Title: Rumanian Folk Music Call#: M1718.B2 v.1 -V.2-V.

3
Author: Bartok, Bela Location: UMCP Performing Arts Library
Article Title: Introduction
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 RUMANIAN
FOLK MUSIC
by BELA BARTOK

Volume One

Instrumental Melodies

Edited by
BENJAMIN SUCHOFF

with a Foreword by
VICTOR BATOR

THE HAGUE
MARTIN US NIJ HOFF
1 967
Copyright 1967 by Martinus Nijhoff, The Hague, Netherlands
All rights reserved, including the right to translate or to
reproduce this book or parts thereof in any form

PRINTED IN THE NETHERLANDS

Bdhi Bartok 1881 1945
 Preface
by Bela Bartok

his publication includes the material of Rumanian folk music col­

lected between 1908-1917, except for the Winter-solstice mel-
A odies (Colinde)1 and those from the county of Maramure^.2 The
material from the county of Bihor, published as Chansons populaires
roumaines du departement de Bihar by Academia Romana, Bucharest,
1913, is included though revised thoroughly on the basis of the phono­
graph records.3
When preparing these 2,555 folk melodies for publication, I discovered
in 1932 that my transcriptions of the records were not sufficiently
exact. This meant the revision of all the old notations and even the
making of entirely new transcriptions of some of the recorded melodies.
In addition, the systematic grouping of the whole material had to be
done and, finally, master sheets of the complete musical part had to
be prepared.
Had I attended to these three stages of the work in succession, as
they should have been done, I could not have completed the work till
today. But, since 1933, I saw that there was no time to lose, that it
was uncertain as to how long this work could be pursued if at all in
Europe. Therefore, the three types of work had to be started at the

1 Published as Melodien der rumdnischcn Colinde, Universal Edition, Vienna, 1935. (484
Melodies). [Vol. IV of the present publication.]
2 Published separately as Die Volksmusik der Rumdnen von Maramures, Drei Maskenverlag,
Munich, 1923. (365 melodies). [Vol. V of the present publication].
3 In some of the villages of the county of Mure$, it was Mrs. Martha Ziegler who collected
according to my instructions (fifty-three melodies in the villages Bala, Moi$a, Nasna, Poarta,
Ungheni); the records, however, have been transcribed by myself. The instrumental pieces
of the records made in Budapest in March 1914 by order and with the recording machine of
the Department of Anthropology of the Hungarian National Museum —marked N. Gr.—have
been transcribed by Mr. Jen6 Deutsch.

[ i ]
 Preface
same time parallel to each other. I had an excellent assistant in the
making of the clean copies of the material, namely, Mr. Jeno Deutsch,
a former pupil of mine, who completed the main part of this task
working for years with unselfish devotion and exactitude.
Because of doing the three types of work at the same time, both the
outer form of the musical part and the grouping of the material have
suffered from inconsistency.
Two-thirds of the musical part was completed by the end of March,
1940 and brought to the United States during my first wartime visit
to America. I had it printed immediately in New York to secure at least
this part of the material should something happen to that unique copy.
The remaining one-third was completed by October, 1940 in Budapest
and brought by me to the United States then. This part, however, could
not be immediately printed for various reasons—a circumstance which
made it possible for me to peruse it several times in order to discover
and correct mistakes and faults. Therefore, Vol. II from p. 305 on is,
on the whole, exempt from annoying misprints. The reader should see the
respective lists of errata in both volumes [Vol. I: pp. 66-67] and introduce
the corrections into the musical part before even starting study of the
book. This is of great importance, since many of the errors may lead
to disturbing confusion.
My intention was to place this material before the public as carefully
prepared and in as perfect a form as is called for by its unparalleled
value. The deplorable circumstances of the last six or seven years,
however, prevented the fulfillment of this plan by producing tensions
over tensions which caused the work to be accomplished, at least
partially, in an unfavorable haste and anxiety. . .
***

1 he main purpose of the publication is to place at the disposal of

the public material transcribed as exactly as possible and data recorded
in as great detail as possible concerning this material. The collecting
took place in those Rumanian-speaking territories which formerly be­
longed to Hungary. It was my plan to carry on my work later in the
other Rumanian-speaking territories as well; this was not possible,
though, because of reasons which I shall mention subsequently. My
intention was also to collect as much material as possible at least in
the first-mentioned territories. Unfortunately, not even this could be
achieved. When my work, at the beginning deficient in many ways,
[ 2 ]
 Preface
improved more and more and reached its full height in 1914, the war
broke out and later, in 1919, the sham-peace. The disturbances and
tangled situation which followed, the mutual mistrust between the
countries, the constant tension, and the lamentable economic situation
rendered any further systematic collection impossible for me.
In my disappointment over the forced suspension of my work, it
came as a consolation when I heard that research work had started in
Rumania on a large scale under the leadership of one of the foremost
music folklore explorers of our times, Constantin Brailoiu. Although
hardly anything appeared of this material in print, many valuable data
became known which cleared up some hitherto unsettled questions.
Returning to the description of my own work, I have to confess with
regret that I did not heed all the requirements of folklore research in
the first two years. At that time I attacked the problem purely as a
musician, not minding extra-musical circumstances very much. The
method of research changes according to the nature of people whose
folk music is in question; thus, it took one or two years to familiarize
myself with the new situation presented by Rumanian folk music. The
deficiencies caused by this will be quickly noticed by the careful reader.
In the beginning, for instance, I collected only the melody of the dances,
not heeding their choreography or designation [that is, genre], I did not
take down the names, age, and other circumstances of the performers
either. Moreover, I did not examine folk music as a living phenomenon
with a special view to its being a form of expression of life in a rural
community. These deficiencies disappeared gradually so that the col­
lection work of the last years was quite adequate. As mentioned before,
it is most regrettable that 1 had no opportunity to explore further the
Rumanian-speaking territories which were formerly a part of Hungary.
The statistical data tabulated in Vols. I and II show that the
collection has been rather thorough in the counties of Bihor, Timis,
Torontal, northern Hunedoara, southwestern Mure^, and in a small part
of Satmar.4 A new collection in these areas might well discover new
melodies but would hardly bring any surprises (that is, discovery of a
new style, and so forth). The material collected in Alba, Arad, Severin,
Some$, and Cluj is unfortunately rather small, and no material was
collected at all in Nasaud, Salaj, Tarnava, the greater part of Satmar,
Fagaras, and Sibiu.
1 Also in Maramure?. This material, however, has been published separately (see marginal
note 2).

[ 3 ]
 Preface
In spite of its incompleteness and deficiencies, this is np till now the
richest printed collection of Rumanian melodies and their data. As far
as I know, Vol. 1 is the first instrumental melody collection in which
the grouping of numerous instrumental melodies takes place on the basis
of musical structure; the first which includes instrumental music with
“motif-structure” (that is, of non-definite form) of larger number and
grouped according to a selected system (see Vol. I, Appendix I); the
first to contain a large number of Alphorn melodies and over a hundred
bagpipe pieces; the first to present "dance-words” (see p. 53) simul­
taneously with dance melodies, just as they appear in dance festivals.
And last but not least, this is the first folk music collection on a large
scale, almost each piece of which has been transcribed from records with
the greatest humanly-attainable precision, approaching in this regard
the features and qualities of a so-called "Urtext” edition.5

CHOICE OF THE MATERIAL

The subject being folk music, 1 made my collections exclusively from
peasants and from people who either were an essential part of village
community life or else fitted musically into this life by functions which
gave them importance in it (gypsy violin players). Gypsies living in
villages are completely assimilated musically according to the type of
people among which they live; therefore, there is no reason to exclude
them. There are, anyway, but a few melodies sung with text by them.
As to instrumental music, we are definitely depending on gypsies in
certain areas where only gypsies are "professional” musicians.
But even with fhe restriction of our choice to peasants and to village
gypsies, some sort of selection will be necessary. It is not only the mere
form of the melodies we have to care about, but also whether the
performance and the singing technic of the singers have been spoiled
by urban influence. Oddly enough, the Rumanians are especially in­
clined to take over the habits of performance of urban people. This
shows itself mostly in a certain high-flown, sentimental way of per­
formance and unnatural tone-emission. In places where there were
Rumanian public schools and mainly where the teacher or other high­
brow personage of the village founded a singing chorus for the peasants,
this influence proved almost destructive to the style of performance even
5 As for methods to be used in transcribing, grouping, and publishing folk music, see B.
Bartok and A. Lord, Serbo-Croatian Folk Songs, Columbia University Press, New York, 1951.

[ 4 ]
 Preface
though the autochthonous melodies were preserved. Fortunately, at the
time of the collection whole areas were still almost completely illiterate
in Bihor, Hunedoara, and Maramure^.6 There was no need of selection
at all. Moreover, with some care and circumspection it was also com­
paratively easy to find “unspoiled” singers elsewhere who, although
having gone through school, were not affected by the destructive urban
influence. It happened but rarely that because of some reason or another
one of the peasants used by me proved to be spoiled. In each such
case this fact is mentioned in the Notes to the Melodies of Vol. II.
As might be expected, women were much more reliable in main­
taining the rural style of performance. Men were more subject to
wandering; also, compulsory military service tore them away from
their homes. This explains the often roisterous and ostentatious manner
in the performance of such lads (this is the same with Hungarians and
Slovaks as well).
The performance of "professional” instrumental musicians shows but
rarely some influence coming from other castes. Therefore, no selection
was needed from that point of view. Gypsy instrumentalists sometimes
may give a “gypsy-style” performance which reveals itself in unsystem­
atic cutting of values or precipitating of tone groups, but which occurs
rather seldom. I included such performances, these odd “lateral shoots”
are worth study. So much for choice of performers!
As to the material, the guiding principle in general was to include
everything which I had reason to believe was part of the music of the
village community. That is, a specimen brought by an individual from
a distant area and known only by him was left out. However, everything
else, whether rare or well-known, whether of urban or foreign origin,
was included. No one should be surprised, therefore, at finding well-
known, almost hackneyed, or urban, and even foreign melodies in this
publication, since the purpose of it is to give as complete a picture of
the folk music7 of each area as possible.

0 The reader is asked not to take this enunciation as being directed against civilization
As a human being, I understand the importance of and completely agree with the expansion
of schools and other tokens of urban civilization in “backward” villages, even if it may
lead to the entire destruction of folk art. As a folk music student, however,—-quasi extra-
humanly—I can not help having enjoyed perhaps the last possibilities of studying folk
music, at least in some restricted areas as yet entirely unspoilt by the “blessings” of urban
civilization.
7 That is, all music which the village folk spontaneously use as expression of their musical
instinct and feeling.

[ 5 ]
 Preface

GROUPING OF THE MATERIAL IN GENERAL

Somewhat less than half of the material (1,115 melodies) is instru­

mental music, the rest are melodies sung with text; yet part of the
instrumental melodies have variants sung with text. 1 would have pre­
ferred to put together all melody variants belonging to the same variant
''roup according to the principles in the grouping method described
farther below. Upon thorough consideration of the matter, however, 1
decided to divide the material in two separate volumes, the first con­
taining melodies played on instruments, the second those sung with
text; and, as a consequence, to separate played from sung (with text)
variants of the instrumental melodies. This was the only way to attain
consistency. For, most of the melodies known only in instrumental form
differ greatly from the melodies sung with text; mixing the two would
only have marred the clarity of the picture.

[ 6 ]
 Introduction to Volume One

GROUPING OF THE MELODIES

he material is divided into five groups according to the function

TClassof theA and
melodies.
B\ dance melodies; their function is to serve as dance
music.
Class C: melodies with text played on instruments; no specific func­
tion in general.
Class D: bridal and other wedding music; their function is self-
explanatory.
Class E\ alphorn music and its imitations on other instruments; the
single pieces have a certain function in shepherd life which is indicated
in the designation of each piece.
The dance melodies are put in two classes:
Class A includes those of determined structure (consisting mostly of
four melody sections), and Class B those in which motifs (mostly of two
or three bars) are repeated or follow each other without apparent system.
Classes are further divided into Subclasses, Groups, Subgroups, Di­
visions, and Subdivisions, as follows.
Class A.—First we have to determine the melody sections. In the
case of melodies sung with text, this is done on the basis of the text
placed under the melody, the melody portion corresponding to a text
line being regarded as a melody section. This plainly visible basis is
lacking in the case of instrumental melodies and, therefore, the problem
has to be approached from a different, a purely musical angle. Fortu­
nately, the musical articulation of the instrumental melodies is in most
cases quite clear and unequivocal, and its determination seldom causes
 M
11)2

v.'Z-

Copyright 11)67 by Martinus Nijhoff, The Hague, Netherlands

All rights reserved, including the right to translate or to
reproduce this booh or parts thereof in any form

PRINTED IN THE NETHERLANDS

 Introduction to Volume Two
southern neighbors (Serbo-Croatians and Bulgarians), where no stanza
structure exists and no rhymes are used. This does not apply to texts
of urban origin which, in the Serbo-Croatian as well as Rumanian17
material, have stanza structure and rhymes. As to the methods of how
Rumanian texts are adapted to the melodies, see pp. 29-30. The
description of other features of the texts will be found in Vol. Ill (Texts).

GROUPING OF THE MELODIES

It was perceived at the very beginning of the research work that

discriminative musical features clearly divide the material according to
the different occasions at which the melodies are sung. Because melodies
sung at various ceremonies do have special musical characteristics, we
are provided with a basis for a first step in grouping the musical ma­
terial, and, as a result, can establish the following main parts:
Non-ceremonial melodies (Class A-E)]
Mourning-song melodies (Class G);
Wedding-song melodies (Class H);
Harvest-song melodies (Class I);
Rain-begging song melodies (Class /);
Colinde (that is, Winter-solstice songs).18
The methods of further grouping are described in Volume I, pp.
7-12. Instead of repeating the description, a survey of the obtained
Classes, Subclasses, and so forth, are given here as follows:

Class A (parlando melodies),19 Nos. 1-350

Subclass I (isometric melodies) Subclass II (heterometric melodies)
Nos. 1-301 Nos. 302-350

Group 1: □, 1-29 Group 1: □, 302-303

2: DC, 30-52 2: □ C, 304-305
3:D □ , 53-154 3:3 □, 306-310
4: 3 □ C. 155-301 4: 3 □ C, 311-350

17 For example, Nos. 402, 404, and 424.

18 See fn. 5 on p. 3.
ltt Parlando (or parlando-rubato) means free rhythm which does not involve the recurrence
of equal values, and in which, therefore, the bars mark only structural articulation and are
irregularly unequal.
 Introduction to Volume Two
Class H [tempo giusto ielodies)2Q Nos. 351 452__________
Subclass I (isometric melodies) Subclass II (hcternmctric
No. 351-385 Nos. 386 452
Group 2: □ C. 351 Group 1 : Q, 386-392
3: 3D, 352-354 °• ri r 393 394
4: 3 □ C, 355 385

C lass C (dance melodies)21, Nos. 453 529

Subclass I (melodies with definite struc- Subclass 111
Subclass 11
ture), Nos. 453 518
(melodies (recited
Group a) Group b) Group c)
with "dance-
(isometric (isometric (heterometric
melodies indefinite words’ -’■)
melodies melodies) Nos. 526 529
with two- with four- Nos. 517- motif-struc
bar sections) bar sections) 518 ture)
Nos. 512 516 Nos. 519 5:
Subgroup 4 : Subgroup 3: Subgroup 3:
] □ C. 453- ] □, 512 3 □. 517
511 Subgroup 4: Subgroup 4:
3 DC, 513- 3 □ C, 518
516

— ■ , S lJ ^ mp<> SlUsl° rn(,|otlies iu "dotted” rhythm23, Nos. 530-585

' 11ass I (•sometric melodies), 'subclass II (heterometric melodies)",
N°S-530'561 Nos. 562 583
Group 1 : □, 530 Group 2 □ C. 562
2: □ C. 531 532 3 3 □, 563 564
4: 3 □ L. 533 561 4 3 □ [_, 565 583

20 Tempo giusto is used in the sense of "rigid, dance like” rhythm.

21 This Class, as a matter of fact, comprises ceremonial melodies; that is melodn > 1^ 1 ol 1
with dance.
22 See Vol. I, j). 53. These pie< es arc not melodies but only reritation^
23 Combinations of J. J.. J J patterns, ........ . then deviations (JJ
/ i l' , F' l *J *J • or
clJ’ Jcl' J J’’ aM^ s<> ^rth). Compare with the so called Scotch rhythm in hugh-di f-'
melodies.
 Introduction to Volume Two
Class E (melodies with indeterminate structure), Nos. 584-612
Class /■' (cdntec lung-, description on pp. 24-25), No. 613
Class G (mourning-song melodies), Nos. 614-661
Subclass a) Subclass Subclass Subclass 8)24
(so-called bocete with (i)24 y)24 [Horn mortului or La
improvised texts) (Zorilor) [A bradului) priveghiu), Nos. 641-
Nos. 614- 633 661
Group 1 □ , 614-621 v Iroup 1 : □, Group 4: Gt oup I : □, 641--648
3 dCd, 622-625 634-636 HDD 3: JD, 649--652
4 dDL ,626-633 614-621 637-640 4: DDL 653--661
C ass H (wedding-song melodies), Nos. 662—666
Group 1: □, 662
2: □ C, 663
3: (]□, 664- 665
4: d □ C, 666
Class I (harvest-song melodies), Nos. 667-671
Group 1 : □, 667-670*25 24
3: d □, 671
Class / (rain-begging song melodies), Nos. 672-678
Subclass I (melodies with definite structure) Subclass II (melodies with
Group 4: d □ C. 672-675 indefinite structure), 676-
678

Further partition of the Groups (Subgroups) into Divisions was made

on the basis of the final-tone26 relations of the melody sections (see
Vol. I, p. 12). Divisions thus obtained were divided into Subdivisions
according to the range of the melodies (Vol. I, pp. 12-13). A detailed
enumeration of these seems to be unnecessary except for the Divisions
and Subdivisions of Group A I 3, and for Subclass II of Classes A, B,
and 77 (heterometric structures).
24 Subclasses fi), y), and 8) have more or less stable texts.
25 No. 667 is a one-section melody!
26 As has been indicated in Vol. I, pp. 12-13, the apparent final tone is not always the
structural final tone. An interesting example is given in No. 220e. (Vol. II), where the pe­
nultimate tone of each section is structurally the final one; indeed, there is evidently a catalectic
structure hiding in the melody.

[ 9
 Introduction to Volume Two
Table 5
Components of Group /I 1 3

Divisions Subdivisions 1 Mvisions Subdivisions

I VII - 3 : Nos. 64. VII- 5 : No. 135.

I VII- 4 : Nos. 60, 70, 66. 51 IV II| VII-b6 : No. 136.
| VII- 5 : Nos. 63, 55, 68, 53, 56, VII- 7 : No. 137.
61, 59, 58, 67, 76,
vniivu 69, 72, 78, 80, 65, Hill : No. 138.
74, 79, 77, 73, 81,
71, 83, 82. 31 : No. 139.
VII-[?6 : Nos. 54, 57, 75, 84, 85.
VII- 7 : Nos. 62, 88, 86, 87.
HP] : No. 140.
VII- 5 : No. 89.
1, |V1I VII-b6 : No. 90. 2j [Sj : No. 141.

VII- 4 : Nos. 91, 92, 93, 94. VII b3 No. 142.

2! (yii| VII- 5 : Nos. 95, 97, 96.
VII-b6 : Nos. 98, 99. 1- 5 : No. 143.
l-b6 : No. 144.
VII- 4 : Nos. 102, 100, 101. 1- 7 : No. 145.
VII- 5 : Nos. 103, 106, 104, 109, 1- 8 : No. 146.
108, 105, 107.
b3j |VII] VII-b6 : Nos. 110, 111, 116. VII - 5 : No. 147.
4| [M
VII- 7 : Nos. 112, 113, 114, 115, 1- 8 : No. 148.
117, 118, 119.
V| j3| : No. 149.
VII- 4 : Nos.
121, 120.
VII- 5 : Nos.
122, 123. VII- 4 : No. 150.
VII-b6 : Nos.
129, 127, 128. VI li |4] VII b6 : No. 151.
VII- 7 : Nos.
125, 126, 124, 130, VII- 7 : No. 152.
132.
VII- 8 : Nos. 131, 133, 134. US : No. 153.

The foregoing list shows the correct order of Nos. 53-134. Unfortu­
nately, for reasons mentioned in the Preface to Vol. I, this order could
not be achieved in the musical part.
Many of the Subdivisions contain more than one melody, thereby
requiring a further grouping. For this purpose, the following procedure
was devised. The range of each bar was separately determined, and the
six obtained range symbols (now written perpendicularly for technical
reasons; that is, as instead of VII-1) were placed one after the
other, as seen above and to the right of the respective melodies. The
twelve figures of this compound symbol were added (except VII, of
 Introduction to Volume Two
Table 6
Symbols Used for Subclass II of Class A, B, and D

A II 1: ZZ, Nos. 302-303.

A II 2: ZZZ, Nos. 304-305.

A II 3: ZZZ, Nos. 306-308; ZzZ, No. 309; Z/.Z, No. 310.

A II 4: ZZZZ, Nos. 311-312; ZZzZ, Nos. 313-314; ZZZZ, Nos. 315-320;

zzZZ, Nos. 321-328; ZzZZ, Nos. 329-332; ZZZZ, Nos. 333-336;

ZZZZ, Nos. 337-338; ZZZ +ZZ, No. 339; ZZZ + Zz, Nos. 340-341;
ZZZ + Z/., No . 342; ZZ.Z. +ZZ, No. 343; three of the four sections have
a different syllabic number in Nos. 344-347; ZZZZ + Z. Nos. 348-350.

B II i Zz, Nos. 386-387; ZZ, Nos. 388-392.

B II 2: ZZZ, No. 393; Zz + Z/f, No. 394.

B II 3: ZZZ, Nos. 395-396; ZZ//., No. 397.

B l\ A\ ZZzZ, Nos. 398-399; ZZZZ, Nos. 400-404; ZZZZ, Nos. 405-409;

ZzZz, Nos. 410-421; ZZZZ, No. 422; ZZZZ, Nos. 423-427;

zzz+zz, Nos. 428-429; ZZZ + ZZ, Nos. 430-435;
ZZZ+Zz, Nos. 436-437; ZZz + zZ, Nos. 438-441; three of the four
sections have a different syllabic number in Nos. 442-450.

D II 2: ZzZ, No. 562.

D II 3: ZZZ, No. 563; zZZ, No. 564.

D II 4: ZZZZ, No. 565; ZZzZ, No. 566; ZZZZ, Nos. 567-568;

ZzZZ, No. 569; ZZzZ, Nos. 570-574; ZZZZ, No. 575;

Z +ZzZ + Zz, No. 576; ZZZ + ZZ, No. 577; ZZZ+ZZ, No. 578;
zzz+zZ, No. 579; three of the four sections have a different syllabic
number in Nos. 580-583.
 Introduction to Volume Two
course, which counts for zero), and the total was taken as a basis for
further grouping into families. Melodies with lower total range come
first; those with higher total follow. For example, in VIIIIVII VII a
the total for Nos. 60, 70, and 66 are 17, 22, and 28.
Some families contain several melodies with identical totals lor ex
ample. Nos.61 59. and 58 (with 25 as total). In this case, the sums of
the figures m the upper row w. l decide the place of the single melodies
(these sums are 21, 22, and 24 for Nos. 61, 59, and 58). By this means
melodies with identical symbols, including the usual range, symbols will
be grouped according to their position in height; one might almost’sav
according to their level.
Subclass II of Classes ^ ^ and D will be
further divided on the basis
of the length-(that is, syllabic number-) proportion of the melody
sections (see Vol. I, p. 11, and the listing of Z symbols in Table 6
above) into Subgroups, and then according to the final-tone relations
and range into Divisions and Subdivisions.

MUSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE MATERIAL

The parlando melodies of Class A represent the most important part

of the material, not only numerically-more than fifty per cent of the
total number-but also characteristically, especially the melodies with
isometric structures of Subclass I (forty-four per cent of the total)
In anticipation of the results of a thorough investigation, it may be
told that certain parts of Subclass I bear distinct features for certain
areas, henceforth called dialectal areas. The main dialectal areas' in
connection with Subclass I are (1) Bihor, (2) Hunedoara-Alba (in'verv
near relation to the Bihor dialectal area), (3) Banat (including Arad
Severin), and (4) Campie (consisting of Mures, Somes, Eastern Turda’
Cluj, and including Southern Satmar).27
Before entering into detailed description of the folk music of these
areas view of their A I melodies, certain preliminary explanations
must be given concerning rhythmical formations
Rhythm,cal structure of the eight-syllable melody sections. The supposed27

27 As a fifth area, mention may be made of Maramure} and Northern Satmar. Here, how
ever, Class 1) and /*’ melodies are predominant instead of Class A. The Maramures material
has been separately published in Bart6k, Volksmusik der Rumdnen von Maramures,
Masken Verlag, Munich, 1923 (365 Melodies). [Vol. V of the present publication.] Prei

[ 12 ]
 Introduction to Volume III
conveniently'wem'9I(3 '’y tl“' Academia i,nd
they are expected to be ad 'n'>:rc,ore'
It rmicf k k ^ 1 from a general viewpoint.
changes one i'!' mmt lll‘Lt t*le voweI color may sometimes undergo
^ ^':r< n5'rby...........
mon Thnnab 1 I a‘ ° < oa (or vice versa) are not uncom-
restilt , " t 868 i,rC "> be regarded purely as a physical
kep in trio 8 dW'cW '■henomena. they necessarily are
exa^l „ P,«r Phon°graph records. See a rather baffling
example in No. 1287. second line: jmidt <

the grouping or the material

BotojTmoThtCm' brd ‘>n atructural Peculiarities of the melodies and
,''r "«• ^
nf tho rin/acti irt as a ba^s in classifying texts is out
tLm have the' 'SP'C1? y wi,h ™ral texts, as almost all of
sXbi“ r;,«;uc„loTex(tacsralect;c w, ^
indicate any structural feature T, 'ZaS),and a ‘'"S'h which does not
therefore, is their content Text, 1“' ° y baS'S ,ur srouping tcS,S'
„rocnahi„ _ i r Vl xtual content, however, is a much less
cannot even X ‘ ch]aracteristic ^an structural features; indeed, it
be devi d h H < XpreSfd by systems of symbols. Whatever system may
weak no nt m r thC COntent of H will necessarily have many
jective judgments.J<" ^ ^ wiU fre<Iuently >’idd to sub'

rural folk songs are the expression of the feelings of a certain

community, the contents of their texts are intimately connected with
festivals (or daily events) and sentiments in that community. The order
an Kca grouping system should correspond to the order of events
;;n<;r'v'w'rtS m buman b^e: beginning with birth and ending with
(( ! 1 K rc art circumstances which render such a strict grouping
on er impractical. First, there are no texts—at least, not in this material
connected with birth or christening (in the Slovakian material there
east c iristc ning songs); in fact, there are no children’s game
songs, or to c more exact, no such texts connected with singing.5 Even
•> [Chansons populaires du departement de IHhar.}
but no referen'ce is'm-uli- t'1' n"".S. ,,"l>l's,1Pl1 'vitho"t "K'lodics there are children’s game texts,
irr sunn ■ tfu v nr i n ° resP<,rtlve melodies. According to my experience, such texts never
above ] P 3b y are °nly rccitcd’ rScp editorial commentary on pp. xxxiii xxxiv

[ xlii J
 The Grouping of the Material
lullabies seem to be almost non-existent,6 I could not find more than
one Lullaby Song (its text is under No. 1112). Secondly, there are texts
sung in connection with certain circumstances, but other texts have no
specific association. The former constitute various, yet very well-
circumscribed categories, each of which has its specific melodies. As it
seemed to me inappropriate to mix these two different kinds of texts,
the idea of the birth—death concept had to be abandoned.
The final, though only tentative grouping shows the following classes,
subclasses, and groups.
Table 12

Num Der of
Nu ni Der of
Texts Var- No
Number Sin*jers
iai ts Per­
A Love Songs of
sonal
Lines
Ex­ In­ Fe­ Data
cluded cluded male Male

1) Description 308 14 26 21 3 2
2) Longing 401 44 56 44 10 2
3) Grief 93 12 12 12 — —

4) Jealousy 203 12 17 13 3 1
5) Mistrust 91 6 10 8 2 —

\ 6) Peaceful separation 89 10 13 11 2 —

7) Forsaken 248 26 29 24 4 1
Sub- 8) Curses 170 16 17 15 2 —

ject: 9) Repelling him 61 7 9 8 1 —

female , 10) Forsaking him 41 5 5 5 — —

person; 11) Recalling the past 45 7 7 7 — —

object: 12) Difficult to please 62 10 10 10 — —

male 14) Squeamishness 339 20 26 19 7 —

person 15) Imprecations on who

divorced us 70 4 5 4 1
16) Impossible terms 54 2 5 5 — —

17) Charms 69 5 7 7 — —

18) Jeering at him 51 6 7 7 — —

21) Diverse 279 43 48 43 5 —

Total for A I 2,674 239 309 263 39 7

6 The Slovaks and Turks have them, but in the Hungarian material they have already
disappeared (though certain signs indicate that they formerly may have existed).

[ xliii ]
 Introduction to Volume 111

Number of
Texts; Var- Number of
No
Number
iants Singers
A Love Songs of Per-
Lines sonal
Lx- In- l'e- Data
eluded eluded M;dc
male

1) Description 183 23 27 19 8
2) Longing 551 67 87 36 41 —

3) Grief 130 14 16 9 7 —

4) Jealousy 34 3 4 2 2
5) Mistrust 26 3 4 2 2 —

6) Peaceful separation 15 3 3 1 1 i
11 7) Forsaken 37 5 6 3 3 —

Sub- 8) Curses 40 6 7 3 4 —

ject: 9) Repelling her 22 4 5 3 1 i

male 10) Forsaking her 63 10 11 10 1 —

person; 11) Recalling the past 99 12 16 13 3 —

object: 13) Having two or more
female sweethearts 63 5 8 3 5 _
person 14) Squeamishness 91 13 14 8 6 —
15) Imprecations on who
divorced us 6 1 1 1
17) Charms 40 3 5 2 3 —

19) Ugly or bad wife 122 6 10 5 4 i

20) Married woman 231 14 22 14 7 i
21) Diverse 418 49 74 46 24 4

Total for A 11 2,161 241 320 181 123 8

in
1) Idyll 54 5 6 3 2 1
Sub­ 2) Arguments 99 5 8 7 1 —
ject and 3) Refusing to part 19 2 2 1 1 —
object:
4) No more love 31 4 4 4 —
male 5) Separation
and 6
6) Husband and wife 78 7 7 5 1 1
female 7) Diverse 138 14 16 11 5 —
persons

Total for A III 425 38 44 32 10 2

IV 1) Meditation 1
95 11 20 8 11
Love 2) Adversity in love 183 16 26 17 9
(in gen­ 3) Diverse 61 7 9 7 2
eral)

Total for A IV 339 34 55 32 22 1

[ xliv
 The Grouping of the Material

Number of
Number of
Texts; Var­ No
Nu mbei Singers
iants Per-
li Songs of Sorrow of
sonal
Lines J Male
Ex- In- Fe­ Data
cludcc cludec male

1) Meditation 33 5 6 4 2 _
2) Too much distress 133 8 18 13 5 —

3) I am a most distressed
being 51 2 8 6 2 —
4) Overcome by distress 15 3 3 3 — —
I 5) Simile 80 14 15 9 5 i
Various 6) Contrast 68 10 13 7 5 i
sub- 7) Recalling the past 34 4 5 4 1 —
jects 8) Reproaches to mother 93 11 14 10 4 —
9) Curses 60 6 8 6 1 i
10) Birds foretold my fate 70 3 6 4 2 —

11) Poverty 37 5 5 3 2 —

12) Old age 82 9 9 5 4 —

13) Diverse 240 32 43 31 11 —
Total for B 1 996 112 153 TlfT 34 3
II 1) Leaving home 47 7 8 3 4 1
2) Leaving with sadness 36 8 8 7 — 1
bar 3) Saying good-bye 64 6 8 6 2 —
from 4) Going to America 55 5 5 3 2 —

home 5) Complaints from abroad 301 26 38 26 10 2

Total for B 11 503 52 67 45 18 4
1) General complaints 69 4 4 4 — —

III 2) Reproaches to parents 86 4 6 6 — —

Bride 3) Complaints about the

or wife mother-in-law 64 4 5 5 — —
com- 4) Complaints about the
plain- mother-in-law and
ing the husband 55 3 4 3 1 —

about 5) Complaints about the

marital husband 84 8 9 6 2 —
life 6) Recalling girlhood 47 4 7 7 — —
7) Diverse 112 12 16 14 2 —
Total for B III 517 41 51 46' 5 j —
C Soldiers’ Songs
1) Recruiting and leaving
for the army 307 25 33 20 12 1
2) Reproaches to mother 113 8 9 4 5 —
3) Army Life 289 17 25 12 13 —

4) In the Battle Field 328 7 11 3 7 1

5) Returning home 48 2 5 2 2 —
6) Diverse 122 8 8 7 1 —
Total for C 1,207 67 90 49 39 2

[ xlv ]
 Introduction to Volume III

Number of
Number of
Texts; Var­ No
Number Singers
iants Per­
of
sonal
Lines
lix- in- Data
Male
eluded eluded male
1
2 | 6
D 1 )eath 54 7 8 —

E Worldly Wisdom 70 13 16
F Nature
1) Birds 115 8 15 12 3
2) Plants 27 4 4 3 1
3) Forests 75 9 12 9 3
4) Stars 4 1 1 1
Total for F 221 22 32 24 8
J eering
1) At girls 347 34 44 28 15
2) At boys 62 5 5 2 3
3) At women 36 5 6 4 1 1
4) At men 56 6 8 3 5
5) At women and men 12 2 3 2 1
6) At gypsies 28 4 4 2 2
Total for G 541 56 70 42 27 1
H Jesting Songs 89 17 8 8 1
17
I Singing 57 n 11 8 3
J Revelry (Drinking Songs) 229 30 39 24 15 1
F At dancing (“Dance-words”)
1) Texts about dances and
dancing 104 20 20 11 5 4
2) Texts connected with
dancing 57 11 12 5 7
Total for K 161 31 32 15 12 4
L Kryptadia
1) Man speaking 40 9 9 4 3 2
2) About men 3 1 1 1 — —

ivyf
3) Man i * <1 a woman
about
1 women 41 6 6 5 1
4) Man to a woman 16 4 5 3 2 —

5) Man and woman

speaking 31 6 6 6
6) Jesting at women 13 4 4 4 — —

7) About old men and

women 28 4 6 5 1
8) Girls 15 2 2 1 1 —

9) Diverse 26 5 5 3 2 —

10) Various texts with

indecent last lines 14 3 3 1 2
Total for L 227 44 47 33 11 3

[ xlvi ]
 The Grouping of the Material

Number of Number of
Texts; Var­ No
Number Singers
iants Per­
of sonal
Lines Fe­ Data
Ex­ In­
Male
cluded cluded male

M Knumerating Songs 147 5 10 3 6 i

N About bad people 10 2 2 2 — —

O Against authority 16 2 3 1 2 —
P About highwaymen 53 5 5 2 3 —

Q Jail Songs 66 4 6 5 1 —
R Miscellaneous subjects 643 81 99 68 30 i

S Romany Texts 35 5 5 5 — —

T Epics 2,093 28 53 39 13 i

U Wedding Songs 511 33 57 5 i

51 1
V Rain begging Songs 132 6 11 6 3 2

IV Harvest Songs 90 7 12 12 — —

A' Songs of Mourning

1) For the father 51 4 4 4
2) For the mother 73 10 10 10
3) For a son 69 5 5 5
4) For a daughter 32 3 3 3
5) For a child 3 1 1 1
1 6) For a brother 20 2 2 2
Hocete 7) For a sister 27 3 3 3
8) For the husband 88 6 6 6 —
9) For the wife 20 1 1 1
10) Fragments 5 1 1 1
1 1) Travesties 55 7 7 6 1
Total for X I 443 43 43 42 ' 1
~
11 Zorilor 224 7 7 7
111 A bradultii 176 7 8 8 — —
IV Horn morlului; La privegliiu 629 ' 33 44 43' — 1
Y Appendix 1
1 Additions*
11 Improvisations 35 5 6 5 ~ f —
111 Recorders’ personal data)
'Total for All Classes 16,074 1,335 1,732 1,232 451 49

Counted in their respective classes. f Not poems.

[ xlvii ]
 A Rural Community’s Sentiments and Character
or foreign origin. Nos. 178i. j. are interesting examples for the "Ruman-
ification” of such texts.
Epics, or certain longer pieces, frequently derive from foreign and,
in the long run, from urban sources (see below, pp. xciv-xcv); yet, the
transformation generally gives them a very distinct rural character.
(Exceptions are the aforementioned Nos. 1191-1193 and also Nos. 1188-
1190.) The origin of certain texts can be traced as far back as the Old
Testament: No. 244 cCanticle of Canticles, Chapter 4 (Serbo-Croatian
variants: KuhaC63 No. 179, 462).
The origination of shorter lyric texts and "Dance words’’64 is rather
difficult to unveil. Because of their directness, conciseness and suitability
for the occasion, and sometimes of their improvisatory character,
probably no essential "polishing” work took place or was needed in
order to give them a thoroughly rural character. But in any case, they
keep an essential feature of rural art: a perpetual changeability, even
if restricted to imponderabilia.
Texts suspected to be of urban origin have a note referring to this
circumstance in the Notes to the Texts (pp. 641-645).
Most probably no such stratifications, as described on p. Ixxxiv existed
in a given people’s arts in olden times: leaders and commons were
united—if not in wealth and power—then at least in their art.
As I believe, a far greater part than commonly presumed of texts—
and of melodies as well—derive in the long run from urban sources.

TEXTS -l.S EXPRESSION OE A RURAL COMMUNITY’S

SENTIMENTS AND CHARACTER
Great importance was attributed to epics in earlier collections, greater
than they perhaps deserve. Certainly, they are more spectacular than,
for example, short love songs or songs of sorrow, and so forth; they
may be more appealing to the public because they tell stories, and that
sometimes in a rather peculiar way. They are, however, less suited
than the lyrics to deduce some specific traits characteristic of the life
and sentiments of such and such people. In epics, it is the telling of
the story that matters most; expression of sentiments is accessory and
too much restricted to the acting personages of the story to be applied
by the listeners to themselves. Moreover, a great part of the epics is
03 See Bibliography.
About “Dance-words” see Vol. I, p. 53.

[ Ixxxvii ]
 Introduction to Volume III
international in its subjects, though the narrative style may vary
according to the people by which and the language in which it is
produced. Lyrics, on the other hand, show a much more pronounced
differentiation in tluur means of expression, and even in the proffered
sentiments, according to the people from whom they originate. Of
course, only pieces which are rural in the fullest sense of the word
should be considered in this respect.
First of all, a positive and a negative feature must be taken into
account: the presence or the absence of certain expressed sentiments.
The absence may be interpreted in two ways, either as indicating a
lack of such sentiments in the community, or as a sign of a certain
reluctance to express them openly. To facilitate a decision, sometimes
extra-textual aspects may enter and help us.
After these introductory remarks we may proceed to the examination
of some statistical data.65
Table 22

(Sub) Percentage of Singers Corrected Vrcentage

Class Remarks
Female Male Female Male

A I 8S 12 76 24 Especially suited to
female singers
A II 62 38 47 53 especially suited to
male singers
fi III go. 2 9-8 So 20 Bride's complaints
C 57 43 275* 72-5t Soldiers’ songs

* Including a correction of 77 per cent for “active” songs,

t Including a correction of 57 per cent for “active” songs.

The division into A I (subject: female, object: male) and A II (sub­

ject: male, object: female), and the recording of the sex of almost all
the singers,66 enabled us to establish the data in Table 22.
Certain correctives are imperative for the proper interpretation of the
figures in the second and third columns. I preferred, for various reasons
65 It must be stressed again that no influence at all was exerted on tin' choice of texts;
in fact, the singers chose those texts which first occurred to them a circumstance which
enhances the reliability of the following data.
60 In a few cases the singers’ sex is not recorded ; such songs are excluded from this statistical
survey. Excluded also are Classes .V (Songs of mourning) and ( (Wedding songs). These
pieces are exclusively and traditionally sung by female persons.

j Ixxxviii ]
 A Rural Community’s Sentiments and Cl
.Hrlinusness” that resulted
(see Vol. I, p. 5), female to male singers: a fas cent male And
m 70 per cent of the singers being female am j < the soldier
in Class C we may distinguish ‘‘active ive” songs-girls
himself is complaining about military hte < sweethearts,
complaining about the drafting, and so forth’ were revised
After due consideration of all correctives, the pe ‘b
as they appear in the fourth and (dlh cohmms ^j^^i^ed trend
We learn from the tabulation that.^C wh0se sentiments can
among peasant singers toward a choice ot te -
be applied to themselves individually, buch a '‘’"JJ^^gers and in
vergence of the percentage concerning the sc ^ ascribed to
accordance with the kind of the chosen tex s ded to other
pure hazard at all. Similar investigations could e to
(sub)classes or (sub)groups too. For instance, 11 wolj ‘ 01d Age) were
know whether the majority of the pieces mo I • _
sung by older people or not. However, the number o lest 1
nine- is too small to yield reliable results. Nonethe ess, the mg
in the above-mentioned four large and important (sub)classes s
prove that rural folk texts can be regarded as the spontaneous and
faithful expression of some—if not all—sentiments am < mo
community. , ,__Kxr
On the other hand, we see that quite a number of tex s c us
the singers do not fit into their individual sitnatwn. owe'i . ^
circumstance does not invalidate the aforementiom r s a emen
phenomenon is easy to explain. Any peasant with a oui imm C
store up a great number of all kinds of texts in his min . -
"unwritten” laws exist to ridicule the performance of lyric or epic
songs less fit to the performer's personal circumstances, s u
occasionally choose "unfitting” texts also.
Class C—an example of a veritable "Callup Poll —shows a om-
hundred per cent rejection of compulsory military servlct an|
soldiering. The tearing off of boys in the prime of their youth from
community life is felt as an insufferable interference, the aimy
as a form of slavery. No wonder! Whether under foreign or home rule
peasants in Eastern Europe are not patriotic, hhey cling o ui
village with an extended family solidarity; they cling perhaps <> u
narrow area surrounding the village witli a kind of dimly-developed
local loyalty and would probably defend their lands against attacks.
67 Though such laws exist concerning some classes of ceremonial songs.
[ Ixxxix 1
 Introduction to Volume III
But that is all. To care for the welfare and fate of unknown millions,
even fellow countrymen, is beyond their horizon. If a peasant were
able to develop patriotism in the urban sense of the word, he would
cease to be a peasant. The same applies to the Slovaks and Hungarians.
In the folk song material of the latter, however, there are some “patri­
otic” and even "pro-militarist” texts. The former derive from urban
sources (for example, No. 168, st. 9 11, in my book, Hungarian Folk Music),
in the latter they refer to the hussar’s life and present a special case. The
hussars are cavalrymen who wear (or wore) rather spectacular uniforms:
red-trimmed blue coat, spurred boots, and shako; all very appealing to
boys and girls alike. Such trifles account for the pro-militarism (more
correctly, "pro-hussarism”) of the Hungarian hussar texts.
Comparison of the number of texts in the parallel groups of A I and
A II (Love Songs) yields some remarkable data:

Tahle 23

Subgroup Subclass A I Subclass A 11

Designation (Female Subject) (Male Subject)

4) Jealousy 17 4
5) Mistrust 10 4
7) Forsaken 29 6

8) Curses 17 7
10) Forsaking 5 11
18) Jeering 7

According to this table, the figures would mean

that girls are comparatively more subject to jealousy [4)] and, in
consequence, to mistrust [5)] than boys;
that love relations are far more momentous to girls [7), 10)] than to
boys; and, consequently,
that the reaction of girls to adversity in their love life is more impetu­
ous than the reaction of boys, resulting in their wild cursing [8)];
also that curses and jeering [ 18)] may associate sharper tongues for
girls than boys.
Note the absence of texts in H II 18), and also how admirably the
data of 7) (passive texts) and 10) (active texts) complement each other
[ *c ]
 A Rural Community’s Sentiments and ( haractcr
111 the reverse order. Incidentally, the findings perfectly coincide with
the general belief about these matters.
Here follows a literal translation of most of the lines of No. I35a. b.,
as an example of “violent cursing’’.
Disease may eat you up, my Sweetheart! May God visit you
[love! With ninefold marriage.
All the summer long you With nine wives!
[said Yet the last one
You will marry me. a' ■ May bear you a little daughter
Hut when autumn came 612 Who may carry you in a wheelbar­
You sought for another row
Around the village, for a piece of
f(8'rh- [bread!
Sweetheart! may God send
[upon you May you go begging for your liveli-
Nine diseases, nine agues, [hood.
Nine attacks of fever! And may no one have pity on you,
a. 13, Your mother may keep Instead may they jeer at you!
15 20 [Fridays ^ You may come (at last) to my door
To release you from agues; (And ask me) for a gift of charity,
Yet 1 will keep Good Friday For a crust of (stale) cornbread
That they may shake you Baked on St. Michael’s day.
[yet more violently. Even this little I’ll not grant you,
Instead I’ll ask you a question:
Was I your betrothed or not ?

Significant is the small number-—five — of the highwaymen texts

(( lass in comparison witli the abundance of such texts in the
I lungarian material. The Slovaks are halfway in between, in this respect.
Would this mean that highway robbery as a profession—to which
peasants are occasionally driven by some unfortunate collision with the
law—scarcely existed on Rumanian territory while flourishing on
Hungarian soil? And if so, then why? Were perhaps Rumanians more
peaceable, more law-abiding than Hungarians? Or were social condi­
tions in the Rumanian-inhabited parts of pre-World War I Hungary
so much different from those in other parts?
Conspicuous is the lack of any expression of hatred toward other
nationalities; lack of reference to family love (except love of or for
mother) and to quarrels within the family (except daughter’s reproaches
to parents in case of forced marriage or prohibitions in love affairs).
As for expressions of hatred, I saw no trace of them; indeed, they
simply do not exist among peasants. There are Rumanian jesting texts
about gypsies which, however, represent a different case. Gypsies are
not jested about and jeered at because of their nationality but because
[ xci |
 Introduction to Volume III
tln.V are truly queer and ludicrous personages of the village life; just
as peasants joke at their own priest if or when he exposes shortcomings
too visibly.68 Hungarians have a few jesting texts about other nation-
alitii s mild, inoffensive jokes. Further, they display deprecatory and
imprecatory texts directed against Germans and Jews;69 these, however,
arc of urban origin. Hatred toward and persecution of other peoples
just because of their nationality is an urban invention!
n this connection must be mentioned the rather baffling lines 26-28
°f No. 1167a.— highly bewildering for Rumanians, indeed. I hey say.
“Mother has married me to a Rumanian dog,
lo a dog of Rumanian
Whom they call ‘Lord’ because they fear him.”
Io expressly give a member of their own nationality such a highly
deprecatory epithet would truly be a unique case in the entire literature
of Rumanian folk poetry. There emerge, however, well-founded doubts
•dxmt the real meaning of the word “Rumanian” in these lines. It
obviously must be again a metonymy. The most acceptable explanation
is as follows: The girl in question apparently had high ambitions to be
married to a “gentleman,” or had a “gentleman” as a lover; yet was
compelled to marry a—probably well-to-do—peasant. Now, in olden
times, the lords,” the great land-owners or the officials—educated
people with certain executive powers and in urban clothes (that is,
gentlemen”)—were Hungarians in the Rumanian-inhabited villages of
Iransylvania; their vassals, their "governees” (that is, the peasants)
were Rumanians. So "Rumanian” simply means, in certain texts of old
provenance, “peasant” as against "damn” (Lord, gentleman). Cf. also
No. 220 and its note, p. 642.
As for the sentiments, violent quarrels of the family, they necessarily
must exist among rural people. Why do they not appear in the folk
texts.' Are they regarded by the community as comparatively unim­
portant feelings, not worthy of discussion ? Or are they considered as
a kind of taboo which would be unfair and indecent to mention in
songs? these are insolvable questions for the time being, yet, however
do deserve a special and profound study.
If we can rely on the data based on the frequency of occurrences,
68 Neamfule" [ye German!], connected with curses and imprecations in Soldiers’Songs,
is a metonymy for the Austrian Army. See note to No. 10. No. 1151 is an anti-Semitic text:
all °f this piece, text and melody as well, are of urban origin.
69 In rural texts “Jew” simply stands for “merchant”.

XC11
 A Rural Community’s Sentiments and Character
1 11 n VV(“ could assume that sex relations play the most important role
'i "nal life. Next comes sorrow caused by various reasons (estrange-
rn< nt’ soJdiering, old age, poverty, and undefined troubles). Then follows
(nation (dancing, drinking, jesting, joking); and finally several sub-
1' ' Is, each represented only by a few texts.
special characteristic of all these lyrics is their directness and
o^nfidential intimacy. An outward sign of this characteristic is the
(flUint use of the first person singular; one gets the impression of
' < iving the confession of an intimate friend or overhearing a soliloquy
rn< <uit l°r anybody else except the singer herself or her lover.

NTo. 943 (man speaking):

"Sing my sweetheart, sing again, oh70
Sing the tune last night you sang. 1
Cannot tell which tune it was, I
Only know it rent my heart.”

No. 37 (woman speaking):

"You are leaving, darling, leaving,
You’re not taking me with you!
Take me, darling, take me, take me
To the countries far with you;
5 Should you be ashamed of me, then
Make a waistband out of me.
Should this band yet seem too heavy,
Make a tallow candle of me, and
Put it [, press it] to your heart.
10 Should this candle seem too heavy,
Make a candle of wax of me, and
Put it underneath your arm.
Who will see it, he will ask you:
‘Hey, where is this candle from?’
15 ‘This is [not] a candle of wax, it
Is my sweetheart from my home;
This is [not] a tallow candle,
It’s my sweetheart from my land.'

Such an intimacy of expression exists—as I feel it—to a higher degree

in the Rumanian rural folk poesy than in the Hungarian, Slovakian,
and perhaps Serbo-Croatian. Statistically-minded as I am, 1 would,
however, make no definite assertions as long as the folk text material
70 “Oh” and similar syllables should be placed at the beginning of the following lines. I
placed them deliberately at the end of the lines in order to create a semblance of trochaics,
the original meter.

[ xciii ]
 Introduction to Volume III
of these various peoples has not been studied as thoroughly as the
Rumanian material of this book.
Class L (Kryptadia) contains indecent texts. Some of them, as for
instance No. 1055, probably are of urban origin and are sung, corre­
spondingly, to melodies of foreign or urban source. The overwhelming
majority belongs, however, to the so-called “dance-words.” One can
fairly assert that indecent texts occur only in this category of the
Rumanian rural folk texts and, accordingly, only as fun and jest. The
case with the Hungarian and Slovakian material does not seem to be
similar in this respect. The situation there, however, does not look quite
clear because of a totally different stratification of the melody material,
which to explain here could become too detailed. Another remarkable
feature, probably rather baffling to Western Europeans, is the fact that
indecent texts are sung by men and women equally. The same applies
to the Hungarian and Slovakian material.71 We do not know how the
Serbo-Croatians behave in this respect, since the available printed
material does not contain—for well-known reasons— a single indecent
text.72
As it has been said above, many of the epic texts have international,
or at least inter-Eastern-European subjects. This book contains fifty-
three epic texts in twenty-eight variant groups; so far as it could be
established at present, five of the latter have variants in the material
of the neighboring peoples. And this small number could probably be
augmented by a more comprehensive comparative research.
The number of epic texts printed in this volume is insufficient for
general deductions. Yet if we extend our investigation to Rumanian
epic texts published elsewhere, then we will find a marked difference
between Rumanian and Hungarian epics. The former are, on the whole,
rather elaborate; in fact, they go into the description of minutest
details. The latter are concise, rapid in progress, and dramatic in design.
An appropriate illustration of this difference is given by No. 1182—
with 223 text lines- and its numerous, much shorter Hungarian variants.
Another example: the Rumanian “Manole" texts and their Hungarian
variants known as "Konuves Kclemen". The difference may be explained

71 See remarks on this subject in li. Bartbk, "Turkish 1'olk Music from Asia Minor,”
manuscript deposited at the Music Library of Columbia University, p. XXXI, fn. i.
72 Of seventy five songs in Serbo-Croatian folk Songs, only one, No. 6b., has such a text
(incidentally, sung by a woman). It relates a quarrel between three girls and a boy, mentioning
the most private organs. All this seems to be done, however, not for fun’s sake but in an
innocently realistic manner.

[ xciv ]
 A Rural Community’s Sentiments and Character
in two ways. Either it is the result of a difference between the Rumanian
;md Hungarian rural mind, the former having a more or less static, the
latter a dramatic disposition, or the sometimes fragmentary-looking
conciseness may account for a final degree of inordinate densification
°f originally more extended forms. It is rather difficult to take sides in
this question. For, on the one hand, there are numerous Hungarian epic
texts showing manifest signs of decay, shortened to a few, almost
incomprehensible stanzas- -remnants of pieces which once must have been
unimpaired. On the other hand, there are pieces, succinct in narration,
avoiding all less important details, which are real masterpieces of
perfection (for example, the aforementioned “Kdmives Kclemen texts)
which scarcely could be regarded as deteriorated merely because of their
conciseness.
1 he narrative style of the epics does not use the first person singular,
at variance with the lyrics: the narrator modestly stays in the back­
ground, hidden behind the third person singular when telling his story.
I here are, however, epic pieces whose narrators lack such quiet modesty.
I hey come to the foreground like announcers of a village show, and—
using the first person singular- blare their story with an assumed
didactic air of “I told you” (for example, No. 1174a. in which the
narrator identifies himself with the main personage of the tale).73 Such
a narrative style is of urban or semirural origin and appears mostly in
so-called "Muritat" pieces (see p. Ixxxv).
1 he geographical distribution of epics shows certain peculiarities.
There are in this book 28 epics out of ca. 310 (9 per cent) from Banat
(Arad, Hunedoara, and Severin not included); 6 out of ca. 500 (a little
more than 1 per cent) from Bihor; and 19 out of ca. 610 (a little more
than j per cent) from all the other territories. The Bihor epic texts are
short, mostly fragmentary pieces, each consisting of ten to sixteen lines,
with a total of seventy-six lines (Nos. 1182 and 1183a., both from Banat,
alone have 223 and 139 lines respectively). This survey shows, on the
one hand, that the main district of provenance for epics is the Banat;
and, on the other hand, that epics in Bihor are in decay, if they ever
flourished there. Could the wealth in epics of Banat be ascribed to Serbo-
Croatian influence? The Serbo-Croatian territory is abundant in epics,74
73 Sec also No. 504.
74 Out of seventy-five songs in Scrbo Croatian bulk Songs, twenty {26 per cent) have epic
texts (Nos. 6a. c., 8a. b., 10a. b., 12a. e., 18, 20, 25, 27a. b., 28a., 34-36, 44a. b., and 46):
proportionately almost three times as many as in Banat, the Rumanian district richest in
epics.

[ xcv ]
 Introduction to Volume III
though they seem to show features somehow different from those of
Banat—a difference not yet sufficiently explored.
Ceremonial texts as, for instance, wedding and mourning song texts,
cannot always be regarded as mirrors of de facto existing sentiments.
Originally they, of course, were expressions of such sentiments. In their
later development, however, they changed into more or less rigid
formulas. A bride-elect should be sad when leaving the parental house;
family members ought to be distressed at the death of one of them. If
they happen to be indifferent or even glad at such occasions, then they
are at least supposed to feign sorrow and distress. The performance of
the traditional rites accompanied by the respective songs is compulsory
whether or not their mood tallies with the sentiments of the persons in
question. In case of a forced marriage, especially that of a nearly-related
person—father, mother, child, and so forth—there generally is mood-
sentiment agreement. The sobbing which inevitably goes with the per­
formance of the mourning songs by the near female relatives is usually
genuine.
“Sobbing” may appear in records of mourning songs, too. When
women were asked by the collector to sing a mourning song, at first they
refused with much giggling and laughing; they said it would be too
“queer” to sing without having a corpse on the spot. In a comparatively
short time, however, they yielded to the request, and generally chose a
mourning song (text) referring to a recent death in the family. It
frequently happened that the singer gradually became overwhelmed by
recollection of her grief to such a degree that she could not help but
intermingle sobs with her singing. The Museum for Anthropology
in Budapest possesses several records of Hungarian mourning songs
(by a mother for her son who died sometime ago) which consist of
almost continuous hysterical sobbing and crying, only occasionally
interrupted by shreds of the melody. A gruesome document of rural
life, indeed!
Incidentally, to “mourn” over a corpse is the duty of female members
of the family, an ancient usage, described already in Thucydides’
Peloponnesian War: “the female relatives of the deceased assemble at
the place of interment and make lamentations.” If such relatives are not
at hand, "professional” mourners are hired.75

75 About the Subclasses of the Songs of Mourning, see Vol. II, p. 9.

[ xevi ]
 Some Variants Published Elsewhere

UST 0F S0ME variants published elsewhere

It would be very elucidating to compare our material with all the
Rumanian and other materials previously published This ,
- ■“**.'"7* ^ ^ puSed
number in the tens of thousands of texts; it would take
years to survey and compile the data. I had to confine mvseTt!?^
examination of a few publicationa and content myJf with Z
meagre results they yield. J ua tae
Table 2476

I t xt Numbers Variants in Other Publications

1 (and 1173a. 1-5-'°) • • • ■ Colinde, Vol. II, 87a.-n. (parts of them); KubaX/,
' 38; Serbo-Croatian Folk Songs, 45.
, ........................................ Kuha6, 652a.);
.............. KuhaC, probably
1022,' 1071; KubaKuba
XIV, 22; 462.
B.H., Hung. Folk
........................ Music, 306.
„ ......................... Maramures, 130; Hung. Folk Music, 252; Kuhai,
276, 600; Fred. Srb., 551; many more Hungarian,
German, Slovakian, etc. variants.
201 • • ' ’ ..................See
.... Maramures,at No. 117249.
204 Kuhad, 179, 462.
244 • • • (503).............. Hung. Folk Music, 260a.; Kuhad, 654.
425a., 426c. .... (in the reverse) Kuhad, 710: Kuba TJ./T 1035 AT
492 ...................... 9, 10.
... See at No. 425a.
503 ................... . . • • Ursu, 2.
515 ••••■■’ ... Maramures, 59.
550 ..................... , Kuhad, 920-923.
563 ......................... , Maramures, 27.
609 ............................. ’ Maramures, 23c.
618 . • • •.................. Maramures, 117.
690 .......................... ' ' ' Ursu, 11 (first Part)-
698 ............................. ‘ Maramures, 23b.
.................................. ' Maramures, 42.
...................................... Maramures, 178d.
772 .....................................Trans. Hung. Folksongs, 89; Nar. Pev., p. 71, text
849 ..................................... j. many more Hungarian variants.
t
858 (fragmentary).............. Hung Vol.
Colinde II, 99a-i.;
Folksongs, Maramures,
36, 45; 15, Nar.
Kuhad, 440; 16; Trans.
Pev.,
p 42, text 1; Kuba B.H., 444, 966, 121, 122, 597,
XIU 2 (the last one with birds); Serbo-Croatian
Volk Songs, 15; many more Rumanian, Serbo-
Croatian arid Hungarian variants.
87! See uibliography for.... Ursu
information (lines 9-13)
concerning the publications cited in this tabulation.

[ xcvii ]