CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Tribology is the science and technology of interacting surfaces in relative
motion. Tribology includes boundary-layer interactions both between solids and
between solids and liquids and/or gases. Tribology encompasses the entire field
of friction and wear, including lubrication [1].
The importance of friction, wear and lubrication in modern life may best be
illustrated with the automobile. Friction between the tires and road is essential
for getting the automobile moving and friction between brake pads and rotors is
needed to stop the vehicle. Lubricants are employed to mitigate both, but wear
will eventually win and destroy engines and other sliding systems. Wear is the
number one cause of death of automobiles. The death may cause at 150000 miles
or even 200000 miles, but it will come. It is said that rest never “sleeps”,
similarly, friction and wear never stop when surfaces in contact experience
relative motion. It is a primary cause of failure in most machines.
Friction and wear are very important in the human body. Arthritis is the result of
loss of lubricating cartilage joints. A significant part of Tribology research is
directed towards prosthetic devices: knees, hips and so on [2].
A tribosystem consists of all those elements that influence the wear process. The
basic elements of a tribosystems are:
 Contacting materials
 Geometrical parameters (shape, size, roughness)
 Relative motion
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  Loading
 Type of lubrication
 Environment
This tribosystem concept can be extended to include those elements or factors
that affect the fundamental ones listed. In practice, it generally is appropriate to
think of the tribosystem as at least extending to the mechanism or device in
which the wear occurs. The tribological aspect number (TAN) is a method for
characterizing tribosystems [3]

1.2 WEAR
Wear is generally described as oxidative, single-cycle or repeated-cycle
deformation, abrasive, adhesive or erosive (Allen andBall, 1996).
Wear is the sideways displacement or erosion of material from its parent material
and original position on a solid surface performed by the action of another
surface [4].

Wear was given a formal definition in 1968 by the OECD as ‘the progressive
loss of material from the operating surface of a body occurring as a result of
relative motion at its surface’ [5]

It is related to interactions between surfaces and more specifically the removal

and deformation of material on a surface as a result of mechanical action on the
opposite surface [6]. The need for relative motion between two surfaces and
initial mechanical contact between asperities is an important distinction between
mechanical wear compared to other processes with similar outcomes [7]. Wear is
a process of removal of material from one or both of two solid surfaces in solid

2
state contact, occurring when two solid surfaces are sliding or rolling motion
together [8]

The definition of wear may include loss at the interface between two sliding
surfaces. However, plastic deformation such as yield stress is excluded from the
wear definition if it doesn't incorporate a relative sliding motion and contact
against another surface despite the possibility of material removal, because it
then lacks the relative sliding action of another surface.

According Silvia Revesova and Pavel Blaskovits “studying wear is characterised

by many different aspects and it is mostly influenced by the complexity of
materials interaction on a functional surface as well as by operation conditions.
In machine elements, there is a gradual wear in the result of friction. This is
considered to be an undesirable effect in most cases. Searching for the possibility
of cutting the costs of changing the worn or damaged machine elements has led
to the development of a wide range of surfacing technologies. Increasing the
safety and extending the technical life of machines and devices are important
requirements of modern technology”[9].
Wear failures occur because of the sensitivity of a material or system to the
surface changes caused by wear. Typically, it is the geometrical or profile
aspects of these changes, such as a dimensional change, a change in shape, or
residual thickness of a coating, that cause failure. However, a change in
appearance and the nature of the wear damage also can be cause for failure. An
example of the former would be situations where marring is a concern, such as
with optical scanner windows, lens, and decorative finishes. Examples of the
latter include valves, which can fail because of galling, and structural
components, where cracks caused by wear can reduce fatigue life [10].

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The types of activities generally required for the resolutions of wear problems
are:
· Examining and characterizing the tribosystem
· Characterizing and modeling the wear process
· Obtaining and evaluating wear data
· Evaluating and verifying the solution
While these activities roughly follow the sequence in the list, they generally are
interwoven, and the overall approach is somewhat iterative in practice. For
example, some modeling considerations might influence the details of the
examination of the tribosystem, or failure during the verification can lead to an
additional tribosystem examination and modeling. Brief descriptions of the need
for and the nature of these types of activities are presented in the following
sections [11].
A generally good practice in examining wear scars is to examine them using
several different methods, such as visual, low-power optical, and scanning
electron microscopy (SEM). In many situations, magnifications between 30 and
a few hundred are most useful. In addition to these methods for examining wear
scars, a variety of other methods are often used. These procedures can and often
do include methods to characterize materials, measure dimensions and surface
roughness, determine loads, determine contact stresses, and determine
environmental conditions [12].
1.2.1 MEASUREMENT OF WEAR
The most commonly used techniques to evaluate wear are weighing and
measurement of changes in dimensions.[13]

The Society for Tribology and Lubrication Engineers (STLE) had published,
different number of wear and lubrication tests. The scientific study of wear
4
measurement is to quantify wear.This can be taken in wear mass or wear volume.
Most of the test methods have intrinsic limitations and do not state clear picture
in general about wear and its mechanisms.This can be attributed to the very
complex nature of wear, and also the problems associated with precisely
expressing and simulating the wear processes. The magnitude of wear is
measured in mass loss. This aspect is of great importance in materials having
different wear resistance and different densities, e.g. a weight loss of 28 gm in a
sample of cobalt + tungsten carbide (density = 28000 kg/m³) and a loss of
weight of 5.4 g in another alloy of Aluminium (density = 5400 kg/m³) both have
the same magnitude of wear i.e. 1 cm³ when expressed as a volume loss. The
wear resistance is the inverse of volume loss can be used to compare different
materials. But due to ease in taking the value in mass, the wear measured in mass
loss. The wear tests which are standard in nature are solely used for comparing
materials ranking for explicit test criterion as specified in the test method. For
more realistic values of material deterioration in industrial applications, it is
necessary to conduct wear testing under conditions simulating the exact wear
process [14].

The operating life of an engineering component is expired when dimensional

losses exceed the defined tolerance limits. Wear , along with other ageing
processes such as fatigue and creep in association with stress concentration
factors such as fracture toughness causes materials to progressively degrade,
eventually contributing to material failure at an advanced age. Wear in industrial
applications is one of a special number of fault factors in which an object loses
its usefulness and the economic implication can be of tremendous value to the
industry.

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For the relatively elementary of two loaded surfaces, one hard the other softer,
sliding over one another we might suppose that the loss of linear dimension, say
w,in the wearing surface will depend on the applied load P , theimposed sliding
speed V, the coefficient of friction m, the hardness H of the softer surface the
time they slide together t and the size of the contact measured by some
representative length dimension R. Hardness, as a plastic property, is included
rather than the elastic modulus since, for ductile metals, wear is generally only
achieved after significant plastic flow. It is thus possible to write

W = f (P,V,m H,t, R)

Experiments have shown that there is no correlation between the coefficient of

friction m and wear rate hence can be neglected. On making further
simplification the equation of wear rate reduces to
W = KPV/R2H
Where K is constant whose value varies for type of surfaces. [15]
Some researchers [16] used to measure abrasive wear rate (W) using weight-loss
measurements and use the following formula:
W = V/ρD
where ρ is the density of the composite, V the weight loss and D is the sliding
distance.
1.3 STAGES OF WEAR
Wear mechanisms generally can be grouped into six generic types:
 Adhesive mechanisms
 Single & Repeated-cycle deformation mechanisms
 Chemical mechanisms
 Thermal mechanisms
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  Tribofilm mechanisms
Two or more type of mechanism can be involved in a real wear situation.
Therefore, materials can exhibit transitions in wear behavior as a result of
changes in other operational parameters, such as load, velocity, and friction [17].
Under normal mechanical and practical procedures, the wear-rate normally
changes through three different stages [18].
In explicit wear tests simulating industrial conditions between metallic surfaces,
there are no clear chronological distinction between different wear-stages due to
big overlaps and symbiotic relations between various friction
mechanisms. Surface engineering and treatments are used to minimize wear and
extend the components working life [19]

1.4 TYPES OF WEAR

The broad classification of wear are as follows:
 Mechanical Wear
 Thermal Wear
 Tribo-Chemical Wear
In order to focus on the wear mechanisms from the viewpoint of contact
configurations, apparent and real contact conditions at the contact interface are
introduced without particularizing about these contact configurations. The
intricate nature of wear has delayed its investigations and resulted in isolated
studies towards categorical wear mechanisms or processes. Severity of contact,
such as elastic contact or plastic contact, is the easiest and most direct way to
cogitate the wear mechanisms, and it is a tribosystem replication determined by
dynamic parameters, material parameters, and ambient parameters.
Some commonly referred wear mechanisms (or processes) include:

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1. Adhesive wear
2. Abrasive wear
3. Erosive wear
A bit of different wear phenomena are too commonly encountered and presented
in the literature. Impact-, cavitation-, diffusive- and corrosive wear are all such
examples. These wear mechanisms, however, do not obligatorily act
independently and wear mechanisms are not mutually exclusive. Industrial wear
are commonly described as the collection of multiple wear mechanisms
occurring in simultaneous utterance. Another way to describe Industrial Wear is
to define clear distinctions in how various friction mechanisms work , for
example, distinguish in between mechanisms having low or high energy density.
Wear mechanisms frequently overlap and occur in interaction of multiple
elements to produce an effect, engendering a more preponderant rate of wear
than the sum of the sole wear mechanisms.
Wear processes can be separated into different types according to the type of
load and the materials required, e.g., sliding wear, fretting wear, abrasive wear,
and material cavitation. Wear is caused by a number of mechanisms, the
following four being especially important:
• Surface fatigue
• Abrasion
• Adhesion
• Tribochemical reaction

8
Fig. 1.1 Basic Wears Mechanisms Viewed Microscopically (Fn normal force
on the apparent contact surface, Ff friction force between base body and counter-
body, Fn, as a normal force on asperity contact, Δv relative velocity, HV Vickers
hardness) [20]

1.4.1 ADHESIVE WEAR

Adhesive wear are present in-between surfaces during frictional contact and
generally refers to unwanted removal of material and affixment of wear debris
and material compounds from one surface to another. Adhesive wear is also
called as galling or scuffing, where inter-facial adhesive junctions clasp together
as two surfaces slip each other under the applied force [21].
The nominal sliding velocity of the lump and geometry describes expedition
around the lump and how the flowing material will be conveyed this is very
critical to define the developed temperature during sliding with respect to the
contact pressure. The mathematical function for expedition of flowing material is
thereby described by the lump surface contour [22].
According to the adhesive wear theory, when two smooth and clean rough
surfaces come in contact, cold welded junctions are formed at the pick of the
asperities through plastic deformation and the subsequent shearing of the

9
junctions from softer material causes adhesive wear particle. Almost all existing
laws of adhesive wear are based on experimental findings and empirical in
nature. [23].
1.4.2 ABRASIVE WEAR
Abrasive wear do takes place when a abrasive (hard & rough) surface slip over a
less hard (softer) surface [24]. It is also described as the loss of material due to
hard particles that are forced against and move along a solid surface.
Abrasive wear belongs to such wear types that can occur most frequently in
machine elements of industrial installations and it presents up-to 80% of overall
volume [25].
Abrasive wear occurs whenever a solid object is loaded against particles of a
material that have equal or greater hardness. A common example of this problem
is the wear of shovels on earth-moving machinery. The extent of abrasive wear is
far greater than may be realized.

Figure 1.2: Schematic of Abrasive Wear Phenomena

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 According Silvia Revesova and Pavel Blaskovits “It can also originate from
other wear types in the course of which the free particles are being formed.
These particles are becoming stiffer than the parent material. This happens under
the influence of either intensive plastic deformation, or air oxygen
oxidation”[26].
Any material, even if the bulk of it is very soft, may cause abrasive wear if hard
particles are present. For example, an organic material, such as sugar cane, is
associated with abrasive wear of cane cutters and shredders because of the small
fraction of silica present in the plant fibers [27].
Abrasive wear is commonly classified according to the type of contact and the
contact environment. The contact environment determines whether the wear is
classified as open or closed. An open contact environment occurs when the
surfaces are sufficiently displaced to be independent of one another ASM
Handbook Committee 2002 [28].
Abrasive wear depends upon various factors and hence the manner of material
abstraction or material removal. Various mechanisms have been proposed to
define the manner in which the material is abstracted. The commonly identified
mechanisms of abrasive wear are:
1. Cutting
2. Plowing
3. Fragmentation
Cutting occurs due to the separation of material from the surface in the form of
microchips or primary debris, with very small or no material displaced to the
sides of the grooves. This mechanism is similar to the conventional machining.
Plowing occurs due to sideways displacement of material , away from the wear
particles, due to this grooves are formed which do not involve direct material

11
removal. The displaced material forms ridges adjacent to grooves, which may be
removed by the successive passage of abrasive particles. Fragmentation occurs
when material is detach from a surface by a cutting process and the indenting
abrasive particles causes the localized fracture of the wear material. These
cracks, then freely propagate locally around the wear groove, resulting in
additional material removal by spalling.
The main difference between them is that cutting mode needs high attack angle
and ploughing needs low attack angle. In abrasive wear, there is only ploughing
becauseas perities on the surface have a very low slope, so there is a low attack
angle. Brittle fracture involves the presence of cracks in the surface and
subsurface. The wear mechanism of plastic deformation is mainly grooving.
When the abrasive particles are in contact with the surface, scratches are formed
producing grooves. Brittle fracture is referred to pullout of the carbide grains,
Palmqvist cracking and spalling [29]
According to ISO 9352 or ASTM D 1044 the abrasive wear can be measured as
loss of mass by the Taber Abrasion Test.
It was originally thought that abrasive wear by grits or hard asperities closely
resembled cutting by a series of machine tools or a file. However, microscopic
examination has revealed that the cutting process is only approximated by the
sharpest of grits and many other more indirect mechanisms are involved. The
particles or grits may remove material by microcutting , microfracture, pull-out
of individual grains [30] or accelerated fatigue by repeated deformations as
illustrated in Figure 1.3.

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 a) Cutting b) Fracture

c) Fatigue by repeated ploughing d) Grain pull-out

Fig. 1.3 Mechanisms Of Abrasive Wear: Microcutting, Fracture, Fatigue

And Grain Pull-Out [31]

1.4.2.1 Modes of Abrasive Wear

The way the grits pass over the worn surface determines the nature of abrasive
wear. The literature denotes two basic modes of abrasive wear:
· Two-body and
· Three-body abrasive wear.
1. Two body abrasion - Two-body abrasive wear is exemplified by the action of
sand paper on a surface. Hard asperities or rigidly held grits pass over the surface
like a cutting tool . In this condition, one surface is harder than the other rubbing
surface as shown in figure 1.4(a) . Examples in mechanical operations are
grinding, cutting, and machining.

13
Two body abrasive wear tests were performed with a SUGA abrasion tester
model-NUS1 [32].
2. Three body abrasion - In three-body abrasive wear the grits are free to roll as
well as slide over the surface, since they are not held rigidly. In this case a third
body, generally a small particle of grit or abrasive, lodges between the two softer
rubbing surfaces, abrades one or both of these surfaces, as shown in figure 1.5
[33]The two and three-body modes of abrasive wear are illustrated schematically
in Figure 1.4

Fig. 1.4 (a) Two-body mode

Fig. 1.4 (b) Three-body mode

Fig. 1.4 Two And Three-Body Modes Of Abrasive Wear [34]
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Until recently these two modes of abrasive wear were thought to be very similar,
however, some significant differences between them have been revealed [35]. It
was found that three-body abrasive wear is ten times slower than two-body wear
since it has to compete with other mechanisms such as adhesive wear [36].
Properties such as hardness of the “backing wheel”, which forces the grits onto a
particular surface, were found to be important for three body but not for two-
body abrasive wear. Two-body abrasive wear corresponds closely to the
‘cutting tool’ model of material removal whereas three-body abrasive wear
involves slower mechanisms of material removal, though very little is known
about the mechanisms involved [37]. It appears that the worn material is not
removed by a series of scratches as is the case with two-body abrasive wear.
Instead, the worn surface displays a random topography suggesting gradual
removal of surface layers by the successive contact of grits [38].
In the microscale, the abrasive wear process is where asperities of the harder
surface press into the softer surface, with plastic flow of the softer surface
occurring around the harder asperities, as shown in figure 1.. This often leads to
what is known as microploughing , microcutting, and microcracking , when a
tangential motion is imposed. Abrasive wear may be reduced by the introduction
of hydrodynamic or elasto-hydrodynamic lubricants at various film thickness to
separate the surfaces and to. Wash out. any contaminant particles. Research has
shown that using the correct coating material and various thermally sprayed
techniques including the HVOF process, greatly benefits resistance to abrasive
wear [39].

15
 Fig. 1.5 Abrasion In The Microscale

Abrasive wear rates can be reduced by:

 Load reduction – particles will not be imprinted so deeply into the material
surface and the riffles will be shallower
 Hardening – with the same effect as it is in previous possibility [40]
The abrasive wear is the prominent type of wear applicable to all fields of
industry, it is particularly relevant to the fields of agriculture , minning and
mineral processing. Industrialized countries studies have shown that because of
wear in the world suffered huge losses every year - up to 4% of the gross
national product [41].
According to J.A. Williams[42] the equation applicable for the abrasive or
mechanical wear rate is given as:
W = KPV/R2H
Where K is a constant whose value varies for the type of surfaces as well as the
load applied. In the regime dominated by mechanical wear, there are regions
within which the spacing between contours of wear rate is equal to that between
changes of load of the same factor, for example as K goes from 10 -9 to 10-8 or

16
from 10-5 to 10-4 the load also changes by a factor of 10. In each of these cases
wear rate and load are directly proportional to each other. But this is not the case
throughout the region; the gap between the contours for K equal to 10 -8 to that
for 10-5, covering three orders of magnitude corresponds to a load change of only
one order. This very rapid increase in wear rate is an example of the transition
from ‘mild’, and hence usually acceptable levels, to ‘severe’ (and usually
unacceptable) values brought about by an increase in load. Dry or marginally
lubricated contacts in machines between steel surfaces often operate at nominal
pressures of a few.

1.4.3 EROSIVE WEAR

Erosive wear can be described as an extremely short sliding motion and is

executed within a short time interval. Erosive wear is caused by the impact of
particles of solid or liquid against the surface of an object.

There are three types of erosion:

1) Solid particle where erosion is caused by particles in a gas or fluid.
2) Liquid drops where liquid drops produce it.
3) Cavitation where gas bubbles in the liquid can generate damage [43].
The impingement of solid particles, or small drops of liquid or gas often cause
what is known as erosion of materials and components. Solid particle impact
erosion has been receiving increasing attention, especially in the aerospace
industry [44]. Movement of the particle stream relative to the surface and angle
of impingement both have a significant effect on the rate of material removal
[45]. The erosive effects on materials at high temperatures is important for the
selection of turbine engine materials in the aerospace industry [46].

17
Cavitation damage generally occurs in such fluid-handling machines as marine
propellors, hydrofoils, dam slipways, gates, and all other hydraulic turbines [47].
Cavitation erosion roughens a surface much like an etchant would [48].

The rate of erosive wear is dependent upon a number of factors. The material
characteristics of the particles, such as their shape, hardness, and impact velocity
and impingement angle are primary factors along with the properties of the
surface being eroded. The impingement angle is one of the most important
factors and is widely recognized in literature. [49].

1.5 THEORIES OF WEAR

Wear models are used to predict the reaction of a material to a wear situation and
to forecast the rate of material removal from the surface of a body. No matter
which type of model is developed, the resolution of the problem involves the use
of material wear data. For phenomenon logical models, this is generally in the
form of rankings or relative wear performance for different materials obtained
from tests or prior experience. For models involving analytical relationships, this
generally is in the form of values for empirical wear coefficients, associated with
the underlying wear equations. All equations proposed for wear have such
coefficients [50].
In general practice while evaluating wear resistance or conducting wear tests,
some mathematical models assume certain wear profiles and symmetry. These
assumptions do not account for the different orientations of work-piece provide
error in results. On the other hand, modern instruments are sophisticated enough
can capture precise profiles and dimensions to produce a more accurate
measurement of material loss. Researchers are also suggested some parameters
hardness, fatigue or tensile strength producing effect in wear rate. Hardness does

18
give any indication of the wear resistance of a material; however studies have
demonstrated that the addition of certain alloying elements increases the wear
resistance but not the hardness. Therefore hardness alone cannot describe the
wear resistance properties of a material.
Wear theories are based on empirical equations, contact mechanics approach and
on a failure mechanics approach. But however no general agreement has been
achieved, at any level regarding variables governing. Meng [51] found that a
total of 100 variables have been employed in over 180 models and that no two
papers agree on the importance of any one variable in the wear process.
Table 1.1: Various Theories Of Wear
S.No. Theory Name Year Equation Applicability
1. Amonton [52] 1689 F= μN Friction Based
2. Reye 1860 Q=fP Pressure Based
3. Reye 1860 Lw = KRP Pressure Based
4. Reye[53] 1860 V = KRW Volume Based
5. Tabor[54] 1939 F = kA Area Based
6. Holm[55] 1946 V = z P/Pm Probability Based
7. Archard[56] 1953 V/s = k P/pm Sliding Distance
Based
8. Fouvry et al[57] 2001 V = αv (ΣED - Energy Based
EDA)
9. Fillot et al[58] 2007 Qs = Cs (Mimax - Volume Flow
Mi ) Rate Based
10. Savio et al[59] 2008 ΔV / A =KRv Velocity Based
t
∫0 pdt

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The mathematical model discussed above described the various effects regarding
friction since it is one of the major causes of wear. But in every theory the
surfaces which are kept in contact for wear to take place are in horizontal
position or at one particular orientation thus there is need to check the wear for
one particular set of condition at different orientation, even from prima facie it
seems that there will be some wear of material which do takes place and hence
this can also be one of the cause of the wear, thus orientation of surfaces of
material kept in contact must be taken in account. In the existing models the
surfaces are kept horizontal and the rates of wear are calculated keeping one
fixed orientation. It is also necessity to developed mathematical model which
should be based on friction which takes in to account all the relative orientation
between the surfaces. The wear rate should vary changing the orientation of
surfaces. Basically there are four main methods of analysis with respect to wear.
Conversely, other authors have stated that the assumptions inherent in Archard’s
law do not accurately represent the wear process; Fouvry refuted, based on
investigation, the assumption that the wear coefficient will not effect the wear
process. But wear coefficient may vary when the orientation of surfaces changes.
Fillot questioned the overall approach used by Archard in confining the
investigation to a study of the mode of material removal only and not the effect
this debris will have on wear performance. Couple of the authors had selected an
energy balance approach, one utilizes a contact mechanics approach and one has
used a three body mass balance. An importantly the mass balance approach is
significantly different from the other three in that it examines the system from a
global point of view i.e. considering the inputs and flow of mass rather than
specific processes of material degradation. As a result of this difference in
approach the variables used to relate the wear process to the removal of material

20
will also be relatively diverse. The volume removed from a surface is a
fundamental variable that is common to all papers; for the contact mechanics and
the mass balance the sliding distance is also common but this is where the
similarities end. The energy balance approach is concerned with the energy
dissipated into the material; however both of the examples above examine this in
a different manner. The strengths and findings of current models and
investigations should be utilized to allow new work to progress and therefore
improve our knowledge. It is in the view of this author that a new approach
regarding orientation of surfaces might be very beneficial; this would incorporate
a global view to investigate the motion of debris during the process and then a
more detailed study of the material removal process to bring an older way of
thinking together with a new concept.
Wear parameters are considered in different areas like micro wear etc, that can
be achieved from a better understanding of wear. The review study on wear
showed the strengths and findings of models and investigations should be
utilized to allow new work to progress and therefore improve our knowledge. It
is in the view of this author that a multi-orientational set-up is need of the hour ,
so that wear should be checked at different angular position , this will not only
add the new a dimension to study the wear but will also gives the better
understanding wear behaviour of metal. This approach might be very beneficial;
this would incorporate a new view to investigate the motion of debris during the
process and then a more detailed study of the material removal process to bring
an older way of thinking together with a new concept.

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1.5.1 MATHMATICAL MODELLING TECHNIQUES
Studies had focused on the various wear mechanisms: abrasion, adhesion,
erosion, corrosion wear, fatigue wear and also on different combinations of
these. Kloss et al. emphasized the various tools such as wear measuring
equipments, mathematical modeling, tribo meters and simulations are used for
measuring wear resistance and wear rate over many decades. On the other hand,
modern instruments are sophisticated enough can capture precise profiles and
dimensions to produce a more accurate measurement of material loss.
Researchers are also suggested some parameters hardness, fatigue or tensile
strength producing effect in wear rate. Hardness does give any indication of the
wear resistance of a material; however studies have demonstrated that the
addition of certain alloying elements increases the wear resistance but not the
hardness [72].
Classical wear theory begins by considering the rate of material removal as a
function of the sliding speed, the hardness of the material, the load applied and
the probability of a material to produce a wear particle in a given contact
situation[60,61]. There are four main theories that are used as a basis to begin a
wear model: a mass balance approach, an energy balance approach, a
stress/strain analysis and a contact mechanics approach to determine material
behavior.
For analysis, some models are based wholly on established / classical wear
theory while more recent work on wear models have been based on micro and
nano scaled scientific approaches.

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1.5.1.1 WEAR THEORY (CLASSICAL)

Wear is a continuous process in which material is degraded every cycle.

Lubrication of the material only buys time of material but it is not a permanent
cure. Wear theories are based on empirical equations, contact mechanics
approach and on a failure mechanics approach. Meng[51] found that a total of
100 variables have been employed in over 180 models and that no two papers
agree on the importance of any one variable in the wear process. One of the main
cause of wear is friction which is intrinsically linked to wear. Amonton[52]
began to study in this field. Equation 1 gives the hypothesis he proposed:

F=μN (1)

Where F is the friction force, μ is the coefficient of friction and N is the normal
load applied. This equation for friction is based on two primary assumptions; the
stress distribution is independent of the normal load. The load applied is
proportional to the real area of contact; if each surface is considered to be
composed of a complex topography of asperities then the real area of contact is
said to be the common area shared between meeting asperities. Coulomb [62,63]
also developed laws of solid friction he proposes that the coefficient of friction
was independent of the relative velocity of the bodies.

1.5.1.1.1 REYE [53]

According to Reye the tangential stress which is similar to shear stress acting on
a body at the interface between the two surfaces would reach a threshold value
then the body would start slipping. He gave the following relationship
q = f *p (2)
Where q is the tangential stress and p is the applied pressure. From this point
Reye hypothesized that the wear occurring at the material interface, as indicated
23
by the depth of material removed from the surface of the body is proportional to
the pressure applied to the material surface It is subjected to a normal and a
tangential force .The wear relationship is defined by Equation 3:
Lw = KRp (3)
Where Lw is the depth of the wear scar, KR is a constant of proportionality
dependant on the material conditions at the contact boundary and p is the
pressure applied over the contact.
Reye considered that the volume of material removed from a body was
proportional to the energy dissipated into it by the relative motion of the two
contacting surfaces [64,65]
V = KRW (4)
Where V is the volume of material removed, KR is Reye’s wear constant and W
is the work dissipated into the material. The important point in Reyes theory, that
he was the first to consider energy dissipiation while computing the wear
volume.
1.5.1.1.2 TABOR [54]
D. Tabor posted that the actual amount of contact between two bodies is actually
much less than the apparent contact area. He has described this phenomenon by
saying “flat surfaces are held apart by small surface irregularities”[66]. His
description of surface asperities in contact was substantiated by his empirical
investigation into this phenomenon.
It was assumed in early age that the contact is elastic and the conductivity
between the bodies would be dependent on the cubed root of the load applied.
The findings showed that the actual conductivity (and hence the actual contact
area) increased with increasing load and greatest correlation was found with the
equation developed using a plastic deformation assumption.

24
1.5.1.1.3 HOLM [55]
Holm began to consider the process of wear with reference to the relative motion
of surface asperities. This relationship is governed by Equation 5.
V = z P/Pm (5)
In the above equation V is the volume of material removed per unit sliding
distance, z is the probability of removal of an atom per atomic encounter and
would depend on the properties of the materials in contact, P is the load applied
and Pm is the flow pressure of a worn surface, which is comparable to the
hardness of a material [67,68].

1.5.1.1.4 ARCHARD [56]

Archard endeavoured to incorporate different variables into one predictive
equation. These considerations are as follows: the wear mechanism (adhesion),
the area of contact, the contact pressure, the sliding distance and the material
properties [69] . Archard’s model is based upon the motion and interaction of
opposing asperities on either contacting body. In continuation to Holm’s work he
assumed that the deformation occurring was of a plastic type and that the
material property of greatest importance was the “flow pressure” of the softer
metal.
Equation 6 is Archard’s wear equation.
V/s = k P/pm (6)
Where V is the volume of material removed (m3), s is the sliding distance (m), k
is the wear coefficient, P is the load applied (N), pm is the flow pressure of the
material under examination. It can be seen that the rate of material removal is
directly proportional to the load applied and that independent of the apparent
area of contact.

25
1.5.1.2 WEAR THEORY (MODERN)

1.5.1.2.1 FOUVRY et al [57]

According to Fouvry et al the portion kinetic energy applied to the tribo-system
will be consumed up in number of ways, firstly it will be used up for work done
to the contacting material against friction , secondly to produce heat and to
deform the surface asperities which produces wear particles. The volume of wear
matter produced will be a result of the total energy dissipated into the material,
the energy needed to activate wear and will also depend on an energy wear
coefficient. This relationship is shown in Equation 7.
V = αv (ΣED - EDA) (7)
Where V is the volume of material removed, αV is the wear energy coefficient,
ΣED is the accumulated energy dissipated into the material and E DA is the energy
required to activate wear.
The wear energy coefficient is given as :
αv = V/Qmol = M/d X 1/Cf (Eαy - Ea) (8)
Where V is the total volume of the material removed & Qmol is the energy
required to remove the material per unit mole , M is the molecular mass d is the
density Cf is a constant related to the contact arrangement , Eσy is the
mechanical energy to yield the material and Ea is the activation energy of
oxidation. The above equation can be used to calculate the wear using energy
approach.
1.5.1.2.2 FILLOT et al [58]
According to Fillot et al the presence of wear particles in the system will act as
a dry lubricant, To formulate an analytical model the author first composes a
particular definition of the third body concept stating that wear is a process

26
characterized by three distinct phases: material detachment from the surface of a
body, the mass of particles within the contact area and finally the ejection of
particulate matter from the system; referring to figure 1 these are Q s, Mi and Qw
respectively. As a result the change in mass of particles within the system can be
written as a function of the two volume flow rates, as given in equation 12; the
author refers to this as the mass equilibrium equation (i.e. it is a mass balance).
dMi/dt = Qs - Qw (12)

Subsequently the author defined two relationships that were essential in this
wear analysis, these are the connection between Qs and Mi and secondly between
Qw and Mi. Fig.1 shows graphical representation of three body concept.

Fig.1.6: Graphical Representation Of Three Body

concept

The first relationship (Qs - Mi) is referred to as the source flow activation and
represents the particle generation process; as discussed, this was the sole concern
of Archard’s wear law. The author considers this in three stages. Firstly he states
that the normal pressure applied across the contact will be equally shared by the
surfaces and the third body. Furthermore he states that the total sliding distance
occurring in the system will be composed of the sliding distance of the two
27
surfaces and the sliding distance of the third body, which represents the shear
occurring between particles, and uses this definition to arrive at equation 13.

dXtotal = dXFB + dXTB (13)

Where dXtotal is the total sliding distance, dXFB is the sliding distance of the
contacting surfaces and dXTB is the sliding distance of Mi. The total velocity of
the system is the rate of change of distance with respect to time and therefore can
be written as in equation 14.
V = dXFB/dt + dXTB/dt (14)

Where V is the total velocity of the system. The author now considers the
occurrence of shear within the system, stating that, as a preference, shear will
occur in the third body rather than at the contacting surfaces as long as it is
“easier” to do so. This will cease to be the case when the maximum value of
shear stress has been obtained within the third body; hence at τmax. The shear rate
can then be expressed as a function of the max shear stress and therefore a
function of the velocity within the third body and its thickness as shown in
equation 15.
ν = 1/HTB * dXTB/dt (15)
Where ν is the shear rate, HTB is the height of the third body. If the shear rate of
the system is assumed to be a constant then the velocity of the third body is
proportional to its height. Therefore the mass of the third body can be related to
the sliding velocity:

dXTB/dt = aMi (16)

28
Where ‘a’ is a constant of proportionality. The variable Qs is considered with
respect to the sliding velocity of the bodies in contact. Referring to Archard the
volume of material removed from the body is proportional to the sliding
distance; hence the rate of change of volume produced (volume flow-rate Qs)
will be proportional to the rate of change of sliding distance (i.e. velocity)
dXFB /dt = bQs (17)

Qs = Cs (Mimax - Mi ) (18)
Where ‘b’ is a constant of proportionality. Equations 17, 16 and 14 can now be
combined to find a relationship between Qs and Mi. From this last equation it can
be seen that the flow of material from the contact surfaces is proportional to the
mass of material already trapped in the contact area. The author does not
examine the process of material removal from the surfaces in great detail but he
proposes that material removal will occur when the energy present in the system
cannot be absorbed by the third body.
The mathematical model discussed above described the various effects regarding
friction since it is one of the major causes of wear. But in every theory the
surfaces which are kept in contact for wear to take place are in horizontal
position or at one particular orientation thus there is need to check the wear for
one particular set of condition to at different orientation. In the existing models
the surfaces are kept horizontal and the rates of wear are calculated keeping one
fixed orientation. Basically there are four main methods of analysis with respect
to wear. Conversely, other authors [57,59] have stated that the assumptions
inherent in Archard’s law do not accurately represent the wear process; Fouvry
refused, based on investigation, the assumption that the wear coefficient will not
effect the wear process. But wear coefficient may vary when the orientation of

29
surfaces changes. Fillot questioned the overall approach used by Archard in
confining the investigation to a study of the mode of material. Two of the
authors in section 3 have selected an energy balance approach, one utilises a
contact mechanics approach and one has used a three body mass balance. An
importantly the mass balance approach is significantly different from the other
three in that it examines the system from a global point of view i.e. considering
the inputs and flow of mass rather than specific processes of material
degradation. As a result of this difference in approach the variables used to relate
the wear process to the removal of material will also be relatively diverse. The
energy balance approach is concerned with the energy dissipated into the
material, The strengths and findings of current models and investigations should
be utilized to allow new work to progress and therefore improve our knowledge.
It is in the view of this author that a new approach regarding orientation of
surfaces might be very beneficial.

1.5.1.2.3 SAVIO et al [59]

Savio et al conducted his experiment for the polishing of glass. There will be a
polishing element due to the polishing tool and an abrasive action due to the
slurry used to aid in material removal. The various hypotheses were discussed
regarding the experiment. He proposes to examine the variables of concern to
the process, namely: tool deformation, sliding speed, tool dimensions and the
initial surface roughness[70]. As the glass is polished there will be a significant
deterioration of the tool and it the apparatus will account for this degradation in
order to apply a constant pressure. In order to do this the sliding velocity and the
pressure are introduced to derive Equation 9:
dv/A = KRpvdt (9)

30
Where dv is the incremental change in volume, A is the contact area, p is the
pressure applied over the contact area, v is the sliding velocity and dt is the
incremental change in time. This function can now be integrated to determine the
volume lost over the total experiment in the following manner
t
ΔV / A = ∫0 KR pvdt (10)

t
ΔV / A =KRv ∫0 pdt (11)

In Equation 11, the velocity of the tool is assumed constant and so too is the
wear coefficient; therefore the pressure will be integrated with respect to the time
it is applied over. In the case of equation 10 the tool speed is not assumed
constant and nor is the Reye coefficient. The author has found good correlation
with work produced by other authors in the field of polishing wear/ Machining
[71] with regard to the wear co-efficient[72].

1.6 INPUT/OUTPUT PARAMETERS RELATED TO WEAR RATE

IN GRINDING
Grinding medium wear is believed to result-from complex and poorly
understood interactions among corrosion, abrasion, and mpact. The contribution
from each of these three mechanisms has not been firmly established, owing in
part to the difficulty of measuring the separate components, and conflicting
views are found throughout the literature on the relative importance of each
mechanism [73].
Grinding is the common collective name for machining processes which utilize
hard abrasive particles as the cutting medium [74].As a material removal
process, grinding has a long history ever since the Stone Age.The modern
31
abrasive technology was only established relative recently through the
introduction of grinding machines and synthetic abrasives in the 19 th century[75].
Nowadays, grinding becomes the most critical surface finishing process which
accounts for about 70% within the spectrum of precision machining[76].The
applications of grinding can be found in most industrial areas, including
aerospace, automotive, transportation,medical devices and electronics where
high surface quality and fine tolerance are required on the components. Despite
of the industrial prominence of grinding operation, it seems that grinding still
appears to be a „black art‟ and receives the least understanding among all the
material removal processes [77].Grinding, as a complex machining process with
large numbers of parameters influencing each other, can be considered as
aprocess where the grinding wheel engage with the workpiece at a high speed.To
achieve better process control a model is required to predict and demonstrate the
whole life cycle performance in relation to the process input parameters.The
process performance generally corresponds to the factors influencing either cost
or quality; while the input parameters typically consists of the wheel
specification, operational parameters, and the machine tool control methods. All
the grinding performance characteristics are interrelated with the process input
parameters through the wheel-workpiece contact zone.This becomes extremely
complicated when comes to precise quantitative evaluation for the process
performance due to the lack of perception in the wheel-workpiece contact zone
[78]. Therefore, two viable grinding process modeling and control should be
obtainable only if a more detailed understanding of the wheel-workpiece
interaction is perceived[79].
Grinding is a complex material removal process with a large number of
parameters influencing each other. In the process, the grinding wheel surface

32
contacts the workpiece at high speed and under high pressure [80]. The various
input and output parameters in grinding are given in fig.

Process Input Paramaeter Wheel/Workpiece System Output Measures

Engagement Zone

Machine Tool Grinding Force Static Process Stability

Grinding Speed Wheel wear Dynamic Process Stability

Grinding Feed Rate Surface Texture Geometric Error

Grinding Depth Temprature Surface Texture

Workpiece Properties Process Input Paramaeter Surface integrity.

Abrasive cost.
Wheel Surface Properties

Cycle time (cost).

Fig. 1.7 : Input / Output Parameters In Grinding [80]

There are many factors that affect the abrasive and corrosive wear of grinding
media. The composition and metallurgical properties of the grinding media, ore
mineralogy, pulp viscosity, rheological properties and water chemistry
throughout of grinding circuit and speed of the mill have the greatest weight in
the abrasive wear. Moreover, composition and metallurgical properties of the
grinding media, galvanic interaction between grinding media and mineral, ore
mineralogy, water chemistry, pH, Eh and solid content had the highest degree of
importance in corrosive wear, respectively. Furthermore, gas purging, Eh and
33
discharge type of mill were the least significant factors in abrasive wear.
Additionally, discharge type, diameter and speed of the mill were the least
important factors in corrosive wear [81].

Factors Affecting Grinding Media

Grinding Enviroment Grinding Circuit Ginding Media

Composition and metallurgical

pH Throughout
properties of grinding media

Circulating Load Grinding media size

Viscosity

Grinding media
% Solid Grinding Time
distribution

Temprature Charge Weight

Hardness
Rheological Properties

Shape
Gas Purging

Water Chemistry

Galvanic interactions between grinding

media and mineral in wet grinding

Fig 1.8 :Factors Affecting Abrasive And Corrosive Wear Of Grinding

Media[81]

It is well-known that lab tests on wear-rate of grinding media cannot precisely

represent its industrial performance due to complex grinding conditions

34
[82].with the help of microscopic interaction models, the force consumption for
each single contact couple can be obtained. Integration of the all the microscopic
force gives the grinding force (power) consumption in global scale and it is given
as :

𝐺𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝐶𝑢𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 + 𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 + 𝑆𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 +

𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 + 𝐵𝑜𝑛𝑑_𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒.
this also gives a discrete heat source moving along the workpiece surface for
future grinding temperature calculation [80].

35
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