min
Fig. 1.7 The warming-up of plate on concrete floor from -20°C to +20°C ambient temperature
32
1.9 References
1. Kari Ikonen, Kari Kantola, Murtumismekaniikka. Otatieto 1986.

Kari Ikonen, Kari Kantola, Fracture mechanics. Otatieto 1986.
2. Milne, I., Ainsworth, R.A., Dowling, A.R., Stewart, A.T., Assessment of the Integrity of Structures Containing
Defects. Central Electricity Generating Board Document R/H/R6 -Revision 3 May 1993.
3. PD 6493: 1991 Guidance on Methods for Assessing the Acceptability of Flaws in Fusion Welded Structures.
BSI 1991.
4. Insta Technical Report, Assessment of the Integrity of Structures Containing Discontinuities. Stockholm 1991.
5. Wallin Kim, Murtumissitkeyskorrelaatiot. VTT Tutkimuksia 428 Espoo 1986.

Wallin Kim, Fracture Toughness Correlations. VTT Studies 428 Espoo 1986.
6. Burdekin, F.M., State of The Art Report on Key Fracture Mechanics Aspects of Integrity Assessment.
October 1995.
7. S.T. Rolfe, W.A. Storm, Fracture Control in Transition Temperature Region of Structural Steels.
Journal of Constructon Steel Research, 1989.
8. Lindroos, V., Sulonen, M., Veistinen, M., Uudistettu Miekk-ojan metallioppi. Otava Helsinki 1986.
Lindroos, V., Sulonen, M., Veistinen, M., Theory of Metals by Miekk-oja, Revised. Otava Helsinki 1986.
9. Annex C to Eurocode 3-Part 2 Design Against Brittle Fracture.
10. RIL 90-1981 (SFS 3200) Teräsrakenteiden suunnitteluohjeet.

Suomen Rakennusinsinöörien Liitto r.y. Helsinki 1981.
RIL 90-1981 (SFS 3200) Steel Structures Design Instructions.
The Association of Civil Engineers in Finland. Helsinki 1981.
11. SEW 088 Beiblatt 2 Schweißgeeignete Feinkornbaustähle. Richtlinien für die Verarbeitung, besonders für das
Schmelzschweißen. Ermittlung der Abkühlzeit t8/5 zur Kennzeichnung von Schweißtemperaturzyklen, Oktober
1993.
SEW 088 Beiblatt 2 Weldable fine-grained steels. Guidelines for working, especially by fusion welding. Calcula-
tion of cooling time t8/5 for determining the welding temperature cycles, October 1993.
12. Väyrynen, J., Hitsaus vaikeissa olosuhteissa. Rautaruukki Oy. Sisäinen selvitys. 1986.
Väyrynen, J., Welding under Critical Conditions. Rautaruukki Oy. Internal report. 1986.
13. Koivula, J., Kihlman, K., Karppi, R., Ruusila, J., Korjaushitsaus pakkasolosuhteissa.
Hitsaustekniikka 34 (1984) 6.
Koivula, J., Kihlman, K., Karppi, R., Ruusila, J., Repair Welding at Subzero Temperatures.
Article in Hitsaustekniikka 34 (1984) 6.
33
34
2 HIGH-TEMPERATURE CONDITIONS
2.1 The Strength of Steel
2.1.1 Measurement of the Stress-Strain Curve
The strength of steel under high-temperature conditions can be determined by the hot tensile test. There are hot
tensile tests based on two alternative principles:
- steady state tests

- transient tests.
In a steady state test, the temperature of the specimen is raised to the test temperature and the tensile test specimen
is pulled until it snaps, using thereby either constant speed or, alternatively, tension control whereupon the stress
state is intensified steadily. In a transient test, the specimen is exposed to constant strain while the temperature is
raised gradually, e.g. by 10°C per minute, until the specimen starts yielding and reaches the elongation set as the
criterion, e.g. 1% or 2% or even the point of rupture /1/.
Due to its simplicity, the steady state test is commonly used for testing high-temperature steels for pressure pur-
poses. Transient tests require a special furnace and more complex instrumentation. In addition, several test tem-
peratures are required to establish the stress-strain connection. Therefore, the transient test is adapted for research
purposes rather than quality control. Compared with steady state tests, transient tests give lower values for the yield
strength of steel. When evaluating the static strength of a steel structure under fire conditions, the transient test is
better than the steady state state test for simulating the stress state of the material. Therefore, in calculations of fire
resistance rates, it is justified to use criteria based on the results of transient tests.
2.1.2 High-Temperature Strength
The properties of steel decline with increasing temperature. At approx. 100°C, the yield strength of non-alloyed steel
is a little lower than at room temperature and from that level upwards, the yield strength declines further so that at
about 700°C only some 15% is left of the room-temperature strength level. Also the elastic modulus decreases with
increasing temperature but not significantly before the temperature exceeds ca. 250°C and at 700°C, depending on
the composition of the steel, it is about 15% of its value at room temperature.
Figures 2.1…2.5 present the stress-strain behaviour of structural steel as measured by the transient test and in com-
parison with a material model in accordance with Eurocode 3 section 1.2 to be used in fire design.
Above 200°C, the stress-strain behaviour of steel starts turning non-linear so the determination of unequivocal val-
ues for both the yield point and the elastic modulus is difficult, especially at high temperatures. Depending on the
case, it is possible to use as yield point criteria stress values corresponding to a strain of 0.2%, 0.5%, 1% or 2%,
which under certain conditions differ from each other even widely. The stress-strain behaviour of S235, S355 and
S420M steels, as measured with the transient test, is presented in Tables 2.1, 2.1 and 2.3.
The design strengths for steels for pressure purposes at high temperatures are given in pressure vessel steel stand-
ards and NGS sheets. The hot tensile tests on steels for pressure purposes are carried out as steady state tests and
the 0.2 limit is in most cases used as the criterion for the design strength.
1,0
EC3: Part 1.2

0,9
S355
0,8 S420M
0,7
E 20 °C
ET
0,6
Elastic modulus
0,5
0,4
0,3
0,2
0,1
0,0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Temperature sT°C
Fig. 2.1 The temperature-dependence of the elastic modulus of structural steels
EC3: Part 1.2

0,9
S355
Rp0,2 20 °C
0,8 S420M
Rp0,2
0,7
Yield strength
0,6
0,5
0,4
0,3
0,2
0,1
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Temperature sT°C
Fig. 2.2 The temperature-dependence of Rp0.2 as based on the 0.2% limit of structural steels
EC3: Part 1.2

0,9
S235
0,8 S355
R t 0,5 20 °C
S420M
0,7
R t 0,5
0,6
Yield strength
0,5
0,4
0,3
0,2
0,1
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Temperature sT°C
Fig. 2.3 The temperature-dependence of the Rt 0.5 yield point as based on 0.5% total elongation of
structural steel
1
EC3: Part 1.2
0,9
S235
0,8 S355
Rt 1,0 20 °C
S420M
0,7
Rt 1,0
Yield strength
0,6
0,5
0,4
0,3
0,2
0,1
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Temperature sT°C
Fig. 2.4 The temperature-dependence of the yield point Rt 1.0 as based on 1.0% total elongation of
structural steel
37
0,9
0,8
Rt 2,0 20 °C
0,7
Rt 2,0
Yield strength
0,6
0,5
0,4
0,3
EC3: Part 1.2
0,2 S235
S355
0,1
S420M
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Temperature sT°C
Fig. 2.5 The temperature-dependence of the yield point Rt 2.0 based on 2.0% total elongation of
structural steel
38
Table 2.1 The average strength of S235JRG2 steel (Fe 37 B, RAEX MILDSTEEL) in relation to its yield
strength at high temperatures. The elastic modulus rather closely follows the formula
ET/ E =10,344e -0,009 T /1/.
Temperature °C Rp0,5 / fy Rp1,0 / fy Rp2,0 / fy
20 1,0 1,0 1,0
100 1,0 1,0 1,0
200 0,894 1,0 1,0
300 0,809 0,902 1,0
400 0,787 0,851 1,0
500 0,460 0,770 0,813
600 0,282 0,319 0,468
700 0,119 0,179 0,213
Table 2.2 S355K2G3 steel (Fe 52 D, RAEX MULTISTEEL) at high temperatures. The average elastic
modulus of the steel in relation to its elastic modulus at room temperature, and the strength of
the steel in relation to its yield point at room temperature /2/.
Temperature °C ET / E Rp0,2 / fy Rp0,5 / fy Rp1,0 / fy Rp2,0 / fy
20 1,0 1,0 1,0 1,0 1,0
100 0,971 0,992 1,0 1,0 1,0
200 0,961 0,992 1,0 1,0 1,0
300 0,828 0,831 0,859 0,930 1,0
400 0,624 0,676 0,718 0,873 1,0
500 0,480 0,620 0,648 0,738 0,845
600 0,296 0,380 0,408 0,479 0,535
700 0,204 0,231 0,231 0,239 0,268
fy = yield strength at room temperature
Table 2.3 S420M steel (RAEX 420 M, RAEX 420 ML) at high temperatures. The average elastic modulus
of the steel in relation to its elastic modulus at the room temperature, and the strength of the
steel in relation to its yield point at room temperature /3/.
Temperature °C ET / E Rp0,2 / fy Rp0,5 / fy Rp1,0 / fy Rp2,0 / fy
20 1,0 1,0 1,0 1,0 1,0
100 1,0 0,910 0,917 0,929 0,957
200 0,960 0,840 0,845 0,869 0,905
300 0,890 0,719 0,743 0,833 0,900
400 0,750 0,693 0,690 0,767 0,881
500 0,660 0,519 0,548 0,631 0,695
600 0,360 0,338 0,345 0,383 0,424
700 0,140 0,148 0,174 0,195 0,210
fy = yield strength at room temperature
Table 2.4 The average high-temperature strength of COR-TEN HIGH-TEMP steel as determined by the
steady state test. Note: The guaranteed minimum yield point of COR-TEN steels is 345 N/mm2.
This should be taken into account when applying the table values, e.g. by using the factor 345/
405 /4/.
Temperature °C 0,2 point N/mm2 Tensile strength N/mm2
25 405 540
95 395 550
200 350 515
315 290 535
425 260 490
540 225 320
645 125 160
39
2.2 Creep
Structural design for low temperatures is based on the yield strength, and structural design for high temperatures
also on the creep resistance of the material. Creep refers to slowly proceeding deformation taking place at high tem-
peratures when the structure is under steady load or stress. Creep resistance refers to the rate of stress which leads
to rupture at a certain temperature within a certain time.
2.2.1 Creep Failure
Creep can be divided into three phases: the transient phase (primary phase), the steady phase (secondary phase)
and the accelerating phase (tertiary phase).
In the primary phase, the creep rate is high, but keeps declining towards a certain constant rate. Under actual condi-
tions, when stresses are low, the primary creep phase usually remains insignificant.
During the secondary phase, the creep rate remains almost constant. This minimum creep rate is one of the most
important parameters to be established in the creep test. The creep rate of the secondary phase is demonstrated by
the Norton equation:
e˙ = As n (2.1)
·˙
εe ==creep rate
virumisnopeus
sσ ==stress
jännitys
A,
A, nn ==material constant
ainevakio.
The Norton equation is quite suitable for describing the creep of material. For steels, the exponent in the equation
generally is within the range 3…5 which means that, given the exponent 4, the creep rate increases to more than the
double value, if stress σ increases by 20%. The temperature-dependence of the creep rate is usually such that the
creep rate is tenfold, if the temperature increases by 30…40°C. In addition, the useful life remains shorter by half, if
the temperature increases by ca. 12°C /5/.
In the tertiary phase, the material suffers internal damage, which accelerates the creep. Through the origination and
nucleation of intercrystalline voids, the advancing damage leads to crack formation and eventually to fracture. In
practice, structures are not let into the phase of accelerating creep, as they are inspected and creep propagation is
monitored by different methods so any signs of incipient damage will be discovered in time /6/:
- visual inspection: welded joints and any structural parts under high thermal stress
- measurements of deformation: the measurement of expansion (mainly as hoop measurement at marked loca-
tions, e.g. tubes and bends), diameter measurements for determining ovality in cross section, measurements of
deformation on pipe bends (angle distortions) as well as thickness measurements in order to assess the defor-
mations
- transcript inspections: originating and developing damage in the microstructure can be observed, see Fig. 2.6
- ultrasonic inspections, magnetic crack detection and liquid penetrant inspections
- analytical evaluations: the evaluation of the remaining useful life of structures by means of lifetime calculations,
example /7/.
40
Fracture
1 No Steps
2 Monitoring
3 Monitoring, inspections at shorter
intervals (1 year or 7000 hours)
4 Limited use before repair
5 Immediate repair
Creep strain
Macrocracks
Macrocracks
Enlarged void
concentrations
Isolated intercrystalline
voids
No voids
Service life
Fig. 2.6 The classification of creep damage and recommended steps /6/.
2.2.2 Factors Affecting Creep Resistance
The creep resistance of steel depends on its microstructure and on the stability of the structure at high temperatures.
For ferritic low-alloy steels, normalizing is often recommended in order to achieve a homogenous microstructure.
On the other hand, coarse-grained steel has higher creep resistance than fine-grain steel. The situation at high
temperatures is thus the reverse of that at low temperatures, where finer grain size means proportionally higher
strength of steel.
Carbon (C) increases the strength of steel. However, the strengthening effect of carbon on steel weakens at high
temperatures under the influence of other factors. Therefore, high-temperature steels typically have a low carbon
content which is a benefit from the weldability point of view. The creep properties of steel can be essentially improved
with alloying elements, the most efficient of which is molybdenum (Mo). It is used in low-alloyed steels in amounts of
0.3…0.5%. The beneficial effect of molybden on the creep resistance of low-alloy steels is partly due to precipitation
hardening that occurs when carbides of molybdenum precipitate from ferrite, either in connection with the use or
special precipitation annealing. Also chromium (Cr) alloying contributes to creep resistance. Tempering after normali-
zation at a temperature higher than the service temperature further raises the creep strength limit /8/.
2.2.3 Creep Strength
Structural design for low temperatures is mainly based on the yield strength of the material. With carbon and carbon-
manganese steels, creep becomes significant when the temperature exceeds 400°C. Then creep may be the pri-
mary factor in restricting useful life. The design of structures for use within the temperature range where creep may
occur is based on the creep resistance of the material, which is defined in standards as such a stress that results in
fracture in a given time at a given temperature.
41
In general, a creep rupture limit of 200 000 hours, Rm/200 000, is taken as the design criterion. The strengths given
in standards (e.g. EN 10028-2 /9/ and DIN 17155 /10/) are average strength rates and, due to the dispersion of
material properties, the design stress is taken to be 80% of the stress indicated in standards. The interdependence
between design strength and design temperature in the case of ferritic steels is presented in Fig. 2.7.
Range 1 Range 2 Range 3 Range 4
Rm20
σ
Rm/200 000 or
Rp1/100 000
ReH
Rm/100 000
σperm, based on Rm20
20 50 t °C
0 100 200 300 400 500
Fig. 2.7 How design strength and permissible stress are determined in different temperature ranges.
Rm/200 000 is the minimum; Rm/100 000, Rp1/100 000 and Rm20 are average values /11/.
In the absence of Rm/200 000 values, the one of the values Rm/100 000 and Rp1/100 000 that produces the lower
permissible stress, shall be used as design strength. If the planned useful life within the temperature range for creep
exceptionally is less than 100 000 h, the design strength can be based on the average degree of creep strength cor-
responding to the planned useful life /11/.
The standard creep characteristics of some steels are presented in Table 2.5. The standard values given are not ap-
plicable to steels that are constantly kept at these temperatures. Total load during operation, especially the oxidation
conditions, should be taken into account when determining the useful life. The values of Table 2.5 can also be used
as the limiting creep stress values for structural steel with the same chemical composition and mechanical proper-
ties. For example, S235JRG2 EN 10025 (Fe 37 B SFS 200, RAEX Mildsteel), in terms of chemical composition, is
rather equivalent to HI DIN 17155 steel and S355J2G3 EN 10025 (Fe 52 D SFS 200, RAEX Multisteel) to 19 Mn 6
DIN 17155 steel.
42
Table 2.5 Standard creep characteristics of the steels H I, H II, 17 Mn 4, 19 Mn 6, 15 Mo 3 (DIN 17155)
and P235GH, P265GH, P295GH, P355GH, 16Mo3 (EN 10028-2) and Cor-Ten High-Temp,
N/mm2. The values given are average values. The lower dispersion limit is approx. 20% below
the average /9, 10, 12/.
Steel grade Temperature Stress for 1 % creep Stress for rupture
10 000 100 000 10 000 100 000 200 000
°C h h h h h
HI 380 164 118 229 165 145
H II 390 150 106 211 148 129
P235GH 400 136 95 191 132 115
P265GH 410 124 84 174 118 101
420 113 73 158 103 89
430 101 65 142 91 78
440 91 57 127 79 67
450 80 49 113 69 57
460 72 42 100 59 48
470 62 35 86 50 40
480 53 30 75 42 33
17 Mn 4 380 195 153 291 227 206
19 Mn 6 390 182 137 266 203 181
P295GH 400 167 118 243 179 157
P355GH 410 150 105 221 157 135
420 135 92 200 136 115
430 120 80 180 117 97
440 107 69 161 100 82
450 93 59 143 85 70
460 83 51 126 73 60
470 71 44 110 63 52
480 63 38 96 55 44
490 55 33 84 47 37
500 49 29 74 41 30
15 Mo 3 450 216 167 298 245 (239) 228 (217)
16Mo3 460 199 146 273 209 (208) 189 (188)
470 182 126 247 174 (178) 153 (159)
480 166 107 222 143 (148) 121 (130)
490 149 89 196 117 (123) 96 (105)
500 132 73 171 93 (101) 75 (84)
510 115 59 147 74 (81) 57 (69)
520 99 46 125 59 (66) 45 (55)
530 84 36 102 47 (53) 36 (45)
Cor-Ten 425 260 195 310 235 -
High-Temp 455 190 140 230 175 -
480 140 100 175 130 -
510 100 65 130 95 -
540 70 45 95 65 -
565 - - 70 45 -
595 - - 45 15 -
The values in parentheses refer to the steel grade 16Mo3 EN 10028-2.
43
500
200
Stress N/mm2
100
T = 400 °C
T = 425 °C
T = 450 °C
50
T = 500 °C
Design values for grade 19 Mn 6 as per Table 2.5

T = 400 °C
T = 450 °C
T = 500 °C
20
50 200 500 2000 5000 10000 20000 50000 100000 200000 500000
Time to failure h
Fig. 2.8 Creep test results of normalized RAEX 385 P steel.
500
200
Stress N/mm2
100
T = 400 °C
T = 425 °C
T = 450 °C
50
T = 500 °C
Design values for grade 19 Mn 6 as per Table 2.5

T = 400 °C
T = 450 °C
T = 500 °C
20
50 200 500 2000 5000 10000 20000 50000 100000 200000 500000
Time to failure h
Fig. 2.9 Creep test results of COR-TEN A steels.
44
500
200
Stress N/mm2
100
T = 400 °C
T = 425 °C
50 T = 450 °C
T = 500 °C
Design values for grade 19Mn6 as per Table 2.5

T = 400 °C
T = 450 °C
T = 500 °C
20
50 200 500 2000 5000 10000 20000 50000 100000 200000 500000
Time to failure h
Fig. 2.10 Creep test results of COR-TEN B steel.
500
200
Stress N/mm2
100
T = 400 °C
T = 425 °C
50 T = 450 °C
T = 500 °C
Design values for grade H II as per Table 2.5

T = 400 °C
T = 450 °C
20
50 200 500 2000 5000 10000 20000 50000 100000 200000 500000
Time to failure h
Fig. 2.11 Creep test results of H II steel.
45
2.3 Graphitization
Besides creep, graphitization is a phenomenon to be taken into account in prolonged use at high temperatures or
in annealing. Graphitization refers to the transformation of cementite-bound carbon into graphite. The growth of the
size of graphite nucleae, if limited to small areas, leads to the formation of weak spots in the structure of the steel.
This may occur particularly in areas near the welded joints. Similarly to creep, this may lead to a sudden failure of
the structure.
Cold working, high carbon contents and aluminium alloying contribute to graphitization in steel. Aluminium killed steel
is not recommended for structures exposed to pressure if these are required to withstand high temperatures for long
periods. For structures to be continuously used at temperatures over 425°C, the grades H I, H II, 17 Mn 4 and 19
Mn 6 in accordance with DIN 17155 should be ordered in the silicon (Si) killed condition. In practice, this means that
the content of soluble aluminium (Al) is limited to less than 0.012%. NGS sheets prescribe the same limitation for
DIN 17155 steel 15 Mo 3 at service temperatures over 470°C. On the other hand, DIN and EN standards permit the
use of aluminium also in steels to be used at temperatures higher than 425°C because some test reports imply that
the amounts of aluminium used for deoxidation do not essentially correlate with the strength of steels at graphitiza-
tion temperatures. The alloying of steel with 0.5 to 1% chromium partly eliminates the susceptibility to graphitzation
almost entirely /8/.
2.4 Scaling
At high temperatures, the surface of steel develops an oxide layer which grows in thickness as oxygen passes (by
diffusion) from the atmosphere through the oxide layer onto the surface of steel. The lower limit for the scaling tem-
perature for low-alloy steels is ca. 540°C, below which scaling remains insignificant. At a constant temperature, the
scale layer thickness increases approximately in proportion to the square root of time. With increasing temperature,
the speed of scaling accelerates exponentially contributing to the oxidation of low-alloy steels at mild red hot tem-
peratures, i.e. ca. 650°C, to such a degree as to make their suitability for continuous use questionable.
If the temperature varies, the difference between the scale layer and the coefficients of linear expansion of steel will
cause shearing stresses between the scale layer and metal and thereby, depending on the ambient conditions, the
breaking and peeling of the scale layer. The formation of a scale layer on the exposed metal surface thus proceeds
almost constantly at the maximum speed. Sharp variation in temperature, e.g. in cycles of 24 hours, may increase
the speed of scaling almost tenfold compared with constant temperature.
The resistance of steel to scaling is best enhanced with the alloy element chromium -- the higher the content the
more efficient. At high temperatures, chromium develops a chromium oxide containing film on the surface of the
steel. Silicon and aluminium contents contribute to the protection given by the chromium oxide film. The resistance
to scaling is further enhanced by a high silicon content. Therefore, steels for use at very high temperatures are often
provided with Si contents as high as several percentage points.
The chemical composition of the atmosphere has a considerable impact on the resistance to scaling. High contents
of oxygen, water vapour and especially sulphur increase the speed of scaling. The accelerating impact of hot com-
bustion gases on the speed of scaling may be due to sulphur contained in the fuel. In most cases, however, it is due
to water vapour contained in the combustion gas.
Among the steels produced by Rautaruukki, the one provided with the highest chromium content is COR-TEN HIGH-
TEMP, the resistance of which to scaling is further improved by silicon and aluminium alloying. However, COR-TEN
HIGH-TEMP is not a so-called fire resistant steel, because the chromium content is just about 1%, while the Cr-
contents of fire resistant steels exceeds 20%. In comparison with general structural steel, COR-TEN HIGH-TEMP
features better resistance to scaling at such service temperatures as allow the use of low-alloy steel.
46
Table 2.6 Test results of the scaling rates of steels at different temperatures and under different conditions.
The annual rate of scaling in ambient air as extrapolated from a 1000-hour test /4/.
Steel grade Uniform temperature Varying temperature, a fall in temperature to
20°C once per day for one hour.
540°C 650°C 540°C 650°C
COR-TEN HIGH-TEMP 0,03 mm 0,07 mm 0,20 mm 2,5 mm
ASTM A36, S235JR 0,07 mm 1,35 mm 0,40 mm 6,7 mm
Table 2.7 Test results of the scaling rates of different structural steels at some high temperatures.
Thickness reduction mm/yr as extrapolated from 10…30-day tests based on measured weight loss.
Note: Comparisons of the results with those of Table 2.6 should take into account that the present
results represent the total thickness reduction on both sides of the sample.
Steel grade Uniform temperature Varying temperature, a fall in temperature to
20°C once per day for one hour.
500°C 600°C 500°C 600°C
COR-TEN A 0,05 1,88 0,09 0,51
COR-TEN B 0,07 2,11 0,07 0,62
S235JRG2 0,14 1,66 0,17 0,70
S355JRG2 0,05 3,24 0,13 1,57
S355K2G3 0,13 1,00 2,00 2,57
2.5 Temper Embrittlement

Steel may undergo temper embrittlement when exposed to temperatures of 300...600°C. As implied by its name,
this phenomenon most usually occurs in connection with the tempering of quenched and tempered steel. For the
purposes of theoretical evaluation, temper embrittlement is divided into two temperature ranges: lower temper
embrittlement 300...450°C and upper temper embrittlement in the range 450...600°C. Generally, the term temper
embrittlement refers to upper temper embrittlement.
Temper embrittlement appears as a considerable increase in the transition temperature resulting from a high service
temperature. Temper embrittlement is particularly intensive in the tempering of martensitic steels, but it may occur in
connection with other than quenched and tempered steels, i.e. also in ordinary ferritic-pearlite steels. Embrittlement
is caused by the precipitation of phosphorus, tin, arsenic and antimony in grain boundaries. Therefore, the contents
of these substances are accurately limited e.g. in offshore steels. The brittle fracture along grain boundaries in tem-
per embrittled material represents the mechanism of intergranular precipitation.
Temper embrittlement is retarded by carbon and molybdenum which prevent the precipitation of phosphorus at grain
boundaries. Chromium promotes the precipitation of phosphorus by binding carbon into carbides. The toughness of
temper embrittled steel can be restored by annealing it at a temperature of over 600°C or by cooling it fast enough
through the critical temperatures for temper embrittlement /8, 12/.
Temper embrittlement caused by the intergranular precipitation of phosphorus may occur in phosphorus alloyed
steels such as COR-TEN A and COR-TEN HIGH-TEMP in prolonged use within the temperature range that is
considered critical in terms of temper embrittlement. In applications where temper embrittlement is possible, the
structure should be so designed that reduced impact strength does not involve any safety or other problems when
the structure is exposed to room temperature during overhauls, for example. Because of the risk of temper embrit-
tlement, COR-TEN A or COR-TEN HIGH-TEMP steels are not recommended for use in load-bearing structures ex-
posed to temperatures over 450°C. Tests have shown, that annealing at 500°C for 100 hours increases the transition
temperature by about 10°C. Soft annealing at 600°C for half an hour restores the impact strength of the embrittled
steel to a level corresponding to the supply condition.
47
2.6 Materials for Hot-Dip Galvanizing Pots

The useful life of hot-dip galvanizing pots is limited because the reactions between iron and zinc keep reducing their
wall thickness. The iron/zinc compounds generated by these reactions remain solid at normal zinc coating tempera-
tures and settle on the steel surface. Iron/zinc compounds contain 6...28% iron that migrates through diffundation
from the tank wall towards the zinc bath. In practice, this is seen as a visible corrosion of the iron caused by the hot
zinc /13/.
In the ideal case, the thinning out of wall thickness proceeds uniformly. However, hot spots, local variations in the
chemical composition of the wall, for example welded joints, etc., may cause very rapid local corrosion. Besides the
temperature, the chemical composition of both the bath and the material of the galvanizing pot have an impact on
general corrosion.
The temperature of the steel pot must not even locally be in the range 480…530°C, because then the reactions of
iron with zinc would be very rapid and the speed of corrosion could be even 1 mm per day. Any external heaters
should be located so that local hot spots are avoided.
2.6.1 The Chemical Composition of the Zinc Bath
A steel pot stands best against the impact of pure zinc. The reactivity of the zinc bath with steel can be considerably
increased by alumium. The small amount of aluminium, ca. 0.02%, needed to prevent the oxidation of the zinc bath
surface is rather harmless for the tank, whereas 0.1...0.2% of aluminium accelerates tank corrosion significantly. If
the alumium content amounts to several percent, the useful life of a steel pot is very short; therefore, ceramic pot
materials are to be preferred in such cases.
Sometimes zinc is also alloyed with lead that has an impact of reducing the surface tension of the bath. Thereby lead
makes it possible to use lower dip temperatures, which is good for the tank. Lead has not been found to react with
iron nor to have hardly any impact on the speed of tank corrosion. Instead, lead has been found to penetrate easier
than zinc to the grain boundaries of iron, which contributes to embrittlement of the tank. One benefit of lead is that
a layer of lead on the bottom of an externally fired tank protects the possible local hot spots against the influence of
zinc and thereby prevents local corrosion /13, 14, 15, 16, 17/.
2.6.2 The Chemical Composition of the Material for the Galvanizing Pot
The general rule is that the longest useful life is achieved with galvanizing pots made of iron as pure as possible.
In pure zinc, most of the steel alloy elements, including carbon, silicon, manganese, aluminium, phosphorus and
molybdenum, accelerate the reactions between iron and zinc. The most important of these are C, Si and P. Under
normal hot-dip zinc coating conditions, the effect of Si and P on the iron-zinc reaction increases in linear proportion
to their content. Silicon, moreover, has a specific critical content, 0.05…0.10%, that gives a particularly strong reac-
tion. The equivalent Si + 2,5P as proposed for the joint effect of silicon and phosphorus involves high reactivity in the
range 0.04…0.12% /13, 14, 15, 16, 17/.
As to the surface quality of the pot material, it is known that a rough surface, e.g. sand blasted, boosts the reactions
between iron and zinc, whereas an unbroken and uniform rolling skin retards these reactions. Flaked off rolling skin
may result in uneven corrosion.
The conventional material for hot-dip zinc coating pots is ARMCO iron that is unkilled steel alloyed to the lowest pos-
sible degree. ARMCO iron is not manufactured by Rautaruukki. Instead the production programme includes a low
alloy steel, BS 2858 AMD MOD, that is suitable material for hot-dip zinc coating pots and is supplied with an average
chemical composition as follows:
C Si Mn P S Al Mo Cr
≤0,08 ≤0,02 ≤0,35 ≤0,025 ≤0,02 ≤0,015 ≤0,04 ≤0,05
For welding this steel, ordinary non-alloy filler materials can be used, even if the alloying rates of all filler materials in
practice are higher than in this base metal. Welded joints should be so designed that liquid zinc has no access into
direct contact with the weld metal. Overlaps in joints should be so shaped that overlapping surfaces prevent the zinc
from flowing unto contact with the root side of the welded joint and also that the iron-zinc compounds formed in the
gaps between overlaps protect the weld metal against corrosion.
48
2.7 References
1. Narinen Pekka, Rakenneteräksen mekaaniset ominaisuudet palolämpötiloissa. Diplomityö
TKK Rakennus- ja maanmittaustekniikan osasto 1995.
The mechanical properties of structural steel at combustion temperatures. Master’s thesis, the University of
Technology, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Surveying 1995
2. Outinen, J., Mäkeläinen, P., Transient state tensile test results of structural steel S355 at elevated
temperatures. Tutkimusselostus. Teknillinen korkeakoulu 1995 Espoo.
Study report, The University of Technology1995 Espoo
3. Outinen, J., Mäkeläinen, P., Transient state tensile test results of structural steel S420M at elevated
temperatures. Tutkimusselostus. Teknillinen korkeakoulu 1996 Espoo.
Study report, the University of Technology 1996 Espoo.
4. Cor-Ten High-Temp Steel Properties Card. United States Steel. June 1978.
5. Rantala, J., Kattilalaitoksissa käytettävät teräkset. AEL-INSKO -koulutus.

Paineastioiden ja -putkistojen rakenneaineet. 1995.
Rantala, J., Steels for use in boiler plants. AEL-INSKO training programme.
Materials for pressure vessels and pipelines. 1995.
6. SFS 3280 Paineastiain tarkastus. Virumisasteen arviointi. 1984.

SFS 3280 Pressure vessels control. Assessment of the degree of creep. 1984.
7. TRD 508 Technische Regeln für Dampfkessel. Zusätzliche Prüfungen an Bauteilen,

Berechnet mit zeitabhängigen Festigkeitskennwerten, Oktober 1978.
TRD 508 Technical norms for steam boilers. Additional testing of components, calculated by
time-dependent strength criteria, October 1978.
8. Lindroos, V., Sulonen, M., Veistinen, M., Uudistettu Miekk-ojan Metallioppi. Otava. Helsinki 1986.
Lindroos, V., Sulonen, M., Veistinen, M., Theory of Metals by Miekk-oja. Revrite Otava. Helsinki 1986.
9. EN 10028-2 Paineastiateräkset. Levytuotteet. Osa 2: Kuumalujat seostamattomat ja

seosteräkset. 1993. EN 10028-2 Pressure vessel steels. Flat products. Part 2: High-temperature
non-alloyed and alloyed steels. 1993.
10. DIN 17155 Blech und Band aus warmfesten Stählen. Technische Lieferbedingungen, Oktober 1983.
DIN 17155 Plate, sheet and strip of high-temperature steels. Technical delivery conditions, October 1983.
11. SFS 2621 Paineastiain mitoitus. Laskentalujuuden määrittäminen ferriittisille teräksille. 1990.
SFS 2621 Design of pressure vessels. Determination of design strength for ferritic steels. 1990.
12. Cahn, R.W., Hausen, P., Physical Metallurgy. Third revised Edition, Chapter 13§6, pp. 915-918
13. Eriksson Leif, Materialval för varmförzinkningsgrytor,

Diplomarbete, Tekniska Högskolan, Bergsindustriella avdelningen, Helsingfors 1984.
Eriksson Leif, Selection of materials for hot-dip galvanizing pots, Master’s Thesis
The Helsinki University of Technology, Department of Rock Engineering Helsinki 1984.
14. Dr. Ing. Ch Pavlidis, On the problem of general surface and localized erosion in steel hot dip
galvanizing pots. Wire, Sept-Oct 1981 No 31 (5) page 223-226.
15. S. Prakash, V.K. Tewari, A. Grupta, Effect of liquid zinc on Armco iron with relevance to pots used in
galvanizing, Steel Research 58 (1987) No 5.
16. Dr. Ing. Ch. Pavlidis, Feuerzinkkessel-Haltbarkeit und Nutzungsdauer, Metall, 35 Jahrgang, Heft 9,
September 1981. Dr. Ing. Ch. Pavlidis, Durability and service life of hot dip galvanizing pots, Metall, 35th
Volume, issue 9, September 1981
17. Frank Porter, Zinc Handbook, 1991.
49
3 RESISTANCE TO SURFACE PRESSURE AND WEAR

Wear results from the interaction between two surfaces touching each other in movement. Wear is divided into
categories by type, although it often results from several types. Wear can be adhesive, abrasive, caused by surface
fatigue, or it can also be tribochemical wear.
3.1 Adhesive Wear

Adhesive wear results from the ”galling” and rupturing of adhesive joints between protruding spots on the surface
when two surfaces slide against each other. The speed of wear depends on the location of the rupture, Fig. 3.1. If a
joint ruptures between the original surfaces, wear is actually nil. If the joint ruptures at some other location, material
is carried from one surface to the other which eventually results in the formation of loose wear debris.
It is estimated that in ca. 15% of all cases wear is of the adhesive type. Adhesive wear is the predominant mecha-
nism for wear caused by sliding between surfaces of two metals. It is the predominant wear mechanism also in
machine parts operating under high surface pressures; e.g. the wear of crane wheels and rails partly takes place by
the adhesion mechanism.
Adhesive wear can be reduced by choosing hard materials with low solubility into each other and through the use of
lubricants. For the prevention of adhesive wear, the compatibility of the materials sliding against each other is impor-
tant. While the mutual difference in hardness of a slide surface couple stands in no direct correlation to the speed of
wear the microstructure of the materials is a key issue.
Galling Potential fracture surfaces
Fig. 3.1 Adhesive wear
3.2 Abrasive Wear

In abrasive wear, hard particles or protrusions on a rough surface penetrate into the softer surface and move aside
material from it. Wear leads to the formation of grooves on the surface of the product, Fig. 3.2.
Wear caused by concentrate, coke and sand are typical examples of abrasive wear, Fig. 3.3. Abrasive wear occurs
also in the form of particle erosion caused by abrasive particles carried by a liquid or gas flow and hitting the surface
of the item diagonally at a narrow collision angle, Fig. 3.4 and 3.5.
Over 50% of all cases of wear are estimated to be of the abrasive type. Generally, hard materials have high resist-
ance to abrasive wear.
50
Hard
Hard
Soft
Fig. 3.2 Abrasive wear
Fig. 3.3 Lump erosion
Hard
Soft
Fig. 3.4 Particle erosion
51
3.3 Wear Caused by Surface Fatigue

Fatigue erosion refers to the removal of material from the surface as a consequence of the fatigue of material under
varying stress.
Wear caused by surface fatigue usually predetermines the useful life of machine parts that are protected against
other types of wear. Gear wheels, roller bearings and different cam mechanisms are examples of such parts.
The wear of carrier wheels is also partly caused by fatigue erosion. In particle erosion, when the collision angle of
particles against the surface is wide, wear takes place mainly in the form of fatigue erosion, Fig. 3.5.
Speed of wear mm3 /kg
102
101 Chilled iron
Hardened steel
Mild steel
10
Natural rubber
10-1 Synthetic rubber
0° 30° 60° 90°

Collision angle
Fig. 3.5 The wear of some materials in particle erosion under the impact of silica sand.
52
3.4 Tribochemical Erosion

Tribochemical erosion occurs mainly as oxide layers or corrosion products wear off from the metal surface. The oxide
layer is often relatively brittle and the fracturing of it exposes new metal surface that quickly develops a new oxide
layer. As an example of the tribochemical wear of low-alloy steels can be mentioned the wear of machine parts used
for handling wet peat or bark and other acid masses. The intensity of pure tribochemical wear cannot be influenced
through greater hardness of the steel, but in most applications wear is not only tribochemical but also abrasive so
increased hardness improves the resistance to wear to some extent. In many applications, however, a corrosion
resistance achieved, for example, through chromium alloying is an equally efficient way to increase the resistance
to wear.
3.5 Resistance to Surface Pressure

Steel is typically subjected to high surface pressure in different types of rolling parts such as carrier wheels, chain
wheels and gear wheels. The permissible surface pressure depends on the lifetime requirement on the rolling part,
i.e. how much rolling movement is expected on the rolling surfaces during the lifetime of the structure. In static
structures exposed to minimal movement, a local yielding of steel as caused by surface forces can be allowed,
whereas any yielding of carrier wheels and rolling bearings cannot be allowed, since their service life would in that
case remain very short.
The wear effect of contact pressure travelling along the surface is usually a combination of adhesive wear and fa-
tigue erosion. Fatigue erosion is due to the high shearing stresses produced at the contact point immediately under
the surface and any varying of these shearing stresses contributes to the initiation of fatigue ruptures in the surface
layer, for example, through the geometric impact of inclusions. As a result from fatigue erosion, thin scale starts
coming off the surface causing sharp profile peaks on the surface and thereby accelerating the process of adhesive
wear and fatigue erosion.
The Herz surface pressure on rolling parts between cylindrical and plane surface by formula 3.1 /8/:
FE
s H = 0,591 (3.1)
DL
sσHH = Herz surface

Herzin pressure
pintapaine
F
F =
= force
voima
E
E =
= elastic modulus
kimmokerroin
D = cylinder diameter
D = sylinterin halkaisija
L = cylinder length
L = sylinterin pituus.
Formula 3.1 applies when the elastic modulus of both surfaces is 210 000 MPa and Poisson’s ratio 0.3.
In the cylinder-on-cylinder case, diameter D in formula 3.1 is replaced by quotient D1 D2 / (D1 +D2), in which D1 and
D2 represent the cylinder diameters. If the cylinder rolls on the inner surface of an orifice, measure D is replaced by
quotient D1 D2 / (D1-D2), in which D1 represents the orifice diameter and D2 the diameter of the rolling cylinder. Cal-
culation formulae for a number of other cases are presented elsewhere, including reference /8/. It should be noted
that the Herz formulae are only valid for cases where the contact surface is small in comparison with the diameters
of the components. Thus, formula 3.1 should not be used for the calculation of the surface pressure in a shaft journal
connection.
The permissible Herz pressure is in most cases expressed in proportion to the Brinell hardness of the material:
s Hsall = kH HB (3.2)
kkH
H == tapahtumakohtainen
specific factor that takes intokerroin,
joka ottaa
consideration the huomioon vaaditun
required service life kestoiän
HB
HB == materiaalin
material hardness
kovuus onBthe Brinell
rinell scale
- asteikolla .
53
Table 3.1
Factor kH Load
kH = 5 Static load
kH = 2 - 3 Carrier wheels
kH = 1 - 1,5 The rolls of telescopic booms
Plastic deformation of the material starts when the Herz pressure exceeds the yield point of the material involving a
sharp increase in fatigue erosion. The premissible surface pressure in view of yielding is thus roughly equivalent to
a kH value of 3.
Table 3.2
Steel grade Typical Brinell hardness HB
S235JRG2 110...120
RAEX MILDSTEEL 110...120
S355K2G3 160...180
RAEX MULTISTEEL 160...180
RAEX AR 400 360...480
RAEX AR 400 360...480
RAEX AR 500 450...530
The design guideline for bridge bearings is presented in reference /7/. RIL 90 /6/ gives as a permissible Herz pres-
sure for Fe 37 B steel (S235 JRG2, RAEX MILDSTEEL) 650 N/mm2 in ordinary cases of loading, and 750 N/mm2
in rare cases of loading. Respectively, 950 N/mm2 is given as a permissible value for Fe 52 D steel (S355, RAEX
MULTISTEEL) in ordinary cases of loading, and 1050 N/mm2 in rare cases of loading.
3.6 Pointed and Piercing Loads

3.6.1 Nailing
Nailing can be used for fixing cladding sheets etc. to steel structures. In principle, nailing is carried out using a stud
gun to drive studs of hardened steel to 11...17 mm depth in the steel or so that they pierce the material. The bonding
effect of the nail derives from friction and the reliability of the bond depends on factors such as the thickness and
strength of the steel sheet or plate. Detailed instructions concerning stud diameters, the minimum and maximum
thicknesses and strength of plate, etc., are to be found in the Finnish Building Code B6 and in manufacturers’ cata-
logues. Steel plate of about 10 mm thickness is relatively easily pierced in nail joints.
We know by experience the following general characteristics of the bond effect achieved with studs: With a nominal
strength of 355 N/mm2 or lower (e.g. RAEX MILDSTEEL, S235, RAEX MULTISTEEL, S355), the strength of the
steel has no noticable effect on the bond. In the strength category 460 N/mm2, more attention should be paid to the
way in which fixing is carried out; for example, the perpendicularity of the collision angle is of greater importance than
in the case of milder steels (e.g. RAEX 460M). With the work properly done, the bond is good.
In the strength category 500 N/mm2, fixing techniques are of high importance. High-strength steel resists stud pen-
etration efficiently and experience has shown that in materials thick enough to prevent full penetration, studs tend to
stuck up and break resulting in rather wide variations in bond effect. Reliable connections in high-strength steel thus
require extremely careful procedure tests and close control of the work.
Also in the case of mild steels, when the fixing area is furnished with a thick layer of epoxy coating, nailed joints have
been found to be lacking in bond efficiency. The bond is possibly affected by particles of paint slipping in between
stud and base. As there is no verified knowledge about the contribution of elastic intermediate layers to the stability
of a nailed joint, it is advisable to have the bond effect tested in advance if, for example, thermal or acoustic insula-
tion courses are to be provided between the steel plates to be connected.
54
3.6.2 Protective Structures
Under certain conditions, structural steel is suitable material for various protective structures, with the exception
of heavy-duty military applications. The resistance of steel to piercing loads mainly depends on its hardness and
tensile strength, and the level of protection achieved depends on the thickness of the plate used. It is to be noted
that the level of protection does not correlate with yield strength, neither do high rates of deformability and ultimate
elongation provide any advantage. From the piercability point of view, neither is it of any major significance whether
the protective structure consists of a single solid steel plate or several thinner ones tightly layered, provided that the
overall thickness to be pierced is the same in both cases. Instead, an air gap left between the plates improves the
protection to some degree
When designing a protective structure, the required degree of protection must be determined in accordance with a
relevant standard. The best known standards are EN 1522-1 and DIN 52290.
The protective structure often being composed of layers of different materials, the structure should be tested for con-
formity to specifications on a case by case basis. Usually the orderer of the protective structure proposes the level of
protection and a pertinent authority provides guidance and carries out tests.
Table 3.3 presents design values for protection achieved with RAEX steels. It should be taken into consideration
that, under standard test conditions, the bullet hits the plate at a right angle. Even a slight deviation from right angle
reduces the required plate thickness considerably.
Table 3.3 Reference values for the stability of three different steels tested in accordance with standards.
Standard Protection Type of Caliber Steel plate thickness mm
class weapon Steel grade
RAEX MULTISTEEL RAEX AR 400 RAEX AR 500
EN 1522-1 FB 4 Handgun 0,357 in 4,0 3,0 3,0
EN 1522-1 FB 4 Handgun 0,44 in 4,5 4,0 3,0
EN 1522-1 FB 6 RIFLE 5,56 x 45 12,0 10,5 6,0
EN 1522-1 FB 6 RIFLE 7,62 x 51 12,0 10,5 6,0
EN 1522-1 Annex A - AK 47 RIFLE 7,62 x 39 9,0 5,0 4,7
EN 1522-1 Annex A - AK 74 RIFLE 5,45 x 39 9,0 7,0 4,7
DIN 52290 C4 RIFLE 7,62 x 51 12,0 10,0 -
DIN 52290 M4 RIFLE 5,56 x 45 11,2 10,0 10,0
Considering that it is the tensile strength of steel with which pierceability correlates in inverse proportion, little advan-
tage is achieved with thermomechanically rolled high-strength structural steels compared, for example, with RAEX
MULTISTEEL, because the tensile strength/yield strength ratio of thermomechanically rolled steels is lower than that
of normalized steels.
In the case of heavy-gauge steel structures, the impact strength requirement specified for the material should be
taken into consideration at least in designs for sub-zero temperatures.
3.7 Hardened, Abrasion Resistant RAEX AR Steels

3.7.1 Background
The Raahe Steel Works of Rautaruukki Steel manufactures hardened, abrasion resistant RAEX AR 400 and RAEX
AR 500 steels.
RAEX AR steels are low-alloy, hardened steels. Table 3.6 shows comparisons between the yield strengths and hard-
nesses of different steel grades.
In comparison with grade S235 and S355 steel, hardened RAEX AR steel has considerably higher resistance to such
abrasive wear, as can be measured by the sand abrasion test, Fig. 3.7. For further comparison, the graph includes
the abrasion resistance of RAEX 650 MC OPTIM steel. As seen in Fig. 3.7, an increase in the hardness of conven-
tional ferritic pearlite steel contributes to its resistance to abrasive wear so RAEX 650 MC OPTIM steel, too, is quite
resistant to abrasive wear by materials such as sand.
In practice, cases of abrasive wear tend to be more complex than the test conditions. In many cases, the optimal
material for each application can only be chosen after long-term experimentation.
55
Yield
strenght ReH Hardness
N/mm2 HB
1400
1300
1200 500
1100
1000
400
900
800
700
300
600
500
400
RAEX AR 400
RAEX AR 500
200
300
200 150
100 RAEX HR Mildsteel Multisteel RAEX N RAEX M RAEX OPTIM
Fig. 3.6 Yield strength and hardness ranges of RAEX steels
RAEX MILDSTEEL
100
1 RAEX MULTISTEEL
80 2
RAEX 650 MC OPTIM

Relative weight loss %
60 RAEX AR 400
40
20
50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450

Hardness HB
Fig. 3.7 Abrasion resistance of different steels in a sand abrasion test
56
3.7.2 Properties of Hardened Abrasion Resistant RAEX AR Steels
The chemical composition of hardened RAEX AR steels is presented in Table 3.4.
Table 3.4 RAEX AR steels. Chemical composition (normative values)

Steel grade Plate Composition %
thickness C Mn Si Cr Ni P S B Al Mo
mm ≤ ≤ ≤ ≤ ≤ ≤ ≤ ≤ ≤ ≤
RAEX AR 400 ≥3 ≤30 0,20 1,70 0,70 1,00 0,40 0,030 0,015 0,004 0,050 -
>30 ≤60 0,24 1,70 0,70 1,00 0,70 0,030 0,015 0,004 0,050 0,500
RAEX AR 500 ≥5 ≤60 0,30 1,70 0,70 0,80 0,80 0,030 0,015 0,004 0,050 0,500
The mechanical properties of RAEX AR steels are stated in Table 3.5.
Table 3.5 RAEX AR steels. Mechanical properties

Steel grade Plate Yield Tensile Elongation Hardness range Impact strength
thickness strength strength Longitudinally 1)
R0,2 N/mm2 Rm N/mm2 A5 % HB t KV
1) 1) 1) °C J
RAEX AR 400 ≥3 ≤12 1000 1250 10 360 - 420 - 40 40
>12 ≤30 1000 1250 10 380 450 - 40 20
>30 ≤60 1100 1400 8 380 - 480 - 40 20
RAEX AR 500 ≥5 ≤60 1250 1600 8 450 - 530 - 30 20
1) Typical values.
The dimension ranges for the manufacture of RAEX AR steels are listed in Table 3.6.
Table 3.6 RAEX AR steels. Dimension ranges

Dimension ranges
Plate measurements Strip mill Plate mill
mm RAEX AR 400 RAEX AR 500 RAEX AR 400 RAEX AR 500
Thickness 3 - 12 5 - 16 12 - 60 16 - 60
Width < 1500 < 1500 < 1500 < 1500
Length < 6000 < 6000 < 6000 < 6000
- In thicknesses under 5 mm, the plate size 1500 x 6000 is available by separate agreement only.
- Flatness is guaranteed for plates ≤ 20 mm in accordance with the dimensional standard.
3.7.3 The Mechanical Cutting and Bending of RAEX AR Steels
RAEX AR 400 steels can be cut with heavy-duty tools with properly adjusted edge clearances. Cutting edge hard-
ness should be >53 HRC. Mechanical cutting is only recommended for RAEX AR 500 steels of less than 10 mm
plate thickness.
The plate must not be taken to mechanical cutting direct from cold storage. See under 1.8 for heating instructions.
Some limit values for the bending of RAEX AR steels are stated in Table 3.7.
Table 3.7 RAEX AR steels. Free bending

Steel grade Plate Free bending to <90° Bending to
thickness Plunger radius of curvature/ Gap width/plate thickness, W/t 90° V groove
mm plate thickness, R/t W/t
Bending line v. rolling direction Bending line v. rolling direction
Transversally Longitudinally Transversally Longitudinally
RAEX AR 400 <6 2,5 3,0 8,5 10,0 ≈15
RAEX AR 400 ≥6≤20 3,0 4,0 10,0 10,0 ≈15
RAEX AR 500 5 - 20 ≈10,0 ≈12,0 12,0 14,0 –
Bending instructions for plates over 20 mm thickness are obtainable from the manufacturer.
57
3.7.4 The Machining of RAEX AR Steels
The general rules for the machining of RAEX AR steels include:

- use machines of heavy construction
- clamp the workpiece properly at a point as close as possible to the point to be machined
- in clamping the workpiece, minimize tool overhangs
- harmful vibration must not occur in any phase during machining
- at the point of initial cut, the thermally cut plate edge should be ground smooth
- use sufficiently large feed and cutting depth
- use appropriate cutting fluid; apply richly
- lower cutting speed for dry machining
- for the machining of abrasion resistant steels on a regular basis, select the hard metal bits
from those included in the tool manufacturer’s data sheets.
- Drilling with High-Speed Steel Bit
Drilling with HS steel bits consumes large quantities of cutting fluids. In addition, it should be taken into consideration
that the hardness of the workpiece involves more frequent sharpening and shorter cutter life.
Table 3.8 RAEX AR steels. Drilling with high-speed steel bit

RAEX Cutting Drill diameter
speed 5 10 15 20 25 30
Speed of Feed Speed of Feed Speed of Feed Speed of Feed Speed of Feed Speed of Feed
rotation rotation rotation rotation rotation rotation mm/r
m/min r/min mm/r r/min mm/r r/min mm/r r/min mm/r r/min mm/r r/min
AR 400 8 – 10 500 0,07 300 0,10 190 0,16 150 0,23 110 0,30 90 0,35
AR 500 4 – 6 300 0,07 130 0,10 85 0,13 65 0,20 50 0,25 45 0,30
Small diameter, 5-10 mm, holes can be successfully drilled even with uncoated high speed steel.
For larger holes, coated high speed steel bits are to be used.
- Drilling with Hard Metal Bit, U Cutter
Abrasion resistant steels are most practically drilled with hard metal bits. When using an upright drill, milling cutter or
lathe of heavy construction, with a hard metal bit as working tool, the cutting conditions given in Table 3.9 apply.
Further information on the selection of bits and cutting fluids for drills with indexable inserts is provided by their
manufacturers. The general idea is that the cutting fluid should be plentiful and the chip breaking must be vibration-
less and noiseless.
Table 3.9 RAEX AR steels. Drilling with hard metal bit

RAEX Cutting Drill diameter mm
speed 20 25 30 35 40 50
Speed of Feed Speed of Feed Speed of Feed Speed of Feed Speed of Feed Speed of Feed
rotation rotation rotation rotation rotation rotation mm/r
m/min r/min mm/r r/min mm/r r/min mm/r r/min mm/r r/min mm/r r/min
AR 400 60 - 70 1040 0,12 830 0,15 700 0,16 600 0,16 520 0,16 440 0,14
AR 500 40 - 50 780 0,10 700 0,10 530 0,10 450 0,10 380 0,10 320 0,10
58
- Countersinking, Counterboring
In order to achieve the necessary rigidity and a vibrationless run, countersinks and counterbores must be provided
with a rotating pilot pin to allow the use of an indexable insert on the tool. Normally, the chip angle is negative. Ample
use of cutting fluid is recommended.
Table 3.10 RAEX AR steels. Countersinking, counterboring with two-bit cutter

RAEX Cutting Drill diameter mm
speed 19 24 34 42 57
Speed of Feed Speed of Feed Speed of Feed Speed of Feed Speed of Feed
rotation rotation rotation rotation rotation
m/min r/min mm/r r/min mm/r r/min mm/r r/min mm/r r/min mm/r
AR 400 25 - 30 450 0,15 - 360 0,15 - 250 0,12 - 220 0,12 - 150 0,10 -
0,20 0,20 0,17 0,17 0,15
AR 500 17 - 20 300 0,15 - 240 0,15 - 170 0,10 140 0,10 - 100 0,10
0,20 0,20 0,17 0,17 0,15
- Machine Screw Thread Cutting
For screw thread cutting, taps of micro-alloyed HSS-E steel or four-bit taps of cobalt alloyed HSS-Co are recom-
mended. The best result is achieved by using cutting oil or paste. Where the strength of the joint is not a critical
factor, it is recommended that the tap hole be made 3...5% wider than the standard values. This increases master
tap life considerably.
During the threading movement, unobstructed chip removal without any reverse motion is required.
Shallow holes are threaded by means of special taps.
Table 3.11 RAEX AR steels. Machine screw thread cutting with HSS-E tap
RAEX Cutting Master tap size
speed M10 M16 M20 M24 M30 M42
Speed of Speed of Speed of Speed of Speed of Speed of
m/min rotation r/min rotation r/min rotation r/min rotation r/min rotation r/min rotation r/min
AR 400 3,6 115 80 63 53 42 30
AR 500 1,6 50 40 32 25 21 15
- Sawing
The sawing device and hacksaw blades must be chosen with due consideration of the great hardness and strength
of RAEX AR steels. An ample oversupply of cutting fluid is required. In metal band sawing, the best results are
achieved with an asymmetric tooth pitch on the saw blade.
General instructions for the metal band sawing of RAEX AR steels:

- properly adapted blade fastening and blade tension
- the surface at the starting point of sawing should be ground in order to remove the burrs and
the hardened layer left after flame cutting
- long chip exit distances to be avoided, for example, by fastening the workpiece steadily into
a slanting position. If the cutting length cannot be reduced, a hacksaw blade with wider tooth
pitch can be used
- the teeth pressures on the hacksaw blade must be reasonably high
- blade noise can be reduced by either reducing or increasing the speed
- sawing should always be started by manual feed and the feed should be adjusted to bring the
blade into a sufficiently stable contact. The feed is adjusted by taking into consideration the
hardness and strength of workpiece material
- the ample use of cutting coolant ensures that the blade remains wet through the entire run
- tooth damage is partly caused during the throughput phase when the blade wedges, jams,
bites and jitters.
59
Table 3.12 RAEX AR steels. Cutting conditions in sawing

Steel grade Cutting speed m/min
Cutting length mm
100 200 300
RAEX AR 400 60 50 40
RAEX AR 500 40 35 30
- Milling and Turning
The milling of RAEX AR steels is usually rough milling. The milling machine must be rigid and of heavy construction.
Cutting fluid must be used abundantly. It is essential to use coated hard metal bits.
In principle, turning is a similar operation to milling as far as cutting conditions are concerned.
General instructions for the milling of RAEX AR steels:

- an oversupply of cutting coolant is recommended
- start the milling very carefully
- the surface at the starting point of milling should be ground to remove any burrs and the
hardened layer left after flame cutting
- in reduction milling, the first chip should be thick enough to keep the cutting edge from
dragging on the scaly, hardened surface of the workpiece.
Table 3.13 RAEX AR steels. Cutting conditions in rough milling

Rough milling, cutting fluid
Steel grade Indexable insert P40
Cutting speed Feed Cutting depth
m/min mm/tooth mm
RAEX AR 400 75 - 90 0,1 - 0,2 2-5
RAEX AR 500 60 - 75 0,1 - 0,15 1-4
- Under optimal conditions, it is possible to use even 50% higher cutting rates.
- For dry machining, 20...30% lower cutting rates are recommended.
60
3.7.5 Abrasion Resistant RAEX AR Steels. Thermal Cutting and Welding
- Thermal Cutting
The gas cutting of RAEX AR steel causes the cut surface to reharden to a depth of 1...3 mm, resulting in the strain
relief and softening of the sublayer under the impact of heat transmitted from the surface.
For preheating and working temperatures in gas cutting, instructions are the same as for welding.
General recommendations for the thermal gas cutting of abrasion resistant steel:
- plates must not be taken to thermal cutting direct from cold storage, see under 1.8
- plates of greater than 40 mm thickness should be heat treated before cutting
- preheating to minimum 100°C; 150...200°C is recommended
- the cutting of over 45° bevels on heavy plates in some cases needs to be followed by control-
led cooling, for example, under mineral wool cover
- the surface of groove prepared by gas shielded arc chiselling should be ground to remove the
hardened layer
- for workshop engineering, any flame cut surfaces should be ground clean of hardened mate-
rial and sharp edges.
- Flame Straightening
Any flame straightening of RAEX AR steels should be carried out under consideration of their mechanical properties
which have been achieved by heat treatment.
In flame straightening, the hot spot temperature must not exceed 450°C, because this could lead to local stress relief
and reduction of hardness.
Special caution in flame straightening is required when the structure is exposed to fatigue loading. For example, fan
blades are typical structures exposed to such loads.
- Straightening with Jack
Hydraulic and mechanical presses can be used for straightening abrasion resistant steel plate to correct minor wavi-
ness.
The forces applied in straightening with jack are heavy and so is the springback effect on steel.
The straightening of thin-gauge structures can also be carried out by combined working with hammer and jack, while
a combination of flame straightening and straightening with jack in most cases is likely to damage the workpiece.
- Welding
Welding can be carried out by the usual methods but it calls for special care.
General instructions for the welding of abrasion resistant RAEX AR steels:

- use low alloy filler materials, for example, OK 48.00 and MAG OK Autorod 12.51
- if needed, use higher-alloy filler metal for surface weld
- energy input 1,5...3,0 kJ/mm
- dry electrodes
- welding sequence: from centre outwards
- for combined plate thickness of < 40 mm, preheating can be omitted at room temperature
- preheating minimum 100°C, 150...200°C recommended
- welding should be carried out without interruption in order that the plate will not cool off
- too rapid cooling should be avoided; for example, by using mineral wool, where necessary
- carbon-arc chiselling should be avoided or, at least, the chiselled edges and corners of welds
should be finished by grinding.
61
3.8 Hardening RAEX B Boron Steels

3.8.1 Properties of Boron Steels
The Raahe Steels Works of Rautaruukki Steel manufactures hardening boron steels under the brand name RAEX
B. The high hardenability of boron steels is due to a boron alloy rate of ca. 0.003%. Boron is known to be the most
efficient alloy element to enhance the hardenability of steel.
There are three grades of RAEX boron steels: RAEX B15, RAEX B24 and RAEX B27, the chemical compositions of
which are given in Table 3.14.
Table 3.15 RAEX B boron steels. Chemical composition

Steel grade Composition %
C Mn Si Cr B
RAEX B15 0,15 1,20 0,25 0,3 0,002
RAEX B24 0,24 1,20 0,25 0,3 0,002
RAEX B27 0,27 1,20 0,25 0,3 0,002
In addition, aluminium (Al) and/or titanium (Ti) are used for the binding og nitrogen (N).
The structure of boron steel supplied in the hot rolled condition is ferritic-pearlitic, which gives it good deformability
and machinability. In terms of machinability, boron steel is equivalent to conventional structural steel.
The high strength and hardness of boron steels are achieved by hardening. The hardening is carried out by anneal-
ing the steel in the austenite temperature range 880…920°C, followed by quenching in water, oil or synthetic me-
dium. The microstructure hereby is a martensitic or martensite-bainitic structure characterized by high strength and
hardness and yet relatively ductility. Table 3.15 displays the mechanical properties of the three boron steel grades in
the hot rolled and a hardened condition.
Table 3.16 RAEX B boron steel grades. Mechanical properties

Steel grade Mechanical properties at room temperature
Supply condition Yield strength Tensile strength Elongation Hardness Impact
ReL N/mm2 Rm N/mm2 A5 strength
Plate thickness mm Plate thickness mm Minimum HV 10 t KV
2 - 12 2 - 40 2 - 12 2 - 40 % – °C J
RAEX B15 Hot rolled 360 – 480 – 25 170 – –
Hardened, Oil 800 – 1000 – 12 320 – –
not tempered Water 1000 – 1250 – 10 420 -40 30
RAEX B24 Hot rolled – 400 – 600 25 180 – –
Hardened, Oil – 850 – 1250 10 370 – –
not tempered Water – 1200 – 1500 8 470 -40 20
RAEX B27 Hot rolled – 420 – 620 22 190 – –
Hardened, Oil – 1000 – 1250 8 420 – –
not tempered Water – 1250 – 1600 6 500 – –
The values given in the table are only approximate.
Main applications for hardened RAEX B boron steels are those calling for high abrasion strength, such as the blades
and buckets of excavation and soil cultivating machinery, caterpillar track elements, and the wearing parts of snow
plougs, process and crushing machinery.
Thanks to its hardness, hardened boron steel is excellent for applications calling for high resistance to adhesive wear
and surface pressure. Martensite and tempered martensite steels have been successfully used as carrier wheel
material for decades. The martensitic or martensite-bainitic structure of hardened boron steel is relatively ductile
considering its hardness, which explains their excellent resistance to wear caused by surface fatigue. Hardened
RAEX B27 steel has almost three times greater Brinell hardness than general structural steel which gives quite good
resistance to surface pressure under rolling stress.
Other applications for hardened boron steels include steel structures requiring high strength, and transport pipes for
bulk materials in the minerals and glass industry. Taking into consideration the hardness of hardened boron steel it
is also tough material. That is why hardened boron steels are successfully used in applications where the material is
exposed to particle erosion involving widely alternating collision angles.
62
Pearlitic and martensitic spheroidal graphite and grey cast iron and pearlitic steels make suitable slide pairs for hard-
ened boron steel. Hardened boron steel functions reasonably well also in slide pairs by itself.
The general guideline for choice between RAEX AR steels and hardening RAEX B boron steels is that parts requir-
ing extensive machining and cold forming should be made of hot rolled boron steel. The hardening is then carried out
either as a finishing treatment or before the final stage of machining. For constructions involving little cold forming,
machining and welding, RAEX AR steel is recommended. The use of RAEX AR steel is also recommended in the
case of large constructions, because the size of existing heat treatment furnaces limits the possibilities to harden
large structures.
3.8.2 Cutting and Sheet Metal Work
The mechanical properties of hot rolled boron steel are close to those of grade S355 structural steel. Mechanical
cutting as well as cold forming can be handled without difficulty and cost-efficiently. For example, in bending tests
with specimens taken from cut lengths of hot rolled strip of 3…6 mm thickness, the smallest bending radius to allow
bending to180° was 1 x t for RAEX B24 steel and 2 x t for RAEX B27 steel at a 99.5% level of reliability.
The recommendations given for hardened abrasion resistant RAEX AR steels under 3.7 also apply to cutting and
sheet metal work in the case of RAEX B boron steels.
3.8.3 Thermal Cutting and Welding of Boron Steels
When boron steel is to undergo thermal cutting in the hot rolled condition, its high hardenability should be taken into
account. The hardness and depth of the hardened layer of a flame cut surface depends on the cutting method and
on the heat input at the cutting spot. For plate thicknesses under 30 mm, the hardening depth in flame cutting is less
than 1 mm.
The hardening of a flame cut edge in oxy-propane cutting of RAEX B24, B27 and grade S355 structural steel is
presented in Fig. 3.8. The speed of cutting has been 40 cm/min. With the speed of cutting reduced to 20 cm/min, the
maximum hardness of boron steel has decreased to 400 HV.
Hardness HV 0.3
600 RAEX B27

8 mm
RAEX B24
500 10 mm
S355J2G3
8 mm
400
300
200
0,2 0,6 1,0 1,4 1,8

Distance from cut edge mm
Fig. 3.8 The hardening of flame cut edge in the oxy-propane cutting of RAEX B24 and B27 steels in
comparison with S355J2G3 structural steel, when the cutting speed has been 40 cm/min.
63
The hardening depth is lower in plasma cutting than in flame cutting (with underwater plasma ca. 0.5 mm), but sur-
face hardness is above the average.
The excessive hardening of cut edges affects the bendability of plate in the hot rolled condition. Any cracks induced
by the cutting operation may cause problems in later use, if the cut edges are left untreated in the structure. In the
flame cutting, excessive hardening can be avoided through sufficient preheating (150…200°C).
An approximately 2 mm deep zone that is softer than the base metal is formed under the flame cut surface of hard-
ened boron steel (Fig. 3.9 ). Preheating is recommended also in the flame cutting of hardened boron steel in order
to prevent crack initiation especially in heavy-gauge plate. There is hardly any steel that can be recommended to
be taken to flame cutting direct from sub-zero temperatures. If such a mistake is made in the case of boron steels,
cracks are likely to occur.
500
HV 10
450
400
450
300
250
0
0 2 4 6
Distance from flame cut edge mm
Fig. 3.9 Surface hardness of flame cut edge on RAEX B24 steel
64
Boron steels in the hot rolled or hardened condition can be welded with any common welding method. Depending on
the quality of steel, the carbon equivalent is in the range of 0.40…0.55. Fig. 3.10 is a graph of recommended working
temperatures, presented as a function of the combined plate thickness, that will prevent cold cracking. The recom-
mendation presumes an energy input of 15 kJ/cm and dry filler materials.
Basic electrode, submerged arc welding and rutile flux-cored wire (10 m/100 g < HD ≤ 15 ml/100 g, HD = hydrogen content of weld)
Steel grade Combined plate thickness t1 + t2 + t3 mm/working temperature °C
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
RAEX B15 20 °C
RAEX B24 20 °C 75 °C 100 °C 125 °C 150 °C
RAEX B27 20 °C 75 °C 125 °C 150 °C 175 °C
Combined plate thickness: t3 Recommended working temperature
- T joint: t1 + t2 + t3 - Arc energy ≥ 2 kJ/mm
- Butt joint: t3 = 0
t1
t2
Fig. 3.10 Preheating requirement for the welding of boron steels
The choice of filler material also depends on the performance required of the welded joint. Whenever possible, the
use of high-alloy filler metals should be avoided. Joints can often be located and designed so as to allow the use of
non-alloy undermatching filler metals. This gives a weld of lower hardness than the base metal, but the joint is ductile
and deformable and not susceptible to cracks. When the weld is required with the same degree of resistance to wear
as the base metal, it is advisable to use alloyed filler materials in final runs only and undermatching filler materials in
root runs and build-up runs. In the welding of hardened boron steel, a narrow zone of lower strength than the base
metal is produced in the heat-affected zone, the width of the low-strength zone depending on arc energy and plate
thickness. Fig. 3.11 gives examples of hardness distribution in butt joints.
The loss of strength in the heat-affected zone can be limited by reducing the arc energy. In practice, the low-strength
zone often lacks significance, because the welded joints can be located at junctions less subjected to stress.
Hardness
10
Hardness
OK 78.16 / 83.28
HV10
BUTT WELDING TEST RAEX B27

HV10
RAEX B24 16 mm
16
25 mm OK 48.00
MAG/OK 13.12
600
500
500
400
400
300
300
200
200
WELD WELD
METAL 100 METAL
12 8 4 2 0 0 2 4 8 12 8 6 4 2 0 0 2 4 6 8
Distance from weld junction mm Distance from weld junction mm
15 kJ/cm, plate hardened & tempered (200°C) before welding OK 78.16 20 kJ/cm, hardened after welding
25 kJ/cm, plate hardened & tempered (200°C) before welding OK 78.16 15 kJ/cm, hardened before welding
20 kJ/cm, hardened after welding OK 83,28 15 kJ/cm, hardened before welding
20 kJ/cm, after welding hardening & tempering at 200°C OK 83,28 20 kJ/cm, hardened before welding
Fig. 3.11 Distribution of hardness in welds made with different filler materials and heat treatments
65
3.8.4 Heat Treatment of Boron Steels
The strength and hardness of boron steel are increased by hardening. The recommended temperature for harden-
ing annealing is 900…950°C and annealing time 1 min per millimeter of material thickness. The hardness/strength
combination of the hardened structure can be influenced by the choice of quenching medium. Boron steel can be
quenched in water, oil or synthetic quenching medium. The highest hardness is achieved by the quickest quenching
proces, which is usually with water. The S curves for RAEX B27 are presented in Fig. 3.11. According to the curves,
cooling rates below 25°C/s leave some bainite in the microstructure. This limits the achievable level of hardness,
while toughness can be slightly better.
Boron steel can also be tempered after hardening. Tempering at low temperatures (150…200°C) for 1…2 hours
does not reduce hardness but increases toughness and deformability. Tempering within the temperature range
400…450°C gives markedly increased thoughness while somewhat reducing the hardness of steel (Figs. 3.12…
3.14). Tempering within the above-mentioned temperature range is needed for applications exposing the steel not
only to wearing stress but also to heavy impact stress or where the service temperature is low.
66
RAEX B27 S-curves RAEX B15 TEMPERING CURVE

N/mm2
°C Rm J
800 2,5 °C/s
1200 120
25 °C/s
700 Re
1000 110
800 100
600 F
240 °C/s P 90
600
500 B 80
400 70
M Hardness
400
HV10
300 60
300 480 180
430 200
HV10 KV 50
200 20
40
15
%
A5
100 10 30
1 10 100 1000 s
20
100 200 300 400 500 600
Tempering temperature °C
Fig. 3.11 RAEX B27. S curves Fig. 3.12 RAEX B15. Tempering curve
RAEX B24 TEMPERING CURVE RAEX B27 TEMPERING CURVE

N/mm2 N/mm2
J Rm
120 J
1600 1600 120
Rm
1400 110 1400 Re 110
1200 100 1200
Re 100
1000 90 1000 90
800 80 800 80
70 Hardness
Hardness 70
500 500
HV10
HV10
400 60 400 60
300 300
200 50 200 50
20 40 20 KV 40
15 15 A5
%
A5
10 10 30
30
KV
20 20
100 200 300 400 500 600 100 200 300 400 500 600
Tempering temperature °C Tempering temperature °C
Fig. 3.13 RAEX B24. Tempering curve Fig. 3.14 RAEX B27. Tempering curve
67
3.9 References
1. Sundqvist, H., Tribologian perusteet. Otakustantamo 838. Kyriiri Oy, Helsinki 1986, 300s.
Sundqvist, H., The Basics of Tribology. Otakustantamo 838. Kyriiri Oy, Helsinki 1986, p300.
2. Tekninen tiedotus 22/81, Materiaalinvalinta - Yleisohjeet, Metalliteollisuuden Kustannus Oy, 1981.

Technical bulletin 22/81, Selecting the material - General guidelines, Metalliteollisuuden Kustannus
Oy, 1981.
3. RAEX B -booriteräkset. Esite (LT BOORI 0999).

RAEX B -Boron steels from Rautaruukki. Brochure (LT BORON 0999).
4. Saarela, M., Rautaruukin karkenevat booriteräkset, Hitsaustekniikka 6/1990.

Saarela, M., Hardening boron steels from Rautaruukki, the Hitsaustekniikka journal 6/1990.
5. Åkerblom, L., Erittäin lujat rakenneteräkset ja kulutusteräkset, Hitsaustekniikka 2/1985.

Åkerblom, L., High strength structural steels and wearing steels, the Hitsaustekniikka journal 2/1985.
6. RIL 90-1981 (SFS 3200) Teräsrakenteiden suunnitteluohjeet.

Suomen rakennusinsinöörien liitto r.y. Helsinki 1981.
RIL 90-1981 (SFS 3200) Steel structures design instructions.
Association of Finnish Civil Engineers RIL. Helsinki 1981.
7. RIL 113.
8. Pilkey, W.D. Formulas for Stress and Structural Matrices. John Wiley & Sons.
9. RAEX AR. Karkaistu kulutusteräs. Esite (LT AR 0999).

RAEX AR. Gest Tough With Wear. Brochure (LT AR 0999).
10. RAEX AR. Lastuava työstö. Esite (LT AR LASTU 0999).

RAEX AR. The Machining. Brochure (LT AR LASTU 0999).
68
4 CORROSION
4.1 Definition
Corrosion refers to the deterioration of material as a result of chemical and electro-chemical reactions between the
material and the environment. Corrosion of steel starts when a corrosion cell has been formed and water and oxygen
are present. A corrosion cell is formed between two metal surfaces with different electrode potentials, between two
metals or between two phases. Water and oxygen are brought to the corrosion reaction from the environment.
4.2 Types of Corrosion

There are different types of corrosion. The classification here is based on reference /1/.
- Uniform corrosion
- In uniform or general corrosion the material corrodes almost uniformly all over the surface.
- Local corrosion
In local corrosion, a part of the structure corrodes at a considerably higher than average rate.
Local corrosion can be divided into five main categories:
- Pitting corrosion
Pitting corrosion occurs, when the corrosive effect is concentrated and thereby leads to pitting.
- Crevice corrosion
Crevice corrosion proceeds at locations covered by a corrosion product and other deposits of dirt or
trash. Crevice corrosion typically occurs in small cavities, gaps, recessions, etc. in the structure.
- Galvanic corrosion
In this type of corrosion, the corrosion cell consists of two different metals. In order to prevent galvanic
corrosion, a structure should only contain metals that are as close to each other as possible in the
galvanic electric series.
- Intergranular corrosion
Intergranular corrosion proceeds along the grain boundaries in metal.
- Selective corrosion or parting
Selective corrosion occurs, for example, when one element in an alloy dissolves faster than the
others.
- The combined effect of mechanical factors and corrosion
In metal structures, mechanical wearing as well as static or dynamic stresses often act in combination with
corrosion. The forms of such a combined effect can be categorized as follows:
- Stress corrosion
When a metal in a corrosive environment is exposed to static stress that results in fracture, it is a case
of stress corrosion.
- Corrosion fatigue
A failure of metal by the combined effect of corrosion and a varying state of stress represents corro-
sion fatigue.
- Erosion-corrosion or impingement attack
Solid impurities carried by a liquid flow or just the high velocity of the flow, combined with corrosion,
contribute to erosion.
- Cavitation corrosion
Cavities result from the breaking of gas bubbles formed in liquid. Erosion caused by the combined
effect of corrosion and the pressure of the gas bubble is referred to as cavitation corrosion.
- Fretting corrosion or chafing corrosion
Fretting corrosion occurs between two metals rubbing against each other under corrosive conditions.
4.3 Corrosion Environments
Corrosion environments are in most cases different natural watercourses, outdoors and special atmospheres. The
majority of corrosion phenomena take place in water solutions.
4.3.1 Classification of Environments according to Corrosivity
The classification of environments according to corrosivity is based on Standard ISO 9223. Standard ISO 9223 cat-
egorizes environments on the basis of wet time as well as sulphur dioxide and chloride contents. The number of wet
time classes is five, the number of sulphur dioxide and chloride classes is four each. On the basis of the above, five
corrosivity categories are distinguished.
Standard ISO 9224 states the corrosion rates of steel, zinc, copper and aluminium in the first five years. Methods for
the measurement of air-borne impurities are explained in Standard ISO 9225.
Standard EN ISO 12944-2 for anti-corrosive painting and EN ISO 14713 for hot galvanizing contain tables, based on
Standard EN 9223, of the corrosivity categories determined by the loads imposed by the atmosphere and through
immersion. The corrosivity category indicates the requirements to be placed on the protection of the steel.
The categories of atmospheres and immersion loads by corrosivity and the rates of corrosion for steel and zinc in the
first year are presented in Table 4.1.
Table 4.1 Categories of environment

Climate
Corrosivity Environment Rate of corrosion in the first year
category Guiding examples ISO 9223 and EN ISO 12944-2 EN ISO 14713
Carbon steel Zinc Zinc
µm/year µm/year µm/year
C1 Indoor spaces: ≤1,3 ≤0,1 ≤0,1
very low Dry spaces
C2 Indoor spaces: 1,3 - 25 0,1 - 0,7 0,1 - 0,7
low Occasional condensation
Outdoor air:
Inland rural
C3 Indoor spaces: 25 - 50 0,7 - 2,1 0,7 - 2
medium High moisture content,
not much impurities
Outdoor air:
Inland urban
Mildly saline
C4 Indoor spaces: 50 - 80 2,1 - 4,2 2-4
high Chemicals industry,
swimming pools, seaside docks
Outdoor air:
Inland industrial plants,
seaside urban areas
C5, (C5-I, C5-M) Outdoor air: 80 - 200 4,2 - 8,4 4-8
very high Very humid industrial atmosphere,
saline seaside atmosphere
Immersed and buried structures
Category of Environment
environment Guiding examples
Im1 Fresh water - - -
River constructions, water power plants
Im2 Sea water in temperate zones - - 10 - 20
Structures in harbour areas
Im3 Soil - - -
Buried tanks, steel piles,
steel pipes
4.4 Corrosion Protection

The most common surface treatments for steel include anti-corrosive paint coating, electric protection, hot-dip galva-
nizing, electrogalvanizing, spray galvanizing, chromium plating, cadmium plating, nickel plating, aluminium spraying,
rubberising and the coil coating of sheet steels.
4.4.1 Anti-corrosive Painting
4.4.1.1 Preparation Standards
Visual assessment of surface cleanliness
- ISO 8501-1 Preparation of steel substrates before application of paints and related products.
Specification for rust grades and preparation grades of uncoated steel substrates and of steel
substrates after overall removal of previous coatings.
- ISO 8501-2 Preparation grades of previously coated steel substrates after localized removal of previous
coatings.
The Standard includes photographs of locally cleaned surfaces.
Test methods for the assessment of substrate cleanliness
- ISO 8502-1...10 The set of standards specifies the proper test methods for the assessment of substrate
cleanleness.
Definition of the roughness of steel substrates
- EN ISO 8503-1 Part 1. Specifications and definitions for ISO surface profile comparators for the
assessment of abrasive blast-cleaned surfaces.
- EN ISO 8503-2 Part 2. Methods for the grading of surface profile of abrasive blast-cleaned steel.
Methods for surface preparation
- EN ISO 8504-1...3 This set of standards specifies the preparation methods, applications and the criteria for their
selection.
Blast-cleaning abrasives
- ISO 11124 Metallic blast-cleaning abrasives.
- ISO 11126 Non-metallic blast-cleaning abrasives.
4.4.1.2 Corrosion protection of steel structures by protective paint systems
The following standards for protective paint systems are internationally valid.
- EN ISO 12944-1 Paints and varnishes. Corrosion protection of steel structures by protective paint systems.
Part 1. General introduction.
The standard classifies protective paint systems by durability. It is to be noted that the durabil-
ity class does not imply any guarantee period but the expected serviceable life before repaint-
ing for maintence.
- Low (L) 2...5 years
- Moderate (M) 5...15 years
- High (H) > 15 years
- EN ISO 12944-2 Part 2. Classification of environments.
The standard specifies the corrosivity categories according to the type of atmosphere and
stress caused by immersion. This categorization is based on Standard ISO 9223.
See Table 4.1 for a summary of these categories.
- EN ISO 12944-3 Part 3. Design considerations.
71
- SFS-EN ISO 12944-4 Part 4. Types of surface and surface preparation

The standard also makes reference to surface preparation standards.
- SFS-EN ISO 12944-5 Part 5. Protective paint systems

The standard specifies the most common types of anti-corrosive paint and gives instruc-
tions for the selection of these for different environmental classes. Designations of paint
systems may differ in national standards. For example, a standard paint system may be
designated as follows:
EN ISO 12944-5/S1.01, in which S1.01 refers to Table A.1 in the standard.
EN ISO 12944-5/S2.09-AK/AY, in which AK is the type of priming paint and AY the type
of finishing paint. In Finland, it is also recommended that the designations be extended
to include the symbols for the type of paint, total coat thickness, number of paint layers,
substrate (Fe, Zn) and surface preparation:
SFS-EN ISO 12944-5/S1.01 (AK 100/2-Fe St2).
SFS-EN ISO 12944-5/S2.09-AK/AY (AKAY 160/2-Fe St2).
- SFS-EN ISO 12944-6 Part 6. Laboratory performance test methods.
- SFS-EN ISO 12944-7 Part 7. Execution and supervision of paint work.
- SFS-EN ISO 12944-8 Part 8. Development of specifications for new work and maintenance.
The standard gives detailed instructions for the development of specifications. The in-
structions and model examples are included as tables and appendices. In major projects,
separate specifications should be provided for the surface preparation work, the paint
systems, paint work and inspections.
Symbols used in paint system designations are explained in Table 4.2.
Table 4.2 Designation of paint systems. Symbols

EN ISO 12944-4 EN ISO 12944-5
Overall surface preparation Type of binding agent
Preparation Method
grade Priming and finishing paints
Sa1 Blast cleaning AK = Alkyd paints
Sa2 CR = Chlorinated rubber
Sa 21/2 AY = Acrylic
Sa3 PVC = Polyvinyl chloride
St2 Cleaning with manual tools EP = Epoxy
St3 or mechanically ESI = Ethyl silicate
Fl Flame cleaning PUR = Polyurethane
Be Acid pickling BIT = Bitumen
Partial surface preparation CTV = Coal tar vinyl
Preparation Method CTE = Coal tar epoxy
grade CTPUR = Coal tar polyurethane
P Sa2 Local blast cleaning
P Sa 21/2
P Sa3
P Ma Local mechanical cleaning
P St2 Local cleaning with manual or
P St3 machine tools
Shop Primers
Guidance on shop primers is given in Standard EN ISO 12944-5, Appendix B. Standard EN 10238 contains informa-
tion on shop primers when they are used for the painting of products in automated manufacturing lines.
Shop primer is applied immediately to the blast cleaned steel surface for temporary protection against corrosion
during fabrication, transport, installation and storage. The shop primer is then painted over with the finishing paint
system, which usually includes a new primer coat.
Usually, the shop primer is not part of the paint system. Therefore, it may have to be removed.
Products supplied with a shop primer coat can be welded.
72
4.4.2 Zinc Coating
Zinc coating methods include hot-dip zinc coating, zinc plating, spray galvanizing and zinc-rich paint. Hot dip zinc
coating or hot dip galvanizing is the most common and most important form of zinc coating. Table 4.3 is an overview
of the typical properties of different zinc coating methods.
Table 4.3 Comparison of zinc coatings /2/

Coating Zinc coating method
property Hot dip zinc coating Zinc plating Spray galvanizing Zinc-rich paint
Thickness Normally 50 to 100 µm. Up to Coat thickness may vary, Coat thickness may The thickness of
250 µm is possible with silicon being usually 5 to 15 µm. vary, being usually 80 one coat is about 10
containing steels. Zinc coating Thick coats cannot be to 150 µm. to 60 µm.
thickness on continuously produced economically. In practice, it seldom
coated sheet is 10 to 30 µm. exceeds 250 µm.
Adhesion of The coating is bonded to Mechanical adhesion Mechanical adhesion. Adhesion depends
zinc to steel the steel metallurgically. The equivalent to other electro- Good, provided that on the binding agent
bond consists of iron-zinc lytic platings. the shot blasting has and the carefulness
coats, often with a top coat of been carried out of shot blasting.
pure zinc. correctly.
Structure of Piece galvanizing: Entirely pure zinc. The coat is built up Ca. 90% of the
the coat Iron-zinc coat (70 to 100%) of drops of pure zinc. weight of the paint
plus pure zinc layer The coat is slightly coat is zinc.
(0 to 30%). oxidized and porous.
Sheet galvanizing:
Iron-zinc layer (1%) and
pure zinc layer (99%).
Evenness and Good. Some excessive zinc at Even, depending on the Depend on operator’s Good. Pores, if
continuity runnings. efficiency of bath. skills. The coating is any, are filled with
porous, but the pores reaction products.
are quickly filled with
zinc salts and after
that the coating is
compact
Pretreatment to Pieces: Degreasing and acid pickling Shotblasting, Shotblasting
clean the steel Acid pickling. baths. minimum Sa3. Sa2 - Sa3.
surface Sheet:
Cleaning in annealing furnace.
Standard EN ISO 1461 ISO 2081 EN ISO 22063
EN ISO 14713 prEN 12329
EN ISO 1461
Notes The maximum size of the Zinc pot dimensions set Size and form unlimit- Suitable for the
object to be dipped depends the limits. This is the ed. Economical for same applications
on the zinc tank. Reversing standard method for small objects that weigh as painting in
dipping can be used to handle components of simple shape a lot in proportion to general. Narrow
objects longer than 25 m. The and as such suitable for their surface area. places present
objects to be handled should galvanizing in a pot. The Uneconomical for problems.
be appropriately designed method is also suitable for network structures.
to allow successful hot sheet and wire. No heat is Hardly accessible
galvanizing. developed in the process. spots limit its use.
The best method
for producing thick
coatings.
The corrosion rate of zinc is considerably lower than that of steel. In different atmospheres, the corrosion rates of
zinc are as follows:
- in a rural atmosphere < 0.001 mm/a
- in an urban atmosphere 0.002 mm/a
- in an industrial atmosphere 0.002…0.010 mm/a
- in a marine atmosphere c. 0.002 mm/a.
In Finnish soil, the average corrosion rate of zinc is 0.005 mm/a.
73
The life expectancies for zinc coatings under different environmental conditions are presented in Table 4.4. The divi-
sion into corrosivity categories is based on Table 4.1.
Table 4.4 Life expectancies for zinc coatings in different categories for environment
40 Corrosivity categories:
C1 C2 C1 very low
C2 low
Coating life to first maintenance
C3
C3 medium
30 C4 high
C4
C5 very high
In years
Im2 sea water in temperate

C5 zones
20
10 Im2
0
50 100 150
Thickness of zink coating µm
Each environment is shown as a sector with the border lines representing the typical upper an lower limits for
coating life in that environment.
The specific effects of microenvironments have been ignored.
4.4.3 Electric Protection
The electric current generated by corrosion reactions can be cancelled out by building an external electrical circuit
for direct current led to run in the opposite direction to the corrosion reactions. This stops corrosion. The name of the
method refers to the fact that the structure to be protected actually functions as the cathode of an electric circuit.
Cathodic protection is used in structures embedded in a conductive medium, such as water and humid soil. Both the
structure and the surrounding medium must be conductive.
Cathodic protection is often supplementary to protection provided by coating.
A screen circuit as needed in the cathodic protection can be generated either by means of sacrificial anodes or a
source of direct current.
The use of a base metal, sacrificial anode, to protect a nobler metal against corrosion, is based on the utilization of
galvanic corrosion.
The most common metals used as sacrificial anodes are alloys of zinc, aluminium and magnesium.
When an external source of current is used, stainless steel, silicon or graphite make suitable anodes. The number
of anodes can be limited.
When using an external source of current, the risk of overprotection must be taken into account. Overprotection may
crack the paint coat on the structure to be protected. The technical means to prevent this exist.
74
4.5 Corrosion Allowance

A steel structure that is not to be protected against corrosion by painting, zinc plating or hot dip galvanizing can be
made to run its planned service life by adding to its material thicknesses a corrosion allowance determined according
to the service conditions.
4.5.1 Corrosion in Air
Atmospheric factors that have an effect on the corrosion rate include humidity, temperature, rain, wind, impurities
and the wettimes of metal. In addition to the atmospheric conditions, the wettime of the metal surface is influenced
by the position and location of the surface in the structure. Corrosion occurs when the relative humidity of the air
is 70…80%. Wettime is the term used to depicit the time during which corrosion reactions are possible. Generally,
the temperature of the air is then above 0°C and the relative humidity over 80%. As long as the impurities in the air
remain dry, they are usually harmless from the corrosion point of view, but as soon as such impurities dissolve, for
example, in condensate water they start accelerating corrosion. Dust and sediment which settle on the metal surface
accelerate and centralize atmospheric corrosion.
Atmospheres can be divided into the following main types according to their corrosivity:
- rural atmosphere
- urban atmosphere
- marine atmosphere
- industrial atmosphere
- special atmospheres, such as laboratory, warehouse, shopfloor and dwelling room atmospheres.
Table 4.5 presents information gathered from different sources about the corrosion rates of steel in different atmos-
pheres.
Table 4.5 The corrosion rate of steel in different atmospheres. Uniform corrosion
Atmosphere The corrosion rate of steel according to different information sources
/5, p. 475/ /2/ /1/
g/m2a mm/a mm/a mm/a
Rural 30 - 460 0,004 - 0,060 <0,020 0,005 - 0,010
Urban 230 - 540 0,030 - 0,070 <0,050 0,020 - 0,035
Industrial 310 - 1200 0,040 - 0,160 - -
Marine 460 - 1300 0,060 - 0,170 <0,050 0,020 - 0,035
75
4.5.2 Corrosion in Water
Corrosion in water is generally local or pitting corrosion. The corrosion rate depends on how quickly oxygen passes
from the water onto the surface of the metal. The movement of the water also has a marked impact on the corrosion
rate. The content of alloy elements in carbon steel has no major effect on the corrosion rate.
The corrosivity of natural waters varies according to their chemical composition. Natural waters are divided accord-
ing to their salt content and the quality of the salt as follows:
- soil waters with the following salt contents in terms of hardness:
- soft waters, total hardness <5 °dH
- hard waters, total hardness >5 °dH
- sea waters where the salt content, in terms of hardness, varies between 250…1700°dH.
1°dH of the German scale of hardness corresponds to a quantity of salt that is equivalent to 10 mg CaO/l.
The most aggressive natural waters are sea waters, then soft waters and the least aggressive are hard waters. The
corrosion of steel is most intensive in saline and acid waters, as chlorides and sulphates contribute to the conductiv-
ity of water.
Rolling scale on the steel surface may cause galvanic corrosion and pitting in sea water.
Especially in sea water, local corrosion occurs in the splash water zone, under sea vegetation or loose paint coats.
Corrosion rates from different sources are shown in Table 4.6.
Table 4.6 Corrosion rate in water /2, 3/

Quality of water Corrosion rate of steel
Uniform corrosion Local corrosion
/2/ /3/ /2/
mm/a mm/a mm/a
Soil water, stagnant water 0.050 - 0.150 0.060 - 0.070 -
Sea water, stagnant water 0.050 - 0.150 0.070 - 0.10 1.0 - 2.0
Table 4.7 depicits the corrosion allowances per 100 years of service proposed by Minna Leppänen in her master’s
thesis /1/. The rates do not take into account any stress caused by boat traffic, ice or sand. Fluctuations are caused
by the salt content, temperature and purity of the water as well as by the flow velocity. The proposal has been drawn
up on the basis of research carried out for the master’s thesis and of previous research.
Table 4.7 Corrosion allowance in water. Proposal /1/

Sea water level zone Corrosion allowance for steel
/1, p. 185/ proposal
mm/100a
Marine atmospheric zone 2 to 4
Splash water zone 1 to 2 metres above the upper water level 7 to 10
Water level zone of fluctuation between the upper and lower water level 3 to 4
Upper section of immersion zone 1.5 to 3 metres below the water level 4 to 6
Lower section of immersion zone 2
Bottom zone Mixed with soil 2 to 4
Internal corrosion on the metal parts of closed-circle boiler and white water systems can be prevented by keeping
oxygen out of the circulation. If any parts of such systems are to be made of synthetic materials these should be of
the non-oxygen-permeable type.
76
4.5.3 Underground Corrosion
The corrosivity of soil depends on its physical and chemical properties. The physical properties of soil include:
- porosity
- water content
- the specific resistivity of the soil.
The chemical properties of soil are:

- acidity
- salts dissolved in the soil
- sulphur
- contaminants, brought by waters
- the redox potential.
Corrosion rates further depend on soil temperature, ground water level and its fluctuation, differences in the oxygen
content, microbiological activity as well as electrical stray currents.
The corrosion allowance needed for a structure can be established by corrosion studies of the soil. Such studies are
often time-consuming and the results indicate only the situation at that time. Environmental conditions may change
during the lifetime of the structure.
Table 4.8 gives some corrosion allowances derived from different sources. The values in the table are based on
research carried out in different areas and should therefore be applied with caution.
Table 4.8 Corrosion Allowance in Soil

Reference Corrosion rate
Steel plate Steel pile
Uniform corrosion Pitting corrosion Uniform corrosion Pitting corrosion
mm/a mm/a mm/a mm/a
above gwl under gwl above gwl under gwl
/4/ 0,010-0,040 0,010-0,020 0,050-0,200 0,025-0,280 – –
/1, p. 182/ – – – – 0,010-0,035 0,040-0,180
gwl = groundwater level
4.5.4 Corrosion in Process Production Plant
The chemical industry and wood processing industy involve a number of more or less complex corrosion environ-
ments the aggressive level of which in respect of non-alloy steels must be determined on a case-by-case basis.
Reference /2/, for example, includes instructions for many types of stress conditions.
77
References
1. Minna Leppänen, Teräspaalujen korroosio. Diplomityö, Tampereen teknillinen korkeakoulu, Rakennus-

tekniikan osasto, 1992.
Minna Leppänen, Corrosion of Steel Pipes. Master’s thesis, The Tampere University of Technology,
Department of Building Engineering, 1992.
2. Korroosiokäsikirja. Toimittaja P. J. Tunturi. Suomen Korroosioyhdistys SKY, Hanko 1988.

The Corrosion Manual. Editor P. J. Tunturi. The Corrosion Society of Finland SKY, Hanko 1988.
3. Handbok i rostskyddsmålning. Korrosionsinstitutet, Bulletin nr. 85, 2.p. Stockholm 1984.

Manual of Corrosion Protection Paintning. Corrosion Institute, Bulletin nr. 85, 2.p. Stockholm 1984.
4. Corrosion of steel and metal-coated steel in Swedish soils - Results of field exposures.
10th Scandinavian Corrosion Congress, June 2-4, 1986, Stockholm.
Korrosionsinstitutet, Bulletin nr. 101, s. 305-312.
Corrosion Institute, Bulletin No. 101, pp 305-312.
5. Korrosion und Korrosionsschutz. Toimittanut Fritz Tödt. Walter de Gruyter & Co, Berlin 1955.
Corrosion and Corrosion Protection. Editor Fritz Tödt. Walter de Gruyter & Co, Berlin 1955.
78
5 THE USE OF WEATHERING STEELS

5.1 Chemical Composition and Mechanical Properties
The oldest and best known weathering steels are the COR-TEN steels developed by the U.S. Steel Corporation
and manufactured under licence in about 30 steelworks in different parts of the world. Rautaruukki Steel supplies
under licence the weathering steels COR-TEN A, COR-TEN AF, COR-TEN B and COR-TEN HIGH TEMP as well
as weathering steels to Standard EN 10155. In their mechanical properties, weathering steels are comparable with
general structural steels. Weathering steels are supplied with guaranteed mechanical properties in accordance with
Tables 5.1…5.3.
Table 5.1 Strength requirements for COR-TEN steels

Steel grade Thickness mm Lower yield point, Tensile strength, Elongation,
ReL minimum, N/mm2 Rm minimum, N/mm2 A5 minimum, %
COR-TEN A 2 - 13 345 485 20
COR-TEN AF 2 - 13 345 485 20
COR-TEN HIGH TEMP 2 - 13 345 485 18
COR-TEN B 2 - 60 345 485 18
COR-TEN AF has been derived from the steel grade COR-TEN A to have better suitability for cold forming. The
higher bendability of COR-TEN AF is due to its limited sulphur content and the shape control of non-metallic inclu-
sions. Another COR-TEN A steel derivative, COR-TEN HIGH-TEMP, is better adapted to high service temperatures.
Its enhanced resistance to scaling was achieved by a higher chromium content than that of COR-TEN A, and the
enhanced creep strength was achieved by vanadium alloying.
Table 5.2 Requirements on the strength of Standard EN 10155 weathering steels

Steel grade Upper yield point, Tensile strength Elongation minimum, %
ReH minimum, N/mm2 Rm, N/mm2
Nominal thickness Nominal thickness L0 = 80 mm �
L0 = 5,65 √S0
mm mm Nominal thickness mm Nominal thickness mm
≤16 >16 >40 >63 >80 <3 ≥3 >1,5 >2 >2,5 ≥3 >40 >63
≤40 ≤63 ≤80 ≤100 ≤100 ≤2 ≤2,5 <3 ≤40 ≤63 ≤100
S235J0W 235 225 215 215 215 360-510 340-470 17 18 19 24 23 22
S235J2W
S355J0WP 355 - - - - 510-680 490-630 14 15 16 20 - -
S355J2WP
S355J0W 355 345 335 325 315 510-680 490-630 14 15 16 20 19 18
S355J2G1W
S355J2G2W
S355K2G1W
S355K2G2W
Table 5.3 Requirements for the impact strength of Standard EN 10155 weathering steels
Steel grade Test temperature °C Impact energy J
S235J0W 0 27
S235J2W -20 27
S355J0WP 1) 0 27
S355J2WP 1) -20 27
S355J0W 0 27
S355J2G1W -20 27
S355J2G2W -20 27
S355K2G1W -20 40
S355K2G2W -20 40
1) Impact strength is verified only if specified in connection with the order.
79
The impact strength of Standard EN 10155 weathering steels is guaranteed to meet the standard specification (Table
5.3). By agreement in connection with the order, COR-TEN B steel is supplied to the same impact strength require-
ments as the general structural steel grades S355J0W and S355J2G3 (EN 10025). COR-TEN B plates of over 60
mm thickness are available by separate agreement. COR-TEN A, COR-TEN AF and COR-TEN HIGH TEMP are not
suplied with specified impact strength.
High weather resistance is achieved by adding to the basic composition of general structural steel small quantities
of copper, chromium and nickel. The weather resistance of COR-TEN A, COR-TEN AF, COR-TEN HIGH TEMP,
S355J0WP and S355J2WP steels is further improved through phosphorus alloying. Alloying with nickel is mainly
used to increase ductility.
The chemical compositions of COR-TEN steels and Standard EN 10155 weathering steels are presented in Table
5.4.
Table 5.4 The chemical compositions of the weathering steels made by Rautaruukki Steel
Steel grade C Si Mn P S Al Cr Cu Ni V
Max % % % Max % Max % % % % % %
COR-TEN A 0,12 0,25-0,75 0,20-0,50 0,07-0,150 0,03 0,02-0,06 0,50-1,25 0,25-0,55 0,65 -
COR-TEN AF 0,12 0,25-0,75 0,20-0,50 0,07-0,150 0,03 0,02-0,06 0,50-1,25 0,25-0,55 0,65 -
COR-TEN HIGH TEMP 0,12 0,25-0,75 0,20-0,50 0,07-0,150 0,03 0,02-0,06 0,75-1,25 0,25-0,55 0,40 0,02-
COR-TEN B 0,19 0,30-0,65 0,80-1,25 -0,035 0,03 0,02-0,06 0,40-0,65 0,25-0,40 0,40 0,02-0,10
S235J0W 0,13 0,0-0,40 0,20-0,60 -0,040 0,040 0,020-1) 0,40-0,80 0,25-0,55 0,65
S235J0W 0,035 0,020-1)
S355J0WP 0,12 0,0-0,75 0,0-1,0 0,06-0,15 0,040 0,020-1) 0,30-1,25 0,25-0,55 0,65
S355J2WP 0,035 0,020-1)
S355J0W 0,16 0,0-0,50 0,50-1,50 0,040 0,040 0,020-1) 0,40-0,80 0,25-0,55 0,65
S355J2G1W 0,035 0,035 0,020-1)
S355J2G2W 0,035 0,035 0,020-1)
S355K2G1W 0,035 0,035 0,020-1)
S355K2G2W 0,035 0,035 0,020-1)
1) The steel should contain at least one of the following alloy elements: Al total ≥0.020%, Nb = 0.015...0.06%, V = 0.02...0.1%,
Ti = 0.02...0.10%. Where these alloying elements are used simultaneously, the minimum specification should be met.
2) Mo ≤0.30% and Zr ≤0.15%.
5.2 Protective Patina Layer

Under the impact of changing weather, the surface of weathering steel develops a solid oxide layer (patina) that
prevents the further oxidization of the steel surface (Fig. 5.1).
WEATHERING STEEL ORDINARY STEEL
FeOOH Fracture FeOOH
Amorphous layer Fe3O4

FeOOH
(Cu, Cr, P)
Steel Steel
Fig. 5.1 The development of patina
80
Under normal weather conditions, a protective patina develops in 18...36 months. The process resulting in patina
starts with the formation of red-brown rust on the surface of steel and the flaking off of oxide scale. As the process
continues, the colour shade of the steel surface turns darker and scaling stops. The final colour depends on local
conditions, being the darker the higher the content of impurities, especially sulphur, in the air. According to atmos-
pheric corrosion tests carried out in Finland, the difference between the corrosion rates of weathering and ordinary
structural steels is clearly to be seen only after 10 years of exposure because the long winter period retards the
development of patina. The superiority of the weathering steel COR-TEN A to COR-TEN B is obvious in a sulphur-
containing industrial atmosphere, while exposures in rural atmosphere show a marked difference in the corrosion of
weathering steels compared with ordinary structural steels (Fig. 5.2).
20
Corrosion rate µm / a
18
Industrial atmosphere
16
Rural atmosphere
14
12
10
0
S355 COR-TEN A COR-TEN B
Fig. 5.2 Corrosion of weathering COR-TEN steels and ordinary structural steel S355 during 10-year
exposure to rural and industrial atmosphere
For a protective patina to develop, the steel surface has to be exposed to variations in weather, i.e. that it gets
alternatingly wet and dry. If the surface remains wet without dry spells, weathering steel rusts almost as quickly as
general structural steel. Rusting proceeds quickly also at seaside locations and in chloride-containing air.
In order to achieve a uniform patina, the steel surface must be made free of mill scale (sandblasting), oil stains,
plasters, paint marks, etc. Any markings should always be made with chalk or water soluble colours. The use of
acidiferous detergents should be avoided. Mill scale as such does not impair the weather resistance, so it can be
left on surfaces not directly exposed to the impacts of weather and not required with uniform colouring, such as the
undersides of beams or surfaces shadowed by eaves. Local differences in temperature and humidity may also cause
differences in colour shades.
81
5.3 The Most Usual Applications

Phosphorus alloyed weathering steels are best in terms of resistance to atmospheric corrosion. On the other hand,
phosphorus alloying reduces the impact strength of steel. Therefore, the use of such steels (of less than 12 mm
thickness) should be limited to light-gauge steel structures under no risk of brittle fracture. For structures exposed to
the risk of brittle fracture caused by the state of stress or low service temperature, the use of non-phosphorous steel
grades with higher impact strength is recommended.
Weathering steels are used in many outdoor structures such as tanks, bearing columns, pipeline bridges, ski-jump
towers, noise barriers, etc. In bridges, COR-TEN B steel is used as a normalized steel grade, COR-TEN B-D, so as
to meet the impact strength requirements for class D steel.
5.4 Weathering Steel under Flue Gas Conditions

The use of weathering steel in atmospheres containing flue gases is based on tests carried out with COR-TEN steels
in the United States in the 1950’s. COR-TEN steels proved particularly durable in rotating preheaters where the heat
accumulator elements remain in the air to be preheated for the time of each half cycle.
From preheaters, the use of COR-TEN steels expanded to boilers and combustion gas channels. The use of COR-
TEN steels for chimneys started in the 1960’s in Sweden with the construction of heavy fuel oil heated district heating
plants.
5.5 Determination of the Dew Point of Sulphuric Acid in Flue Uptakes

In the combustion reaction, the sulphur in the fuel is transformed mainly into sulphur dioxide (SO2) part of which is
further oxidized into sulphur trioxide (SO3).
Sulphur trioxide reacts with the water vapour in the flue gas to form sulphuric acid (H2 SO4). The sulphuric acid con-
denses on surfaces that are below a certain temperature. The condensation temperature is called the acid dew point.
Above this temperature, sulphuric acid appears in gaseous form.
The dew point temperature increases in proportion to the SO3 content and water vapour content of the flue gases.
The strongest impact is produced by the SO3 content, which increases in proportion to the sulphur content of the
fuel, the excess amount of air and the burner load.
Table 5.5 presents the dew points of the flue gases from the burning of some fuels.
Table 5.5 Flue gas dew points (H. Ranki: Technical manual, Part 5, p706).
Fuel Dew point °C Acid dew point °C
Sulphur-free heating oil 40 60
Heating oil containing 1.5% sulphur 40 145
Heating oil containing 6% sulphur 40 160
Wood 50 50
Hard coal 40 120
Coke 15 100
Peat 50 100
There are instruments that measure the dew point with an accuracy of one degree. For a less accurate evaluation
of the dew point, the graph in Fig. 5.3 can be used. For the evaluation, the sulphur content of the fuel, the excess
amount of air and the water vapour content in the fuel gas need to be known.
82
200
Excess of oil combustion air %
18
150
170 17
Water vapour content of flue gases, vol.-% H2O

100 16
165
Hard coal lpd 80 15
SO2 content on flue gases, ppm vol. SO3
Idp calculated dew point temperature °C

60 160 14
50
Hard coal upd 40 13
155
30 12
150
20 11
40
25 15
140 10
20 10
15 8 9
6 130
10
4 8
3
5 120
2 7
1 110
6
0,5
0,5 1 2 3 4 5 0,3 100
5
Sulphur content of fuel mass-% S
Fig. 5.3 Diagram for the evaluation of the dew point temperature
5.6 Dew Point Corrosion

Water condenses on steel surfaces when the temperature of flue gases is below 60°C. The condensed water has a
strong corrosive effect both on general structural steels and weathering steels. At temperatures over 60°C, corrosion
caused by sulphuric acid begins, achieving the maximum corrosion rate at about 100°C when the concentration of
the sulphuric acid condensed on the steel surfaces is about 70%. Under such conditions, acid proof steel is the most
durable steel material.
The concentration of the sulphuric acid condensate increases with the sulphur content of the fuel and thereby also
the dew point of sulphuric acid. The dew point of pure sulphuric acid is 160°C (Fig. 5.4).
83
Temperature °C
160
120
SO 4
f H2
nt o
100 poi
dew
H2SO4
80 se d by
sio n cau
um corro
maxim
60
Dew point of H2O
40
20
corrosion rate 0,1 1 10 100
H2SO4 ppm
Fig. 5.4 The corrosion rate of steel as a function of the sulphur content and temperature of flue gas.
According to several reports and long-term field exposures, in the temperature range 100...160°C, COR-TEN steels
withstand flue gas conditions better than general structural steels and at about 110°C even better than stainless
steels. A precondition for good resistance to corrosion is, however, that the steel surface is not wet by sulphuric acid
all the time but only occasionally.
The patina-developing mechanisms of weathering steels are not exactly known. However, the resistance to sulphur-
induced corrosion probably has to do with copper. On patina-coated steel surfaces the copper content is high.
5.7 Corrosion above the Dew Point

Up to the scaling temperatures (ca. 500°C), corrosion above the dew point of sulphuric acid proceeds at a rather
slow rate both in the case of general structural steels and weathering steels.
By tests carried out at the temperatures 540°C and 650°C, the resistance to scaling of COR-TEN A steel has been
found better than that of general structural steels (Fig. 5.5). The enhanced resistance to scaling is based on a high
silicon content and the chromium alloying of the steel. According to study reports, the resistance to scaling is good
at temperatures up to 650°C, but declines under cyclical conditions, the recommended peak temperature for such
applications being 540°C.
84
0,25
0,20 CARBON STEEL 650 °C

Oxidated layer mm
0,15
COR-TEN A 650 °C
0,10
0,05
CARBON STEEL 540 °C
COR-TEN A 540 °C
200 400 600 800 1000

Soaking time h
Fig. 5.5 The rate of scaling of different steels at the temperatures 540°C and 650°C.
When using phosphorus alloyed weathering steels such as COR-TEN HIGH TEMP at temperatures over 450°C the
temper brittleness possibly caused by the phosphorus should be taken into account. Therefore, these steels are not
recommended for use in bearing structures or under high thermal stresses at temperatures higher than 450°C.
5.8 Other Corrosion Phenomena

If combustion gases other than sulphur dioxide and sulphur trioxide are produced by burning fuel, the resulting cor-
rosion phenomena mostly deviate from those discussed above and should be evaluated on a case-by-case basis.
Flue gases that contain fluorine and dihydrogen sulphide are particularly corrosive so in those cases weathering
steels do not help much. Instead, they have been found to retard to some degree corrosion caused by condensating
hydrochloric acid.
85
5.9 Structural Considerations

Flue designs are based on the condition that, as long as the fuel is burning, the temperature of the flue walls coming
into contact with the flue gases remains above the dew point of sulphuric acid. Then wetting is occasional. For this
condition to be met, the flues must be insulated and, if necessary, the flue gas flow rates increased. The importance
of a proper sealing of the inner flue pipe is accentuated in particular. If weld joints are left with holes, sulphurous flue
gas can penetrate through them into the fills, whereby the fills and the inside of the outer flue stack become wet. In
such cases, corrosion damage can be expected rather soon.
Flue gas temperatures are reduced by heat recovery systems, nowadays increasingly common, and by atmospheric
air mixing with the flue gases in the upper flue section. The atmospheric air flow into chimneys is prevented if the flue
gas flow rate is 1.5 times higher than the wind velocity. The intake of air can also be prevented by mounting a flap on
the chimney top, this, however, being an uncommon solution at least in Finland. The corrosion of the chimney muz-
zle is most reliably prevented by providing the upper flue section with a lining of acid proof steel. An acid proof lining
may also be needed in the stack at possible cold bridge locations in bracings.
When using weathering steels, flue gases can be permitted to cool occasionally to temperatures between
100...160°C, i.e. below the dew point. However, also in the case of weathering steels, the cooling of flue gases to the
condensating temperatures of water vapour results in rapid corrosion.
When using weathering steels for flue jackets, the factors contributing to the development of patina in the outdoor
atmosphere should be taken into consideration. If the steel surface is painted, the paint coat will hold longer on
weathering steel than on ordinary structural steel.
5.10 Design, Manufacture and Maintenance

The special properties of weathering steels should be taken into account already in the design of structures. The
factors to be borne in mind include the conditions for the development of a compact patina, the staining of the lower
parts of the structure at the early stage of rusting, corrosion allowances, the selection of filler materials and the paint
finish, if any.
Weathering steel is suitable for constructional purposes just like ordinary structural steel. The enhanced resistance
to weather is achieved by means of design so as to allow the development of protective oxide layers and to avoid
water collecting pockets in the structure as well as a constant wetting of the surfaces due to condensation.
When using hollow sections, care should be taken that the ends are properly sealed or that adequate ventilation is
provided for any moisture to get out. Horizontal surfaces should be avoided as well, because moisture-preserving
layers of dirt may be deposited on these.
While the patina is developing, water running from the steel surfaces may stain lower-located parts of the structure
brown. Easily-stained building materials include concrete, stone, wood and galvanized steel. Aluminium, stainless
steel, ceramic tiles, glazed stone and common glass are materials that are easy to wash and therefore suitable for
use in association with weathering steel.
The material of fixing screws must be considered separately in each case. The choice of screw material depends on
the need to open the screw connections and whether the fasteners may be left visible.
For fixing screws, ordinary carbon steel screws are recommended. Mounting hardware of weathering steel is also
available. Galvanized screws lose their zinc coat rather soon owing to galvanic corrosion. Screws made of stainless
steel or acid-proof steel are suitable for the connections of weathering steel parts. It should be noted, however, that
such screws fail to undergo surface passivation in the same way as weathering steels. Under suitable conditions,
rivets of aluminium in connections with weathering steel may snap under corrosion. Nobler metals than steel, such
as copper, are generally suitable for connection to weathering steels.
86
Where weathering steels are to be used unprotected in bearing structures such as bridges, it is recommended that a
corrosion allowance as per Table 5.6 be added to the design thickness.
Table 5.6 Recommended corrosion allowances for weathering steel (in outdoor applications)
Type of environment Corrosion allowance (mm) to be added to one plate side for each 10-year period of use
The first 10-year period Subsequent 10-year periods
Rural atmosphere 0,1 0,05
Urban atmosphere 0,2 1) 0,05 1)
Industrial atmosphere 0,2 2) 0,1 2)
1) The main contaminant in the air is SO2.
2) In addition to SO2, chlorine in the air. Also areas in the immediate vicinity of the sea.
Standard SFS 4395 for the design of steel chimneys specifies the corrosion allowances under different corrosion
stresses (Table 5.7). The same table lists the corresponding corrosion allowances in accordance with Eurocode 3,
Part 3.2 (under preparation).
Table 5.7 The corrosion allowances on the inside surfaces of steel chimneys under different flue gas
conditions (SFS 4395/Eurocode 3, Part 3.2, third Draft).
Corrosivity Corrosion allowance mm
Service life 10 years Service life 20 years
Mild (low-sulphurous oil, temperature above acid dew point) 1.5/2.0 3.0/3.0
Average (heavy fuel oil, temperature above the acid dew point 3.0/3.0 6.0/5.0
excl. stoppages) 8.0/4.0 12.0/6.0
Heavy (heavy fuel oil, temperature occasionally below the acid
dew point )
By order of the National Road Administration, the corrosion resistance of weathering steels has been studied at the
VTT (the Technical Research Centre of Finland) laboratory of metallurgy since 1981 /2/. For the purposes of the
study, a set of test plates of COR-TEN B steel were installed in Finnish bridges. The bearing structures of those
bridges are also of weathering steel.
Table 5.8 presents the 10-year research results. The table lists the average corrosion depths and the average and
maximum depths of pitting corrosion.
Table 5.8 The corrosion depths of test plates of COR-TEN B steel under bridge conditions /2/
Test place Corrosion depth µm/10-year test period
Average depth of Pitting corrosion
corrosion Front surface Back surface
Average Maximum Average Maximum
Mikkolantie Bridge
- girder outside 76 160 180 180 230
- girder inside 60 160 180 140 170
Itäkeskus Bridge
- girder outside 81 140 170 135 180
- girder inside 87 145 170 115 150
Kuusankoski Bridge 56 90 120 100 130
Inkeroinen Bridge 53 100 120 95 110
Olkinen Bridge 33 100 120 85 100
Tuomala Bridge 34 105 120 105 130
Tornionjoki Bridge
- girder inside 53 100 130 110 130
Vårdö Bridge
- girder outside 38 140 150 130 150
- girder inside 57 160 190 160 200
87
5.11 Welding
In terms of weldability, weathering steels are considered equivalent to general structural steels of the same strength
category. They are weldable by all common welding methods both mutually and to other structural steels. Prior to
welding, the steel surface at the groove must be cleaned over a width of about 10...20 mm to remove any oxide lay-
ers deposited on it.
The corrosion resistance of welded joints of weathering steel can be ensured by using weather resistant basic filler
materials corresponding to the composition of the base metal. Copper and nickel alloyed wires and electrodes are
recommended. In multi-run welding, weather-resistant filler metal is only needed for the final run and possibly for
the root run.
In single-run welding, a moderate weather resistance is achieved also with a non-alloyed filler metal if the base metal
and filler metal mix sufficiently. In single-run butt welds, a sufficient degree of mixing is achieved with material thick-
nesses up to ca. 4 mm and in fillet welds, with effective throat thickness up to ca. 4 mm. However, the colour shades
of non-alloyed weld metal and the base metal are often slightly different.
If the welded joints are not to be exposed to atmospheric stress, the welding can be carried out with the basic filler
metals of correspondig general structural steels.
In addition to the weather resistance, the following aspects should be considered in the selection of filler metal:
- the filler metal must be of sufficient toughness to produce a weld metal with the specified impact strength
- the yield strength of the weld metal should be at least as high as that of the base metal also after heat
treatment
- the filler material used for the final and root runs should have sufficient deformation resistance.
Even substantial material thicknesses of S235J0W and S235J2W steels can be welded without preheating.
When using low-hydrogen filler metals, preheating is usually not needed for the welding of COR-TEN steels and
other grade 355 weathering steels of minor thickness. For material thicknesses over ca. 20...30 mm, preheating to
+100...200°C is recommended. In multi-run welding, the working temperature must not exceed +200°C when starting
a new run.
5.12 Painting
In structures that are constantly wet, such as underwater structures embedded in soil, weathering steels should be
painted for protection against corrosion in the same way as ordinary structural steels.
Weathering steels are often painted just for a good external appearance. Even then, the use of weathering steel is
economically advisable because, from experience, a paint life twice as long as with common carbon steel can be
expected. The high paint durability also justifies the use of weathering steels on surfaces exposed to knocks that
may damage the paint coat, for example, in boats and freight containers.
88
5.13 Conditions of Successful Application

The integral use of weathering steels calls for the following aspects to be taken into account:
- The development of a compact oxide layer to improve the resistance of the structure to atmospheric corrosion
requires that the steel surface is alternatingly wet and dry.
- Corrosive salts (chlorides and sulphites) prevent the formation of a compact oxide layer on steel surfaces. There-
fore, the use of weathering steels gives no substantial advantage in structures exposed to sea water or de-icing
salt splashes.
- In chimneys and smoke flues the temperature of flue gases should occasionally rise above the acid dew point
(ca. 160°C) to allow the weathering steel surfaces to dry.
- Water retaining surfaces and pockets should be avoided in the design. Concrete, stone, wood or galvanized steel
should not be used in the structures below, because rust stains are hard to remove from such surfaces. Materi-
als suitable for the structures below include aluminium, stainless steel, ceramic tiles, glazed stone and ordinary
glass.
- Before welding, a 10...20 mm wide zone at the groove should be made clean of any oxide layers deposited on
the surface of weathering steel. Differences in the colour shades are avoided by using weather resistant basic
filler metals with the same composition as the base metal. In single-run welding, a moderate weather resistance
of the weld metal is achieved even with non-alloyed filler metal provided that the base metal and filler metal mix
sufficiently. In butt welds, a sufficient degree of mixing is achieved with material thickness up to ca. 4 mm and in
fillet welds with effective throat thickness up to ca. 4 mm.
5.14 References
1. Gullman, J. et al. Rosttröga stål i byggnader - skadefall och motåtgärder. Korrosionsinstitutet.
(KI Bulletin 94). Stockholm 1985. 63 s.
Gullman, J. et al. Weathering steel in buildings - damage cases and preventive measures.
Corrosion Research Centre (KI Bulletin 94). Stockholm 1985. 63p.
2. Kaunisto, Tuija. Säänkestävien terästen käyttö sillanrakennuksessa. VTT Tiedote. Metallurgian

laboratorio. Espoo 1993. 46 s.
Kaunisto, Tuija. The use of weathering steels in bridge construction. VTT Bulletin. The Laboratory of
Metallurgy. Espoo 1993. 46p.
89
6 STRESS CORROSION
Stress corrosion may cause crack type flaws in steel and these may lead to fractures, leaks and, in the worst case,
to the explosion of the pipeline or tank under pressure.
Reference /1/ lists the following chemical stresses as causes of stress corrosion in non-alloyed steels:
Ammonia, ammonium nitrate, barium nitrate, ethylic amine, ferrous chloride, silver nitrate, potassium hydroxide,
potassium carbonate, calcium nitrate, hydrochloric acid, cresol, chromic acid, lithium, magnesium chloride, mo-
noethanolamine, sodium aluminate, sodium fluoride, sodium hydroxide, sodium nitrate, nickel nitrate, sulphuric acid,
sulphate alkaline cooking liquor, strontium nitrate, cyanide, dicyanide, nitric acid.
The NACE list further mentions hydrocarbonate, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide and hydrogen.
The stress corrosive effect of the above-mentioned chemicals is subject to some other factors such as concentration,
temperature and the steel’s state of stress. Generally, the propagation of stress corrosion is subject to a sufficiently
high tensile stress which, in turn, may result from external loads or residual stresses caused by working or welding.
Stress corrosion is mainly a problem of high strength steels and extra high strength steels.
A stress corrosion crack is a more or less branched crack propagating either along grain boundaries or through
grains. There are no visible signs of corrosion on the surface of steel nor corrosion products. In practice, stress cor-
rosion cracks in most cases are concentrated in the vicinity of welds.
6.1 Stress Corrosion Caused by Ammonia

In an ammonia environment, stress corrosion cracks may occur in carbon steel under certain conditions. A fracture is
initiated when an intensified state of tensile stress breaks the passive layer and corrosion starts to propagate along
the so-called anode path. The state of stress may change when the level of filling and the consumption of ammonia
in the tank and pipe system vary under the impact of either pressure loads or the variation of thermal stresses due
to linear expansion.
Under normal atmospheric pressure, the vaporization of ammonia is intensive; in fact, the inside surface of the am-
monia tank may in the filling stage cool down by tens of degrees in just a few seconds. If an ammonia tank is filled
without counter pressure, for example, with supercharged nitrogen, a tensile stress concentration as required to
break the passive layer can result from thermal stresses. Ammonia becomes liquified under normal atmospheric
pressure at about -33°C, at which temperature stress corrosion rarely occurs. Increased temperature contributes to
the risk of stress corrosion, although not substantially until above -20°C.
Stress corrosion is generally considered to be subject to a certain speed of loading, below which on-going passiva-
tion may heal cracks or even prevent them /2/. In some known cases, stress corrosion has been brought about under
long-term static load involving a high state of stress /3/.
In ammonia tanks, stress corrosion has been found to occur most frequently at locations where tensile residual
stresses are at their highest, i.e. in non-annealed welded joints or in cold formed, not heat treated tank ends. In
principle, geometric fatigue stress concentrations are as susceptible as areas under residual tensile stresses, even
if they usually also occur in welded joint areas and heat affected zones just like the tensile residual stress concentra-
tions.
In practice, stress corrosion has been observed in almost all those steel grades that can be used in facilities for the
transport and storage of ammonia. However, the risk of stress corrosion is smaller the lower the strength of the steel.
According to the TTK direction P2-93 of 1993, the lower yield point of the steel used as material for ammonia tanks
should be below 350 N/mm2, while steels of over 420 N/mm2 strength are not at all suitable for the construction of
ammonia tanks. A low strength of the steel does not entirely eliminate the risk of stress corrosion, but with mild steel
it takes harder conditions for stress corrosion to proceed.
90
Lösung im Riß
2H+ + 2 e- H2 oder
O2 + 2H2 O + 4 e- 4OH-
A
Sp RK-auslösendes
Schutzschicht M Anion
σ σ
e-
TK Sp RK Metall ·M· IK Sp RK
σ σ σ σ
Fig. 6.1 An anodic soluble lost pattern of stress corrosion /6/.
Lunde et al /4/ have concluded on the basis of their experiments that the residual stresses in a weld determine its
susceptibility to stress corrosion in liquid ammonia, while variations in the microstructure between the weld, HAZ and
base metal are less significant. Therefore, factors such as joint configuration, welding method, welding order and
the strength of the filler metal also contribute to the resistance of an ammonia tank to stress corrosion. The most
important requirement for the structure of a stress corrosion resistant ammonia tank is that stress concentrations are
avoided by structural means and residual stresses are minimized by means of a proper welding method and welding
order. In the case of small tanks, stress relieving annealing is an efficient way to reduce the risk. The emptying and
filling of the ammonia tank are the most likely situations to damage the passive layer, so the service conditions of
the tank are quite critical.
Lunde et al have further established that MnS inclusions contribute to the initiation of stress corrosion. While the
mechanism is not exactly known, low sulphur contents and the shape control of non-metallic inclusions in the base
metal (TN treatment) are considered advantages from the stress corrosion resistance point of view /4/.
6.1.1 Effect of Oxygen on Stress Corrosion in Ammonia
Pure ammonia does not cause stress corrosion. However, it only takes a small amount of air mixed in the ammonia
to activate the reaction. Different studies have established that the critical oxygen content is 0.01 ppm....0.05 ppm
depending on the state of stress and the strength of the steel. Up to ca. 1 ppm, an increase in the oxygen content
accelerates the reaction and when the contents rise further, the stress corrosion slows down being entirely prevented
at the level of 920 ppm /5/. Study results in line with these have been presented elsewhere and the phenomenon is
explained by the ability of a high oxygen content to passivate cracks in their initial stage. The impact of the oxygen
content further depends on other impurities such as water but also on the type of steel. The higher the strength of the
steel, the lower is the oxygen content needed to cause stress corrosion.
91
6.1.2 Effect of Nitrogen on Stress Corrosion in Ammonia
There are different opinions on the effect of nitrogen on stress corrosion in ammonia. Nitrogen alone may in high
concentrations cause stress corrosion in ammonia not containing methane or water /7/. In some experiments, how-
ever, nitrogen has been found to boost the impact of oxygen on the development of stress corrosion, even if nitrogen,
according to Lyle, functions rather as an inhibitor or its impact is very weak /7/.
6.1.3 Effect of Water Content on Stress Corrosion in Ammonia
The general opinion is that 0.2% water added to ammonia prevents stress corrosion in liquid ammonia. In spite of
the water inhibition, stress corrosion may occur in the upper section of the ammonia tank where the wall comes
into contact with gaseous ammonia. This has been explained as follows: under normal atmospheric conditions, the
variation in temperature causes in the water condensed on the inside of the tank wall a marked increase in oxygen
content in places and a lower water content than in the liquid thus increasing the possibility of stress corrosion. It
has been proposed as a practical solution that liquid ammonia should be stored so cold that the upper tank section
remains free of condensate /8/.
Poulson and Arup /9/ made the observation that when water inhibited ammonia is replaced by water-free ammonia,
cracking will follow immediately without an incubation phase. Therefore, cyclic exposure to non-inhibited ammonia
may result in cracking.
6.1.4 Selection of the Steel Grade for an Ammonia Tank
An ammonia tank may either be a non-pressurized cold container or a pressure vessel. As a pressure vessel, its
construction materials are subject to all the current regulations concerning pressure vessel materials. Anyway, it is
mostly advisable to select a low strength steel with a sufficient impact strength to withstand, for example, the cold
shock involved in the filling situation.
Given low material thickness and sufficient impact strength, EN 10028-2 standard steels P235GH and P265GH can
be used for pressure vessels. Greater material thicknesses justify the use of fine-grained pressure vessel steels, for
example, P275NL1 or P275NL2 in accordance with Standard EN 10028-3. A requirement for the lower yield point,
ReL, of the plates delivered to be below 350 N/mm2 must be presented in connection with the order.
Among the RAEX pressure vessel steels, those of the series 26 and 30 are suitable for ammonia tanks. The RAEX
306 P ARCTIC/350 steel is specially adapted for ammonia pressure vessels. The manufacturing process of this steel
includes the shape control of non-metallic inclusions so as to reduce its sulphur content and to give the non-metallic
inclusions a more favourable shape from the stress corrosion point of view. The maximum strength of this steel is
ensured in connection with its testing so as to have the lower yield point at about 350 N/mm2.
In accordance with the TTK instruction, stress relieving is not needed for pressure vessels for ammonia if the yield
point of the steel is below 300 N/mm2. P235GH is the only steel grade for pressure purposes with which the above
condition is most likely to be met, but the above-mentioned strength limit must still be specified in the order. If neces-
sary, higher requirements may also be made in respect of the impact strength of P235GH steel, for example, 27J/-
20°C. The same natural laws that apply to the pressurized body of an ammonia tank concern pipe manifolds and
flanges. Therefore, the selection of the steel material for such components requires proper consideration.
The selection of welding methods and filler metals as well as the planning of welding orders for ammonia tanks is
a specific problem area. The strength of filler materials, even non-alloyed, is in practice always markedly over 350
N/mm2. On the other hand, the impact strength of low-strength filler metals may be inadequate, and the selection of
filler metal is further complicated by the fact that nickel-alloyed filler metals have been found to increase the risk of
stress corrosion. The TTK instruction recommends that finishing runs to be in contact with ammonia be made with
filler metal of the lowest possible strength, e.g. OK 53.18. Build-up runs should be made with filler metal of greater
toughness yet of higher strength, e.g. OK 48.00 or FILARC 56S. From experience, high strength/toughness require-
ments on the welded joints of portable ammonia tanks, for example, are more easily met with FILARC 56S.
92
6.1.5 Means of Increasing the Resistance to Stress Corrosion
For improved resistance to stress corrosion, stress relieving is recommended for the complete structure although in
some known cases, fractures have occured even in a stress relieved structure. In such a case, of course, it can be
doubted that the heat treatment has failed in some respect. In experiments carried out under laboratory conditions
with cathodic protection against corrosion aluminium has been found to function as a sacrificial anode in oxygen
containing liquid ammonia /10/.
The stress corrosion resistance of the welded joints of an ammonia tank can be enhanced by means of shot peening
or hammering which develop a state of compression residual stress on the surface of the weld. Before shot peening,
the welds must be ground level. According to test reports on the impacts of shot peening this treatment retards the
development of stress corrosion, but does not necessarily prevent it over long service periods /11/.
6.2 Caustic Brittleness

Stress corrosion caused by lye is also called caustic brittleness. The phenomenon is usually connected with high-
strength steels (yield strength over 350 N/mm2), over 5% alkaline solutions and 200... 250°C temperatures. Depend-
ing on the conditions, stress corrosion may also occur at lower temperatures, see Fig. 6.2. According to reference
/12/, stress corrosion conditions for low-alloy steels prevail at a temperature of 95...125°C and with 20...40% alkaline
concentration. As far as the state of stress is concerned, the same rules apply to the prevention of stress corrosion
in lye as in ammonia, i.e. limited strength of the steel to avoid high tensile stress concentrations, and an appropriate
design of the structure. Stress relieving or peening have a favourable effect on the state of residual stress in the
welded joint area.
Inconel Boiling curve

400
Nickel
Monel
350
Temperature °C
300
18/8 CrNi steel 18/8/2-CrNiMb steel
250
200
150
100
Carbon steel
50 Solution point
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
NaOH content %
Fig. 6.2 Isocorrosion diagram of the occurence zones of stress corrosion at different temperatures /13/.
93
6.3 References
1. Korroosiokäsikirja. Suomen korroosioyhdistyksen julkaisuja n:o 6 Hanko 1988.
Handbook on Corrosion. Finnish Corrosion Society publication No. 6 Hanko 1988.
2. Riipinen Marja-Maija: Jännityskorroosio ammoniakkisäiliössä

Oulun yliopisto, Konetekniikan osasto, Materiaalitekniikan laboratorio 1988.
Riipinen Marja-Maija: Stress corrosion in ammonia tanks
The University of Oulu, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Laboratory of Material Engineering 1988.
3. Gayk, W., Cracking in Weldments of Fine-grained Steels for Liquid Ammonia Storage and Transport.
Corrosion , vol 37, No3, March 1981.
4. Lunde, L., Nyborg, R., Final report, Kjeller ammonia SCC Project II
KASP II-60 Febr. 10. 1988.
5. Wilde, B.E., Stress corrosion cracking of ASTM A 517 F steel in liquid ammonia: environmental factors,
Corrosion 37 (1981) 3 pp 131-141.
6. Hickling, J., Dehnungsinduzierte Risskorrosion: Spannungsrisskorrosion oder Schwingungsrisskorrosion?

Der Maschinenshaden 55 (1982) Heft 2.
Hickling, J., Strain-induced crack corrosion: Stress corrosion or fatigue corrosion? Der Maschinenshaden
55 (1982) Heft 2.
7. Lyle, F.F., A study of stress corrosion phenomena resulting from transportation of anhydrous ammonia in
quenched and tempered steel cargo tanks, Report, Southwest Research Institute 1976.
8. Ludvigsen, P.G and Arup, H. Stress corrosion cracking of mild steel in ammonia vapour above liquid
ammonia, Corrosion 32 (1976).
9. Poulson, B., Arup, H., Stress corrosion cracking of mild steel in liquid ammonia, Corrosion 32 (1982) 3,
pp168-171.
10. Jones, D.A., Wilde, B.E., Corrosion performance of some metals and alloys in liquid ammonia.
Manuscript.
11. Cracknell, A. Stress corrosion cracking of steels in ammonia: an up-date of operating experience, 27th
symposium of Safety in Ammonia Plants and Related Facilities, publ. by AICHE 1982.
12. Berk & Waldeck: Chem. Eng. vol 57 N:o 6 s.235 (1950).
13. Gräfe, H. & Spähn, H., Chem. Ing Tech. 39 (1967) s.138.
94
7 ACID AND ALKALINE ENVIRONMENTS

The durability of low-carbon steel is good only in certain concentrated inorganic acids such as sulphuric acid and
and fluorhydric acid. Containers of these acids must be kept full to avoid condensation in the vapour phase. Concen-
trated organic acids make too reactive environments for non-alloy steel.
The impact of acids and alkalies on carbon steel and a number of other materials is thoroughly discussed in the
Handbook on Corrosion /1/, which is referred to as the source of the following summaries.
7.1 Sulphuric Acid

In general outline, the durability of steel in sulphuric acid turns out as follows:
- the corrosion rate of carbon steel is determined by the temperature, concentration, ferrous content and flow rate
of the acid
- at temperatures below 30°C, the corrosion rate of carbon steel is less than 0.5 mm/year in sulphuric acid the
concentration of which is 93…96% and flow rate under 0.8 m/s
- in <67% and 99…101% sulphuric acid, the impact of temperature on the corrosion rate is very powerful; corro-
sion advances rapidly
- the corrosion rate can be efficiently reduced by means of anodic protection
- in dilute sulphuric acid, copper-alloying has been found to improve the corrosion resistance of carbon steel (see
COR-TEN and corrosion caused by flue gases), while copper has not been found to be of any advantage in con-
centrated sulphuric acid.
7.2 Hydrochloric Acid

Carbon steels are generally unsuitable for handling hydrochloric acid. Carbon steel tolerates 10% hydrochloric
acid satisfactorily at temperatures below 150°C when the solution contains a sufficient amount of inhibitor. In high
strength steel, stress corrosion may occur in a hydrochloric acid environment, and the improper use of inhibitors may
contribute to this phenomenon.
7.3 Fluorhydric Acid

Carbon steel tolerates fluorhydric acid in concentrations over 65%. An increased silicon content gives increased
resistance. High strength steels, however, are under the risk of stress corrosion.
7.4 Caustic Solutions

Corrosion problems involved in alkaline conditions are most common in the pulp cooking process and in tanks and
pipe systems used for handling black lye. Non-alloy steels can be used for pH values up to 11...12.
The diffusion of oxygen through corrosion products, usually Fe(OH)2, influences the general corrosion of steel. In a
caustic solution, this is a slow process and the steel is easily passivated.
In handling black lye, several corrosion factors are possible:
- general corrosion occurs at locations where the temperature of the pulp cooking liqour exceeds 93°C and where
lye comes into contact with the steel wall
- in black lye storage tanks of carbon steel, pitting may occur at locations where volatile organic acids come into
contact with the steel
- stress corrosion or caustic brittleness, see item 6.2.
95
7.4.1 Choice of Material for a Black Lye Container
Black lye storage tanks where the temperature is under 93°C can be made of carbon steel. The corrosion rate of the
steel wall can be effectively influenced by electric protection. If the temperature is higher and if the steel occasionally
comes into contact with the lye or where the flow rate is high, the use of stainless steel is recommended /2/.
In storage tanks used for lye, the roofs and other locations where organic acids may condense should be provided
with an appropriate coating. In order to avoid caustic brittleness, the use of low strength steel grades is recommend-
ed in those parts for which non-alloyed steel is acceptable. RAEX MILDSTEEL or S235 steel is a suitable material
for non-pressurized storage tanks depending on the impact strength requirement. Pressurized tanks are subject to
pressure vessel legislation. Depending on the impact strength requirement, the low strength pressure vessel steels
P235GH, P265GH, RAEX 305 P, P275N are suitable materials for pressure vessels used for handling black lye.
96
7.5 References
1. Korroosiokäsikirja. Suomen korroosioyhdistyksen julkaisuja n:o 6 Hanko 1988.
Handbook on Corrosion. Finnish Corrosion Society publication No. 6 Hanko 1988.
2. NACE, Process Industries Corrosion, The Theory and Practice.
97
8 HYDROGEN SULPHIDE ENVIRONMENT

8.1 Potential Modes of Cracking in Hydrogen Sulphide Environment
In piping and containers used in the production and handling of crude oil and natural gas, steel may become exposed
to the effects of hydrogen sulphide. The types of cracking that may occur in a hydrogen sulphide environment are
usually classified as HIC, SSC and SOHIC, see Fig. 8.1.
(a) SSC (b) Hydrogen Blistering
(c) HIC/SWC (d) SOHIC
Fig. 8.1 Modes of cracking in hydrogen sulphide environment /1/.
8.1.1 Hydrogen Induced Cracking (HIC)
Hydrogen induced cracking may occur in steel without any external or residual stress. The term HIC is used for
defects such as surface blistering and cracks at the rolling depth. Cracks may also occur in sequences resulting in
stepwise cracking. HIC may remain unnoticed for several months /2/. HIC usually occurs in steel with lower than 550
N/mm2 yield strength and results in laminations, pores and leaks rather than in catastrophic failure /3/.
HIC is caused by atomic hydrogen that diffuses into the metal and then forms hydrogen molecules at discontinuities
in the steel matrice, for example, at the boundaries between inclusions and the matrice, and in pores. The growing
pressure of molecular hydrogen at the discontinuities results in cracks that may be aligned to form stepwise crack-
ing.
8.1.2 Sulphide Stress Corrosion Cracking (SSC)
SSC-induced cracking occurs mainly in steels of higher than 550 N/mm2 yield strength /3/. SSC-induced cracks usu-
ally begin in the heat-affected zone and propagate vertically towards the surface. SSC cracking is subject to external
or internal stress. Hard and brittle microstructures, such as martensite and bainite, contribute to crack initiation. Such
cracking can be a very quick process; in fact, there are known cases in which the development of an initial crack into
catastrophic failure has been a matter of hours /2/.
SSC cracking results from the penetration of atomic hydrogen into the metal, where it remains as solid solution in the
lattice, thereby reducing the ductility and formability of the metal. Embrittled metal cracks easily under tensile stress,
resulting in SSC cracking.
8.1.3 Stress Oriented Hydrogen Induced Cracking (SOHIC) and Soft Zone Cracking (SZC)
SOHIC cracking is a combination of SSC cracking and HIC. In SOHIC, overlapping minor cracks propagate almost
vertically to the main stress. This mode of cracking can be characterized as SSC cracking caused by a combination
of external stress and local stress prevailing around an HIC /2/. The same phenomenon, when occurring in softened
HAZ, can be referred to as soft zone cracking (SZC).
By experience, SOHIC cracks most easily occur at welds, i.e. in areas under residual stress, although the linking
effect produced by the difference between compositions may function as a contributory factor /4/.
98
8.2 Effect of the Environment on Hydrogen Cracking

Cracking of any type is caused by the penetration of hydrogen into the steel as a consequence of hydrogen sulphide
corrosion. The diffusion of hydrogen into steel mainly depends on the hydrogen sulphide content, pH and tempera-
ture. Other factors, including the carbon dioxide content, water content, flow rate, surface roughness, the use of
inhibitors, contribute to the development of hydrogen cracks /2/.
In simplified form, the likelihood of SSC-induced cracking can be presented as a function of the pH and the partial
pressure of hydrogen sulphide, see Fig. 8.2. Zone 1 represents a ”safe” or ”non-sour” zone, Zone 2 a ”transition”
zone and Zone 3 a ”sour” zone. In Zone 3, only steels with verified resistance to SSC should be used. In Zone 2,
the requirements concerning the properties of steel are not as stringent as in Zone 3, where steels that have been
found adequate, for example, on the basis of appropriate tests can be used. The diagram has been drawn up on
the basis of tests carried out on steels used for oil drilling purposes, so the results are not necessarily valid for other
types of steel.
pH
6,5
5,5
2
4,5
3,5
1 Non-sour zone
2 Transition zone
3 Sour zone
0,001 0,01 0,1 1,0 10

Partial pressure of hydrogen sulphide, bar
Fig. 8.2 Zone division by susceptibility to SSC-induced cracking as a function of the pH and the partial
pressure of hydrogen sulphide /5/.
It is hardly possible to set any general guidelines for HIC and SOHIC cracking for the purpose of limiting the envi-
ronmental parameters because these types of cracking are highly dependent on the internal purity of the steel (the
number and type of inclusions, microsegregations, etc.) /2/.
When the service temperature increases, the steel becomes less susceptible to hydrogen cracking. Tubular steels
constantly used at temperatures over 65°C are clearly less susceptible to hydrogen cracking than tubular steels that
are constantly or occasionally used at a lower temperature /2/.
99
8.3 Effect of the Properties of Material on Hydrogen Cracking

8.3.1 SSC Cracking
SSC-induced cracking can be prevented by limiting the strength and thus eliminating the formation of microstruc-
tures that present a high risk on account of their susceptibility to cracking. In weld-free structures, the maximum
hardness of steel should be ≤ 250 HV30 /2/. The permissible maximum hardness of a welded joint depends on the
degree of environmental stress according to Table 8.1. In a sour environment (zone 3), a maximum hardness of 250
HV 10 is permitted for the root face and 275 HV10 for the external surface. The values of Table 8.1 are applicable to
material of over 9 mm thickness. With material of smaller thickness, the hardness of each surface of the welded joint
must be limited to the hardness recommended for the root face.
Table 8.1 The recommended maximum hardnesses in welded joints. Note: It is assumed here that the root
side of the weld is in direct contact with hydrogen sulphide-containing gas or oil /2/
Measuring point Zone 3, see Fig. 8.2 Zone 2, see Fig. 8.2
Weld+HAZ, root side 250 HV 260 HV
Weld+HAZ, external surface of the weld 275 HV 300 HV
A reduction of over 5% may increase the risk of SSC cracking substantially /2/. In the manufacture of longitudinally
and spirally welded tubes, however, the degree of cold reduction is clearly less than 5%.
8.3.2 HIC, SOHIC and SZC Cracking
Manganese sulphide inclusions, centerline segregation and ribbon pearlite weaken the HIC, SOHIC and SZC resist-
ance of steels /2/. The instructions for the choice of steel can be summarized as follows:
- low sulphur content

- shape control of non-metallic inclusions
- centerline segregation to be minimized with proper composition and foundry technique
- carbon, manganese and phosphorus contents to be minimized
- the rolling practice to be chosen so as to prevent the development of ribbon pearlite
8.4 Test Method for HIC and SSC Resistance

8.4.1 HIC Test
The resistance to HIC is verified by a test in accordance with Standard NACE TM0284. In this test, specimens
of 20x100 mm taken from plate or tube are kept in hydrogen sulphide-saturated salt solution for 96 hours. The
specimens are not exposed to external stress. The test is more rigorous than a real situation because hydrogen has
access to the steel from six sides. In this test, the possibility exists that HIC cracks develop in the base metal and
SOHIC cracks at welds. The following crack indices are calculated from transversal microsections:
CLR = Σ crack length / sample length

CTR = Σ crack thickness / sample thickness
CSR = Σ crack length x thickness / sample length x thickness.
In a standard HIC test, the pH is 5. In a more exacting test, the Standard NACE TM0177 solution is used to adjust
the pH to level 3.
8.4.2 SSC Tests

8.4.2.1 Tensile Stress Test
The tensile stress tests is carried out in accordance with the Standard NACE TM0177 method A (pH=3). The test
evaluates the SSC resistance of the material under unconfied tensile load. The tensile test specimens are exposed
to load up to a given altitude of stress and submerged in hydrogen sulphide saturated salt solution. The test lasts for
one month or till the test specimens fail. Fractures that are found on the measuring length of a specimen after the test
period or the complete cracking of a specimen refer to damage. A treshold altitude, under which SSC cracking does
not occur, is determined by testing several specimens at different stress altitudes.
100
8.4.2.2 Quadruple Point Bending Test
The quadruple point bending test has been developed from the original DONG test (Danish Oil and Natural Gas).
The test is carried out on specimens taken from the base metal or welds of a tube and machined to size 115x15x5
mm. The test was developed for the purpose of evaluating the SSC resistance and it is especially useful for the as-
sessment of the reliability of welded joints in sour environments /6/. The specimen is stressed in a quadruple point
bending jig to the extent that the unmachined internal surface is put into a state of tensile stress. The test specimen
is left to soak in the test solution for 96 hours (NACE TM0177, pH=3), after which it is cleaned and submitted to
magnetic particle testing to find the SSC cracks, if any.
8.4.3 Full Ring Test
The susceptibility of steels to SSC, HIC and SOHIC cracking can be determined by the Full Ring test /4/. The Full
Ring test simulates actual conditions closer than the aforementioned tests. The specimen length being equal to or in
excess of the pipe diameter, the residual stresses developed in the pipe during manufacture are retained in the test
specimens. The required stress state is produced in the pipe specimen by shaping it oval in an internal or external
tensioning device. For example, the maximum stress can be 72% of the specified lower yield point. The pipe is filled
with hydrogen sulphide-saturated salt solution and left so for 1 month. The development of fractures is monitored
ultrasonically and, at the end of the test, the defects found are examined by means of metallography. The rigorous-
ness of the test can be adjusted as required, for example, so as to correspond to the field conditions expected by the
customer. It is also possible to use the NACE TM0177 or Capcis solution in the test.
8.5 References
1. A Working Guide for Carbon Steel Equipment in Wet H2S Service. The Engineering Equipment and
Materials Users Association (EEMUA), Publication No. 179:1996.
2. prEN xxxx:1998: Corrosion Protection - Carbon and Low Alloy Steels for Use in H2S-containing
Environments in Oil and Gas Production - Materials and Test Methods - Guidelines, CEN/TC 262
N184, European Committee for Standardization, 1998.
3. R F Dewsnap et al, A Review of Information on Hydrogen Induced Cracking and Sulphide Stress
Corrosion Cracking in Linepipe Steels. Department of Energy, Offshore Technology Report,
OTH 86256, London Her Majesty’s Stationery Office, 1987.
4. A Test Method to Determine the Susceptibility to Cracking of Linepipe Steels in Sour Service. Health
and Safety Executive-Offshore Technology Report, OTI 95 635, Her Majesty’s Stationery Office,
London, 1996.
5. M. B. Kermani, D. Harrop, M.L.R. Truchon, J.-L. Crolet, Experimental Limits of Sour Service of Tubular
Steels, Corrosion 91, Paper N:0 21. NACE, Houston, Texas, USA.
6. Dr E W Jackson, Selection of Correct Materials. Wet H2S Attack on Steel. Swinden Technology
Centre British Steel Plc.
101

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RAUTARUUKKI STEELS

UNDER CRITICAL CONDITIONS

Manuscript Erkki Huhdankoski, MSc(Eng)

Typesetting Rautaruukki Steel, RAAHE

Printers Otava, Keuruu

Orders RUUKKI STEEL

Raahe, 8 November 1999

1 LOW-TEMPERATURE CONDITIONS ........................................................................................................ 8

2 HIGH-TEMPERATURE CONDITIONS ..................................................................................................... 35

3 RESISTANCE TO SURFACE PRESSURE AND WEAR ......................................................................... 50

5 THE USE OF WEATHERING STEELS .................................................................................................... 79

6 STRESS CORROSION ............................................................................................................................ 90

7 ACID AND ALKALINE ENVIRONMENTS ................................................................................................ 95

8 HYDROGEN SULPHIDE ENVIRONMENT .............................................................................................. 98

9 METAL FATIGUE .................................................................................................................................... 102

9.8 Method for Measuring Fatigue Strength ................................................................................................. 112

1.1.2 Intercrystalline Fracture and Cleavage Fracture

1.1.3 Nucleation of a Brittle Fracture

- high tensile stress

1.1.4 Propagation of Brittle Fracture

1.2.2 Charpy U Test

1.3 Methods Measuring the Propagation of Brittle Fracture

1.3.2 DWT Test

-60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60

1.4 Fracture Mechanics

1.4.1 Critical Stress Intensity KIC

σ = nominal stress perpendicular to crack direction

Fig 1.4 CT (Compact Test) specimen

1.4.3 Crack Tip Opening Displacement

1.4.4 Fracture Toughness Correlations

TK100MPam = TK28 J- 18C (1.2)

TK100MPam = temperature at which

KIC = 30+ 70e

KIC = 12 MPam Cv (1.6)

KIC = 25MPa m + 37MPa m e 526

20MPam Ø B 0,25ø B 0,25

KIC = KICmin Rz (1.9)

The interdependence of KIC and Jc can be calculated by formula 1.10:

1.5 Effect of Microstructure on the Resistance to Brittle Fracture

1.5.1 Deoxidation of Steel

1.5.2 Effect of Grain Size on Impact Strength

1.5.3 Effect of the Composition of Steel on Impact Strength

1.5.4 Strain Ageing

-60 Cold forming

1.5.5 Effect of Heat Treatment on the Impact Strength of Steel

1.6 Selection of Material with a View to Its Resistance to Brittle Fracture

1.6.1 Classification of Steels by Impact Strength

EN 10207. Steels for simple pressure vessels

DIN 17 155, 1983

1.6.2 Finnish Building Code B7, Steel Structures

Structural class 3 covers buildings with occasional traffic, such as warehouses.

1.6.3 SFS-ENV 1993-1-1:1992 Annex C

The calculation method must not be applied to temperatures below -40°C.

Service conditions are divided into three categories:

S1: - Structure without welds.

R2: - Impact load = explosion, collision

C1: - Non-critical members the failure of which results in local damage.

b = 100(ln KIC - 8,06) (1.14)

0,55 fyl t0,5

1.6.4 Eurocode 3. Part 2: Steel Bridges

1.6.5 Consideration of the Resistance to Brittle Fracture in Pressure Vessel Design

The lowest permissible service temperature, θR , should be lower than θD + θS+ θC + θH

1.7 Welding under Subzero Conditions

Subzero conditions complicate welding at least in the following ways: