Hypothesis

Testing
Gerson JC Antonio, PhD
DWCL – Graduate School
 • Estimation
• When we approximate the true value of
Statistical population
• Hypothesis testing
Inference • When we assess the value of the sample data
that will support our claims on the value of
population
 • a statistical process to validate the theory,
claim, or assumption(s) of the researcher,
and at the same time, to answer the
objectives of the study.
HYPOTHESIS • a decision-making process for evaluating
claims about a population.
TESTING
• tentative answers to the questions are
already predetermined.
• we predict the outcome in a study through a
hypothesis.
 Example
• A study is being conducted about level of education acquired, work
experience, gender, and salary.
• What is/are the independent variable/s? Dependent variable/s?
• Independent: level of education acquired, work experience, gender
• Dependent: salary
• there is a need to set up null hypothesis and alternative hypothesis.

always a negative always an affirmative

statement statement
Example
Null hypotheses:
• There is no significant relationship between level of education acquired and
salary of the respondent.
• There is no significant relationship between work experience and salary of the
respondent.
• There is no significant relationship between gender and salary.
Alternative hypotheses:
• As the respondent's level of education acquired increases, his/her salary
increases.
• As the work experience increases, his/her salary increases.
• If the respondent is a male, his salary is high.
HYPOTHESIS TESTING
the null hypothesis suggests that there is no significant difference in
the quantitative characteristics of the population.

the alternative hypothesis implies the idea that there is a significant

difference in the quantitative characteristics of the population.

the two hypotheses are opposites of each other; that is, the rejection
of one leads to the acceptance of the other.
 • statement form
• textual method of formulating the hypothesis
FORMS OF • mathematical form
HYPOTHESES • the relationship is expressed using equality and
directional inequality such as greater than (>),
less than (<), or not equal (≠).
EXAMPLE
One local brand of speaker manufacturer claimed that 80% of audio device
shoppers who are music lovers believe that their speakers are as good as
international brand speakers. Formulate Ho and Ha.

Statement Case 1 Ho: There is no significant difference in the proportion of 0.80.

Form Case 2 Ho: There is no significant increase in the proportion of 0.80.
Case 3 Ho: There is no significant decrease in the proportion of 0.80.
Mathematical Case 1 Ho: p = 0.80
Form Case 2 Ho: p < 0.80
Case 3 Ho: p > 0.80
EXAMPLE
One local brand of speaker manufacturer claimed that 80% of audio device
shoppers who are music lovers believe that their speakers are as good as
international brand speakers. Formulate Ho and Ha.

Statement Case 1 Ha: There is a significant difference in the proportion of 0.80.

Form Case 2 Ha: There is a significant increase in the proportion of 0.80.
Case 3 Ha: There is a significant decrease in the proportion of 0.80.
Mathematical Case 1 Ha: p ≠ 0.80
Form Case 2 Ha: p > 0.80
Case 3 Ha: p < 0.80
EXAMPLE
A study is made to test the performance of a locally branded audio speaker's loudness and clarity, as
measured in wattage, as compared to its internationally branded counterpart. One hundred sample
speakers were selected and tested from both brands. The local brand showed a mean of 505 watts
with a standard deviation of 10 watts, and a mean of 500 watts with a standard deviation of 12
watts for the international brand. Formulate the hypotheses.

Statement Case 1 Ho: There is no significant difference in the mean watts between the two brands.
Form Case 2 Ho: There is no significant increase in the mean watts between the two brands.
Case 3 Ho: There is no significant decrease in the mean watts between the two brands.
Mathematical Case 1 Ho: μ1 = μ2
Form Case 2 Ho: μ1 ≤ μ2
Case 3 Ho: μ1 ≥ μ2
EXAMPLE
A study is made to test the performance of a locally branded audio speaker's loudness and clarity, as
measured in wattage, as compared to its internationally branded counterpart. One hundred sample
speakers were selected and tested from both brands. The local brand showed a mean of 505 watts
with a standard deviation of 10 watts, and a mean of 500 watts with a standard deviation of 12
watts for the international brand. Formulate the hypotheses.

Statement Case 1 Ha: There is a significant difference in the mean watts between the two brands.
Form Case 2 Ha: There is a significant increase in the mean watts between the two brands.
Case 3 Ha: There is a significant decrease in the mean watts between the two brands.
Mathematical Case 1 Ha: μ1 ≠ μ2
Form Case 2 Ha: μ1 > μ2
Case 3 Ha: μ1 < μ2
 • When a magnitude between the relationship
Directional of variables is indicated (e.g. high, low), then
a directional hypothesis is stated.
and non- • When direction of magnitude is excluded
directional and opted for a generic prediction (e.g.
presence of difference) then it is a non-
hypotheses directional hypothesis.
Research question: Does the frequency of feedback
from mentors affect work performance of
employees?
Directional hypothesis Non-directional hypothesis
Ho: Employees who receive less Ho: Employees who receive less
feedback from mentors have a feedback from mentors have a
better performance at work. better performance at work.

Ha: Employees who receive more Ha: Feedback from mentors affect
feedback from mentors have a employee performance.
better performance at work.
 • in reality, the null hypothesis may or may not
Decisions via be true
Statistical • the decision to reject or not to reject is on
the basis of the data obtained from the
Tests sample of the population
Four possible
outcomes
False positive False negative
 • A type I error occurs if one rejects the null
hypothesis when it is true.
• A type II error occurs if one does not reject
the null hypothesis when it is false.
• decision is made on the basis of probabilities,
So... i.e., if there is a large difference between the
value of the parameter obtained from the
sample and the hypothesized parameter, the
null hypothesis is probably not true
• How large a difference is necessary to reject
the null hypothesis?
LEVEL OF SIGNIFICANCE
• the maximum probability of committing a type 1 error
• this probability is denoted by α
• generally, statisticians agree on using three arbitrary significance levels:
the 0.10, 0.05, and 0.01 level
• if the null hypothesis is rejected, the following probabilities occur:
Probability of Type I error Probability of correct decision
10% 90%
5% 95%
1% 99%

Thus, when α = 0.05, there is a 5% chance of rejecting a true null hypothesis.

TWO TYPES OF TESTS
one-tailed test

• used if the inference is to find out if the directional change of the sample
characteristic (x) from the population characteristic (μ) is either on the right side
(increasing change) or on the left side (decreasing change)
• established by Ha: μ > value

two-tailed test

• used if the inference is to find out if the change of a sample characteristic (x) from
the population characteristic (μ) is not particular whether it is increasing or
decreasing.
• established by Ha: μ1 ≠ μ2
TWO TYPES OF TESTS
• For a two-tailed test, the level of significance is divided by 2, since
there is one rejection area for each tail
• i.e., area of rejection region = α/2
 • the number of variables allowed to vary
without changing the mean
• example: the data set 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 has a mean of
3. If the df is 2, then the data becomes 1, 2, 3, 3,
6 where the mean is still 3.
DEGREES OF • Formula used to determine df for each type of
distribution:
FREEDOM • for z distribution: df not required
(df) • for t distribution:
• df = n - 1 for single population
• df = n1 + n2 - 2 for two populations
• for f distribution:
• df (numerator) = J - 1 (where J = number of columns)
• df (denominator) = N - J (where N is the total number of
elements in the data set)
DEGREES OF • for x2-test
• if r = 1 and c > 1, df = c - 1
FREEDOM • if r > 1 and c = 1, df = r - 1
(df) • if r > 1 and c > 1, df = (r - 1)(c - 1)
CRITICAL AND ACCEPTANCE REGIONS
• After a significance level is chosen, a critical value is selected from a
table for the appropriate test
• The critical value determines the critical (rejection) and noncritical
(acceptance) regions.
• critical region: the range of values of the test value indicating that there is a
significant difference and the null hypothesis should be rejected.
• noncritical region: the range of values of the test value indicating that the
difference was probably due to chance and that the null hypothesis should
not be rejected.
CRITICAL REGION FOR A ONE-TAILED TEST

Critical region
Critical region

-za 0 za
0

A one-tailed test is either right-tailed or left-tailed:

• right-tailed when, in the alternative hypothesis, the
inequality used is greater than (>)
• left-tailed when the inequality is less than (<)
CRITICAL REGION FOR A TWO-TAILED TEST
Critical region
Critical region

− z a 0 za
2 2

A two-tailed test has two rejection regions

• the null hypothesis should be rejected when the test value is
in either of the two critical regions
SUMMARY

Note:
• the rejection of a hypothesis is to conclude that it is false
• the acceptance of a hypothesis merely implies that we have no evidence to believe otherwise
• because of the frequent use of the terms “accept” and “reject”, the statistician or experimenter
will often state his hypothesis that which he hopes to reject
 1. State the problem
2. State the null and alternative hypotheses
STEPS IN 3. Determine the test statistic
4. Determine the level of significance,
HYPOTHESIS degrees of freedom, critical value
TESTING 5. Compute the test statistic
6. Make the statistical decision
7. Interpret the result/Make the conclusion
 • It is easy for the researcher to use the p-
value and compare it to the level of
HYPOTHESIS significance alpha α.
• if the p-value is less than α, reject the null
TESTING hypothesis.
• if the p-value is greater than α, accept the
null hypothesis.
 • A researcher wants to determine if a TV commercial
of a specific TV station consumes 30 seconds or
less. (μ = mean time for TV commercials)
Example • Data (in seconds): 45, 33, 26, 35, 40, 32, 42, 28, 29,
47, 17, 19
• Ho: μ ≤ 30 seconds
• Ha: μ > 30 seconds
 Task 5
Proceed to Task 5