Ecw331 Chapter 02 Final PDF

ECW 331
BASIC WATER & WASTEWATER

ENGINEERING
Basic Hydrology
Water Supply
Wastewater Engineering
CHAPTER 2
Precipitation
Introduction
Forms of Precipitation
Types of Precipitation
Measurement of Precipitation
Presentation of Rainfall Data
Determination of Missing Data
Analysis of Rainfall Data
COVERAGE
• Explain form and type of precipitation
and its measurement
INTRODUCTION
• Depending on temperature & location –
precipitation may occur in variety forms –
PRECIPITATION
drizzle, rain, snow, hail, frost, etc

• Main source of precipitation is water vapour
derived by the evaporation at the ocean
• Then these water vapour absorbed by air
streams moving across sea surface
• Moist air keeps the water vapour absorbed
until it cools to below dew point temperature
when vapour precipitated as rain –
temperature low, as show or hail
INTRODUCTION
• Tropical climate like Malaysia – rainfall is
important
PRECIPITATION
• Design need arise – rainfall occurs at

extreme rates
• High rainfall rates can cause flooding in
urban areas
• Absence of rain over long periods also
reduce the stream flow and causing lake
levels to decline sharply
• Requirement of rainfall data helps the
hydrological planning and design works
INTRODUCTION
• Term Precipitation
– Denotes all forms of water that reach the
PRECIPITATION
earth from atmosphere

– Usual forms are rainfall, snowfall, hail,
frost and dew
– Rainfall – main form of precipitation
causing stream flow (flood flow in majority
rivers in South East Asian)
– Otherwise stated the term rainfall use
synonymously with precipitation
INTRODUCTION
• Amount of precipitation varies with time and
space
PRECIPITATION
• Different amount of rainfall at various

country due to at a given time and variations
of rainfall at a place in various season of the
year
• Study of precipitation form
• important aspects of rainfall
• collection and analysis of rainfall data
GENERAL PROCESS OF PRECIPITATION
INTRODUCTION
• Water evaporates due to solar radiation

from sea, river, lakes, reservoirs, soil,
EVAPORATION
vegetation
• Rate of evaporation depends on
atmospheric pressure equals to surface
water pressure where it is the measure of
the excess water surface over those
returning
• When temperature of air space and water
becomes equal, air space is considered
saturated
NUCLEATION / FORMATION OF CLOUDS
• Nucleation / Formation of Clouds

– Accumulation of water vapour in the form
of clouds but still below dew point is
called nucleation
– Under favourable weather conditions the
water vapour condense over nuclei to
form tiny water droplets of sizes less than
0.1mm in diameter
TRANSPORTATION GENERAL PROCESS OF PRECIPITATION
• Transportation
– Clouds of water vapour – carried away by
wind towards land
– Wind speed facilitates the movement of
clouds while turbulence keeps the water
droplets in suspension
• Condensation
CONDENSATION
– Dynamic / adiabatic (a reversible thermodynamic

process that occurs without gain or loss of heat
and without a change in entropy) cooling is the
primary cause of condensation and responsible
for rainfall
– Clouds are lifted to higher altitudes –
temperature fall below dew point, condensation
takes place
– Water droplets are formed
• Precipitation
– Precipitation results when water droplets come
PRECIPITATION
together and coalesce (combine) to form larger

drops that can drop down
– Coalescence is the process by which the small
cloud droplets increase their size due to content
with other droplets through collision
– Start falling down when size is enough to
overcome the air resistance
– When larger size feeling droplets collide with
smaller droplets - tend to unite and the sizes
increases
• Precipitation
– Then it will break into small droplets when size is
PRECIPITATION
about 7mm in diameter

– Again coalescence process repeats like chain
reaction
– When temperature is below freezing point – ice
crystals or snowflakes will form and size further
grow through contact with other particles
– Snowflake change to rain droplets after entering
air – when the temperature above freezing point
TEMPERATURE BELOW FEEZING POINT
BACK
FORMS OF PRECIPITATION
• Forms of precipitation
– Liquid precipitation – rain and drizzle
PRECIPITATION
– Frozen precipitation – snow, glaze, sleet,

hail and freezing rain
• The atmosphere must have moisture
• Favourable weather conditions of
water vapour takes place
• Product of condensation must reach
earth
PRECIPITATION
• DRIZZLE
– Light steady fine sprinkle of water
droplets of size of about diameter 0.1 mm
DRIZZLE
to 0.5 mm diameter
– Intensity is less than 1.0 mm/hr because
of small droplets are floating in the air
– Rainfall Intensity ( i ) is defined as the
intensity of rainfall of a chosen frequency
that lasts for a duration equal to the time
of concentration
• RAIN
– Condensed water vapour of atmosphere falling
in the forms of drops from clouds
– Rainfall – used to describe precipitation in the
form of the drops of size ranging from 0.5 mm to
RAIN
6.0mm in diameter
– Drop more than 6.0 mm tend to break up into
drops of smaller sizes during its fall from the
cloud
• TYPE OF INTENSITY
– Light rain - 2.5 mm/h
– Moderate rain - 2.5mm/h to 7.5 mm/h
– Heavy rain - > 7.5 mm/h
GLAZE & FREEZING RAIN
• GLAZE/ FREEZING RAIN

– Drizzle (fine rain drops) come into contact
with cold objects at about freezing point
– Water drops freeze to form an ice coating
known as glaze and freezing rain
PRECIPITATION TYPES
SLEET, ICE PELLETS & SNOW
• SLEET & ICE PELLETS
– Precipitation of snow and rain simultaneously
– Form of frozen raindrops of transparent grains
– Formed while falling through the air at
subfreezing temperature
• SNOW
– Precipitation that reaches the ground in form of
ice crystals
– Sizes may very from few millimetres to
centimetres
– Consists of ice crystals
– Formed when water vapour condense to ice
TYPES OF PRECIPITATION
• HAIL
SNOWFLAKES
– Showery precipitation
to form irregular
pallets of size > 5mm
diameter
– Formed by alternate freezing or melting –

when carried up and down by highly turbulent
currents
• SNOWFLAKES
SNOWFLAKES
– Ice crystal fused together the snowflakes

are formed
– Increasing size the snowflakes start
falling on the surface as snowfall
– Density snow – 0.06 to 0.15 g/cm3
– Usually to assume an average density of
0.1gm/cm3
SLEET & HAIL
DEW
FROST
• FROST
– Feathery deposits of ice form on ground or on the surface
of exposed objects by dew or water vapour that are frozen
FOG
• FOG
– Thin cloud of varying sizes formed at surface of
the earth by condensation of the atmosphere
vapour
– Interfere with visibility
FOG
MIST
• MIST
– Very thin fog is called mist BACK
• Precipitation classified according to the

PRECIPITATION
type of mechanism that produces it

• Common way – lifting and cooling of
air masses laden with water vapor
• Lifting – by thermodynamics or
mechanical means
• Condensation takes place when moist air
PRECIPITATION
cooled below dew point

• Adiabatic cooling is cause by condensation
of moist air through a process of being lifted
to higher altitudes that lower the pressure
and allows moist air to expand.
• Duration of intensity of precipitation
depends on;
– Moisture content
– How fast or how much it is cooled from initial
state
CLASSIFICATION OF PRECIPITATION
• Precipitation is classified to 3 major

categories based on conditions that
facilitate the deviation of air masses.
– Orographic precipitation
– Convective precipitation
– Cyclonic precipitation
OROGRAPHIC PRECIPITATION
• Occurs from mechanical lifting
• Process – wind carry moist air from a
water surface to a land surface
• If there is mountain range blocks the
path of the wind, the moist air must
rise to pass over them
• Increase in altitude causes air to
expand and its pressure to decrease –
result low temperature
• Lowering air temperature results in an
increase in relative humidity
• When air temperature lowered to a point
where saturation humidity is reached, water
vapor condenses and precipitation takes
place
• Condition can be seen in coastal areas
where clouds sits around peaks of a
mountain range
• Precipitation is deposited on the windward
sides of mountain range
CONVECTIVE PRECIPITATION
• Cause by heating of the air at the interface with the
ground
• Heated air expands with resultant reduction in
weight
• Increasing water vapour quantities are taken up
• Warm moisture laden air becomes unstable and
pronounced vertical currents are developed
• Dynamic cooling takes place which causes
condensation and precipitation
• Convective precipitation – form of light shower or
storms of extremely high intensity depend upon
moisture content of air
• Typical of the tropics, in form of the
local whirling thunderstorm
• Formed due to local heating of earth
surface
• Air close to warm earth will get heated
and rises due to low density
• Cooler surrounding of air flows occupy
its place thus setting up convective cell
• Warm air continues to rise, cools
adiabatically and result to precipitation
CYCLONIC PRECIPITATION
• Results from the meeting of two air masses
of different temperature
• Front – boundaries of air masses
• Typical front – warm front and cold front
• Associated with the movement of air
masses from higher pressure regions to low
pressure regions
• Pressure differences heated by unequal
heating of earth’s surface
• Cyclone and front system associated with
the type of precipitation
• Tropical cyclone
– Term also as hurricane, typhoon is a wind system with
intensely, strong depression spread over 100 -200 km in
diameter
– Anticlockwise wind in the northern hemisphere
– Clockwise wind in southern hemisphere
• Tropical Cyclone
– Centre of storm is called eye (diameter 10 – 50
km)
– Wind speed outside eye very strong (200 km ph)
– Cyclone originates in open sea at about 5 - 10
and move towards higher latitudes by deriving
energy from latent (suppressed) heat of
condensation of sea water vapour and increase
their size and speed as they move on the ocean
– When moving on land, the source of energy is
cut off and intensity of storm decrease rapidly
– Give moderate to excessive rainfall over large
areas for several days
• Extratropical Cyclones
– Formed in locations outside tropical zones
– Have anticlockwise circulation in northern
hemisphere
– Precipitation and wind velocity are lower than
tropical cyclone
– But the duration of precipitation usually longer
and concerns large area
– It has frontal system
– Frontal precipitation results from lifting warm air
and covers the cold air at contact zone between
air masses
• Anticyclones
– Regions of high pressure and large extent
– Cause moderate speed and clockwise
wind circulation in northern hemisphere
– Cloudy and precipitation conditions at
outer edges
• Front
– Front – interface between two distinct air
masses (e.g warm air mass and cold air
mass)
– When cold air mass and warm air mass
meet, warmer air mass lifted over colder
air mass with formation of front
– Ascending warmer air cools adiabatically
resulting formation of clouds and
precipitation Front
• Front
• Warm Front
• Warm air masses overtakes a region of
colder air, it will rise up on top of cold air
because of its less density
• Formed when an advancing mass of warm air moves
up an inclined surface of retreating cold air and chilled
in the process of being lifted to higher elevation of
retreating cold air
• Cooling – produced by lifting warm air masses and not
by cold air underneath
• Precipitation can spread over an area of 300 to 500 km
ahead the front location
• Intensity of precipitation usually moderate to high until
warm front passes on the surface
WARM FRONT
• Front
– Cold Front
– Relatively cold – clouds from overhead and
precipitation might occur
– Cold air overtakes warm air and pushes in
under it and again warm air forced to rise
• Formed from warm air displaced and forced upwards
by an advancing mass of cold air
• Warm air cooled in process of being lifted up to higher
level
• Cold fronts – more faster than warm front and usually
cause intense precipitation comparatively small areas
near the front surface
COLD FRONT
• Stationary Front
– Two air masses drawn simultaneously
towards low pressure area
– The front developed is stationary – known
as stationary front
STATIONARY FRONT
• Occluded Front
– Cold front more faster than warm front
and generally takes over them
– During this process the frontal surfaces of
cold and warm air masses slide each
other
– Phenomenon called occlusion
– Results in frontal surface – occluded front
OCCLUDED FRONT
BACK
METHODS USED MEASURING RAINFALL
MEASUREMENT OF PRECIPITATION
• NON RECORDING GAUGES

• RECORDING GAUGES
• WEATHER RADAR
NON RECORDING GAUGES
• Standard recording rain gauge – consists

127mm diameter funnel that directs rainfall
to smaller diameter tube (bottle)
• Collected rain water – poured into a
measuring cylinder and reading is recorded
• Only gives the total rainfall between
readings which usually taken once a day
• May be sufficient for application that
required only the total rainfall and the
annual distribution of rainfall
NON RECORDING GAUGES
• Most commonly used recording rain gauge
RECORDING GAUGES
is the weighing rain gauge

• Consist galvanized bucket that sits on scale
• Rain water collected through a funnel into
the bucket
• Rainfall occurs – increases the weight in
bucket and mechanical linkage drives an ink
pen across a chart
• Chart wrapped around a cylindrical drum
driven by a clock mechanism and give a plot
of accumulated rainfall against the time
RECORDING GAUGES
Manual Rain Gauge
• Used to estimate rainfall
• Based on the principle of echo sounding
WEATHER RADAR
• High frequency electromagnetic waves are

sent out which travel at the speed of light
• Extremely small portion of this energy is
reflected by objects in the sky and detected
by radar
• By calibration of echo intensity with rainfall –
can measure the rainfall density
• Use of weather radar together with the rain
gauge data provide useful estimates of
rainfall for areas not covered by rain gauges
BACK
PRESENTATION OF RAINFALL DATA
• Two types of graphical presentations:-

– Rainfall Hyetograph
HYETOGRAPH
– Rainfall Mass Curve

• Rainfall hyetograph – rainfall
intensity plotted against time
• To show development of design
storms to predict extreme floods
• Area under hyetograph represents
total rainfall received in certain time
Rainfall Intensity
(mm/hr)
2.5
HYETOGRAPH
1.5
0.5
0
0 2 4 6 6 7.6 10 12 13.6 14 16 18 20 22 22.4 24 26 28 28 30
Time (hour)
Figure 2.24 (c) Hytegraph of Rainfall

RAINFALL MASS CURVE
• Rainfall Mass Curve

– Accumulated precipitation graph plotted
against time
– Rainfall mass curve used to extract
information regarding rainfall magnitudes
and durations
– Rainfall intensities at various time interval
in a particular storm can also be obtained
RAINFALL MASS CURVE
Accumulated rainfall (mm)
30
25
20
15
10
0
0 6 12 18
Time (hours)
Figure 2.23 (a) Mass curve of rainfall
BACK
DETERMINATION OF MISSING DATA
• Missing data may be encountered due
to inoperative gauges
MISSING DATA
• Missing data can be estimated using

the data from the neighboring stations
• Two methods used to determine
missing data:-
– ARITHMETIC MEAN METHOD – vary <
10%
– NORMAL RATIO METHOD – vary > 10%
ARITHMETIC MEAN METHOD
• ARITHMETIC MEAN METHOD
– Averages the rainfall values of the surrounding
gauges are calculated
– Applied to missing gauge provided the normal
annual precipitation of the surrounding gauges is
within 10% of the missing gauges
– Let P1, P2, P3, ……, Pm are the annual rainfall
data neighboring M stations 1,2,3…..,M
respectively, then the missing annual rainfall
data, Px at station X not included in the M
stations calculated using the following eqn:-
Px = (P1 + P2 + P3 +…….+Pm)/M
NORMAL RATIO METHOD
• NORMAL RATIO METHOD
– If surrounding gauges have normal annual
precipitation of more than 10% of the normal
annual precipitation at station X, then Px is
estimated by weighing the precipitation at various
stations by the ratio of normal annual precipitation
Px = [Nx(P1 /N1 + P2 /N2 + P3 /N3 +…….+Pm /Nm)]/M
Where N1,N2,N3…Nm are the normal annual precipitation at

the surrounding M stations and Nx is the normal precipitation
at station X
The normal annual precipitation at stations P, Q, R
and S are 80.97cm, 67.59cm, 76.28cm and 92.01cm.
In a certain year, the data at station S was missing
EXAMPLE 2.1
due to a faulty gauge. Stations P, Q and R recorded

annual precipitations of 91.11cm, 72.23cm and
79.89cm respectively. Determine the missing data at
station S.
SOLUTION
The normal annual rainfall values vary more than 10%
Therefore use the normal ratio method to determine the
missing data at station S
NP = 80.79cm; NQ = 67.59cm; NR = 76.28 cm; NS = 92.01cm
PP = 91.11cm; PQ = 72.23cm; PR = 79.89cm
PS = [NS(PP /NP + PQ /NQ + PR /NR)]/M = 99.41cm BACK
ANALYSIS OF RAINFALL DATA
METHODS TO DETERMINE AREAL
• To determine the mean areal rainfall

• Three methods to determine the mean
areal rainfall of a catchment:
RAINFALL
• ARITHMETIC MEAN METHOD

• THIESSEN POLYGON METHOD
• ISOHYETAL METHOD
ARITHMETIC MEAN METHOD
• Arithmetic Mean Method
– Assumes that each rain gauge represents
the average rainfall that falls around the
gauge within the catchment area
– P1, P2 ……, Pn are the rainfall data in N
stations within the catchment, mean
precipitation, P over the catchment
calculated using arithmetic mean method
P = (P1 + P2 +…….+Pn)/N
THIESSEN POLYGON METHOD
• Thiessen Polygon Method
– Provides weighing factor for each rain gauge in
the catchment area
– Gauge stations are plotted on a map and straight
lines are drawn to join all the stations
– Perpendicular bisectors of these lines form
polygons around each station
– Area polygon, A determine and express as a
percentage of the total area
– Weighted average rainfall for the whole area is
determined by multiplying the rainfall measured at
each station by its percentage of area
P = (P1 A1 + P2 A2 +…..+ Pn An)/(A1+ A2 +…..+An)
THIESSEN POLYGON METHOD
• Isohyetal Method
ISOHYETAL METHOD
– The most accurate method used to calculate

mean areal precipitation
– Amount of rainfall measured at each station of
recorded for each station on a map
– Contours of equal precipitation – isohyets
– Areas between two adjacent isohyets are
determined before computing the mean rainfall for
the catchment
– Mean rainfall value – weighing the average
precipitation between successive isohyets with the
area factor between the isohyets – then sum all
ISOHYETAL METHOD
Compute the mean areal precipitation for the
following data using (1) the arithmetic mean
EXAMPLE 2.2
method and (2) Thiessen polygon method.
Station No. Precipitation Area of

(mm) Thiessen
Polygon (km2)
1 30.8 45
2 34.6 40
3 32.0 30
4 24.6 38
SOLUTION : EXAMPLE 2.2
SOLUTION EXAMPLE 2.2
1. Using arithmetic mean method;
P = (P1 + P2 + P3+P4)/N = 30.5mm
2. Using Thiessen Polygon method;

P = (P1 A1 + P2 A2 + P3 A3 + P4 A4 )/(A1+ A2 +A3 +A4)
= (30.8 x 45.0 + 34.6 x 40.0 + 32.0 x 30 + 24.6 x
38)/153
= 30.49mm
The location of six rain gauging stations in or near
the catchment is shown in the figure. The observed
rainfall measured at these stations are given in the
EXAMPLE 2.3
table below together with the Thiessen weighing

factors. Determine the mean areal precipitation of
the catchment using the Thiessen polygon method.
Rain Gauge 1 2 3 4 5 6
Rainfall (mm) 45 39 32 34 27 48
Thiessen 0.28 0.135 0.275 0.190 0.025 0.095

Weight Factor
Example 2.3
The location of six rain gauging stations in or near a

catchment. The observed rainfall measured at these
stations are given in the table. Determine the mean
areal precipitation of the catchment using Thiessen
polygon method.
(1 cm : 5 km)
Compute the total areal precipitation from the area of polygon and
weighted contributions of each rain gauge (Thiessen weight) in a
table.
Rain Rainfall Polygon Thiessen PxW
Gauge P Area Weight
(mm) (km2) W (mm)
1 45 Should be 0.280 12.6
determine
2 39 0.135 5.3
from the
3 32 drawn 0.275 8.8
diagram
4 34 0.190 6.5
5 27 0.025 0.7
6 48 0.095 4.6
TOTAL 38.5
Mean areal precipitation using Thiessen polygon method is 38.5mm
The isohyets due to the storm in a
catchment is shown in the figure and the
EXAMPLE 2.4
area bounded by the isohyets are given in

the table below. Determine the mean and
areal precipitation of the catchment using
Isohyetal Method.
Isohyets (cm) 12 12 - 10 10 - 8 8 - 6 6-4
Area (km2) 30 140 80 180 20

Computation carried out in tabular form.
Isohyets Average Area Fraction of Weighted
Precipitation (km2) total Area Precipitation
(cm) (cm)
12.0 12.0 30 0.0667 0.800
12.0 – 10.0 11.0 140 0.3111 0.422
10.0 – 8.0 9.0 80 0.1778 1.600
8.0 – 6.0 7.0 180 0.4000 2.800
6.0 – 4.0 5.0 20 0.0444 0.222
Total 450 1.000 8.844
Mean areal precipitation using Isohyetal Method = 8.84cm

Estimate the total volume of rainfall over a catchment

area based on the following observation carried out in
EXAMPLE 2.5
the field.
Station A B C D E
Observed Rainfall (mm) 265 198 145 114 81
Polygon Area (ha) 518 770 906 1500 748

Computation carried out in tabular form.
Station Rainfall Polygon Area, A PxA
P (m) (ha)
A 0.265 518 317.27
B 0.198 770 152.46
C 0.145 906 131.37
D 0.114 1500 171.00
E 0.081 748 60.59
Total 4442 832.69
Mean areal precipitation using Thiessen polygon method;
= 832.69 / 4442 = 0.187m
Total volume of rainfall over the area
= 0.187 x 4442 x 104 = 8.33 x 106 m3
The isohyets of a particular catchment area together
with the area between two isohyets are given in the
EXAMPLE 2.6
table below. Compute the mean areal precipitation

using the Isohyetal method.
Isohyets 127.0 – 139.7 – 152.4 – 165.1 – 177.8 – 190.5 –

(cm) 139.7 152.4 165.1 177.8 190.54 203.2
Area 181 388 337 311 104 26
(km2)
Problem solved in tabular form.
Mean Precipitation, P Area,A PxA
(cm) (km2)
133.35 181 24136
146.05 388 56667
168.75 337 53499
171.45 311 53321
184.15 104 19152
196.85 26 5118
TOTAL 1347 211893
Therefore,
The mean areal precipitation = 211893/1347
= 157.3cm CHAPTER 3

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ECW 331

BASIC WATER & WASTEWATER

drizzle, rain, snow, hail, frost, etc

• Design need arise – rainfall occurs at

earth from atmosphere

• Different amount of rainfall at various

• Water evaporates due to solar radiation

• Nucleation / Formation of Clouds

– Dynamic / adiabatic (a reversible thermodynamic

together and coalesce (combine) to form larger

about 7mm in diameter

– Frozen precipitation – snow, glaze, sleet,

• GLAZE/ FREEZING RAIN

– Formed by alternate freezing or melting –

– Ice crystal fused together the snowflakes

• Precipitation classified according to the

type of mechanism that produces it

cooled below dew point

• Precipitation is classified to 3 major

• NON RECORDING GAUGES

• Standard recording rain gauge – consists

is the weighing rain gauge

• High frequency electromagnetic waves are

• Two types of graphical presentations:-

– Rainfall Mass Curve

Figure 2.24 (c) Hytegraph of Rainfall

• Rainfall Mass Curve

• Missing data can be estimated using

Px = [Nx(P1 /N1 + P2 /N2 + P3 /N3 +…….+Pm /Nm)]/M

Where N1,N2,N3…Nm are the normal annual precipitation at

due to a faulty gauge. Stations P, Q and R recorded

• To determine the mean areal rainfall

• ARITHMETIC MEAN METHOD

– The most accurate method used to calculate

method and (2) Thiessen polygon method.

Station No. Precipitation Area of

2. Using Thiessen Polygon method;

table below together with the Thiessen weighing

Thiessen 0.28 0.135 0.275 0.190 0.025 0.095

The location of six rain gauging stations in or near a

area bounded by the isohyets are given in

Isohyets (cm) 12 12 - 10 10 - 8 8 - 6 6-4

Area (km2) 30 140 80 180 20

Mean areal precipitation using Isohyetal Method = 8.84cm

Estimate the total volume of rainfall over a catchment

Observed Rainfall (mm) 265 198 145 114 81

Polygon Area (ha) 518 770 906 1500 748

table below. Compute the mean areal precipitation

Isohyets 127.0 – 139.7 – 152.4 – 165.1 – 177.8 – 190.5 –

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