KULIAH PENDAMPING 1

Human has +/- 100 types of cell , composed of :

I. Constituent of biomolecule ( element ) : C , H , O , N, K + , Na + , …….

II . Simple Biomolecule : Nucleic Acid , Amino Acid , Fatty acid and Polysacharide

III Building Block of Biomolecule / Main Biomolecule :

Nucleic acid , Protein , Lipid and Polysacharide

IV. Macro-molecule : Nucleic acid , Protein, Polysacharide .

V. Supra Molecule : Organelles ( mitochondria, nucleus).

SIZE

1 m / meter = 100 cm

= 1000 mm

= 39,4 inchi

1 cm / sentimeter = 10 pangkat - 2 m

1 mm/ milimeter = 10 pangkat - 3 m

1 Um / mikrometer = 10 pangkat - 6 m

1 nm / nanometer = 10 pangkat - 9 m

– The agent of diseases are :

1.Parasite
2.Fungi
3. Bacteria
4. Virus
PROKARIOTIK & EUKARIOTIK
2 Types of cell : I. Prokaryotic ( Bacteria /Eubacteriae and Archaea/archaebacteria )
2. Eukaryotic ( Fungi , Animals and Plants )
Protista (a simple eukaryotic cell): Protozoan, Algae & Slime Mold

The difference and the similarity of Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells

# The similarity are : 1. Plasma membrane +
 2. Cytosol +
3. Chromosome +
4. Ribosome +
{ Campbell }
# The major difference are : ( Cell Biology Gerald,page 10 & Campbell )
1. The LOCATION of their DNA .
- Eu : Nucleus ( is bounded with a double membrane )
- Pro : Nucleoid ( a region & not membrane enclosed )
2. Size : Eu cell are generally larger than Pro Cell.
Eu : 10 – 100 Um
Pro : 0,1 – 1,0 Um ( the smallest ).Typical bacteria 1-5 Um
3. Organelles : ER , Golgi complex , Lysosome , Peroxisome , Glyoxisome ,
Mitochondria . Only in Eukaryotic cells.

There are 2 kinds of fluid in the cell :

1. Nucleoplasm
Colloid solution inside the nucleus .
2. Cytoplasm
Colloid solution outside the nucleus.
Cytoplasm contain of organelles:
. Organelle is a small organ where is a specific chemical processes to the life of cell
occur.
There are : Plasma membrane , Nucleus , Nucleolus , Ribosome , Chromatine
/Chromosome , Soft & Rough Endoplasmic ,Reticulum (SER & RER ) , Golgi
Apparatus , Lysosome

ORGANELLES
NUCLEUS is a largest organelle average about 5 Um in diameter , round shape , central of
the cell , enclosed by nuclear membrane ,
Function :,The nucleus contains almost all genetic information of the cell. DNA within the
nucleus influences cellular structure and function .

Component of the nucleus :

• 1. Nuclear Envelope : A double tri lamellar membrane surround the nucleus
, each membrane consist of a lipid bilayer. The nuclear envelope encloses the
nucleus, separating it from the cytoplasm
2. Nuclear Pores : The holes in nuclear envelope . Pores regulate the entry
and exit of molecules from the nucleus.
3. Nucleolus :The one or more dark regions inside the nucleus.
The function is produced Ribosomal RNA / . r-RNA synthesis
4. Nucleoplasm is a fluid region inside the nucleus .
5. Chromatine : Genetic material in the dispersed state
(Total collection of all DNA molecules and their associated
• proteins ). Chromatin condenses to form discrete chromosomes
Chromosome : Structure made of one DNA molecule and
associated proteins ( Histon ). The Genetic information within the
 nucleus is in the form of chromosome.

The Endoplasmic Reticulum:

Biosynthetic Factory
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is such an extensive network of membranes. The ER consists
of a network of membranous tubules and sacs called cisternae .

There are two distinct, though connected, regions of the ER that differ in structure and function:
smooth ER and rough ER.
1.Smooth ER is so named because its outer surface lacks ribosomes { distally from the
nucleus }.
2.Rough ER is studded with ribosomes on the outer surface of the membrane and thus appears
rough . Ribosomes are also attached to the cytoplasmic side of the nuclear envelope’s outer
membrane, which is continuous with rough ER.{ near the nucleus }

Functions of Smooth ER
Diverse metabolic processes, which vary cell type. These processes include synthesis of lipids,
metabolism of carbohydrates, detoxification of drugs and poisons, and storage of calcium
ions. Enzymes of the smooth ER are important in the synthesis of lipids, including oils,
phospholipids, and steroids. Among the steroids produced by the smooth ER in animal cells
are the sex hormones of vertebrates

Functions of Rough ER
Many types of cells secrete proteins produced by ribosomes attached to rough ER. For
example, certain pancreatic cells synthesize the protein insulin in the ER and secrete this
hormone into the bloodstream.
RIBOSOME .
Ribosomes: Protein Factories
Ribosomes, which are complexes made of ribosomal RNA and protein, are the cellular
components that carry out protein synthesis . Cells that have high rates of protein synthesis
have particularly large numbers of ribosomes.
Ribosomes build proteins in two cytoplasmic locales. At any given time, free ribosomes are
suspended in the cytosol, while bound ribosomes are attached to the outside of the endoplasmic
reticulum or nuclear envelope .

GOLGI COMPLEX .
a. Structure : A series of flattened membrane vesicle or sacs called cisternae,
surrounded by a number of more or less spherical membrane vesicle .
b.Function : Modify secretory proteins & membrane proteins differently ,
depending on their structures & final destination .{ Modifies products of the ER }
So, Golgi complex is the protein processing and packaging center of the cell.
{Sorts and packages materials into transport vesicles )

Golgi Apparatus:
Shipping and Receiving Center
After leaving the ER, many transport vesicles travel to the Golgi apparatus. We can think of the
Golgi as a warehouse for receiving, sorting, shipping, and even some manufacturing.
Here,products of the ER, such as proteins, are modified and stored and then sent to other
destinations. Not surprisingly, the Golgi apparatus is especially extensive in cells specialized
for secretion. The Golgi apparatus consists of flattened membranous
sacs—cisternae—looking like a stack of pita bread .
LYSOSOME .
Lysosomes: Digestive Compartments
A lysosome is a membranous sac of hydrolytic enzymes that an animal cell uses to digest
(hydrolyze) macromolecules. Lysosomal enzymes work best in the acidic environment
found in lysosomes. If a lysosome breaks open or leaks its contents, the released enzymes are not
very active because the cytosol has a neutral pH. However, excessive leakage from a large
number of lysosomes can destroy a cell by self-digestion
Lysosomes carry out intracellular digestion in a variety of circumstances. Amoebas and many
other protists eat by engulfing smaller organisms or food particles, a process called
phagocytosis (from the Greek phagein, to eat, and kytos, vessel, referring here to the cell). The
food vacuole formed in this way then fuses with a lysosome, whose enzymes digest
the food . Digestion products, including simple sugars, amino acids, and other monomers, pass
into the cytosol and become nutrients for the cell. Some human cells also carry out
phagocytosis. Among them are macrophages, a type of white blood cell that helps defend the
body by engulfing and destroying bacteria and other invaders
Lysosomes also use their hydrolytic enzymes to recycle the cell’s own organic material, a
process called autophagy. During autophagy, a damaged organelle or small amount of cytosol
becomes surrounded by a double membrane (of unknown origin), and a lysosome fuses with the
outer membrane of this vesicle
PEROXISOME .

The peroxisome is a specialized metabolic compartment bounded by a single membrane .

Peroxisomes contain enzymes that remove hydrogen atoms from various substrates and
transfer them to oxygen (O2), thus producing hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) as a by-product
(from which the organelle derives its name). These reactions have many different functions.
Some peroxisomes use oxygen to break fatty acids down into smaller molecules that are
transported to mitochondria and used as fuel for cellular respiration. Peroxisomes in the liver
detoxify alcohol and other harmful compounds by transferring hydrogen from the poisons
to oxygen. The H2O2 formed by peroxisomes is itself toxic, but the organelle also contains an
enzyme that converts H2O2 to water. Specialized peroxisomes called glyoxysomes are found
in the fat-storing tissues of plant seeds

MITOCHONDRIA
Mitochondria: Chemical Energy Conversion
Mitochondria are found in nearly all eukaryotic cells, including those of plants, animals,
fungi, and most protists. Some cells have a single large mitochondrion, but more often a cell
has hundreds or even thousands of mitochondria; the number correlates with the cell’s level of
metabolic activity. For example, cells that move or contract have proportionally
more mitochondria per volume than less active cells. The mitochondrion is enclosed by two
membranes, each a phospholipid bilayer with a unique collection of embedded
proteins . The outer membrane is smooth, but the inner membrane is convoluted, with
infoldings called cristae. The inner membrane divides the mitochondrion into two internal
compartments. The first is the intermembrane space, the narrow region between the inner and
outer membranes. The second compartment, the mitochondrial matrix, is enclosed by the
inner membrane. The matrix contains many different enzymes as well as the mitochondrial
DNA and ribosomes

There are ATP synthase molecule for ATP synthesis . and cytochrome P450 molecule
metabolize many medication. { Gerald , 386 ,466 }

VACUOLE

Vacuoles are large vesicles derived from the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus.
Thus, vacuoles are an integral part of a cell’s endomembrane system. Like all cellular
membranes, the vacuolar membrane is selective in transporting solutes; as a result, the solution
inside a vacuole differs in composition from the cytosol
Vacuoles perform a variety of functions in different kinds of cells. Food vacuoles, formed by
phagocytosis, have already been mentioned.

CELL MEMBRANE or plasma membrane or plasmalemma ? { Campbell 171 }

The plasma membrane is the edge of life, the boundary that separates the living cell from
its surroundings.
A remarkable film only about 8 nm thick——the plasma membrane controls traffic into and out
of the cell it surrounds..Like all biological membranes, the plasma membrane exhibit selective
permeability: it allow some substances to cross itmore easily than others

Models of cell membrane { Gerald 316 , Campbell 173 }

Fluid mosaic model ; the membrane is a fluid structure with a “mosaic” of various proteins
embedded in or attached to a double layer (bilayer) of phospholipids.
The components forming the structure of cell membrane { Campbell , Gerald 311 -316 }
Lipids and proteins are the staple ingredients of membranes, although carbohydrates are
also important. The most abundant lipids in most membranes are phospholipids. The
ability of phospholipids to form membranes is inherent in their molecular structure.
The steroid cholesterol, which is wedged between phospholipid molecules in the plasma
membranes of animal cells has different effects on membrane fluidity at different
temperatures (Figure 7.8b
The role of membrane carbohydrate in : Cell-cell recognition . . Cell recognize other cells by
binding to molecules, often containing carbohydrate, on the extra cellular surface of the plasma
membrane..
Some are covalently bonded to lipids, forming molecules called glycolipids. (Recall that glyco refers to
the presence of carbohydrate.) However, most are covalently bonded to proteins, which are thereby
glycoproteins.

The types of a membrane protein { Campbell 175 }

2 types are : Integral protein { transmembrane protein }
Peipheral Protein .
The role of membran protein in :
a.Transport
b.Enzymatic activity
c.Signal transduction
d.Cell – cell recognation
e.Intercellular joining
f.Attanchment to the cytoskeleton and ECM ( extra cellular matrix )

The factors that influencing the fluidity of cell-membrane

There are 3 factors : a. Composition of the lipid
b. Cholesterol content
c. Temperature

Components forming the structure of phospholipid bilayer { Gerald 311 }

All phospholipid are amphipathic , that have 2 poles :
 i. Hydrophilic –pole , is a polar head group
ii. Hydrophobic-pole , is a tail group

The endomembrane system Campbell , Gerald 457 }

Endomembrane system is a complex and dynamic player in the cell’s compartmental

organization.
The endomembrane system includes : the nuclear envelope , the endoplasmic reticulum ,the
golgi apparatus , lysosomes , various kinds of vacuoles and the plasma membrane in physical
location , but nevertheless related to the endoplasmic reticulum and other internal
membranes ) .These components are either continuous or connected via transfer by vesicles.

Some are covalently bonded to lipids, forming molecules called glycolipids. (Recall that glyco refers to
the presence of carbohydrate.) However, most are covalently bonded to proteins, which are thereby
glycoproteins.

4.What are the types of a membrane protein? { Campbell 175 }

2 types are : Integral protein { transmembrane protein }
Peipheral Protein .
The role of membran protein in :
a.Transport
b.Enzymatic activity
c.Signal transduction
d.Cell – cell recognation
 e.Intercellular joining
f.Attanchment to the cytoskeleton and ECM ( extra cellular matrix )

04. What factors are influencing the fluidity of cell-membrane ?

There are 3 factors : a. Composition of the lipid
b. Cholesterol content
c. Temperature
05. What components are there forming the structure of phospholipid bilayer ?{ Gerald 311 }
All phospholipid are amphipathic , that have 2 poles :
i. Hydrophilic –pole , is a polar head group
ii. Hydrophobic-pole , is a tail group

06.What is endomembrane system? Campbell , Gerald 457 }

Endomembrane system is a complex and dynamic player in the cell’s compartmental

organization.

The endomembrane system includes : the nuclear envelope , the endoplasmic reticulum ,the
golgi apparatus , lysosomes , various kinds of vacuoles and the plasma membrane in physical
location , but nevertheless related to the endoplasmic reticulum and other internal
membranes ) .These components are either continuous or connected via transfer by vesicles.
CYTOSKELETON { Campbell 158 , Gerald 510 }

Definition :
A network of fibers extending throughout the cytoplasm.
The cytoskeleton, which plays a major role in organizing the structures and activities of the cell,
………….OR
A familiar organ system consist of hardened elements that support the soft tissue of the body.

3 types of cytoskeleton :
a. Microfilament
b. Microtubules
c. Intermediate filaments

The structure and function of each type of cytoskeleton ( Campbell 158-164 )

a. Microfilament /Actin Filament
Microfilamenta are solid rods about 7 nm in diameter , they are also called actin
filamnent because they are build from molecule of a ctin.
Present in all eukaryotic cells.
Role of microfilament are :
1. Maintanance & changes of cell shape
2. Muscle contraction
3. Cell division
4. Cell motility
5. Cytoplasmic streaming

b. Microtubules.
Microtubules in eukaryotic cells are hollow rods / hollow tubes mesuring from 200
nm to 25Um in length
The wall of the hollow tube is constructed of a globular protein called tubulin
( Alfa tubulin and Beta tubulin }.
 When cilia or flagella extend from cells that are held in place as part of a tissue
layer, they can move fluid over the surface of the tissue

Flagella : A motile structure that project from the surface of many types of
cells. Flagella is completely sheathed by a membrane that is an extension of the
plasma membrane

Main functions : 1. Maintanance of cell shape

2.Cell motility { as in Cilia and Flagella }
3. Chromosome movement in cell division
4. Organelle movements

c. Intermediate Filament.
A primary structural to reinforce and organize cells in tissues ( because of their
organization & the association with plasma membrane )
The protein in intermediate filament is depends on the cell type ( e.g :
Vimentin , Desmin , Lamin , Keratin, Neurofilament protein.
Function : 1. Maintain cell shape
2. Anchooorage of nucleus and others organelles
3. Formation of nuclear lamina .

References :
1. Campbell. N.A. et all; Biology , Ninth Edition 2011
2. Lodish H, Berk A et all; Signalling at the Cell Surface . Molecular Cell Biology Eight Edition 2016
3. Gerald Karp ; Cell Biology Seventh Edition, 2014