Introductory Mathematics, MAT100a,d, Fall 2020

October 8

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 Even and Odd Functions
Every function f of type R → R is the sum of some even function feven and
some odd function fodd , which are uniquely determined by f . E.g., if
ˆ ax2 + bx + c, then feven (x) = ax2 + c and fodd = bx.
f (x) =
Proof: feven (x) =
ˆ (f (x) + f (−x))/2, fodd (x) =
ˆ (f (x) − f (−x))/2. If
0 0 00 00
f = feven + fodd and f = feven + fodd , then
0 00 00 0
feven − feven = fodd − fodd .

The functions on both sides of this equality ought to be both even and odd;
hence they are both the constant 0.
Exercise: Let f be even and g be odd. Determine which of the expressions
below define even functions, odd functions, or neither:

f (x) + 1, f (f (x)), (g(x))2 , f (g(x)), g(g(x)), 1 − g(x), x + g(x), xg(x).

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 Zeros of Continuous Functions
Informally, a function is continuous, if small changes to the argument
correspond to small changes to the value of the function.
Formally, a function f : [a, b] → R is continuous, if for any ε > 0 there exists a
δ > 0 such that x0 , x00 ∈ [a, b] and |x0 − x00 | < δ entails |f (x0 ) − f (x00 )| < ε.
Functions which admit a defining equality built using the algebraic operations
happen to be continuous, if defined on an interval.
For example, let
2
√
x + x−1 1
ˆ √
f (x) = and g(x) =
ˆ .
x+1+1 x−1
Then f is continuous function on [1; ∞), the domain of its defining expression.
Unlike f , the defining expression of g is defined on R \ {0}.
Restrictions of g to intervals which do not include 0 are continuous, but g itself
is not. The value of g varies a lot even in very small intervals around 0.

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 Least Upper Bound Principle for Real Numbers
Consider sets X of real numbers: X ⊆ R.
E.g., [−1, 2) ⊂ R, N ⊂ R, Q ⊂ R, {q : q 2 < 2 : q ∈ Qset} ⊂ R,
{n2 : n ∈ N} ⊂ R.
A number b ∈ R is an upper bound for X ⊆ R, if x ≤ b for all x ∈ X.
A non-empty subset X ⊆ R is bounded from above, if it has an upper bound.
E.g., 2, 3, 10, . . . are upper bounds for [−1, 2). N and Q have no upper bounds.
1, 2, 1000, . . . are upper bounds for {1 − n1 : n ∈ N}. {n2 : n ∈ N} has no
upper bound.
The Least Upper Bound Principle. If a non-empty set of real numbers
is bounded from above has a least upper bound, that is, there exists a least
number b with the property x ≤ b for all x ∈ X.
E.g., the least upper bound for [−1, 2) is 2. 2 is the least upper bound for
2
√
[−1, 2] too. The least upper bound for {q : q < 2 : q ∈ Qset} is 2.

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 Zeros of Continuous Functions: Role’s Theorem
Theorem [Role]. Let f : [a, b] → R be a continuous function, and let
f (a) < 0, f (b) > 0. Then there exists an x ∈ (a, b) such that f (x) = 0. To
prove this theorem, we define a sequence of intervals [a0 , b0 ], [a1 , b1 ], . . . .
Every interval is defined using the previous one, and we either encounter an
x ∈ [a, b] such that f (x) = 0 in the process of defining the sequence, or define
an infinite sequence. We define the intervals [an , bn ] so that f (an ) < 0 and
f (bn ) > 0 for all n. The definition is as follows:
[a0 , b0 ] =
ˆ [a, b], the domain of f ;

Given [an , bn ] for some natural number n, let cn =

ˆ (an + bn )/2, the midpoint

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of [an , bn ]. In case f (cn ) = 0, we can put x =
ˆ cn and the conclusion of the
theorem is obtained.
If f (cn ) > 0, then we put an+1 =
ˆ an , bn+1 =
ˆ cn .
If f (cn ) > 0, then we put an+1 =
ˆ cn , bn+1 =
ˆ bn .
In both cases, f (an+1 ) < 0 and f (bn+1 ) > 0.
Obviously for all n [an+1 , bn+1 ] is a subinterval of [an , bn ], half the length of
[an , bn ].
Assume that f (cn ) 6= 0 for all n.
There exists a unique real number x such that x ∈ [an , bn ] for all n. This
number is the least upper bound of the set {an : n ∈ N}. lengths of [an , bn ]
decrease unboundedly: bn − an = 21n (b − a).Because of the continuity of f ,
the difference of the values f (an ) and f (bn ) of f decreases unboundedly too.
Since f (an ) < 0 and f (bn ) > 0 and an < xn < bn for all n, the only possibility
for f (x) is f (x) = 0.

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 Zeros of Continuous Functions: The Intermediate Value
Theorem
The Intermediate Value Theorem is an immediate corollary of what we proved:
Theorem [Intermediate Value Theorem]. Let f : [a, b] → R be a
continuous function. Let f (a) ≤ f (b) and c ∈ [f (a); f (b)]. Then there exists
an x ∈ [a, b] such that f (x) = c.
Proof: The function g(x) =
ˆ f (x) − c satisfies the conditions of the previous
theorem, and therefore there exists an x such that g(x) = 0, whence
f (x) = g(x) + c = c.

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The End