The Quantum Theory of the Emission and Absorption of Radiation

Author(s): P. A. M. Dirac
Reviewed work(s):
Source: Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series A, Containing Papers of a
Mathematical and Physical Character, Vol. 114, No. 767 (Mar. 1, 1927), pp. 243-265
Published by: The Royal Society
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/94746 .
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 Emizssionand Absorptionof Radiaction. 243
(2) Observationshave beelnmade of the electricfields anid field changes
associated with 18 distantand 5 near thunderstorms.The suddenchangesof
fielddue to distantlighiningdischarges(> 8 km.) werepredominantly negative
in sign,those due to near discharges( < 6 km.) predominantlypositive. The
relativefrequenciesof positive and negativechangeswere 1: 5 in the former
case and 43: 1 in the latter. The steadyelectriefields.belowthe 5 nearstorms
wereall stronglynegative.
(3) It is shown that these results indicate that the thundercloudswere
bi-polarin natureand that the polaritywas generally,if niotalways,positive,
the upper pole being positive and the lower pole negative. It is douibtful if
any active stormsof oppositepolaritywereobservedat all.
(4) The electricmomentsof the chargesremovedby 82 ligltningdischarges
have been measutred.The mean value is 94 coulomb-kilometres.

The Quantum ,Theoryof the Ei'mssion and Absorption of

Radiatton.
By P. A. M. DIRAC, St. John'sCollege,Cambridge,
and Institutefor
Theoretical
Physics, Copenhagen.
byN. Bohr,For.Mern.
(Commlunicated R.S.-ReceivedFebruary
2,1927.)

? 1. Introduction
andSu.*mnary.
The new quantumtheory,based on the assumptionthat the dynamical
variablesdo notobeythecommutative law ofmultiplicationi,
has bynowbeen
developed to forma fairlycomplete
sufficiently theoryofdynamics. One can
treatmathematically the problemof any dynamicalsystemcomposedof a
number ofparticles
withinstantaneous forcesactingbetweenthem,provided it
bya Hamiltonian
is describable function,andonecaninterpret themathematics
physicallybya quite definite generalmethod. On the otherhand, hardly
anything has beendoneup to thepresenton quantumelectrodynamics. The
questionsofthecorrecttreatment ofa systemn in whichtheforcesare propa-
gatedwiththevelocityoflightinsteadofinstanitaneously, oftheproduLctionof
fieldbya movingelectron,
an electromagnetic and ofthereactionofthisfield
on theelectronhave not yet been touched. In addition,thereis a serious
in miaking
difficulty the theorysatisfyall the requirementsof the restricted
244 P. A. M. Dirac.

principleof relativity,since a Hamiltonianfunctioncan no longerbe used.

This relativityquestionis, of course,connectedwiththe previousones, and it
will be impossibleto answerany one questioncompletelywithoutat the same
time answeringthem all. However,it appears to be possible to build up a
fairlysatisfactorytheoryof the emissionof radiation and of the reactionof
the radiationfieldon the emittingsystemon the basis of a kinematicsand
dynamicswhich are not strictlyrelativistic. This is the main object of the
present paper. The theoryis non-relativisticonly on account of the time
beingcountedthroughout as a c-number,
insteadofbeingtreatedsymmetrically
with the space co-ordinates. The relativityvariationof mass with velocity
is taken into accountwithoutdifficulty.
The underlying ideas ofthe theoryare verysimple. Consideran atominter-
acting with a fieldof radiation,whichwe may suppose fordefiniteness to be
confinedin an enclosureso as to have onlya discreteset of degreesof freedom.
Resolvingthe radiationintoits Fouriercomponents, we can considerthe energy
and phase of each of the componentsto be dynamicalvariablesdescribingthe
radiationfield. Thus if Er is the energyof a componentlabelled r and Or
is the correspondingphase (definedas thetimesincethewave was in a standard
phase),we can suppose each Er and ?r to forma pair of canonicallyconjugate
variables. In the absence of any interactionbetweenthe fieldand the atom,
the wholesystemof fieldplus atom will be describableby the Hamiltonian
H = ErEr + Ho (1)
equal to the total energy,Ho beingthe Hamiltonianforthe atom alone, since
the variablesErn Or obviouslysatisfytheir canonical equations of motion
_
allH all
= ao = ? (3r aEr
Whenthereis interactionbetweenthe fieldand the atom,it could be takeninto
account on the classical theoryby the additionof an interactiontermto the
Hamiltonian(1), whichwould be a functionofthe variablesofthe atom and of
the variablesEr, Orthat describethe field. This interactiontermwould give
the effectoftheradiationon the atom,and also the reactionofthe atom on the
radiationfield.
In orderthat an analogous methodmay be used on the quantum theory,
it is necessaryto assume that the variables Er, Orare q-numberssatisfying
the standard quantum conditions OrEr- ErOr= ,h,etc., whereh is (27)-
times the usual Planck's constant,like the otherdynamicalvariables of the
problem. This assumption immediatelygives light-quantumpropertiesto
 Emissionand Absorptionof Radiation. 245

the radiation." For if vris the frequencyof the componentr, 27VrOr is an

angle variable, so that its canonical conjugate Er/27vrr can only assume a
discreteset of valuesdiflering by multiplesof h, whichmeansthat Er can
changeonlybyintegral multiplesofthequantum(2wh)'Vr If we nowadd an
term(takenoverfromtheclasicaltheory)to theHamiltonian(1),
interaction
theproblemcan be solvedaccording to therulesof quantummechanies, and
we wouldexpectto obtainthe correct resultsforthe actionofthe radiation
andtheatomi ononeanother. It willbe shownthatweactuallygetthecorrect
laws forthe emissionand absorption ofradiation,and the correctvaluesfor
Einstein'sA's and B's. In the author'sprevioustheory,twherethe energies
and phasesofthecomponents ofradiationweree-numbers, onlytheB's could
be obtained,and the of
reaction theatom on theradiationcouldnotbe taken
into account.
It will also be shownthat the Hamiltonianwhichdescribesthe interaction
of the atom and the electromagnetic waves can be made identicalwith the
for
Hamiltonian the problem of the interactionof the atom with an assembly
of particlesmovingwiththe velocityof lightand satisfyingthe Einstein-Bose
statistics,by a suitablechoiceof the interactionenergyforthe particles. The
numberof particleshavingany specifieddirectionof motionand energy,which
can be used as a dynamicalvariable in the Hamiltonianforthe particles,is
equal to the numberof quanta of energyin the corresponding wave in the
Hiamiltonianforthe waves. There is thus a completeharmonybetweenthe
wave and liglit-quantumdescriptionsof the interaction. We shall actually
build up the theoryfromrl the light-quantumpoint of view, and show that the
Hamiltoniantransformsnaturallyinto a formwhich resemblesthat for the
waves.
The mathematicaldevelopmentofthe theoryhas been made possibleby the
author's general transformation theory of the quantum matrices.: Owing
to thefactthatwe countthetimeas a c-number, we are allowedto use thenotion
of the value of any dynamicalvariable at any instantof time. This value is

* Similar assumptions have been used by Born and Jordan ['Z. f. Physik,' vol. 34,
p. 886 (1925)] forthe purpose of takingover the classical formulaforthe emission of radiation
by a dipole into the quantum theory,and by Born, Heisenberg and Jordan ['Z. f. Physik,'
vol. 35, p. 606 (1925)] for calculating the energy fluctuations in a field of black-body
radiation.
t ' Roy. Soc. Proc.,' A, vol. 112, p. 661, ? 5 (1926). This is quoted later by, loc. cit., I.
I 'Roy. Soc. Proc.,' A, vol. 113, p. 621 (1927). This is quoted later by loc. cit., II. An
essentially equivalent theory has been obtained independently by Jordan ['Z. f. Physik,'
vol. 40, p. 809 (1927)]. See also, F. London, I Z. f. Physik,' vol. 40, p. 193 (1926).
246 P. A. M. Dirac.

capableofbeingrepresenited
a q-nunber, " according
bya generallsedinatrix
i

matrixschemes,sox e of whichmay have continuous ranges

to manydifferent
to involvecertain.
and may requirethematrixelements
ofrowsand columns,
(ofthetypegiven'bythe a functions*). A matrixschemecan
kindsofinfinities
be foundin whichanydesiredset ofconstants ofintegration ofthedynamical
system thatcommute arerepresented bydiagonalmatrices, orin whicha setof
variablesthat commuteare represented by matricesthat are diagonalat a
specifiedtimie.tThe values of the diagonal of a diagonalmatrix
elenments
representing are thecharacteristic
anyq-nuimber valuesofthatq-number.A
Cartesian or
co-ordinate momentum willin generalhaveall characteristic
valhes
from- o to + oo, whilean actioni variablehasonlya discrete setofcharacter-
istic values. (We shallmake it aJ ruleto use unprimed letters to denotethe
dynamicalvariablesor q-numbers,and the same lettersprimedor multiply
primed to denotetheircharacteristic
values. Transformation oreigen-
functions
functions are functionsof the characteristicvaluesandnotoftheq-numbers
themselves, so theyshouldalwaysbe written interinsofprimedvariables.)
Iff(i, ) is anyfunctionofthe canonicalvariablesib, rh, thematrixrepre-
sentingfat anytimetinthematrix schemeinwhichtheLat timetarediagonal
matricesmnay downwithoutanytrouble,sincethematrices
be written repre-
sentingthe L and kcthemselves at tine t are known,naimely,
ik (44 - i k 8 WVi),

ThusiftheHamiltonian H is givenias a functionoftheL and_, we can at

oncewritedowxn thematrixH(i' i"). We can thenobtainthetransformation
(i'/') say, whichtransform-s
function, to a nmatrixscheme(M)in whichthe
Hamiltonianis a diagonalmatrix,as ( '/oe')mustsatisfy
theintegral
equation

1/R#d>'(4/7,)-A
dH Wa)*('' (3)
valies W(c') are theenergy
ofwhichthe characteristic levels. Thisequation
waveequationfortheeigenfunetions
is justSchrddinger's ('foc'),whichbecomes,
an ordinary equationwhenH is a simplealgebraicffunction
differential ofthe
* Loc. cit. II, ? 2.
Jr One can have a matrix seliem in which a set of variables that commute are at all times
representedby diagonal miatricesif one will sacrificethe condition that the matrices must
satisfythe equations of motion. The transformationftunction fromsuch a scheme to one
in which the equations of motion are satisfied will involve the time explicitly. See p. 628
in loe. cit., 11.
 Emtissiontand
Absorptionof Radiation. 247

L andkoroaccount
ofthespecialquations(2) forthematrices
representing
Lk and 7. Equation (3) maybe Nwritten
in themllore
generalforia

(
JH ')d"('i2J-h a(1) ,(3')

in whichit canbe appliedto systems forwhich theHamiltonian involvesthe

timeexplicitly.
Oniemnay havea dynamical system by a' Hamiltonian
specified IH which
cannot beexpressed as an algebraicfunction ofanysetofcanonical variables,
which
bnlt canallthesameberepresenited bya matrix H(S'ua).Sncha problem
canstillbe solvedbythepresent method, sinceonecanstilluseequation (3)
toobtaintheenergy levelsandeigenfunctions. Weshallfind thattheHamilto-
nianwhich describestheinteraction ofa light-quantum andanatomic system is
ofthismore type,sothattheinteraction
general canbetreated mathematically,
although onecannottalkaboutan in-teraction energy
potenitial in theusuLal
sense.
It shouldbeobserved thatthere is a difference
betweena light-waveandthe
de BroglieorSchrddinger waveassociated withthelight-quanta. the
Firstly,
light-waveis alwaysreal,whilethede Broglie waveassociated witha light-
quantum moving ina definitedirectionimustbetakentoinvolve animnaginary
exponential. A moreimportant differenceis thattheirintensitiesareto be
interpretedin differentways. Thenumber oflight-quanta perunitvolume
associatedwitha monochromatic light-wave equalstheenergy perunitvolume
ofthewavedivided bytheenergy (27rh)vofa singlelight-quantum. Onthe
otherhanda monochromatic de Broglie waveofamplitude a (multiplied
into
theimaginary
exponential
factor)mustbe interpreted
as representing
a2 light-
quantaperunitvolume
forallfrequencies.
Thisis a specialcaseofthegeneral
rule forinterpreting the matrixanalysisj accordingto which,if (i'/') or
t (ik') is theeigenfunction
in thevariables4 of the state
' of an atomic
system
(orsimple
particle),
I (a4') I2 iS theprobability
of each4 having
the
value L', [or !ia (i') 2 dil' dt' ... is theprobability
of each4 lyingbetween
thevaluesik' andE.k'+ d<'k whenthe k.havecontinuous ranges ofcharacter-
isticvalues]
ontheassumption thatallphasesofthesystem areequally probable.
Thewavewhoseintensitv is to be interpreted
in thefirst ofthesetwoways
appears inthetheory
onlywhen oneisdealingwithanassembly oftheassociated
particles theEinstein-Bose
satisfying statistics.Thereis thusno suchwave
associatedwithelectrons.
* Loc. cit.,H. ??6, 7.
248 P. A. M. Dirae.

ofa, A,ssembly
? 2. The Perturbation Systems.
ofIndependent
We shall now considerthe traisitions producedin aniatomic systemby an
arbitraryperturbation. The iethod wreshall adopt will be that previously
givenby the author,twhichleads in a simpleway to equationswhichdetermine
the probabilityofthe systembeingin any stationarystate ofthe unperturbed
the probablenumnber
systemat any time.i:- This, of course,givesimmirediately
of systemsin that state at that time for an assembly of the systenms
that are independentof one anotherand are all perturbedin the same way.
The object of the presentsectionis to show that the equations forthe rates.
of changeof these probablenumberscan be put in the Hamiltonianformin a
simple m'anner,which will enable furtherdevelopmentsin the theoryto be
made.
Let H0 be the Hamiltonianforthe unpert-urbed systemand V the perturbing
energy, which can be an arbitrary of
functiorn the dynamicalvariablesand may
ormaynotinvolvethetimeexplicitly,so thatthe Hamiltonianfortheperturbed
systemis H = Ho + V. The eigenfunctions forthe pertuLrbedsystemnmust
satisfythe wave equation
i a?at (Ho+ V)D6,

where(H10-H-V) is an operator. If rardr is the solutionof this equation

that satisfiesthe properinitialconditions,wherethe Q.'s are the eigenfunctions

forthe unperturbedsystem,each associatedwithone stationarystate labelled.
by the suffixr,and the ar's are functionsofthe time only,then Ia 12 is theprob-
ability of the systembeingin the state r at any time. The a,'s must be nor-
malised initially,and will then always remain normalised. The theorywill
applydirectlyto an assemblyof N similarindependentsystemsif we nm-ultiply
each of these ar's by N-!'so as to make X,.Ia7 12 = N. We shall now have that
ar 12 iS the probablenumberof systemsin the state r.
The equationthat determinesthe rate of changeofthe a,'s is?
ihd7r
=EsrsVas (4)
wherethe V,,'s are the elementsofthe matrixrepresetiungT. The conjugate
imaginary equation is
z.q -Ssas
-tazr - zq7Ts ATse ~~(4/)
t Loc. cit. I.
(1926)]
I The theory has recentlybeen extended by Born [' Z. f. Physik,' vol. 40, p. 167
so as to take into account the adiabatic changes in the stationary states that may be
produced by the perturbation as well as the transitions. This extension is not used in
the present paper.
? Loc. cit., I, equation (25).
 Emissionand Absorptionof Radiation. 249
Ifweregarda,.andiha,* as canonical
conjugates, (4) and(4') take
equations
the Hamiltonianformwith the HamiltonianfunctionF1 = rsar*V,T.as,
namely,
da}. I WIl * da7* aF,
da ihR
dt i- i"Faa'
-
dt --q
aar
We cantransform
to thecanonical Nr, jr bythecontact
variables trans-
formation
aC. N
N le-4i4Ah a_* =-
* 4
Thistransformation
makesthenewvariables
N,.and0,. real,Nrbeingequal
to aa,.?*=1 1ar2,the probablenumberof systemsin the stater, and Orlh
beingthephaseoftheeigenfunction
thatrepresentsthem. TheHamiltonian
F1nowbecomes
()S)h
FJ.= ZrsVr.sN);1Ns2
and the equationsthat determinethe rate at whichtransitionsoccurhave the
canonical form
WI ~~aF,
8?>r q aN.r
A mnore
convenientway ofputtingthetransitionequationsin theHamiltonian
formn
may be obtainedwiththe help ofthe quantities
b = a e-w1th b_-*
-
a,.*%XYtIh
W,.beingthe energyofthe state r. We have Ib,.12equal to Ia. 12,the probable
numberof systemsin the state r. For brwe find

ih b,.= WrbI.+ ihare- iwrtIl

- 'Wrbr
+ Es V,.8bsei (WI-W
W.)tlh

withthe help of (4). If we put Vr, Vres(W t/h,so that v.s is a constaint
whenV does not involvethe timeexplicitly,thisreducesto

ih br Wrbr+ Esvrsbs
-ESHI'ibS) (5)
whereHrS-- WI.01.8 + v,.,,whichis a matrixelementof the total Hamiltonian
H -ll + V withthe timefactoret(Wr-Ws) t/hreimoved, so that H,.,is a constant
whenH does not involvethe time explicitly. Equation (5) is ofthe same form
as equation (4), and may be put in the Hamiltonianformin the same way.
It shouldbe noticedthat equation (5) is obtaineddirectlyif one writesdown
the Schrbdinger equationin a set of variablesthat specifythe stationarystates
of the unperturbedsystem. If these variablesare Rh,and if H(i'4") denotes
VOL. CXIV.-A. 5
250 P. A. M. Dirac.

H in the (4) sIheine,this

a matrixelementof the total Hamiiltonian
equation would be
Schri5dinger
ik4a ( ')lat > H (g'i") qg/"), (6)
like equation(3'). This differs fromthe previousequation(5) onlyin the
notation, r beingthereusedto denote;
a singlesuffix a stationary state instead
of a setof numeric values i forthe variables k, ud ,beingnsed instead
of:4 ( '). Equation(6), and thereforealso equation(5r), canstillbe usedwhen
theHamiltonian is of themoregeneraltyype whichcai notbe expressedas an
algebraicfuinction of a st of canoniIalvariables,btutcan still be represented
by a inatrix H (g't") or HI,,.
Wenowtak-eb,and ihb to be canonically
conjugatevariablesinsteadof
ar and ihaj' (5) and its conjugateimaginary
The equiation equation-nvill
form,
nowtaketheHamiltonian. with the Hamiltoniian
function
F rsbr HrsbXsb (7)

we makethecontacttransformation
as before,
Proceeding
b-.=N_
N e- bi N_'
rcl'e (8)
to the new canonicalvariablesN., 0,, whereN, is, as before,the probable
in the stater,and 0ris a -newphase. The Hamiltonian
iiumberofsystemis F
willnow become
F s= ,., N j Nje2Cic0,-)/h
forthe ra.tesof changeof N, and 0, will take the canonical
aandthe equLations
fornm
Ni
a Or
aNr.
be written
m-ay
?heHamiitoonian
F - ?,.WrN, -F Eq,, S2Nj Ns2 e'(&0 )/h (9)

The firsttermE,.WrNN is the total properenergyof the assembly, and the

secondmaybe regarded as theadditionalenergy dueto theperturbation. If
tih perturbatio is zro, the phases 0, wvold increaselinearlywith the time,
whilethe previous phases +,. would in this case be cons-tants.

ofan Assemblysatisfying
? 3. The Perturbation theEinstein-Bose Sttistics.
Accordingto theprecedingsectionwe can describe of a perturba-
theeffect
ofindependent
tionon an asse-mbly systems by ineansof canonicalvariables
and Hamiltonianequationsofmotion. The development ofthetheorywhich
 EEmission
and Absorptionof Radiation. 251

naturallysuggestsitselfis to make thesecanonicalvariablesq-nunmbers satisfy-

ing the usual quantumconditionsinsteadof c-numbers, so that their Hamilto-
nian equationsof motion become truequantuimequations. The Hamiltonian
functionwill. now providea Schr6dinger wave equation,which.mustbe solved
and interpreted in the usual manner. The in-terpretation will give not merely
theprobablenuLmber of systemsin anystate, but the probabilityof any given
distributionof the svstemsamong the various states, this probabilitybeing,
in fact,equal to the square of the modulusof the normalisedsolutionof the
wave equation that satisfiesthe appropriateinitial conditions. We could, of
course, calculate directlyfromelementaryconsiderationsthe probabilityof
any given distributionwhen the systemsare independent,as we know the
probabilityofeach systembeingin any particularstate. We shallfindthlatthe
probabilitycalculated directlyin this way does not atgreewith that obtained
from.the wave equationexceptin the specialcase whenthereis onlyone system
in the assembly. In the generalcase it will be shownthat the wave equation
leads to the correctvaltLeforthe probabilityof any given distribut-ion when
the systemsobey the Einstein-Bosestatisticsinstead of beingindependent.
We assumethe variablesb,.,ihbY l of ? 2 to be canonicalq-nLmbers satisfying
the quantumconditions
b.i. ihb2.*-i7bl.*. b2.= h
or bqb2- b;. -_ 1,
and - bsbr 0,
brbS br*bs,*
- bs-b,, 0,
b -bs -bs*br 0 (s 4 qr).

The transformation now be writtenin the quantumform

equations(8) m-wust

b. = (N2.-+ 1)
e-01)1 e- (1o2N,i>1

b_t -
(Ni.+ 1)U,
Nr]e6i&/h_ 6ioGlh 3

.
in orderthat the Ni., n0may also be canonical variables. These equations
show that the N. can have only integralcharacteristicvalues not less than
zero,t which provides us with a justificationfor the assumptionthat the
variablesare q-numbersin the way we have chosen. The nuimbers of systems
statesare now ordinaryquantumniumbers.
in the different

t See ? 8 ofthe author'spaper 'Roy. Soc. Proc.,'A, vol. 111,p. 281 (1926). What are
therecalledthe c-number valuesthata q-numbercan take are heregiventhemoreprecise
nameofthe characteristic valuesofthatq-number.
s 2
252 P. A. M. Dirac.

(7) nowbecomes
TheHamiltonian
F = 2rsb7*Hr
bei8z (Ns +
lhHrs 1) e- i0s11
- Er$HrsNri
(N, +- 1-A rs)!ei(0-)h (11)
in whichtheHrsarestillc-numbers.We maywritethisF in theformcorre-
spondingto (9)
(Ns+1
F - ErWrNr+ ErtvrsNr" - rs)k
ci(Or@)/h (11')

in whichit is again composed of a proper energytermErWrN,and an inter-

term.
actionenergy
The wave equationwrittenin termsofthe variablesNr ist

ik N2%,Ns'
(N1%, ...) = Fs (N1', N2%,N3' ), (12)

whereF is an operator,each Oroccurring to meanih a/aNrt.

in F beinginterpreted
If we apply the operatore+iG0Ih to any functionf(N1', N2', ... Nr, ...) of the
variables N'I N ', ... the result is
e ? i,hf(Ni', N2', ... Nr' -) eFb/IN,'f(N1', N2', ... Nrt'..)
=f(N1', N2', ... Nr' T 1, ...

If we use thisrulein equation(12) and use the expression(11) forF we obtain:

ih Tt+ (Nl', N2', N3'

-rbs HrsNr (Ns' + 1. - 3rs)l (N1,'N2'... Nr' 1,... Ns'+ 1, ...).

2 (13}
We see from the right-handside of this equation that in the matrixrepre-
senting F, the term in F involving ei(, - 0.)!h will contributeonly to
those matrix elements that refer to transitions in which N, decreases.
by unity and N. increases by unity, i.e., to matrix elementsof the type
F (N', N2' ... N,' ... Ns'; N', N2'... Nr'-1 ... Ns' + 1 ...). If we find,a,
solution6 (N,', N2' ...) of equation (13) that is normalised[i.e., one forwhich
N2' 1+ (N,', N2 ...)12 1] and that satisfiesthe proper initial con-
ditions,then I 4 (N1%, N2' *w) 2 will be the probability of that distribution
in
whichN1' systemsare in state 1, N2' in state 2, ... at any time.
Considerfirstthe case whenthereis onlyone systemin the assembly. The
probabilityof its being in the state q is determinedby the eigenfunction
that the label r of the stationarystates takes the
t We are supposingfordefiniteness
values 1, 2, 3, ....
i When s = r,# (N.,, N2'... Nrt'- 1... N*' + 1) is to be taken to mean # (N1'N2' ... N,'...).
 aind Absorptionof Radiation.
lErntsswon 253

in whichall the N"s are pnt equal to zero exceptNq', \vhichis

4i(N1' N2', ...)
puLtequal to unity. This eigenfunction
we shall denoteby t! {q}. When it is
substitutedin the left-handside of (13), all the termsin the sumumation on
the right-handside vaanishexceptthoseforwhichr-q, and we are leftwith
ih k Hq44}
at
whichis the same equationas (5) with Q {q} playingthe part ofb,. This estab-
lishes the fact that the presenttheoryis equivalentto that of the preceding
sectionwhenthereis only olnesystemin the assembly.
Nowtake thegeneralcase ofanlarbitrarynumberofsystemsin the assembly,
and assume that they obey the Einstein-Bosestatistical mechanics. This
requiresthat, in the ordinarytreatmentof the problem,only those eigen-
functionsthat are symmetricalbetweenall the syste:msinust be taken into
account,these eigenfunctions beingby themselvessufficient to give,a complete
quantumsolutionof the problem.t We shall now obtain.the equation forthe
rateof chang,eofone of thesesymnietricaleigenfunctions, and show that it is
identicalwith equation (13).
If we label each systenmwith a numnber n, then the Hamniltonian for the
a.ssemblywIll be H = H (n), whereH (n) is the H of ? 2 (equal to Ho + V)
expressedin terms the variablesof the nth system. A stationarystate of
of
the assemblyis definedby the numbersrl, r2... rn... whichare the labels ofthe
stationarystatesin whichthe separatesystemslie. The Schr8dinger equation
forthe assemblyin a set of variablesthat specifythe stationarystates will be,
of theform(6) [withHA instead of H], and we can write it in the notationof
equation (5) thus:

ihb(r1r2...) Esl,s... 1A(rlr2 1SS2 *.-) b(s1s2...), (14)

whereHA(rlr2 ...; ss ...) is the general matrix of HA [with the time
elem.ent
factorremoved]. This matrixelementvanisheswhenmorethan onlesI, differs
fromthe corresponding when sm differsfrom rmand every
rn; equals Hrnl,;,,
other sn equals r ; and equals SH ,. when every s. equals r, Substituting
these values in (14), we obtain
ihb(r1r2... ) =ms&frJ'rsk (r1Lr2 +m}1n+1 ) Y} XnHr)trnb(1'rr2...). (15)

We mustnowrestrictb (r1r2...) to be a symmetrical functionofthe variables

rl, r2... in order to obtain the Einstein-Bosestatistics. This is permissible
since if b (r_r2'
-") is symmetrical at any time,then equation (15) showsthat

t Loc. cit.,I, ? 3.
254 P. A. M. Di-ac.

at thattime,so that b (rr2 ...) willremain

b(r1r2...) is also symmetrical
symmetrical.
LetN,.denotethenumberofsystems inthestater, Thena stationary state
ofthe assemblydescribable
by a symmetrical maybe specified
eigenfunction
by the numbersN1,N2 . N... just as well as by the numbersre, r.2...
and we shall be able to transformequationl(15) to the variablesN1, N2
We cainnotactuallytake the new eigenfunction b (N1, N2. ) eqaal to the pre-
vious one b (r.1r2...), but must take one to be a numuerical multiple of the
other in orderthat each may be correctlynoimlnalised with respect to its
respectiVevariables. We musthave, in fact,

Sr,,?,...16(rl 2 ...) 12 I - lb(N1, N2 .) 12-

and hence we must take Ib (N1, N2 2 equal to the suzmof ib (rLr2 .

) 2 fo
allvaluesofthenumnbers r, m2... suchthatthereare N1 ofthemequal to 1,N2
equal to 2, etco. Thereare iN!/N12!N2! ... termsin thissum,whereN
is the total inumnberof systems,and they are all equal, sinee b (rr ...) is a
symmetrical of its variablesr1,r2 ....
funictionl Hence we musthave

b (N1 N2 ...) (N !/N1 ! N2! ...) b (rr2 ...).

If we make this suLbstitutiont left-handside will becomne

in equation (15), theG
ih (N1 ! N2 ! ... /N!)- b (N1,N2 ...) The term b (r,.r2** rL1 8 ,/in-1 * *)

on the right-handside will becolme

in the fist summamtion

[N ! I (N2;-l)
.. 2 ...
!.. .(Ns+ J1)! .. I/N!'H,sb (N,, NN - I . Ns+ 1..), (iG)
wherewe have Arritten?or f r,,,and s fors,. This termmust be s,uLime'dfor
a11valuesof exceptr,
s and mustthenbe summ-ed forr takingeach ofthe values
i1, r2 T... hus each term(16) gets repeatedby the summationprocessui Ail
it occursa total ofNr times,so that it contributes

Nr [NI 1Ns . (N -i.) ! ... (Ns+ i) IN!t]-!T-.;36,

(N,, N2..N1.- ...+Ns + 1...)
N-1(s + I)` (NL! N -N- ,sb(N, .-I ..N + ...)

to the :right-handside of (15). Finally, the term XE.ff r.)

( n_9
Hrff,binb becomes

ErNHrr* b (rl2 Er2Ns1Hm.,_ (N1,! N2! ... /N !)- b (N1.,N ...)

Hence equation(15) becoines,witlhthe reuoval of the factor(N,.! N2 !..../N

IN)1
ihb (N1,NS ...) = N; (Ns+l)i 15. (N1, N2 ... N-1 Ns + 1 ..)
...
+ E)N7HTb (N,I 2 .. (17)
 Fnission a6-nd
A bsorptionof Radiation. 255
whichis ideniticalwith (13) [exceptforthe fact that in (17) the primeshave
been omittedfromthe N's, whichis permissiblewhenwe do not requireto refer
to the N's as q-numbers]. We have thus establishedthat the Hamiltonian
ofa perturbation
(11) describesthe effect on an assemblysatisfying theEinistein-
Bose statistics.

? 4. TheReaction onthePerturbing
oftheAssemnbly System.
Up -tothe presentwe have consideredonly perturbations that can be repre-
sented by a perturbingenergyV added to the Hamiltonianof the perturbed
system,V beinga functiononlyof the dynamicalvariablesof that systemand
perhaps of the time. The theorymay readily be extendedto the case when
the perturbationconsistsof interactionwith a perturbingdynamicalsystemn
the reaction of the perturbedsystem on the perturbingsystem being taken
int-oaccount. (The distinctionbetweenthe perturbingsystemaand the per-
turbed systenm is, of course,not real, but it will be kept up forconvenience.)
We now considera perturbingsystem,described,say, by the canonical
variablesJ,, , the J's being its firstintegralswhenit is alone, interacting
withan assenmbly ofperturbedsystemswithno mutualinteraction,that satisfy
the Einistein-Bosestatistics. Thi-etotal Hamiltonianwill be of the formi

IT = Hp(J) + E.1- (n)

whereH. is the lam iltonianof the perturbingsysterm (a functionof the J's
only)and H (n) is equal to the properenergyHo (n) plus the perturbation energy
V(n) ofthe nthsystemofthe assembly. H (n) is a functiononlyofthe variables
of the nthsystemofthe assemxbly and of the J's and wv's,
and does not involve
the time explicitly.
The Schr6dingerequation corresponding to equation (14) is now

hb
( nlf2...e EJ sI>2 ..
HT( l 2 ;J SIS2 ...*)b(J ,802...)
in whichthe eigenfunction b involvesthe additionalvariablesJ'. The matrix
elementHT (J', rLr2... ; J", s1s2...) is now always a constant. As before,it
vanishes when more than one sn,differsfromthe corresponding,. When
sM,differs fromnqrn
and every other s. equals r?,, it reduces to H (J'r ; J"tsn),
whichis the (J'r; J"s.n) matrix element(with the time factorremoved)of
H = Ho +- V, the proper energy plus the perturbationeniergyof a single
systemof the assembly; while when every sn equals rf, it has the value
Hr (J') aj j + - H (J'r,; J"rqb). If, as before,we restrictthe eigenfunctions
256 P. A. M. Dirac.

to be symmnetrical in the variablesr_,r2 *.., we can again transformto the

variables N1,N2 ... whichwill lead, as before,to the result
ihb(JtnNt, 2' *...=Hr (J) b(J', Y, N2/..
(Y rs) J'r,3s)
+ SJ?,sNi~~2- t
b(JFfl
N/r:N 2 . .Ni ^ + I . ) (18)
..Ns,

This is the Schrddinger

equLation to the Hamiltonianfunction
corresponding
= Hp (J) + rsIfrsNP (Ns + I--s)-l et(0-)/,
F (19)
in whichH,Jsis now a fuLnctionofthe J's and w's, being such that whenrepre-
sented by a m-atrixin the (J) schemeits (J' J") elementis H (J'r; J's). (It
shouldbe noticedthat HIS,still commuteswiththe N's and O's.)
Thus the nteraction of a perturbing system and an assemiblysatisfyingthe
Einstein-Bosestatisticscan be describedby a Haamiltonianof the form(19).
We can put it in the forn correspondingto (11') by observingthat the matrix
H
element (J'r; J"s) is composed of the sumiiof two parts, a part that comes
fromthe properenergyHo, which eqaals W, when Jk"= Jj, and s r and
vanishes otherwise,and a part that comes fronm the j-uteractionenergyY,
whichmnay be denotedby v (J'r; J"s). Thus we shall have
HRIS = i. ks + V2ss.

wherev,. is that functionof the J's anidw's which is representedby the tiatrix
whose(J'J")elementis v (J'r; J"s),and so (19) becomes
F ci Hp (J) + EIW,N, + sVsNr (Ns + 1 - A j(OO9!b. (20)

The Hamiltonianis thusthe sunm oftheproperenergyofthe perturbinlg

system
Hp(J), the properenergyof the perturbedsystemsY,WVA7,Nr and the perturba-
tionl energy E,. ,v;s.AJ (Ns + 1-- &,s)Ae( )/h

in a Systemfomn One StatetoOthersoftheSame Energy.

? 5. TheoryofTransitions
Beforeapplying the results of the precedingsectionsto light-quanta,we
shall considerthe solutionof the problempresentedby a Hamiltonianof the
type (19). The essentialfeatureofthe problemis that it refersto a dynamical
systemwhich can, under the influenceof a perturbationenergywhich does
not involve the time explicitly,make tranlsitions fromone state to othersof
the same energy. The problemof collisionsbetweenan atomicsystemand an
electron,whichhas beentreatedby Born,*is a specialcase ofthistype. Born's
methodis to finda periodlicsolu-tionof the wave equation whichconsists,in
so far as it involvesthe co-ordinatesof the collidingelectron,of planiewaves,
* Born.'Z. f. Phvsik.'vol 38. D. 803 (1926).
 and Absorptionof Rad'ation'.
Er-mission 257
representing
theincident electron,approachingtheatomic whichare
systenm,
or diffracted
scattered ThesquareoftheamplituLde
in all directions. ofthe
wavesscatteredin anydirection withanyfrequencyis thenassumedbyBorn
to be theprobabilityoftheelectron beingscatteredin thatdirection
with
the correspondingenergy.
Thismethoddoesnotappearto be capableofextension
in any simplemanner
-tothegeneral
problemofsystenms from
thatmaketransitiors onestatetoothers
,ofthesameenergy.Alsothereis at present andcertain
no verydirect way
ofinterpreting
a periodic ofa waveequation
solution toapplytoa non-periodic
physicalphenomenon suchas a collision.(Themoredefinitemnethodthat
will nowbe givenshowsthat Born'sassulmptionis not quiteriglht,
it being
to
necessary multiplythesquare ofthe amplitude by a certain
factor.)
Analternative methodofsolvinga collision
problemis tofinda non-periodic
Solultion ofthewaveequation whichconsists of
simply planewaves
initially
moving overthewholeofspacein thenecessarydirection withthenecessary
frequency torepresent
theincident electron.In course oftimewavesmoving
mustappearin orderthatthewave equationmayremain
in otherdirections
satisfied.Theprobabilityoftheelectron
beingscattered
inanydirection
with
anyenergy willthenbedetermined bytherateofgrowthofthecorresponding
harmonic component of thesewaves. The waythe mathematicsis to be
interpretedis by thismethod beingthesameas thatofthe
quitedefinite,
of ?2.
beginning
Weshallapplythismethod tothegeneral
problemofa systemwhichmakes
transitions
from onestateto others
ofthesameenergy undertheactionofa
Let Ho be theHamiltonian
perturbation. oftheunperturbed systemand
V thepertuLirbing whichmustnotinvolve
energy, thetimeexplicitly.
If we
takethecaseofa continuousrangeofstationary
states,specified
bythefirst
oXksay,oftheunperturbed
integrals, then,following
motion, thenmethod
of
? 2, we obtain
ih&(a') V(ooc")d%". a(c'),
V (21)

corresponding
toequation
(4). Theprobability beingin a state
ofthesystem
forwhicheachOCk
liesbetween
oC'andOCk7'+ at anytimeisIa (Oc)12do-.'
daCk' . doc2'
whena (oc')is properly normalised theproper
andsatisfies initialconditions.
Ifinitially
thesystem is inthestateoc0,wemust take the valueofa (o')
initial
to be oftheform a . a (oc'- oc0).We shallkeepa0 arbitrary,
as it wouldbe
inconvenientto normalise a (oc')inthepresent
case. Fora first
approximation
258 P. A. A. Dirac.

wemnay fora (o'c)in theright-hand

substitute sideof(21)itsinitialvalue. This
gives
ih4 (a') = a0V(a'a?) = oc?v
(Mo')eiXW(a')-W(a?)It/h
wherev(M'oJ0)
is a constantand W (o') is the energyofthestateoc'. Hence
iha (c.')= a (o' - 4o) + (c,'c() e[W() -W(CI)]t/h-I
aov (22Y
For valuesof theock'such that W (a') differs appreciably fromW (MO), a (a')
is a periodic functionofthetimewhoseamplitude is smallwhentheperturbing
energy V is small,so thattheeigenfunctions corresponding to thesestationary
statesarenotexcitedto anyappreciable extent. Ontheotherhand,forvalues
of the cXk'such that W (a') - W (o!2) and OCa'# Oko forsome k, a (oc')increases
uniformly withrespectto thetime,so thattheprobability ofthesystembeing
in thestatea' at anytimeincreases proportionally withthesquareofthetime.
Physically, theprobability ofthesystem beingin a statewithexactlythesame
properenergy as the initialproperenergyW (ac?)is of no importance, being
infinitesimal. We are interestedonly in the integralof the probability
through a smallrangeofproperenergy valuesabouttheinitialproperenergy,
which,as we shallfind,increases linearly withthetime,in agreement withthe
ordinary probability laws.
We transform fromthe variablesrl,,o2 ... oa to a setof variablesthatare
arbitrary independent functionsofthea's suchthatoneofthemis theproper
energyW, say,thevariables W,Y -'Y2. yu1. The probability at anytime
ofthesystemlyingina stationary stateforwhicheachYk lies between yk'and-
Yk' + dyk' is now (apart from the normalising factor)equal to
d *dy2' ... d-'l'i a (') a ( (X4l X2 -
) - dW'. (23)
12 * X
(WI, Ti' Yu-i')
For a timethatis largecompared withtheperiodsofthesystemwe shallfind
thatpractically the wholeof theintegralin (23) is contributed
by valuesof
W' verycloseto WO W (a?). Put
a (a') - a (W', y') and a (cl', OC2'.X -')/a(W', Yl YU-1') J (W' y )
Thenfortheintegral Yk' ? Y 0
in (23) we find,withthehelpof(22) (provided

Ja(WI,
forsomek)
y) 12
J (W', y') dW'

- Iv (W, y' ;
a?I2' J WO,yO)12J (W', Y/) [ei(WWO)tIh th_1l dW"
1] [ei- (W'-VO)
-WO)2
~~~~~~~~~(WI
2 1a012iv (W,y'; w?,yo)
12J (W',y') [1-cos (W'-W?) t/h]/(W'-WO)2 . dWI

= 2 ao?12t/h. lv(W?+hx/t,y'; WO,yO)12J(WO+hx/t,y')(1-cosxv)/x2.

dx,
 Ermtssionand Absorption(f Radliaction6. 25 9

if one makes the substitution(W'-W?)t/h - x. For large values of t this

!
reducesto
21a?12t/h. v (WO,y' ; W?, ye)12J(W0,y') (1coS X)/X2. dx

=27r I ao 12tlh. v (W?, y' ;W? ? 2J( ')

The probabilityper unit time of a transitionto a state forwhicheach yk,lies

betweenY,' and yk'+ dyk>'is thus (apart fromthe normalisingfactor)
2 1ao y') dyl'. d2 ' ... dyu-1l,
. I v (WO,y' ; W , yO)12J(WO,
a0 12/h (24)
whichis proportionalto the square of the nmatrix element-associatedwiththat
transitionofthe perturbing energy.
To apply this resultto a simplecollisionproblem,we take the ac'sto be.the
componentsof mnomentum PZ, pg, p, of the collidingelectronand the y's to
be 0 and q4,the angleswhichdetermineits directionof motion. Tf,takingthe
relativitychange of mrasswith velocity into accotint, we let P denote the
equal to (px2 + py2+
resultantmomentumn, pz2)Y, and E equal to
the energy,
ofthe electron,in beingits rest-mass,we findforthe Jacobian
(m2C4+P2c2)A2,
uPz)- Psin 0.
jaPi
a(,,) E C2

Thus the J (W0,y') ofthe expression(24) has the value

J(W', y') = E'P' sinn0/c2 (2)
whereE' and P' referto that valuefortheenergyofthe scatteredelectroiwxtiich
makesthe total energyequal the initial energyWo (i.e., to that value required
by the conservationof energy).
We must now interpretthe initial value of a (c'), namely,a' 8 (or'--),
whichwe did not normalise. Accordingto ? 2 the wave functionin termsofthe
variables c,.is b (oc')= a (oc')e siW'tohSO thatits initialvalue is
ao 8 (act-_ cc0)e-iWt a0a(P.' - Px0) g (pr - p,Y) g (P' - Pz) e-iV't

function*
If we -usethe transformation
(x'lp') =--(27rh)-3/2eiV3!Xtpx'x'/l7
rule
and the transformation

- 4 (x') --^ |(x'lp') + (p') dpx' dpy' dpz'

wave functionin the co-ordinatesx, y, z the value

we obtain forthe iniiitial

a0 (22rh)1-2etxp.~P9x'Ih e-iW'tIh
. The syinbol x is used for brevity to denote x, y. z.
260 P. A. Ml. Dirac.

This correspondsto an initialdistributionof IaQ12(27h)3 electronsper unit

volume. Since theirVeloeityis POC2/Eo, the numuber per tmittime strikinga
unit smface at right-angles ofmotionis Ia 2POc2/(2uh)3 E0.
to theirdirectioni
Dividingthisintothe expression(24) we obtain,witlhthe help of (25),
P
4n2 (2nh)2 E' (p'; p) 2 sin 0' dO'db'. (26)

This is the efectivearea that in-st be hit by an electronin orderthatit shall

d withthe energyF. This result
be scatteredin the solid angle sin 0dO' d+'
differsby the factor(27rh)2/2mE'. P'/POfromBorn's.* The necessityforthe
factorP'/P' in (26) could have beei predictedfrointhe prin ipie of detailed
balancing,as the factor jv (p'; pO) 12 iS symnmetrica-l betwecenthe directand
Teverseprocess s.t

? 6. Applicationto Liyht-Quancota.
We shall now apply the theoryof ? 4 to the case whet the systemsof the
assembly are light-quanta,the theorybeing applicable to this case since light-
quanta obey the Einstein-Bjosestatisticsand have no muttualitteraction. A
light-quantu-m is in a stationarystate whenit is movingwithconstantmomen-
tum in a straightline. Thus a stationarystate r is fixedby tthethreecom-
ponentsof momentumof the iqliht-quantum and a variable that specifiesits
state of polarisationv.We shall workon the ass-umption that thereare a finite
n mberof thesestationarystates,lyingveryclose to one another,as it would
be inconvenientto use continuousranges. The interactionofthe light-quanta
with an atomic systemwill be describedby a Hamiltonianof the form(20),
in which Hp (J) is the Hamiltonian for the atomic system alone, and the
coefficientsv., are forthe presentunknown. We shall show that this fort
forthe Hamiltonian,with the v,, arbitrary,leads to Einstein's laws forthe
emissionand absorptionofradiation. -
The light-quant-iiumhas the pecuLliaritythat it apparenLtly ceases to exist
wheniit is in one of its stationarystates,narnely,the zero state, in wvhich its
momentum,and therefore also its energy,are zero. WVen , light-quantumn
is absorbedit can be consideredto jumnpinto this zero state, and wvhenone is
emittedit can be consideredto j'umpfrom-L the zero state to one -inwlich it is
* In a more recent paper ('Nachr. Gesell. d. Wiss.,' Gottingen,p. 146 (1926)) Born has
obtained a result in agreementwith that of the prese it paper fornon-relativitymechanics,
'by using an interpretation of the analysis based on the conservation theorems. I amn
indebted to Prof. N. Bohr for seeing an advance copy of this work.
t See Klei and Rosseland, 'Z. f. Physik,' vol. 4, .p 46, equation (4) (192l1).
 Emissionand Absorptionof Radiation. 261

inevidence,
physically so thatit appears tohavebeencreated.Sincethereis.
nolimittothenumber oflight-quantathatmaybecreatedinthisway,wemust
supposethattherearean infinitenumber oflight-quanta
inthezerostate,so,
thattheN0 oftheHamiltonian (20)is infinite.
We mastnowhave0G,the
variable
canonically toN., a constant,
conjugate since
00= aF/aNo WWo+ termsinlvolving
No0 or (No + Ir!
and W0is zero. In orderthattheHamiltonian
(20) mayremain
finite
it is,
forthe coefficients
necessary small. We shallSeuppose
to be infinitely
vo0.
v,.O,
thattheyareinfinitely
smallin sucha way as to makevToNo! andvorNo
inorder
finite, thatthetransition
probability
coefficients
maybefinite.Thus.
weput
vrO (No + 1)Ar6 -i yr vo.NOeio/Il - 12*..

where
vrandvr*arefinite
and conjugate
imaginaries.
Wemayconsider
the
v, and v* to be functions
onlyof theJ's and w's of theatomicsystem,
since
(N0 - 1)-2-
theirfactors and N0oeiOoI
e-ioo'h arepractically therate
constants,
ofchangeofNobeingverysmallcompared withNo. TheHamiltonian (20),
nowbecomes
F (J)+ ErWrN+ rEr o[v,NA 4/+ v,*(N.1)r-H e-i&/l
HPp
+ Er -0'Es o vrsNr-(Ns + 1 -8 rs) et -Gi/h (27);
The probabilityof a transitionin which a light-quantumin the state r is.
absorbedis proportional to the square ofthe modulusofthat matrixelementof
the Hamiltonianwhich refersto this transition. This matrix elementmustl
come fromthe term v7NIe"OIhin the Hamiltonian, and must thereforebe
proportionalto Nrt'whereN,' is the numberof light-quantain state r before.
the process. The probabilityof the absorptionprocess is thus proportional
to Nr'. In the same way the probabilityof a light-quantumin state r being
emittedis proportionalto (Nr'+ 1), and the probabilityof a light-quantum in)
state r being scatteredinto state s is proportionalto Nr'(N8'+ 1). Radiative
processesof the more generaltype consideredby Einstein and Ehrenfest,tin
whichmorethan one light-quantum take part sininltaneously,
are not allowed
on the presenttheory.
To establisha connectionbetweenthe numberoflight-quantaper stationary
state and the intensityof the radiation, we consideran enclosureof finite
volume, A say, containingthe radiation. The number of stationarystates
for light-quantaof a given type of polarisationw:hosefrequencylies in the
t 'Z. f. Physik,' vol. 19, p. 301 (1923).
262 P. A. M. i)irac.

range v. to v,- dVranidwhosedirectionof notion lies in the solid anlgledcx.

aboutthe directionof motionforstate r willnowbe Avrl2dv.do,/c3. The energy
of the light-quantain these stationarystatesis tlhusN' 2nhv,..Av2dv,dCw)r/c3.
This inust equal AcmJ,dvrdor, whereIJ is the intensityper unit frequency
about the state r. Hence
ra:ngeof the radia-tioni
1 - Nr (27h)v7/C2, (28)
so t'llmt
NJ. is proportional to I. and (N' --?1) is proportionalto T2+ (2Ah)v 3/c2.
We thus obtaiinthat the probabilityof an absorptionprocessis proportional to
It.,thtencident intermsity -er unit trequency range, and that of an emission
process is proportionalto 1,+ (2nh)v3/C2, which are just Einstein's laws.
In thesamewaytheprobability a light-quantutm
ofa processin wNThich is scattered
fro:m a state 'rto a state s is proportio1alto 1, [LI+ (27ch)V73/c2], whichis Pauli's
law forthe sea-ttering ofradiationby a meiectron.t'

? 7. The Probability for EiiiissionantdAbsorption.

Coeficietlds
We,shallnowconsidertheinteractionofan atomand radiationi thewave
fromn-
point of view. We resolve the radiatior into its Fourier comiponents, and
suLpposethat their niumber is yerylarge but f-inite.Let each component be
labelledby a suffixr, and supposethereare a. componentsassociated witlhthe
radiation of a definiitetype of polarisation per unit solid ai-gle per -unitfre-
quencyrangeabolt the componentr. Each componentr can be describedby
a vector potential 1c, chosemso as to inake the scalar potential zero. The
perturbation termto be added to the flamiltonianwill now be, accordingto
the classicaltheorywithneglectof relativitymechanics,C-41X. r. X,rwhereXT
is the componentof the total polarisationof the atom in the directionof K2,
whichis the directionof the electricvectorof the componentr.
We can, as explainedin ? 1, supposethe fieldto be describedbythe ca monical
varialblesNr, 02,of whichN, is the numberofquanta of energyof the com-
ponentir,anad0, is its canonicallyconijugatephase, equLalto 27chv,timesthe
0r of ? 1. We shall now have c, ar cos 0,/h,where ar iS tne amplitudeof
97 whichcan be connectedwithN, as follows:-The fow of energyper uinit
KIC
areta per unit time forthe componentr is 17rc1 a 2Vr2. Hence the intensity

-
Llie ratio of stimtulatedto spontaneous emission in the present theoryis just twice its
value in Einstein's. This is because in the present theory either polarised component of
the incident radiation can stimulate only radiation polarised in the same way, while in
Einstein's the two polarised components are treated together. This remnark applies also
to the scatteringprocess.
t Pauli, 'Z. f. Physik,' vol. 18, p. 272 (1923).
 Emissionand Absorptionof Radiationt. 263

pet unit frequfency range of the radiationin the neighbourhoodof the com-
ponent r is T2227r-1 a2 2. Coinparingthis with equation (28), we obtain
a,, 2 (hvr/cajr)`Nj)and hence
K2.= 2 (hvr/5cc)` N37Cos Or/ht.
The T:amiltonianforthe wholesystemnof atom plus radiationwould now be,
accordingto the classical tlleory,
F Hp (J) -- Lr (27ihVr)N, + 2c1 , (hv,/Cn) XrNr!cos 0,/h, (29)
whereH, (J) is the Halmiltonianforthe atomlalone. On the quanturm theory
we must make the variablesNr anid 01 canionicalq- iumberslike the variables
Jk, w1kthat describethe atoi. We mnst nlow replace the N7, cos 0,/hin (29)
by the real q-nuimber
-
~iNfiNj e'Io+~zrl2Nj-1~{
6i rl + 6---i0rjhN N- t e%f
rlh (.4 -1- Ci9rII2}
(N2. e

,sothat the liamiltonian(29) becomnes

XF t1P (2 ) + + hA
ES (2J;71hVr) N2.X C >2;r
(V)r/(Tr)~ gi8 I + (Nr+
2'X {Nq.- )~ C i!t}.
(30)
This is of the form(27), -with
v. = v.*-h (h2/Gr)'
c- Xr (31)
and vr 0 (r, s X0).

The wave pointofviewis thusconsistentwiththe light-quantunm point ofview

and gives values for the unkniowninteractioncoefficientvrs in the light-
quantum theory. These val-uesare not such as would enable one to express
the interactionenergyas an algebraic functionof canonicalvariables. Since
the wave theorygives vr.s. 0 forr,as 0, it wouldseemto showthat thereare
no directscatteringprocesses,b-utthis may be due to an incompletenessin
the presentwave theory.
We shall nowshowthat the Hamiltonian(30) leads to the correctexpressions
forEinsteirn's A's and B's. We mnust firstmodifyslightlythe anal is of ?5
so as to applyto thecase whenithesystemhas a largenumberofdiscretestation-
ary states instead of a continuousrange. instead of equation (21) we shall
now have
ih a (Vc) -- V (oa'oc")a
If the systemis initiallyin the state oo,we musttake the initialvalue of a (')
to be 8 whichis now correctlynormalised. This gives fora firstapproxi-
mnation
ih c (z)=V (cx'ot0) _-- v(c4'x? eiL '-W(?
whichleads to
ih a (x')-A + v (o'0?.) ; W - -
ieLW('>) w(ol?)] t| 1L
264 P. A. II. Dirac.

correspondingto (22). If, as before,we transform

to the variablesW, y,
Y2 Yff-1bwe obtain(wheny' yO)
a (W'y') = v (W', y'; w _WO).
TO) L[-Ce(W'-W0)t/h]/(Wf

The probabilityof the system being in a state forwhich each yk equals Ykt
is Yw, Ia (W' y')12. If the stationarystates lie closetogetherand ifthe timYle
t

is nottoo great,we can replacethissumbytheintegral(/AW)-ij' a (W'y') 2 dW',

whereA.Wis theseparationbetweenthe energylevels. Evaluatingthisintegral

as beforewe obtainforthe probabilityper unit timeof a transitionto a state
forwhicheach YkT Yk'
. V (WO,y'; W0, 0) 12.
2n/hAW'I (32)
In applyingthis resulltwe can take the ys to be any set of variablesthat are
independentof the total properenergyW and that togetherwith W define
a stationarystate.
We now returnto the problemdefinedby the Hamiltonian(30) and considler
an absorptionprocessin whichthe atom jumps fromthe state JOto the state
JXwiththe absorptionofa light-quantum fromstate r. We talkethe variables
y' to be the variables J' of the atom togetherwith variablesthat definethe
directionof imotion and state of polarisationof the absorbed quantuml,burt
not its energy. The matrixelemeictv (W0, y'; W0, TO) is now
h1/C
C: /,g) /2Xv(J?J')Nro?
( Mr

whereX)r(JJX)is theordinary(J?J')matrixelementofX. Hence from(32) the.

probabilityper unit time of the absorptionprocessis
27vc hvlk (J0-
z,7w jcr 1 2N0
Xr ('JoJ)

To obtain the probabilityforthe processwheiithe light-quantnm comesfrom

anydirectionin a solidangledc, we musti.aultiplythisexpressionbythenusmber
of possible directionsforthe ligbt-quantumin the solid angle d4, which is
dt) grAW/27rh.This gives

Tcl
a X (J2J) Nr0 2 1 - X (J?J') 12I

with the help of (28). Hence the probabilitycoefficientfor the absorption

is
process 1/272cvr2. XXr(J0J')12,in agreement with the usual value forEiTh-
in the matrix mechanics. The agreemel
stein's absorptioncoefficient A for
the emission coefficients
may be verified
in the same manner.
 Emission and Absorptionof Radciation. 265
The presenttheory,since it gives a properaccountof spontaneousemission,
must presumablygive the effectof radiationreactionon the emittingsystem,
and enable one to calculate the natural breadthsof spectrallines, if one can
overcomethe mathematicaldifficulties involvedin the generalsolutionof the
wave problemcorresponding to the Hamiltonian(30). Also the theoryenables
one to understandhowit comesaboutthatthereis no violationofthelaw ofthe
conservationof energywhen, say, a photo-electron is emit;tedfroman atom
underthe action of extremelyweak incident- radiation. The energyof inter-
actionofthe atom and theradiationis a q-numiber that does not commutewith
the firstintegralsof the motionof the atom alone or withthe intensityof the
radiation. Thus one cannot specifythis energyby a c-numberat the same
timethat one specifiesthe stationarystate ofthe atom and the intensityofthe
radiation by c-numbers. In particular,one cannot say that the interaction
energytends to zero as the intensityof the incidentradiation tends to zero.
There is thus always .an unspecifiableamount of interactionenergywhich
can supplythe energyforthe photo-electron.

I wouldlike to expressmy thanksto Prof.Niels Bohr forhis interestin this

workand formuch friendlydiscussionabout it.

Summary.
The problemis treated of an assembly of similar systemssatisfyingthe
Einstein-Bose statistical mechanics, which interact with another different
system,a iHamiltonianfunctionbeing obtainedto describethe motion. The
theoryis applied to the interactionof an assemblyof light-quantawith an
ordinaryatom, and it is shownthat it gives Einstein's laws forthe emission
and absorptionofradiation.
.The interactionof an atom with electromagnetic waves is then considered,
and it is shownthat if one takes the energiesand phases of the waves to be
q-numberssatisfyingthe proper quantum conditionsinstead of c-numbers,
the Hamiltonianfunctiontakes the same formas in the light-quantum treat-
ment. The theoryleads to the correctexpressionsforEinstein'sA's and B's.

VOL. CXIV.-A. T