Fundamentals of

SAFETY PLANNING AND DESIGN

Presented by:

JUNIFFEN I. TACADENA
 PART 2:
SAFE DESIGN
 Definition of Terms:

AASHTO

American Association of State Highway and Transportation

Officials. It was established in 1914 as an association of State
Territorial and District of Columbia Highway Department.

Includes Transportation Materials Specifications and Tests

Specification of Highway Bridges
Geometric Design Standards
Numerous policies and guides
 Definition of Terms:

Roads vs. Highways

Road – broader application in usage and generally used to

describe a public thoroughfare.

Highway – A road created a way higher than the adjacent

land.

Highway now connotes, a higher state of development than

road, but some people think that they are interchangeable.
 Definition of Terms:

Expressway vs. Freeway

Expressway – is a divided arterial highway for through traffic

with partial control of access and generally provided with
grade separation at major intersections.

Freeway – is an expressway with full control of access.

 Definition of Terms:

Arterial road, Collector road and Local road

Arterial – carries traffic to the nearest access point or

through traffic. Arterials provide access to adjacent
property.

Collector road – form smaller mesh grid where passengers

are pick up from service/local road and carried to the
arterials.

Local roads – defined as road primarily for access to

residence, business or other adjoining properties. It is also
defined as a road maintained by local government.
Definition of Terms:

How about Boulevard, Avenue, Flyover or Underpass?

 Definition of Terms:

AADT

Annual Average Daily Traffic – refers to traffic volume or flow

on a highway as measured by the number of vehicles
passing a partial station during a given interval of time.
 Definition of Terms:

Design Speed

It is the speed determined for design and correlation of the

physical feature of a highway that influence vehicle
operation.

It is the maximum speed that can be maintained over a

specified section of the highway when weather and traffic
conditions are so favorable that the design features of the
highway govern.
Definition of Terms:

Minimum Recommended Design Speed

Facility Design Speed

Urban (kph) Rural (kph)
Freeway 80-95 preferred 110-95
mountainous
Arterial 64-95 but 48 in 80-110
built up areas
Collectors 48 (Next Table)
Local 32-48 (Next Table)
 Definition of Terms:

AASHTO Minimum Recommended Design Speed for Rural

Collectors and Local roads)
Class Terrain Average Daily Traffic (ADT)

Collector 0-400 400-750 750-2000 2000-4000 Over 4000

Level 60 75 75 75 90
Rolling 45 60 60 75 75
Mountainous 30 45 45 60 60
Local 0-50 50-250 250-400 Over 400
Level 45 45 60 75
Rolling 30 45 45 60
Mountainous 30 30 30 45
Safe Design Factors

• Road Surface
• Road Alignment
• Width or Cross Section
• Sight Distance
• Delineation
• Traffic Conflicts
• Road Users (Pedestrians, Cyclists)
• Speed Management
I. Road Surface

Road Surface

• A good road surface can maximize safety

on the road and prevent traffic accidents.

• Areas where a good road surface is

particularly important:
• On the approach to traffic signals
• At roundabouts
• Around tight curves
• On downhill/uphill slopes
I. Road Surface

Road Surface

Road Surface with depressed Poor road edge

manhole lid
II. Road Alignment

Road Alignment

Objectives for Good Design:

• To design a predictable road environment.

• To travel safely at a normal operating speed

of the road.

• Keep traffic safely on the road.

II. Road Alignment

When do problems occur?

• When the alignment of the road ahead is not

conspicuous to the driver.

• When pavement and vehicles are hidden

due to the road alignment or environment.
What can you observe from the
following pictures?
• Horizontal
curve at the
end of a
steep
downgrade.
• Small radius
curve due to
extreme
topographical
terrain.
• Poor vertical
sag which
often hide a
vehicle.
• Poor
combination
of vertical
and horizontal
curves.
• Poor vertical
alignment
approaching
a T-
intersection.
II. Road Alignment
II. Road Alignment
II. Road Alignment
II. Road Alignment
II. Road Alignment
II. Road Alignment
II. Road Alignment
II. Road Alignment
II. Road Alignment
II. Road Alignment
II. Road Alignment
II. Road Alignment

Suggested Minimum length of

Superelevation Runoff for 2 Lane

Super Length of Runoff for Design Speed in meters

elevation 35 50 65 80 95 115 130
rate, kph
0.02 9.0 10.5 12.0 15.0 16.5 18.0 19.5
0.04 18.0 21.0 25.5 28.5 33.0 36.0 39.0
0.06 28.5 33.0 37.5 43.5 48.0 54.0 60.0
0.08 37.5 43.5 51.0 57.0 64.5 72.0 79.5
0.10 48.0 54.0 63.0 72.0 81.0 90.0 99.0
III. Cross Section
III. Cross Section
III. Cross Section

Typical Elements of a road Cross

Section
• Traffic Lanes
• Shoulders
• Curb and Gutter
• Drainage
• Pedestrian Facilities
• Auxiliary Lanes
III. Cross Section

Traffic Lanes

• 3.35m = Minimum width per lane

III. Cross Section

Shoulders

• Road shoulder or verge is defined as that portion of the

roadway between the edge of the traffic lane and the
edge of the ditch, gutter, curb or side slope. AASHTO
requires that its usable pavement width shall be strong
enough to support vehicles.
III. Cross Section

Shoulders

Importance of Shoulder:

1. Road Shoulder serves as a place for vehicles to stop when

disabled or for some other purposes. Road shoulder
considerably reduces road accidents.
2. The road capacity is decreased and accident opportunity
increases if the shoulder is too narrow or omitted in the
design.
3. Shoulder should be continuous along the full length of the
roadway. It also adds structural strength to the road
pavement.
4. Shoulder increases the horizontal sight distance on curves. It
reduces accident potential when vehicle stop during
emergencies.
III. Cross Section

Shoulders

Policy on Geometric Design Recommended that:

1. Outside shoulder should be paved for at least 3 or

3.6m wide if truck volume is more than 250 in the ADT.
2. The recommended width of left (median) shoulder is
1.20 to 2.40m with at least 1.20m paved.
3. If there are 6 or more lanes, the median shoulder
should be 3m wide or 3.60m if truck volume in the
design hour exceeds 250.
4. For arterials with ADT less than 400, the usable shoulder
width is fixed at 1.20m minimum although 2.40 m wide
is much preferred.
III. Cross Section

Shoulders

• Can be paved or unpaved, as long as it is

well maintained.
• On curve alignment, paving of the outside
curve shoulder is advisable.
• Shoulder widths may be increased if there
are a significant number of pedestrians or
other needs requiring use of the shoulder.
III. Cross Section

Department Orders on Shoulder

Paving
• DO. No. 22, Series of 2013 – Clarification on the
Definition and Difference Between Widening and
Paving of Shoulders.
• 1.50m to 3.05m = shoulder paving
• >3.05 = widening
III. Cross Section

Department Orders on Shoulder

Paving
• DO. No. 40, Series of 2012 – Guidelines on Shoulder
Paving along National Roads.
• Minimum width of 1.50m
• Edgeline marking should be applied to clearly
distinguish shoulder from carriageway.
• Paved shoulder should be provided at:
• High road embankment, horizontal curved
alignment with >7% super elevation and areas with
steep and long gradient.
• Pedestrian railings may be provided between the
carriageway and shoulder to confine pedestrian
along shoulder/sidewalk (schools, markets, parks)
III. Cross Section

Shoulders

Width of Roadway for Undivided Highway

Total Travelway Shoulder Width Roadway width Speed

14 m 3.25 20.50 100-80-60-40
12 m 3.25 18.50 60-40
7m 2.75 12.50 100-80-60-40
7m 2.00 11.00 80-60-40
6.7 m 2.75 12.20 100-80-60-40
6.7 m 2.00 10.70 80-60-40
6m 2.75 11.50 80-60-40
6m 1.50 9.00 80-60-40
III. Cross Section

Curb and Gutter

• May serve as: drainage control, roadway edge

delineation, delineation of pedestrian walkways,
etc.
• Take careful considerations on using curbs at a
high speed road (may result to vaulting).
III. Cross Section

Drainage

• Essential part of any road but can often be

hazardous to vehicles that run-off road.
• Deep open drains should be provided with covers
where need is greatest such as in urban areas and
on the inner side of curves in mountain terrain.
III. Cross Section

Auxiliary Lanes

Overtaking Lanes
• On two lane, two way roads especially where
speeds are high.
• When speeds of vehicles are reduced due to
rolling or mountainous terrain.

Climbing Lanes
• A special form of overtaking lane provided only
on inclines.
• Accidents attributable to the effects of slow
moving trucks are significant.
III. Cross Section

Auxiliary Lanes

Overtaking Lanes
• On two lane, two way roads especially where
speeds are high.
• When speeds of vehicles are reduced due to
rolling or mountainous terrain.

Climbing Lanes
• A special form of overtaking lane provided only
on inclines.
• Accidents attributable to the effects of slow
moving trucks are significant.
III. Cross Section

Merging and Diverging for

Auxiliary Lanes
III. Cross Section

Auxiliary Lanes

Slow Vehicle Turn-outs

• A very short section of fully constructed shoulder
or added lane that is provided to allow slow
vehicles to pull aside and be overtaken.
III. Cross Section

Sample Problems

Given:
B = 20m SS = 1.5:1

Compute for Area of the cross section of the road.

III. Cross Section

Sample Problems

Solution:
III. Cross Section

Sample Problems

Solution:
III. Cross Section

Sample Problems

Solution:
By Triangle Method
III. Cross Section

Sample Problems

Solution:
By Triangle Method
III. Cross Section

Sample Problems

Solution:
By Trapezoidal Method
III. Cross Section

Sample Problems

Solution:
By Trapezoidal Method
III. Cross Section

Sample Problems

Solution:
By Coordinate Method
III. Cross Section

Sample Problems

Solution:
By Coordinate Method
III. Cross Section

Computation of Volume (Cut or

Fill)
A. Average End Area Method
III. Cross Section

Computation of Volume (Cut or

Fill)
B. Prismoidal Method
III. Cross Section

Computation of Volume (Cut or

Fill)
* Prismoidal Correction Formula
IV. Sight Distance

Sight Distance

• SD is the distance needed to allow a driver

to perceive and react to any hazardous
situation.

• SD is the distance needed to enable

drivers to avoid any object or come to a
safe stop before colliding with the object
or vehicle.
IV. Sight Distance

Stopping Sight Distance

IV. Sight Distance

Stopping Sight Distance

Stopping Sight Distance is defines as the longest

distance that a driver could see the top of an
object 15 centimeters (6”) above the road
surface where the design height of the driver’s
eye above the pavement is 105 cm.
IV. Sight Distance

Two (2) Components of

Stopping Sight Distance (SSD)
• Reaction Distance – the distance travelled
after the object is seen and before the
driver reacts and applies the brakes.

• Braking Distance – the distance required

for vehicle to slow down.

SSD = Reaction Distance + Braking Distance

IV. Sight Distance

Two (2) Components of

Stopping Sight Distance (SSD)
IV. Sight Distance

Typical Stopping Distances

30 km/h

12 metres Thinking Distance

or 3 car lengths
Braking Distance
50 km/h

23 metres
or 6 car lengths

80 km/h
53 metres
or 13 car lengths

100 km/h

73 metres
Average car length = 4 metres or 18 car lengths
IV. Sight Distance

Stopping Sight Distance at

Various Speed
IV. Sight Distance

Minimum Stopping Sight

Distance (Wet Road)
Design Assume Break Reaction Coefficient Stopping Sight Distance
Speed, kph Speed for Time, sec Distance, m of friction Computed Rounded
condition meter for design,
m

30 30-32 2.5 22-24 0.40 31.8-35.8 36-38

40 40-50 2.5 31-33 0.35 53.4-58.8 60-60
60 55-60 2.5 40-44 0.32 80.1-94.2 82-97
75 65-75 2.5 48-55 0.30 112.8-138.3 112-142
90 80-90 2.5 57-66 0.29 150.2-190.2 157-195
100 85-95 2.5 61-71 0.29 165.0-217.2 165-217
105 90-100 2.5 64-77 0.28 183.9-252.0 187-255
110 90-110 2.5 67-83 0.28 200.1-283.0 202-285
120 95-120 2.5 71-88 0.27 222.3-324.9 225-330
IV. Sight Distance

Passing Sight Distance

Passing Sight Distance is the longest distance that

a driver can see the top of an incoming vehicle
where the driver’s eye level is 1.05m above the
pavement surface.
IV. Sight Distance

Passing Sight Distance

IV. Sight Distance

Minimum PSD for Two-lane

Highways
Assumed speed Minimum PSD in meters
Design Speed. Passed vehicle, Overtaking, kph Computed Rounded
Kph kph

35 35 48 243 240
50 42 58 327 320
65 55 70 444 440
80 65 82 552 550
95 75 91 642 640
100 80 96 693 690
110 86 102 747 740
120 90 105 780 780
135 95 110 822 820
IV. Sight Distance

AASHTO Recommended
Maximum coefficient of friction

Design Speed, 32 48 64 80 97 113 129

kph
f 0.17 0.16 0.15 0.14 0.12 0.10 0.08
IV. Sight Distance

Circular Curves

A vehicle traveling in curved road is subject to centrifugal

force. This force is balanced by equal and opposite forces
developed through the super elevation and side frictions.
The sharpness of the curve is dependent on its radius
IV. Sight Distance

Sharpness permissible
Horizontal Curves
Maximum Permissible Degree of Curve D or Minimum Radius Design Speed
Kph 35 50 65 80 97 113 127
Coefficient of Side Friction
Super Conditi 0.17 0.16 0.15 0.14 0.13 0.12 0.11
elevati on Use
on
0.04 Desirabl
e for
down
arterials D 45 19 10 6 3.75 - -
Rm 39 92 175 291 466 - -
0.10 Max for
Rural
highwa
y and
suburba
n
freewa D 58 25 13.25 8.25 5.25 3.5 2.25
y Rm 30 70 132 198 333 499 776
V. Delineation

Delineation
• The guidance of drivers as they travel along a length
of road is important to provide safe travel conditions.

• Delineation is generally provided by the following

devices:
• Pavement Markings
• Signs
• Guide Post
• Reflective Delineators
• Lighting
• Curb or other physical devices
V. Delineation

Delineation

Good Road Delineation

Poor Road Delineation

VI. Traffic Conflicts (Intersection)

Intersection

“A place where two or more roads meet at

grade”

Intersections are high risk locations because

different road users are required to use the
same space.

Intersections are the location of up to 50%

(urban) and 20% (rural) crashes in most
countries.
VI. Traffic Conflicts (Intersection)

Major Types of Intersection

VI. Traffic Conflicts (Intersection)

Basic Principles in providing

Safety at Intersections
• Control of traffic
• Control of conflicts
• Control of speed
• Channelization
• Clear defining of vehicle path
• Auxiliary lanes
• Turning lanes
VI. Traffic Conflicts (Intersection)

Control of Traffic

Main forms of control at intersection are:

• Road rules – Chapter IV – Traffic Rules in RA
No. 4136 ‘Land Transportation and Traffic
Code’
• Prioritization – ‘Give Way’ or ‘Stop’ signs
• Traffic signals and regulatory signs
VI. Traffic Conflicts (Intersection)

Control of Conflicts

Conflict Point occurs where two travel paths

interact or cross.
VI. Traffic Conflicts (Intersection)
VI. Traffic Conflicts (Intersection)
VI. Traffic Conflicts (Intersection)
VI. Traffic Conflicts (Intersection)

Control of Speed

Relative Speed is the

vectorial speed of
convergence of the
vehicles in a conflict
maneuver.
VI. Traffic Conflicts (Intersection)

Control of Speed
VI. Traffic Conflicts (Intersection)

Channelization
VI. Traffic Conflicts (Intersection)

Channelization

(1) (2)
Chaos

(3) (4)
Control
VI. Traffic Conflicts (Intersection)

Turning Lanes

Left turn lane in major road

This layout should be used wherever there

are conflicts between left-turning traffic
and through traffic. It is the preferred type
for all multi-lane (divided or undivided)
roads and all high-speed roads.

The diagram (right) shows islands created

using road markings. Drivers can be
discouraged from running over the islands
by installing asphalt rumble strips (max.
15mm high) within them. In built-up areas
with street lighting the islands should be
raised (curbed) – these provide greater
control and help pedestrians.
VI. Traffic Conflicts (Intersection)

Turning Lanes

Slip roads (turning roadways) for right-

turners

 Slip roads should only be provided

where there is a high proportion of
right-turners, or many right-turning
long vehicles. They should be
designed to control speeds and to
encourage drivers to give way to
other traffic and not put pedestrians
at risk. Do not use slip roads on their
own without a splitter island in the
minor road.
VI. Traffic Conflicts (Intersection)

Turning Lanes

Acceleration and deceleration

lanes

These lanes should only be

provided on divided, high-speed,
multi-lane roads where there is a
high proportion of right-turning
traffic. They are also useful where
many trucks are turning.
VI. Traffic Conflicts (Intersection)

Roundabouts

Safe and effective form of intersection

VI. Traffic Conflicts (Intersection)

Roundabouts are safest

• Only 4 conflict points (for 4-leg, single-lane)

• Conflicts happen at low speed (if the roundabout
is properly designed and drivers respect the rules)
• Usually less delay (less driver frustration) than
other types
• Conversion of an intersection to a roundabout will
typically reduce crashes by 50%
VI. Traffic Conflicts (Intersection)

When do roundabouts may be

inappropriate?
VI. Traffic Conflicts (Intersection)
VII. Vulnerable Road Users

Pedestrians

• Pedestrians
• A person on foot or in control of a non-motor
vehicle.
• The largest group of road users
• Most vulnerable road user
• Basic rule: A pedestrian should not have to cross
more than two lanes of traffic.
• Pedestrian should not share the road with
vehicles.
VII. Vulnerable Road Users

Basic Strategies in Providing

Pedestrian Safety

• SEGREGATION – in space

• SEPARATION - in time
VII. Vulnerable Road Users

Segregation – in space
Sidewalk/Footpath
Absolute min.
1.0m
Desirable min.
1.5m
(two people can pass – just)
(DO 62 – July 2013)
Normal: 2.0m
VII. Vulnerable Road Users

Segregation – in space
Footbridge
VII. Vulnerable Road Users

Separation – in time
Signalized Crossing
VII. Vulnerable Road Users

An example of a newly-built ‘killer road’ -

pedestrians have to cross 6 lanes plus shoulders
VII. Vulnerable Road Users

DO No. 34, Series of 2012

Guidelines on the Implementation of
Pedestrian Refuge Island along National
Road
Considerations:
• Carriageway width of at least 4 lanes.
• School, church, market etc. and
approaches of unsignalized intersection.
• Pedestrian overpass shall be provided for
carriageway with more than 6 lanes.
VII. Vulnerable Road Users

Key points to remember

• Pedestrians should never have to cross

more than two lanes
• Zebra crossings on their own provide
little safety
• Refuges and medians are good for
safety
• Pedestrian footbridges are rarely
effective, as pedestrians hate using
them
END OF PRESENTATION
Thank you!