ESSENTIALS
OF TEXTUAL STYLISTICS
Учебное пособие
2-е издание
Тула
Издательство ТГПУ им. Л. Н. Толстого
2012
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
ББК 81.2Англ-923
О75
Рецензенты:
доктор филологических наук, профессор С. Краже
(Высшая школа бизнеса и финансов, г. Рига, Латвия);
кандидат филологических наук, доцент О. А. Никитина
(Тульский государственный педагогический университет им. Л. Н. Толстого);
доктор филологических наук, профессор И. В. Чекулай
(Белгородский государственный университет)
Авторы:
д-р филол. наук, проф. И. В. Арнольд (глава 1 «Aims of Decoding Stylistics and its Theoretical Basis» = «Цели
стилистики декодирования, теоретическая база данной науки», глава 2 «The Theory of Information as one of the
Cornerstones of Decoding Stylistics» = «Теория информации как одна из основ стилистики декодирования»,
глава 3 «Basic Notions of Text Theories» = «Основные положения теории текста», глава 6 «The Relevance of
Foregrounding to Decoding Stylistics» = «Теория выдвижения и стилистика декодирования», параграф 4.5 «The
Relevance of Norm and Deviation from Norm in Decoding Stylistics» = «Теория нормы и отклонения от нормы в
стилистике декодирования»);
канд. филол. наук, доц. Ж. Е. Фомичева (параграфы 4.1–4.4 главы 4 «The Concept of Norm and its Developments in
Contemporary Stylistics» = «Теория нормы и ее развитие в современной стилистике», глава 5 «The Theory of
Foregrounding and its Developments in Contemporary Stylistics» = «Теория выдвижения и ее развитие в современной
стилистике», переработка и дополнение параграфа 3.6. «Cohesion and Coherence» = «Когезия и когерентность»);
канд. филол. наук, доц. В. Н. Андреев («Preface» = «Предисловие», параграфы 2.1, 3.1, 6.1 «Introduction» =
«Введение», переработка и дополнение параграфа 4.5 «The Relevance of Norm and Deviation from Norm
in Decoding Stylistics» = «Теория нормы и отклонения от нормы в стилистике декодирования», главы 6 «The
Relevance of Foregrounding to Decoding Stylistics» = «Теория выдвижения и стилистика декодирования»,
методические рекомендации к главе 5 = «Assignments», задания для самоконтроля к главе 5 = «Test Your
Knowledge: Test 5»);
канд. филол. наук, доц. И. В. Родионова (переработка и дополнение главы 1 «Aims of Decoding Stylistics and its
Theoretical Basis» = «Цели стилистики декодирования, теоретическая база данной науки», главы 2 «The Theory
of Information as one of the Cornerstones of Decoding Stylistics» = «Теория информации как одна из основ
стилистики декодирования», главы 3 «Basic Notions of Text Theories» = «Основные положения теории текста»,
разработка заданий для самоконтроля = «Test Your Knowledge: Test 1, Test 2, Test 3, Test 4, Test 6»,
методические рекомендации к главам 1, 2, 3, 4, 6 = «Assignments»).
2
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
Светлой памяти
заслуженного деятеля науки РФ,
почетного профессора РГПУ им. А.И. Герцена,
доктора филологических наук, профессора
Ирины Владимировны Арнольд
(1908-2010)
3
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
4
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
CONTENTS
CONTENTS ............................................................................................5
Preface....................................................................................................8
1. Aims of Decoding Stylistics and its Theoretical Basis..............12
1.1. Introduction................................................................................12
1.2. Aims of Decoding Stylistics .......................................................15
1.3. Decoding Stylistics in Terms of the Reader's Response .........21
1.4. General Conclusions .................................................................23
Assignments .....................................................................................26
Test Your Knowledge .......................................................................28
2. The Theory of Information as one of the Cornerstones
of Decoding Stylistics .......................................................................34
2.1. Introduction................................................................................34
2.2. The Application of Information Theory to Linguistics ................36
2.3. Basic Terms ..............................................................................42
2.4. The Adaptation of Shannon's Model to Literary
Communication.................................................................................45
2.5. General Conclusions .................................................................53
Assignments .....................................................................................54
Test Your Knowledge .......................................................................55
3. Basic Notions of Text Theories.....................................................61
3.1. Introduction................................................................................61
3.2. The Text as a Coherent Verbal Message .................................63
3.3. The Length of the Text and its Segmentation
into Constituent Elements ................................................................66
3.4. The Subject-Matter of a Text.....................................................71
3.5. Form and Addresses .................................................................72
5
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
6
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
7
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
Preface
We all read literary texts because they are interesting,
enjoyable or moving. This enjoyment, however, is only the first, though
important, step in the study of such texts. An important aspect of their
study is that we must work on explaining how we come to understand
literary works.
It is popular at the present time to stress the idea that different
readers all have different understanding of the texts they read. This
must be true for some extent as we all have different experiences which
may prompt us to have slightly divergent interpretations of different
texts. However, fascinatingly, we often agree over our understandings
of poems, plays and novels in spite of the fact that we are all different.
This book aims at exploring how the writers communicate to us through
their works and how these works affect us. It examines the way in
which the language of literary texts acts as the basis of our
understanding and responses when we read. We assume that
understanding involves an important contribution from the reader, who
brings along background knowledge and processes for inferring
meaning. However, we also assume that the text itself plays an
essential part in prompting and guiding our interpretation. Thus, this
book aims at explaining how we understand literary texts and offers a
methodology which allows to apply the techniques described in it to
other texts.
The approach that we take in this book is generally known as
“stylistics” or “stylistic analysis”. Although the term “stylistics” appears to
suggest an overall concern with the study of (authorial) style, the main
effort in stylistic analysis in the last 30 years or so has been to try to
8
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
understand the relationship between the literary text, on the one hand,
and how we understand it, and are affected by it, on the other.
This book is dedicated to the memory of Irina Vladimirovna
Arnold (1908-2010), one of the pioneers of stylistic research in this
country, a stylistician who developed her own original version of
stylistics which she called Decoding Stylistics. Decoding Stylistics aims
at explaining how the information encoded by the creator of a literary
text is decoded by the reader and offers methodology and procedures
for such analysis.
Professor Arnold has authored many books, text-books,
monographs and articles, among which the most important are:
1. Семантическая структура слова в современном английском
языке и методика её исследования: на материале имени
существительного: Монография. — Л.: Просвещение, 1966.
2. Стилистика. Современный английский язык: Учебник для
вузов (1-е издание). — М., 1974.
3. Лексикология современного английского языка (The English
Word). — М.: Высшая школа, 1986.
4. Основы научных исследований в лингвистике: Учебное
пособие. — М.: Высшая школа, 1991.
5. Проблемы диалогизма, интертекстуальности и герменев-
тики: (В интерпретации художеств. текста) / РГПУ им.
А. И. Герцена. — СПб.: Образование, 1997.
6. Семантика. Стилистика. Интертекстуальность // Теоретиче-
ские основы стилистики декодирования: Сборник статей. –
СПб.:Изд-во С.-Петерб. ун-та, 1999.
9
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
10
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
11
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
1.1. Introduction
The development of each particular branch of knowledge
depends upon the tasks set before it by society, upon the general level
attained at each given period by other related and unrelated sciences,
and upon its own history.
Decoding Stylistics is no exception and we shall, therefore,
deal with it from the point of view of its importance as a part of mental
outfit of a future teacher of English (as a foreign language) and in the
light of modern science. Decoding Stylistics has grown from what was
formerly known as "explication du texte", but differs from the latter, as
the student is taught to get maximum information from the text itself
and not from the commentaries of the teacher on extratextual matters.
In the light of modern science, i.e. according to the general le-
vel of cognition reached by humanity – we shall have to take into con-
sideration not only the progress of linguistics, but also the possibilities
of some branches of knowledge seemingly very distantly related to
Decoding Stylistics.
It has been repeatedly said by many that it is on the borderlines
of sciences that most interesting results are often obtained. The birth
of cybernetics may serve as a good example, because cybernetics
came into being as a result of collaboration of mathematicians and
physiologists.
It goes without saying that we must try and make full use of
what has been done in Decoding Stylistics in the past. People had to
12
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
deal with text interpretation for many centuries. There is quite a number
of disciplines concerned with it in some way or other; such as stylistics,
rhetoric, poetics; one of the oldest is hermeneutics, originally developed
as a science of interpretation of the Scriptures.
In this course of studies we shall mainly rely on Decoding Sty-
listics, which, in its turn, is based on modern linguistics, on text theory,
theory of literature, including poetics, and on Information Theory
(Арнольд 1999, Макаров 2003).
Linguistics can help the study of literature in many ways
because it is concerned with language as an observable phenomenon
of human activity and because literature is language, no less than
everyday speech. It is art created from language, and language is the
13
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
14
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
15
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
16
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
17
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
18
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
past experience, his developed habits of mind, on the other; or, as I.A.
Richards puts it, "often the emotional and intellectual habits of the
readers are too strong for the poet... The notion, that all that a poet can
do is to put strikingly, or nicely, or elaborately, or euphoniously ideas
and feelings that we already possess, is a serious and frequent
obstacle to good reading ..." (Richards 1929).
The reader's understanding is developing in the process of rea-
ding. When he understands the significance of the line he reads, he
simultaneously foresees and expects what is coming, and sees his pre-
vious expectation as either fulfilled or defeated.
It was once said that the human mind is like a parachute – to
work it must be opened. On the other hand, without any anticipation or
previous orientation for what is coming, understanding is impossible.
If there is no sufficient feedback, that is if the presuppositions
and preconceptions are not checked and rearranged according to what
is actually read, the reader responds not to the poem, but to what he
supposes the poet should have written; in this case the poem leaves
this prejudiced reader as it found him: he is not enriched by his reading.
I.A. Richards writes: “No one can say: "There is only this and
this in the poem and nothing more". The appreciation will vary
considerably with the readers' varied minds. But minds too much given
to their own stock responses will find nothing new.” (Richards 1929).
I.A. Richards also points out that the young generation should be
taught a methodology that they will apply creatively under new cir-
cumstances, in new situations, to new objects of the rapidly changing world.
One more important aim worth mentioning in connection with
teaching how to understand English poetry and fiction is that of
19
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
20
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
(Leech 1969).
It should perhaps be pointed out that one can find similar argu-
mentation with an ever increasing number of workers of culture, not
only with linguists as G. Leech, but also with specialists in the theory of
literature and with producers, such as Tovstonogov.
21
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
The reader's response, on the other hand, has too often been
underestimated. It is often heard that it is what the author wanted to
write that we have to find out in interpreting a literary text. What is
actually written seems to be of secondary importance. Everybody is so
thoroughly accustomed to this kind of thinking that its utter absurdity
passes unnoticed. Suppose some long distance runner or a weight lifter
desire with all their hearts to break the world records. Yet, they are
judged not by their aspirations, but by their results. Whatever the
intentions, they are not taken into consideration in the case of failure.
Why then should we think of the poet's intentions and not of the poem
before us? Actually, the poet's original intentions are interfered with by
many things. The creative process is extremely complicated and
individual, but, roughly speaking, one can say that even if the poet has
decided upon the state of affairs he will speak about, his feelings
concerning what he is referring to, his attitude to the reader as his
addressee, he has to adapt these to the genre, the imagery, the metre,
etc. When all the adaptations have been made, the result is something
the author himself could not have foreseen.
22
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
23
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
24
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
know the language. On every such level the reader distinguishes units,
each of which is associated with units of the same kind building up units
of the text: phonemes – morphemes – phrases – sentences – texts. To
understand the whole we are often forced to take it to pieces and study
it on separate levels. Yet, every analysis in intelligent reading must be
followed by synthesis.
“What is important is not that students are given answers –
even the right answers – to a certain set of questions, but that they
learn how answers are produced, how knowledge is generated, how
learning is conducted, what skills, attitudes, and methods are needed in
order to produce knowledge" (Ginzburg).
The interaction of all these elements and their relations to the
whole text will bring the reader to a new level of analysis, to
foregrounding and the textual level; these form the subject matter of
Decoding Stylistics and will be taken in detail later on.
25
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
Assignments
Task 1
Think over the following points and discuss them in your group:
Task 2
26
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
27
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
28
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
29
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
30
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
31
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
17. What are the demands of the reader’s competence that a future
teacher of foreign languages has to meet? (several answers are
possible)
a) to develop the habit of deriving new information from a
new text
b) to judge the details only with reference to the whole text
c) to take everything in the text for granted
d) to master the given language
18. What is not the aim of the course of Decoding Stylistics?
a) international education
b) transmission of the achievements of stylistics
c) development of the aesthetic culture
d) training of the ability to derive linguistic information from
the text
32
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
19. What term is used to call the knowledge of the results of any
behaviour considered as influencing or modifying further performance?
a) adaptation
b) decoding
c) feedback
d) encoding
20. Does the author’s interpretation of his work often coincide with the
reader’s?
a) no, and to achieve this is one of the aims of Decoding
Stylistics
b) yes, this is always the easiest and the only correct
interpretation
c) no, the intention of the author and his vision of life are
practically inaccessible
d) none of the answers is correct
21. What proves the validity of the reader’s interpretation of a literary
work?
a) the text itself, containing the ideas suggested
b) one, generally recognized explanation of the ideas
c) the polysemantic character of a literary text
d) the reader’s experience and general knowledge
22. What does the success of interpretation, its completeness and
depth depend upon?
a) the reader’s knowledge of literary & historical comments
b) the reader’s knowledge of the language
c) the reader’s ability to combine extra-textual and textual
information
d) the reader’s memory and thesaurus
33
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
2.1. Introduction
34
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
35
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
36
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
37
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
38
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
Signal Signal
Source of
Transmitter Channel Receiver Addressee
Information
Message Message
Source
of noise
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
Code
41
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
42
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
It equals
m
H ( X ) = − a0 ∑ Pk ( X k ) log a Pk ( X k ) .
k =1
43
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
44
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
45
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
46
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
47
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
49
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
Decoding
reconstruction of the message by knowing code
combinations.
Communication
contact. The transmitter encodes the message and transmits
channel it in signals suitable for the channel serving as medium of
contact. In our case we regard literature as an analogy of the
channel.
50
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
On Another’s Sorrow
51
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
52
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
53
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
Assignments
Task 1
54
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
55
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
56
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
57
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
58
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
20. Who restores the message of a literary work with the help of the
thesaurus and remodels the information?
a) receiver
b) transmitter
c) addressee
d) reality
59
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
60
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
3.1. Introduction
61
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
62
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
63
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
64
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
65
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
Nwds > = 1.
Similarly, a text may also be long, or contain one sentence, so
Nsts > = 1.
Thus, a text has its lower limit, one sentence, and this, in its turn, may
contain only one word.
poem
Adam
Had 'em
Language is the blood of the soul into which thoughts run and
out of which they grow.
/O. Wendell/
67
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
68
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
Five lines also have their peculiar poetic form – the limerick, a
sort of fun-making jingle. It is a form of comic verse consisting of five
anapaestic lines of which the first, second, and fifth have three metrical
feet and rhyme together, and the third and fourth have two metrical feet
and rhyme together. Coming originally from the folklore, limericks were
especially popularized by Ed. Lear in his Book of Nonsense (1846).
Here is an example:
69
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
scheme, usually divided either into octave and sestet, or, in the English
form, into three quatrains and a couplet. It expresses a single complete
thought or feeling:
Thus, though the length of the text is irrelevant for its definition,
it may serve as an important distinctive feature in genres and help to
differentiate a limerick from a proverb, or a sonnet from a quatrain.
70
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
71
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
72
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
73
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
74
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
75
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
ellipsis,
sequence of events reflected in verb forms and
adverbials of time (submodifiers),
the already mentioned semantic repetition of variously
related words – synonyms, hyponyms, antonyms,
partitives, words from the same lexical set and so on.
Let’s consider them in consistent manner.
‘Always the same. Have the little bitches into your bed. Lose
all sense of proportion.’
‘They are students?’
‘The Mouse. God knows what the other thinks she is.’
But Breasley clearly did not want to talk about them…
/Fowles: The Ebony Tower/
76
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
77
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
78
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
Reading the first statement you may feel obvious that Jan
became ill because of her eating excesses; but perhaps what is actually
meant is because she was ill she ate in that way. Thus, the use of a
cohesive conjunction makes the semantic connection in the second
statement much more specific and explicit.
In this case, a conjunction which signposts a 'cause',
'result' or 'purpose' connection between the prior text and the
following text is used. Such conjunctions refer to a cluster, called
causal conjunctions, which is one of five main clusters of cohesive
conjunctions:
1 additive (and, nor, or, furthermore, similarly, in other words, etc.);
2 adversative (yet, but, however, all the same, conversely, on the
contrary, rather, etc.);
79
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
80
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
81
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
82
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
“This year she had the extra joy of showing it to her small
brother, and of terrifying him as well as herself. And for him the
fear lasted longer because his legs were so short.”
"She sat up. Stephen was a hot lump of sleep, lazy thing...
She leaped up and looked out of the window".
The part played by the tense form is also very important. Thus,
"Morning's at seven. The lark's on the wing" may be considered as a
83
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
84
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
85
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
Love equals
Swift and slow,
And high and low,
Racer and lame,
The hunter and his game.
/H.D.Thoreau/
86
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
87
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
Assignments
Task 1
Task 2
88
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
'That depends a good deal on where you want to get to,' said the
Cat.
'I don't much care where - ' said Alice.
'Then it doesn't matter which way you go,' said the Cat.
' - so long as I get somewhere,' Alice added as an explanation.
'Oh, you're sure to do that,' said the Cat, 'if you only walk long
enough.'
89
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
Task 3
She was surprised that the day had stayed fine. She had
expected it to rain. In fact everyone warned her that it
frequently rained here.
90
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
the situation within which they are used, and, in particular, if you know
the speaker's position in space and time.
Task 4
91
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
Task 5
92
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
93
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
94
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
95
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
Task 6
96
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
this time it was not even the tree because there was a down log beside
it which he had never seen before, and beyond the log a little swamp, a
seepage of moisture somewhere between earth and water, and he did
what Sam had coached and drilled him as the next and the last, seeing
as he sat down on the log the crooked print, the warped indentation in
the wet ground which, while he looked at it, continued to fill with water
until it was level full, and the water began to overflow, and the sides of
the print began to dissolve away.”
Task 7
97
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
98
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
99
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
Test 3
100
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
101
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
9. Who proved that a message can be stored and transmitted not only
by means of words?
a) M. Halliday
b) Van Dijk
c) F.Fulsom
d) S.G. Darian
102
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
12. Who of the linguists insisted that a text is not definable by size?
a) Van Dijk
b) F.Fulsom
c) M. Halliday
d) J. Ruskin
103
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
20. Why are the terms coherence and cohesion difficult to distinguish?
a) they are related etymologically
b) they have a common usage
c) they have the same derivatives
d) they have the same meaning
104
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
105
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
106
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
31. What term is used for logical consistency and clarity in the working
out of the plot?
a) discourse coherence
b) causal coherence
c) narrative coherence
d) complete coherence
107
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
108
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
4.1. Introduction
109
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
110
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
111
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
112
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
well as the upper classes (Wales 2001). We will return to the notions of
accent, idiolect, sociolect, Received Pronunciation (RP) in more detail
when discussing some general categories of language variation.
Another R. Carter’s observation on English advertising
language (Carter 1997: 9-10) is of the essence. Given the connection
between Standard English, proper accents, purity and cleanliness, it will
not surprise us to learn that bleach is marketed in RP accents. As the
scholar notes, dialects may coexist with Daz, but never with Domestos.
In conclusion, R. Carter stresses the point very strongly that ‘to uphold
standard English is to uphold standards’. Thus, the connection here
between standards of English and standards of hygiene, in the
scholar’s view, is also revealing. It all points to the conclusion that
‘Standard English is a mark of purity and cleanliness, while non-
standard English is unclean’.
K. Wales (Wales 2001) notes that mass media or mass
communication (often referred to popularly as the media) essentially
provide information for public consumption, through the complex
technological and ‘mass-produced’ media of print, broadcasting,
advertising, film and other popular forms of culture such as ‘pulp’ fiction
and pop music. As K. Wales points out, linguists, following the lead of
sociology and media studies (McLuhan 1964), have become
increasingly concerned with ways in which the institutionalized media,
in particular, reflecting the ideologies of partisan politics or
consumerism, influence the language in which these are encoded and
also the world-views of their audiences. What is debatable, in fact, in
the scholar’s view, is the assumption of a ‘neutral’ or ‘objective’ public
voice of discourse (Wales 2001: 245).
113
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
114
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
115
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
116
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
117
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
118
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
119
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
from different historical periods, the texts would also include examples
of popular fiction, insurance literature, advertisements and political
speeches as well as media texts such as television soap opera and
radio comedy programmes. Literary texts would, thus, be seen as
continuous with all other kinds of texts and not as something wholly
separate from them. Such an approach to the study of texts, in the
scholar’s view, would enable students ‘to see through language’.
In the way stated, it means ‘subjecting different varieties of language,
spoken and written, to comparative scrutiny. Comparison and contrast,
between literary and non-literary, between spoken and written, between
the variables of male and female, between standard and non-standard,
are at the very centre of the enterprise’ (Carter 1997: 16-17).
In the context of the main argument in this chapter, it should
be noted that contemporary scholars have been faced with all manner
of problems dealt with identifying different aspects of the concept of
norm in linguistics and stylistics. One of them is connected with the
essence of literacy. On the one hand, the major concern is the
importance of national literacy in the modern world. Some of the
reasons, like the need to fill out forms and get a good job, are so
obvious that they needn’t be discussed. E. D. Hirsch’s concern,
however, is fostering effective nationwide communications. In his view,
our chief instrument of communication over time and space is the
standard national language, which is sustained by national literacy. All
nationwide communications, whether by telephone, radio, TV, or writing
are fundamentally dependent upon literacy, for the essence of literacy
is not simply reading and writing, but also the effective use of the
standard literate language (Hirsch 1988: 2-3).
120
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
121
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
122
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
123
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
124
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
125
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
126
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
127
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
128
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
129
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
130
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
131
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
issue. As Hughes (Hughes 1996: 96) points out: ‘if a writer chooses
to be “realistic”, the reader automatically takes this to be a cue that
the speaker is abnormal in some way’. J. Culpeper’s point (Culpeper
2001: 210) is that writers create an illusion of regional accent in
writing and against the norms of writing. This is what has been
referred to as ‘eye-dialect’, a graphologically-based dialect. The
spelling of characters’ speech conveys no information about the
distinctive nature of their accents.
Consider one of J. Culpeper’s examples from Sue Townsend’s
novel The Queen and I (1992) which depicts a world in which a
Republican government is elected in Btitain, and the royal family,
stripped of its trappings, is sent to live on a council estate – the
significantly named Hell Close – in the midlands. In this social satire,
much of the humour comes about through characterization, in
particular, prototypicality distortions. J. Culpeper’s following example
from The Queen and I is spoken by one of the residents of Hell Close:
‘Well, I wun’t exactly say jus’ like you an’ me’, said Wilf.
/Townsend, 195/
132
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
133
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
indeed, if they simply appear in situations where they are not expected.
Townsend takes a group from the top of the social scale and places
them in the context of those groups at the bottom. This is the reverse of
what happens to Sly in the prologue to The Taming of the Shrew and
Bottom in a Midsummer Night’s Dream, where commoners find
themselves in an aristocratic, or even royal, context.
One of the techniques, in Culpeper’s view, Townsend utilizes to
highlight the distinct social group memberships of the characters is to
signal that they have different dialects. For example, the Queen, talking
to Beverly, her new next-door neighbor, says:
/Townsend, 54/
134
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
135
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
136
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
137
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
138
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
139
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
140
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
141
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
142
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
143
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
4.5.1. Preliminaries
144
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
145
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
this way implies not only rules but constraints and this is how the
signal redundancy is ensured.
According to I.V. Arnold, basic to all rules and constraints are
the grammar rules and what was previously treated as "exceptions".
For example, English nouns can take a plural form (bell - bells) and be
preceded by articles (the bell, a bell). This, however, is not the case
with all nouns. There are several meaningful constraints. Mass nouns
and abstract nouns take zero articles and do not have a plural form.
These constraints may be meaningfully broken in their turn. When they
are broken, the words where this deviation occurs are reclassified, i.e.
they change their meaning, mostly their lexico-grammatical meaning
(because of this reclassification), and also may acquire additional
expressiveness: thus the mass noun sand by taking the plural form
receives the meaning of “a vast expanse of sand, i.e. desert” in P.B.
Shelley's "Ozymandias" (Ozymandias is a Greek name for the Egyptian
pharaoh Ramses II (13th century B.C.) who is said to have erected a
huge statue of himself):
Ozymandias
146
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
"...being a stranger in the place I did not know one Alp from
another. I alped my way for some weary hours, till the sun went down."
/Brendan Behan/
147
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
148
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
149
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
150
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
151
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
152
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
153
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
154
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
155
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
orally follows the written form, it is formal and the message most often
is a document. The social relations between the participants are rigidly
regulated and their respective roles strictly codified.
The difference brought about by various social relations is
clearly seen in the following examples:
156
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
158
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
159
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
160
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
161
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
Where the usual nomination for going hence and coming hither
would have been death and birth respectively.
A deviation may be also logical as in the following:
162
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
163
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
164
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
165
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
Assignments
Task 1
166
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
Test 4
167
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
168
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
9. Why is the problem of norm and deviation from norm the major
focus of interest in stylistics?
a) because all the cognitive information conveyed by a text
depends upon it
b) because much of the expressive affective or aesthetic
emphasis added to the cognitive information conveyed by a
text depends upon it
c) because the expressive affective or aesthetic emphasis
depends upon it
d) because all linguistic and extra-linguistic means depend
upon it
10. Which means are extra-linguistic means?
a) intonation
b) gestures
c) loudness of voice
d) all the above mentioned
11. What means does the author use to add emphasis to the
information conveyed?
a) intonation
b) various types of deviation
c) extra-linguistic means
d) deviation together with the norm of the text
12. When is deviation stylistically relevant?
a) when it is noticeable
b) when it prevents the information from noise
c) when it stresses something important in the meaning
d) when it is predictable
169
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
170
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
171
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
172
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
28. What does the inability to adjust one's idiolect to that of the others
lead to?
a) narrow-mindedness and backwardness
b) mental defectiveness
c) psychological development
d) need to communicate
29. Why is deviation highly associated with poetic language?
a) because it is marked by rhyme and alliteration
b) because our expectations of the unusual in structure and
conceptualization are high
c) because it is either ungrammatical or ill-formed
d) because it is marked by topographical and punctuation
innovations
30. What kind of deviation measures the language of the text against
the norms outside it?
a) internal deviation
b) external deviation
c) textual deviation
d) contextual deviation
31. What kind of deviation measures the language of the text against
the norms set up by the text itself?
a) internal deviation
b) external deviation
c) textual deviation
d) expected deviation
173
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
174
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
5.1. Introduction
175
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
176
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
177
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
178
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
from the poet’s ability to create many such novel, one-shot kind of
mappings between different mental images’ (Cameron & Low 1999:
32). Their argument, in our opinion, describes the nature of the
expectations which are overturned and seems analogous to R. Carter’s
idea that “literary language will always be patterned in some way and
will involve a creative play with these patterns’ (Carter 1997:169).
G. Cook notes that literature is characteristic of a tendency to
deviate from expectation and stresses the necessity to define the
linguistic constituency of literature, ‘for talk of deviation must remain
impressionistic and intuitive if it cannot describe the plain backcloth of
normality against which the brighter stitches of deviation stand out’
(Cook 1994: 129-130).
The Russian formalists, as R. Carter stresses, wanted to set up
a science, a poetics of literature which sought to define the literariness
of literature. That is, they sought to isolate by rigorous scientific means
the specifically literary forms and properties of texts (Carter 1997: 124).
Although the term formalist, in G. Cook’s view, may be generally
applied in literary theory to any who seek to study the literary text as an
autonomous object divorced from the specific circumstances of its
creation and creator, and from the historical and social context of its
reception, the term is most generally associated with the ‘Russian
formalists’ (Cook 1994: 130).
R. Carter points out that there is some similarity between the
formalist theory of defamiliarization and principles of literary criticism
worked out by I.A. Richards in the 1920s (Richards 1925; 1929).The
Russian formalists’ definitions were predicted on a division between
poetic and practical language and to this extent were paralleled by
179
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
180
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
181
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
182
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
183
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
184
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
185
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
character’s birth, including what became of his infant shawl, how much
it cost and who bought it. All of this information remains in the
background by never being mentioned again, while the central plot-
advancing elements of Copperfield’s life are foregrounded by several
devices: placed as a topic in the chapter heading (‘I am born’), and
repeated several times throughout the passage’ (Stockwell 2002: 14).
Consequently, one of the main reasons for the success of the
concept of foregrounding, in contemporary stylisticians’ view, lies in its
relevance to the study of the process of textual interpretation. The
scholars draw attention to the fact that more interpretative effort is
focused on foregrounded elements, in an attempt to rationalize their
abnormality, than on backgrounded elements (Leech 1969; 1981; 1985;
Leech and Short 1981). G.N. Leech argues that foregrounding invites
an act of imaginative interpretation by the reader. When an abnormality
comes to our attention, we try to make sense of it. We use our
imaginations, consciously or unconsciously, in order to work out why
this abnormality exists (Leech 1985:47).
Scholars of today focus their thought and consideration on the
informational value of literary works (including both text-intrinsic and
text- extrinsic features) and acquired literary competence of a reader. In
their view, many poets from the Anglo-Saxon clerics to W. Blake and
W. Owen have seen their work as fulfilling an important social or
ethical function. What Y. Lotman aptly calls the ‘semantic saturation’ of
a poem (Lotman 1971) comes as much from the information of the
different linguistic levels as also from its intertextual and intersubjective
relations with other texts and (social and cultural) knowledge at large
(Cook 1994; Carter 1997; Wales 2001; Stockwell 2002; Simpson 2003).
187
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
188
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
estrange the reader from aspects of the world in order to present the
world in a creative and newly figured way. This can even be seen as a
means of identifying literariness, though of course this is a slippery
notion since many non-literary uses of language contain creative and
striking elements too (Stockwell 2002: 14).
Consequently, foregrounding can be seen as a means of
finding out literariness, explaining its nature and revealing its ability to
estrange the reader from the facets of the external world on purpose to
treat it in a new imaginative and inventive way. However, the question
of the literariness of literature (R. Jakobson) and the impossibility of
defining literary language in any simple way deal with many problems
arising from the contemporary demand for studying literature and its
language in relation to other discourses, in terms of a continuum rather
than a polarity. Literary language can be different and yet not different
from ‘ordinary’ or non-literary language; there is, as Katie Wales notes,
as it were, a ‘prototype’ of literary language, and also numerous
variants. But it is the impossibility of defining it in any simple way that is
its most defining feature (Wales 2001: 238). Similarly, in Carter’s view,
literature is subject to constant change, it is not universally the same
everywhere and is a category of text eminently negotiable. Definitions
of literary language are part of the same process (Carter 1997: 123).
The linguistic constituency of a prototype of literary language, in our
opinion, can be provided with the following contemplation on the
features of literary language by Geoffrey Hartmann:
‘Is not literary language the name we give to a diction whose
frame of reference is such that words stand out as words (even as
sounds) rather than being, at once assailable meanings? The meaning
189
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
190
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
191
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
192
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
193
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
criteria; a non-literary text will meet none or few of these criteria; that is,
it will be monosemic, medium-dependent, project a direct interaction,
contain no re-registration and so on. Reference to the criteria will
enable us to determine what is prototypical in conventional literary
language use, as far as it is understood in its standard, modern
Western conception; in other words, the criteria will assist in
determining degrees of literariness and provide a systemic basis for
saying one text is more or less ‘literary’ than another. The terms
‘literary’ and ‘non – literary’, as Carter notes, might be replaced by the
more neutral terms text and discourse (Carter 1997: 128).
We will summarise the main criteria for specifying literariness
in language in brief form, rather than offer any kind of detailed
description of them:
Medium dependence. The notion of medium dependence
means that the more literary a text the less it will be dependent for its
reading on another medium or media. A text may be dependent on a code
or key to abbreviations used and on reference to a map or illustrations. To
a lesser extent a text could be said to be medium-dependent in that it is or
is likely to be accompanied by a photograph or by some means of pictorial
supplement. By contrast, a text can be said to be dependent only on itself
for its ‘reading’. It generates a world of internal reference and relies only
on its own capacity to project. This is not to suggest that it cannot be
determined by external political or social or biographical influences. No
text can be so entirely autonomous that it refers only to itself nor so rich
that a reader’s own experience something it refers to cannot extend the
world it creates. A text is said to be sovereign as it requires no necessary
supplementation (Carter 1997: 129).
194
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
195
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
196
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
197
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
5.5. Paradigmatic
and Syntagmatic Foregrounding
198
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
199
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
200
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
Both rhyme and rhythm derive from the same Greek word
rhuthmos ‘flow’. In phonetics and prosody, K. Wales notes, rhythm is
generally described as the perceptual pattern of accented or stressed
and unaccented or unstressed syllables recurring at roughly equal
intervals; in verse the regularity is heightened to produce metrical
patterns (Wales 2001:348).
201
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
202
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
203
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
204
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
205
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
in which you read ‘ from the’ as a double off-beat, like a single syllable.
206
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
Much of the extract falls into a rising duple rhythm – from off-
beat to beat, in which unstressed and stressed syllables alternate,
and so can be read as if it were verse. Where this regularity does
not occur, D. Freeborn notes, it is often easy to fit the words in ways
that are quite usual in verse writing. Much of the text can in fact be
pressed into verse form, and though it does not become a poem, it
may clearly be called poetic prose, with the rhythms of metrical
verse (Freeborn 1996:187).
We should note that stylisticians match any text or piece of
language against the linguistic norms of its genre, or its period, and the
common core of the language as a whole. Clearly, as K. Wales
stresses, each author draws upon the general stock of the language in
any given period; what makes styles distinctive is the choice of items,
and their distribution and patterning (Wales 2001: 371-372). Most
theories of style accept the definition of style in terms of choice.
Consequently, the selection of features partly determined by the
demands of genre, form, theme can be examined in a wide variety of
text types and stylistic theories (Halliday 1994; Williams 1995; Short
1996; Simpson 2000, 2006; Simpson 2000, 2006).
The experiential function of the language, as P. Simpson notes,
is an important marker of style, especially so of the style of narrative
discourse, because it emphasizes the concept of style as choice. The
scholar points out that there are many ways of accounting in language
for the various events that constitute our ‘mental picture of reality’
(Halliday 1994: 106). Similarly, there are often several ways of using
the resources of the language system to capture the same event in a
textual representation. What is of interest to stylisticians, P. Simpson
207
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
208
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
209
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
210
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
211
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
212
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
213
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
214
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
215
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
216
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
217
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
218
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
219
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
Assignments
Task 1
Task 2
Comment on the following quotations and discuss them in your
group:
1. “Literary language is deviant language” (Carter)
2. “It is not possible to isolate language from its senders and
receivers” (Bakhtin)
3. “Verse has been called a heightened form of ordinary language,
in the sense that it does nothing that is not done in ordinary
speech, but what it does is foregrounded and focused on for its
own sake” (Dennis Freeborn)
220
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
Test 5
221
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
222
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
223
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
14. What aspects of the notion of style are especially important for
stylisticians?
a) style as the reflection of the epoch
b) style as the key to understanding
c) style as conscious or unconscious choice
d) style as the basis for comparison
15. What is primary deviation?
a) deviation from the norms of language
b) deviation from the norms created within a text
c) deviation from the norms of literary genre
d) deviation from the norms of behaviour?
16. What is secondary deviation?
a) deviation from the norms of language
b) deviation from the norms created within a text
c) deviation from the norms of literary genre
d) deviation from the norms of behaviour?
17. What is tertiary deviation?
a) deviation from the norms of language
b) deviation from the norms created within a text
c) deviation from the norms of literary genre
d) deviation from the norms of behaviour?
18. What type of deviation can be found in the following example:
“Beyond all this, the wish to be alone:
However the sky grows dark with invitation cards” (Philip Larkin)?
a) primary
b) secondary
c) tertiary
d) no deviation
224
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
19. What type of deviation does the beginning of John Donne’s poem
demonstrate:
“For God’s sake hold your tongue, and let me love” (Donne)?
a) primary
b) secondary
c) tertiary
d) no deviation
20. In what example does the foregrounding represent the tendency of
iconicity (attempt to create a replica of the object or process
described)?
a) “perhapless mystery of paradise” (e.e.cummings)
b) “Freeze, freeze, thou bitter sky” (Shakespeare)
c) “- Think you’re in
Heaven?
Well – you’ll soon be
In H
E
L
L” (Michael Horovitz)
225
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
6.1. Introduction
226
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
227
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
228
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
229
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
230
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
231
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
6.3. Convergence
232
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
His cheeks were aflame, his body was aglow; his limbs were
trembling. On and on and on and on he strode far out over the
sands, singing wildly to the sea, crying to greet the life that had
cried out to him.
/J. Joyce/
233
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
234
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
235
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
236
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
237
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
238
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
239
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
240
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
241
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
242
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
243
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
244
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
245
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
246
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
their very nature. Analysis within content only is the domain of literary
criticism. On the other hand, analysis of details without passing to the
meaning of the whole refers to linguistics but does not result in text
interpretation.
After this review of the way L. Spitzer made use of the
philological cycle we turn now to the salient feature as a type of
foregrounding and to the philological cycle as applied in Decoding
Stylistics.
A set of prominent salient features is seen, for example, in the
famous Shakespearian sonnet 66, which has been analyzed by many
stylisticians from different viewpoints; we shall now try to show how
helpful the philological cycle may be:
247
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
248
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
makes the reader suppose that the poet’s despair is caused by seeing
that everything good and noble is wronged. When this interpretation
offers itself, the reader renews the cycle and checks it so as to see
whether the other lines expressing the object of the verb ‘to behold’
follow the same pattern.
This helps to understand the second line that we omitted at first
because of its difficulty: as to behold desert a beggar born. Which of
the various meanings of desert (“waste land”, “a desolate abandoned
person” or “merit”) is present in the sonnet? How do we avoid
misinterpretation? In terms of the words relation to other words and
other structures it is logical, as Householder puts it, to include desert in
the “something good” class together with virtue, faith, perfection, etc.,
and beggar born in the “badly treated” class and thus interpret desert
as “merit” – “the possession of excellence that deserves honor and
reward, and to which people should be regardful”.
Without this philological cycle, it might be understood as
meaning “to behold a born beggar abandoned”. And this would be a
definite misreading violating the system and composition of the text. As
it is, Householder paraphrases it as “to see merit come into the world
with little prospect of prosperity”.
I.A. Richards interprets the same line in modern terms: “The
most gifted child may be most gravely underprivileged”. This
observation starts a new insight throwing additional light on the series
of nouns coming after the anaphoric ‘and’. To be born a beggar has the
merit to be human. The other words of the same group may also show
a kind of metonymical personification. Continuing the back and forth
movement from the detail to the whole we see this guess hold true. All
249
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
these nouns are functioning as abstract and personal at the same time.
This makes the poet’s indignant reaction to the surrounding world less
abstract, more emotional. The whole work represents a concrete
human tragedy. It is logical to suppose that this explains why the poet
cries “for restful death”.
Now let’s check whether every line after the anaphoric ‘and’
contains this idea of the wronged good. Most of them do. But the lines
“needy nothing trimmed in jollity” and “folly doctor-like controlling skill”
seem to call for some readjustment. They mean “something bad
endowed with power”.
The uniting idea is evidently a more general one, namely that of
injustice reigning in the world. It is summed up in the line: And captive
good attending captain ill.
This also introduces another salient feature that of contrast
expressed by abundant antitheses between merit and insignificance or
mediocrity (needy nothing). The sonnet is a list of outrages suffered by
the good at the hands of powerful nothings.
It should be noted that the way in which we arrive at an
interpretation of a text is variable. The same sonnet may be analysed
with the help of convergence as the combination of parallel
constructions, antithesis, metonymies, epithets, anaphoras, etc. But in
this case one has to begin with a supposition about the meaning of the
whole - the idea of injustice, and then verify it by checking the motion of
every stylistic device and see how the idea will develop in passing
through the test.
I.R. Galperin thinks antithesis to be the main stylistic device of
this sonnet, and points out that the anaphoric ‘and’ in parallel
250
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
construction gives the second syllable of the iambic foot the maximum
of stress. This, in its turn, makes for the significance of the epithets
“needy”, “purest”, “gilded”, “maiden”, “right”, and this raw of epithets
stands in an antonymic relation to the series of adverbial epithets:
“unhappily”, “shamefully”, “rudely”, “wrongfully”.
Actually, the main theme is, as we have seen, the theme of
injustice. The antithesis in the epithets very effectively emphasizes and
evaluates the images and the contrast between the moral values of
faith, virtue, perfection, art, strength, truth and good, on the one side,
and needy nothing, limping away, folly and ill, on the other. Every word
used in the sonnet has a strong evaluative (positive or negative)
connotation. The epithets express the poet’s attitude, his verdict on the
state of things and the human tragedy he is tired to see.
It should be stressed once again that basic conclusions as to
the significance of the text can’t be made on one trait only: several
carefully grouped and carefully chosen features are necessary. We
have shown a series of back-and-forth movement (first the detail, then
the whole, then, another detail) which is operative.
251
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
252
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
pretence to a status much higher than the person's true one, as its
main theme.
The title of Theodore Dreiser's "An American Tragedy" is more
or less self-explanatory, while W.S. Maugham's "Of Human Bondage"
may have several important meanings at once. The latter reveals the
author's pessimism because W.S. Maugham thinks that '...man, no
more significant than other forms of life, had come not as a climax of
creation but as a physical reaction to the environment...There was no
meaning in life..." "Of Human Bondage" is a significant biblical allusion,
and it also refers to the hero's suffering to domination of his vulgar and
nagging wife.
Another class of titles focuses the reader's attention on the
main character or characters. There are many subclasses. The most
obvious is giving the hero's name: "Jane Eyre", "Tom Jones", “Eveline”,
“Jane”, “Hubert and Minnie” etc. There are more complicated forms.
"Sense and Sensibility" and “Pride and Prejudice” by J. Austin give a
metonymical characteristic of the protagonists. In the first novel there
are two sisters - Elinor's sense and self-control is in strong contrast to
Marianne's sensibility and weakness. In “Pride and Prejudice" Darcy's
pride and Elizabeth's prejudice against him caused by his insufferable
manner and haughtiness are the source of conflict separating the
young people.
There are titles giving a generalized description of several
characters: "Sons and Lovers" by D.H. Lawrence, "Wives and
Daughters" by E. Gaskell.
A title may give prominence to the scene of action as in
"The Mill on the Floss" by George Eliot, receiving a symbolic value for
253
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
254
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
255
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
philological circle offered by Leo Spitzer. (Not for the title but for any
deviant structure needing explanation).
A peculiar type of allusion occurs in the famous poem by
William Butler Yeates “Leda and the Swan”. The title reminds the
reader that according to the Greek legend, Leda, the queen of Sparta,
was seen bathing by Zeus. The enamoured god took the form of a
swan to approach and rape her. Of their union Helen was born, whose
beauty was the cause of the Troyan war and the fall of Troy. All this is
not told, but implied in the title, whereas in the body of the poem neither
Zeus nor Leda is mentioned. She is called "the staggering girl" and he -
"the feathered glory" and "the brute blood of the air". Otherwise by
third-person pronouns. The mythological story is rendered
impressionistically as an immediate event.
256
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
257
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
258
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
259
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
260
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
261
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
6.8. Closure
262
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
263
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
All this the world well knows; yet none knows well
Tо shun the heaven that leads men to this hell.
/Shakespeare/
264
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
265
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
Assignments
Task 1
266
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
Task 2
267
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
Task 3
(1)
Grass
I am the grass.
Let me work.
/Sandburg/
268
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
(2)
As you read, notice how multiple levels of language
organization simultaneously participate, some in harmony and
some in conflict, in creating the stylistic fabric of a poem.
Now read the poem Meeting at Night by the 19th century
English port Robert Browning and interpret it paying attention to
salient features.
269
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
Meeting at Night
/Robert Browning /
Task 4
(1)
270
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age
of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of
belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of Light,
it was the season of Darkness, it was the spring of Hope, it was
the winter of Despair, we had everything before us, we had
nothing before us.
/Dickens/
271
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
(2)
Task 5
(1)
(2)
272
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
between the implications of its two epigraphs, the one by the American
critic and poet Adrienne Rich – ‘how we dwelt in two worlds / the
daughters and the mothers / in the kingdom of the sons’ (from ‘Sibling
Mysteries’) – and the other by the Italian poet and novelist whose most
famous volume of poetry is the posthumous “Death Will Stare at Me
Out of Your Eye (1951): ‘Travelling is a brutality. It forces you to trust
strangers and to lose sight of all that familiar comfort of home and
friends…’.
Task 6
273
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
Task 7
Already two lovers and she wishes she could cancel the first
and, if she and Hank broke up, there would be a third and she
would be going the way of her sisters who had recovered, she
thought, too many times from too many lovers; were going, she
thought, cynical; and when they visited home, they talked about
love but never permanent love any more…
/A. Dubus “Finding a Girl in America”/
Task 8
/W.S.Maugham/
274
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
Task 9
Ripe Figs
275
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
276
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
Test 6
277
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
278
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
280
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
281
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
21. What part of the text is the starting point of a chain of readers’
expectations?
a) the title
b) the first lines
c) the epigraph
d) the closure
22. What functions can the title perform?
a) introduce the characters
b) introduce the main idea
c) give prominence to the scene of action
d) all the above mentioned
23. What does complete exposition introduce?
a) the setting of action only
b) the time, the setting, the characters
c) the time, the setting, the characters, the preliminaries
d) the events preceding those of the narrative
24. What term is used for the exposition which does not introduce all
the preliminaries?
a) incomplete
b) partial
c) schematic
d) limited
25. What term is used for the beginning which is detached from the
rest of the text and given in a separate chapter?
a) the title
b) the prologue
c) the epigraph
d) the closure
282
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
283
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
Glossary of Terminology
284
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
Epigraph is a quotation at the beginning of the work, just after the title,
often giving a clue to the theme.
285
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
286
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
References
287
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
288
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
289
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
290
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
291
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
Further Reading
292
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
293
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
294
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
295
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
296
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»