Goods and Services - needs of people

Manufactured Goods
1 Consumer goods - purchased directly by the consumer or the general public
2 Producer goods - goods manufactured for other companies to use to manufacture either
producer or consumer goods
Roles of Engineers in Manufacturing
 Design Engineers - should know that design is to accomplish, what assumptions can be
made about service environment the product must withstand, and what appearance the
final product is to have.
 Manufacturing Engineers - select and coordinate specific processes and equipment to
be used, or supervise, and manage their use. Must have broad knowledge of
manufacturing processes and of material behavior so that desired operations can be
done effectively and efficiently without overloading or damaging machines and without
adversely affecting the materials being processed
 Industrial engineers - design or layout factories have the same concerns of the
interrelationship of design, the properties of the materials that the machines are going to
process, and the interaction of the materials and the machines.
 Materials Engineers - devote their major efforts to developing new and better materials.
Concerned with how these materials can be processed and with the effects that the
processing will have on the properties of the materials

Changing World Competition

In recent years, major changes in the world of goods manufacturing have taken place. Three of
these are:
1 Worldwide or global competition
2 Advanced technology
3 New manufacturing systems structure, strategies, and management

Manufacturing - the economic term for making goods and services available to satisfy human
wants; implies creating value by applying useful mental or physical labor.

Production system
The highest ranking term in hierarchy is production system. Production system includes people,
money, equipment, materials, and supplies, markets, management and manufacturing system
Manufacturing system
it is a collection of operations and processes used to obtain a desired products or components.
Manufacturing systems is therefore the design or arrangement of the manufacturing processes.
the entire manufacturing system must be controlled to control material movement, inventory
levels, product quality, output rates, and so on.

Job Shop- Characterized by large varieties of components, general-purpose machines, and a

functional layout
Machines are all collected by functions and the parts are routed around the shop containers to
the various machines
Lot - material in the cart or container

Flow Shops- Characterized by a larger build quantities, special purpose machines, less variety,
and more mechanization
Flow shop layouts are typically either continuous or interrupted
If continuous - they basically run one large-volume complex product in great quantity and
nothing else
If interrupted - the line manufactures large quantities but it is periodically changed over to run a
similar but different component

Linked-Cell - Composed of manufacturing cells connected together (linked) using a unique form
of inventory and information control (Kanban)
Project shop - characterized by the immobility of the item being manufactured; it is necessary
that the workers, machines, and materials comes to the site; the number of end items is not very
large, and therefore the lot sizes of the components going into the end item are not large.

Manufacturing processes converts unfinished materials to finished products often using a

machine tool
Machine tool - is an assembly of related mechanisms on frame or bed that together produce a
desired result.
Note: a machine tool may do a single manufacturing process or multiple processes or it may
manufacture an entire component

Job - is the total of the work or duties a worker performs

Station - is the work area of a production line worker
Note: Numerical control - the NC machine takes the programmed position from a part of a
program tape - any difference between the commanded position and the feedback signal MCU
to run the drive motor in the proper direction to cancel any errors.

Operation is a distinct action performed to produce a desired result or effect. Typical machine
operations are loading and unloading.
Operations recognized as function are:
(1) Materials handling and transporting: change in position of the product
(2) Processing: change in volume and quality, including assembly and disassembly;
packaging
(3) Packaging: special processing; maybe temporary or permanent for shipping
(4) Inspecting and testing: comparison to the standard or check process behavior
(5) Storing: time lapses without further operations

METALS
Production procedure
Heat treatment for altering properties of materials and application of materials
Structure, properties, and application of ferrous materials like ceramic, polymers (plastics),
composites, plastic, graphite, and diamonds

products used in our day to day lives are made of one or more materials
- variations in the sizes and positions of the atom

Metal classification
- All metals may be classified as ferrous or nonferrous. A ferrous metal has iron as its main
element. A metal is still considered ferrous even if it contains less than 50 percent iron, as long
as it contains more iron than any other one metal. A metal is nonferrous if it contains less iron
than any other metal.

Ferrous metals include cast iron, steel, and various steel alloys. The only difference between
iron and steel is the carbon content. Cast iron contains more than 2 percent carbon while steel
contains less than 2 percent.

Alloy is a substance composed of two or more elements. Therefore, all steels are an alloy of
carbon and iron, but the term 'alloy steel' normally refers to a steel that also contains one or
more elements.
For example, if the main alloying element is tungsten, the steel is a tungsten steel or tungsten
alloy. If there is no alloying materials, its carbon steel.

Cast iron is the metal that is widely used. Hard brittle metal that has good wear resistance. Cast
iron contains 2 to 4 percent of carbon.
White cast iron is very hard and is used mostly where abrasion and wear resistance is required.
White cast iron maybe made into malleable iron by heating it then cooling it slowly over a long
period of time.
Malleable iron is stronger and tougher than white cast iron, more expensive
Gray iron is another form of cast iron. It is mostly used for castings because of its ability to flow
easily into complex shapes.

Wrought iron has had most of its carbon removed. It is tough; however, it can be bent or twisted
very easily. Wrought iron is used mostly in ornamental ironwork, such as fences and handrails,
because it is welded or painted easily and rusts very slowly.

Steel
-is an alloy of iron and carbon or other alloying elements. When the alloying elements is carbon,
the steel is referred to as carbon steel. Carbon steels are classified by the percentage or carbon
in 'points' or hundredths of 1 percent they contain.
Low Carbon Steel (carbon content up to 0.30 percent or 30 points)
-This steel is soft, ductile and can be rolled, punched, sheared, and worked either hot or cold. It
is easily machined and can be readily welded by all methods. It does not harden to any great
amount, however, it can be easily case- or surface-hardened.
Medium carbon steel (.30to .50 percent or 30 to 50 points)
-This steel may be heat-treated after fabrication. It is used for general machining and forging of
parts that required surface hardness and strength. It is made in bar form in the cold-rolled or the
normalized and annealed condition. During welding, the weld zone will become hardened if
cooled rapidly and must be stress-relieved after welding.
High carbon Steel (.50 to 1.05% or 50 to 105 points)
-This steel is used in the manufacture of dills, taps, dies, springs, and other machine tools and
hand tools that are heat treated after fabrication t develop the hard structure necessary to
withstand high shear stress and wear. It is manufacture in bar, sheet, and wire forms, and in the
annealed or normalized condition in order to suitable for machining before heat treatment. This
steel is difficult to weld because of the hardening effect of heat at the welding joint.
Tool steel (.90 to 1.70 percent or 90 to 170 points)
- This steel is used in the manufacture of chisels, shear blades, cutters, large taps, woodturning
tools, blacksmith's tools, razors, and other similar parts where high hardness is required to
maintain a sharp cutting edge. It is difficult to weld due to the high carbon content.

High speed steel

-It is a self-hardening steel alloy that can withstand high temperatures without becoming soft.
High speed steel is ideal for cutting tools because of its ability to take deeper cuts at higher
speeds than tools made from carbon steel.

Tungsten Carbide
-hardest man made metal. It is almost as hard as a diamond. The metal is molded from
tungsten and carbon powders under heat and pressure. Tools made from this metal can cut
other metals may times faster than high speed steel tools.

Nonferrous Metals
-There are many metals that do not have iron as their base metal. these metals offer specific
properties or combination of properties that make them ideal for tasks where ferrous metals are
not suitable. They are often used with iron base metals in the finished products.

Aluminum
-And its alloys are produced and used in many shapes and forms The common forms are
castings, sheet , plate, bar, rod, channels, and forgings. Aluminum alloys have many desirable
qualities. They are lighter than most other metals and do not rust or corrode under most
conditions. Aluminum can be cast-forged, machined, and welded easily.
Almost 80% of airplanes is aluminum

magnesium
-Are produced and used in many shapes and forms for example, casting, bards, rods, tubing,
sheets, and plates, and forgings. Their inherent strength, light weight, and shock and vibration
resistance are factors which make use advantageous. Magnesium has excellent machining
qualities; however care must be taken when machining because the chips are highly flammable.
Magnesium fires bum so hot that they cannot be extinguished by conventional fire
extinguishers.

Copper
-is a reddish metal, very ductile and malleable, and has high electrical and heat conductivity.
Copper can be forger, cast, and cold worked. It also can be welded, but is machinability is only
fair. The principal use of commercially pure copper is in the electrical industry where it is made
into wire or other such conductors. It is also used in the manufacture of nonferrous alloys such
as brass, bronze, and monel metal.
-Typical copper products are sheet roofing, cartridge cases, bushings, wire, bearings, and
statues.
(ex. coins, utensils, electronic products)

Brass
Brass, an alloy of copper and zinc (60 to 68 percent copper and 32 to 40 percent zinc), has a
low melting point and high heat conductivity. There are several types of brass such as naval,
red, admiralty, yellow, and commercial. All differ in copper and zinc content. All may be alloyed
with other elements such as lead, tin, manganese, or iron, and all have good machinability and
can be welded.

Bronze
Bronze is an alloy of copper and tin and may contain lead, zinc, nickel, manganese, or
phosphorous. It has high strength, is rust or corrosion resistant, has good machinability, and can
be welded.

Lead
-mainly used in the manufacture of electrical equipment such as lead-coated power and
telephone cables and storage batteries. Zinc alloys are used int he manufacture of lead weights,
bearings, gasket, seals, bullets, and shot. Many types of chemical compounds are produced
from lead. Among these are lead carbonate (paint pigment), tetraethyl lead (antiknock gasoline).
Lead is also used for X-ray protection (radiation shields). Lead has more fields of application
than any other metal. It can be cast, cold worked, welded, and machined. Lead has low strength
with heavy weight

Tin
-major used of tin is in coating steel. It is the best container for preserving perishable food. Tin,
in the form of foil, is often used in wrapping food products. A second major use of tin is as an
alloying element. Tin is alloyed with copper to produce bronze, with lead to produce solder, and
with antimony and lead to form babbitt. Tin can be die cast, cold worked, machined, and
soldered; however, it cannot be welded.
Isaac Babbitt - 1839

Nickel
-is used in making alloys of both ferrous and nonferrous metals. Chemical and food processing
equipment, electrical resistance heating elements, ornamental trim, and parts that must
withstand elevated temperatures are all produced from nickel containing metal. Alloyed with
chromium, it is used to make stainless steel. Nickel alloys are readily welded by either gas or
arc methods and can be machined, forged, cast, and easily formed.

HEAT TREATMENT OF METALS

HEATING - Heating is the first step in a heat-treating process. Many alloys change structure
when they are heated to specific temperatures. The structure of an alloy at room temperature
can be either a mechanical mixture, a solid solution, or a combination solid solution and
mechanical mixture.
SOAKING - Once a metal part has been heated to the temperature at which desired changes in
its structure will take place, it must remain at that temperature until the entire part has been
evenly heated throughout. This is known as soaking. The more mass the part has, the longer it
must be soaked.
COOLING - After the part has been properly soaked, the third step is to cool it. Here again, the
structure may change from one chemical composition to another, it may stay the same, or it
may revert to its original form

Heat Treatment for Ferrous Metals

 HARDENING - A ferrous metal is normally hardened by heating the metal to the required
temperature and then cooling it rapidly by plunging the hot metal into a quenching
medium, such as oil, water, or brine. Most steels must be cooled rapidly to harden them.
The hardening process increases the hardness and strength of metal, but also increases
its brittleness.
 TEMPERING - Steel is usually harder than necessary and too brittle for practical use
after being hardened. Severe internal stresses are set up during the rapid cooling of the
metal. Steel is tempered after being hardened to relieve the internal stresses and reduce
its brittleness. Tempering consists of heating the metal to a specified temperature and
then permitting the metal to cool. The rate of cooling usually has no effect on the metal
structure during tempering.
 ANNEALING - Metals are annealed to relieve internal stresses, soften them, make them
more ductile, and refine their grain structures. Metal is annealed by heating it to a
prescribed temperature, holding it at that temperature for the required time, and then
cooling it back to room temperature. The rate at which metal is cooled from the
annealing temperature varies greatly. Steel must be cooled very slowly to produce
maximum softness.
 NORMALIZING - Ferrous metals are normalized to relieve the internal stresses
produced by machining, forging, or welding. Normalized steels are harder and stronger
than annealed steels. Steel is much tougher in the normalized condition than in any
other condition. Parts that will be subjected to impact and parts that require maximum
toughness and resistance to external stresses are usually normalized. Normalizing prior
to hardening is beneficial in obtaining the desired hardness, provided the hardening
operation is performed correctly.
 CASE HARDENING - Case hardening is an ideal heat treatment for parts which require
a wear-resistant surface and a tough core, such as gears, cams, cylinder sleeves, and
so forth. The most common case-hardening processes are carburizing and nitriding.
 During the case-hardening process, a low-carbon steel (either straight carbon steel or
low-carbon alloy steel) is heated to a specific temperature in the presence of a material
(solid, liquid, or gas) which decomposes and deposits more carbon into the surface of a
steel. Then, when the part is cooled rapidly, the outer surface or case becomes hard,
leaving the, inside of the piece soft but very tough.

Heat Treatment for NONFerrous Metals

 ANNEALING - Most nonferrous metals can be annealed. The annealing process
consists of heating the metal to a specific temperature, soaking, and cooling to room
temperature. The temperature and method of cooling depend on the type of metal.
Annealing is often accomplished after various cold working operations because many
nonferrous metals become hard and brittle after cold working. Also, annealing is used to
remove the effects of solution heat treatment so that machining or working qualities can
be improved.
 SOLUTION HEAT TREATMENT - The tensile strength of many nonferrous alloys can be
increased by causing the materials within the alloy to go into a solid solution and then
controlling the rate and extent of return to an altered mechanical mixture.

Materials are a key resource required for all technologies. All construction projects require
materials. Every product made by hand or manufactured in a factory needs materials.

Importance of Materials
Throughout history, materials have been important to humans.
Alloy is a mixture of two or more metals or a metal and non-metal. Most metals used today are
alloys since the qualities of pure materials can be improved by other materials.

Natural materials - are found in nature.

Synthetic materials - are created by people. These materials are product of technology. People
develop new materials to replace or improve natural materials. (Ex. Aramid bands, polyester
suit, rayon shoe, nylon threads, spandex ball)

Plastics - the most common synthetic materials. They were first used in the 1860s by John
Hyatt. Celluloid developed by Hyatt.
Ceramics - are nonmetallic and can contain many elements, including silicon, oxygen, and
aluminum. Heat is required to make ceramics. Ceramics are strong, hard, and resistant to
corrosion. They are also thermal and electrical insulators.
Composites are made by combining materials. Each component of the mixture retains its own
properties, but the resulting material has more desirable qualities.

Locating the raw materials

Sometimes locating materials is not easy. Materials below the Earth's surface are not easy to
locate. Geologists use electronic instruments and samples of soil and rock to locate
underground resources such as oil, natural gas, coal, and water.
Harvesting
renewable resources such as trees are obtained by harvesting. Wood used to make lumber for
construction is one of our most important resources.
Drilling
liquids and gases can be obtained from below the earth's surface by pumping them ample of
mined materials. Open pit and underground are two kinds of mines.
Open pit mines are used when the raw material is close to the surface. The top layer of soil is
removed and heavy equipment is used to remove the coal or deposit.
Underground mines are needed when raw materials are deep below the earth's surface. Some
deep mines used two shafts: one for people and equipment and other bring the coal or other
mineral to the surface.
Mining is used to extract raw materials from the ground. Coal and metallic ores, including
copper, iron, and bauxite.

Choosing Materials
There is no perfect material. Designers and engineers need to choose them carefully. They
need to consider the advantages and disadvantages of each material and then try to choose the
optimum (best) one.
Important considerations in choosing materials:
1 Cost
2 Transportation
3 Quality
4 Availability
5 Suitability
properties of Materials

 Sensory properties - we often choose materials because they appeal top our senses.
Sensory properties can be important for reasons other than beauty.
 Mechanical properties - Are related to the way a material reacts to loads and forces.
Testing is a useful way too determine the mechanical properties of a material. The
information obtained can be used to choose the most suitable material for a certain
project.
o Elasticity - is the ability of material to return to its original shape after a force has
been applied and removed.
o Plasticity - refers to the ability of a material to keep its new shape after it has
been deformed.
o Ductility- ability of a material to be deform without breaking. It is an important
quality of automobile fenders.
o brittle - materials do not deform before breaking. Window glass is a brittle
material.
o tensile strength - a material's resistance to being pulled apart
o Compressive strength - the opposite of tensile strength. Compression tends to
press a material together.
o Shear strength - is how strong a material is when it is being pushed in opposite
direction at the same time.
o torsion strength - is the ability to resist twisting. The force itself is called torque.
Torque wrenches are used to force bolts to a specific tightness.
o Fatigue strength - Refers to the ability of a material to withstand repeated loads.
X-ray inspections are used to detect fatigue cracks on airliners. Such cracks may
develop because of repeated pressurization.
o hardness - refers to the ability to withstand scratching and denting. Cutting tools
must have blades that are harder than the material they are designed to cut.
o Impact strength or toughness - is the ability of a material to withstand sudden
impact such as a hammer blow
Elasticity;Plasticity;Ductility;Brittle;Tensile Strength;Compressive Strength;Shear
Strength;Torsion Strength;Fatigue Strength;Hardness;Impact Strength or
Toughness
Other Properties
o Optical - how a material reacts to light
o Chemical - corrosion resistant is an important chemical property. Rust is one type
of corrosion. Iron rusts when exposed to weather.
o Electrical properties - materials that allow electrical to flow through them are
called conductors.
o Thermal qualities - Thermal qualities describe how a material reacts to heat.
Most metals are good heat conductors.
o Magnetic qualities - Magnetic materials are attracted to a magnet. Iron is a
magnetic material.
Plastics
What is plastic?

 The Greek word plasticós means "to mold."

 A plastic is a type of synthetic or man-made polymer; similar in many ways to natural
resins found in trees and other plants.
 All plastics were soft and moldable during their production
 The building blocks for making plastics are small organic molecules – molecules that
contain carbon along with other substances.
 Plastics are synthetic materials, which means that they are artificial, or manufactured.
 They generally come from oil (petroleum) or natural gas, but they can also come from
other organic materials such as wood fibers, corn, or banana peels
 *Synthesis means that "something is put together," and synthetic materials are made of
building blocks that are put together in factories.
 Each of these small molecules is known as a monomer ("one part") because it's capable
of joining with other monomers to form very long molecule chains called polymers("many
parts") during a chemical reaction called polymerization.
PLASTICS = synthetic polymers

 Monomer - "one part" (mono = one, mer = part)

 Polymer - "many parts" (poly = many)
 Organic material - carbon compounds
 Organic chemistry - the study of compounds that contain carbon
 Polyethylene – is made from just ethylene monomers

Oil Refinery  Petrochemical Plant  Plastics Factory

1. Crude oil, the unprocessed oil that comes out of the ground, contains hundreds of different
hydrocarbons, as well as small amounts of other materials. The job of an oil refinery is to
separate these materials and also to break down (or "crack) large hydrocarbons into smaller
ones.
2. A petrochemical plant receives refined oil containing the small monomers they need and
creates polymers through chemical reactions.
3. A plastics factory buys the end products of a petrochemical plant - polymers in the form of
resins -introduces additives to modify or obtain desirable properties, then molds or otherwise
forms the final plastic products.

 A monomer from oil - this one is the hydrocarbon ethylene.

  A polymer - polyethylene - made of ethylene monomers.
 These pellets, or resins, are chains of polymers if you look at them on a molecular level.

How to make plastics?

Polymerization - Each small molecules which is the monomer, joined with other monomers to
form very long molecule chains called polymers, during chemical reaction.

POLYMERIZATION DETAIL

 Find a suitable molecule. One such molecule is the ethylene monomer, the starting point
for a variety of plastics
 Combining the monomers through the use of catalysts
 During chemical reaction, hundreds or thousands of monomers combine to form a
polymer chain, and millions of polymer chains are formed
 The mass of polymers that results is known as the resin

Plastics are classified into two characteristics: (according to what will happen to them when they
are heated to high temperatures)
EXAMPLE :
Thermoplastics
(Plastics than can be reshaped)

 When ice is heated, it melts. When a thermoplastic object is heated, it melts as well.
 The melted ice can be formed into a new shape, and it will keep that shape when it's
cooled. Similarly, a melted thermoplastic object can be formed into a different shape,
and it will keep that new shape when it's cooled.
 Thermoplastics have long, linear polymer chains that are only weakly chemically
bonded, or connected, to each other. When a thermoplastic object is heated, these
bonds are easily broken, which makes the polymers able to glide past each other like
strands of freshly cooked spaghetti. That's why thermoplastics can readily be remolded.
 The weak bonds between the polymers reform when the plastic object is cooled, which
enable it to keep its new shape.
 The most common method for making plastics is molding. To make a thermoplastic
object, plastic granules known as resin are forced into a mold under high heat and
pressure. When the material has cooled down, the mold is opened and the plastic object
is complete. When making plastic fibers, the molten resin is sprayed through a strainer
with tiny holes.
 USES: There is a huge range of uses including plastic wrap, food containers, lighting
panels, garden hoses, and the constantly encountered plastic bag.
  RECYCLING: Thermoplastics are easy to recycle since they can be melted and
reshaped into other products. For example, a plastic bottle that contained a soft drink
could be reformed into the fibres of a fleece jacket.

Thermosets
(Plastics that can’t be reshaped)

 Just as a raw egg has the potential to become a boiled egg, a fried egg, and so on,
thermosetting polymers have the potential to become all sorts of different objects.
 Just as a raw egg has the potential to become a boiled egg, a fried egg, and so on,
thermosetting polymers have the potential to become all sorts of different objects.
 The linear chains are cross-linked – strongly chemically bonded. This prevents a
thermoplastic object from being melted and reformed.
 Thermosets are produced in two steps:
1. Linear polymers are formed.
2. The linear polymers are forced into a mold where "curing" takes place. This may
involve heating, pressure, and the addition of catalysts. During this process, a
cross-linked or networked structure forms, creating a permanently hard object
that is no longer melt able or moldable.
 USES: Thermosets are good to use for things that will be warmed up such as spatulas
and other kitchen tools. They're also used in glues, varnishes, and in electronic
components such as circuit boards.
 RECYCLING: Thermosets are hard to recycle, but today there are methods of crushing
the objects into a fine powder form for use as fillers in reinforced thermosets.
General Attributes of Plastics
1. Plastics can be very resistant to chemicals
2. Plastics can be both thermal and electrical insulators.
3. Generally, plastics are very light in weight with varying degrees of strength.
4. Plastics can be processed in various ways to produce thin fibers or very intricate
parts.
5. Polymers are materials with a seemingly limitless range of characteristics and colors.
6. Polymers are usually made of petroleum, but not always.
Production Processes of Plastics
Additives
Many plastics are blended with additives as they are processed into finished products. The
additives are incorporated into plastics to alter and improve their basic mechanical, physical, or
chemical properties
Additives are used to protect plastics from:

 from the degrading effects of light, heat, or bacteria;

  to change such plastic properties, such as melt flow;
 to provide color;
 to provide foamed structure;
 and to provide special characteristics such as improved surface appearance or reduced
tack/friction.

Plasticizers
Plasticizers are materials incorporated into certain plastics to increase flexibility and workability.
Plasticizers are found in many plastic film wraps and in flexible plastic or processing.
*Note: All plastics used in food contact, including the additives and plasticizers, are regulated by
the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to ensure that these materials are safe.

Processing Methods
There are several different processing methods used to make plastic products. Below are the
four main methods in which plastics are processed to form the products that consumers use,
such as plastic film, bottles, bags and other containers.
1. EXTRUSION - Plastic pellets or granules are first loaded into a hopper, then fed into an
extruder, which is a long heated chamber, through which it is moved by the action of a
continuously revolving screw. The plastic is melted by a combination of heat from the
mechanical work done and by the hot sidewall metal. At the end of the extruder, the
molten plastic is forced out through a small opening or die to shape the finished product.
As the plastic product extrudes from the die, it is cooled by air or water. Plastic films and
bags are made by extrusion processing.
e.g. Plastic films and bags are made by extrusion processing
2. INJECTION MOLDING - Injection molding, plastic pellets or granules are fed from a
hopper into a heating chamber. An extrusion screw pushes the plastic through the
heating chamber, where the material is softened into a fluid state. Again, mechanical
work and hot sidewalls melt the plastic. At the end of this chamber, the resin is forced at
high pressure into a cooled, closed mold. Once the plastic cools to a solid state, the
mold opens and the finished part is ejected.
e.g. This process is used to make products such as butter tubs, yogurt containers,
closures and fittings.
3. BLOW MOLDING - Blow molding is a process used in conjunction with extrusion or
injection molding. In one form, extrusion blow molding, the die forms a continuous semi-
molten tube of thermoplastic material. A chilled mold is clamped around the tube and
compressed air is then blown into the tube to conform the tube to the interior of the mold
and to solidify the stretched tube. Overall, the goal is to produce a uniform melt, form it
into a tube with the desired cross section and blow it into the exact shape of the product.
This process is used to manufacture hollow plastic products and its principal advantage
 is its ability to produce hollow shapes without having to join two or more separately
injection molded parts.
e.g. This method is used to make items such as commercial drums and milk bottles.
4. ROTATIONAL MOLDING - Rotational molding consists of a closed mold mounted on
a machine capable of rotation on two axes simultaneously. Plastic granules are placed in
the mold, which is then heated in an oven to melt the plastic Rotation around both axes
distributes the molten plastic into a uniform coating on the inside of the mold until the
part is set by cooling.
e.g. This process is used to make hollow products, for example large toys or kayaks.

Durables vs. Non-Durables

All types of plastic products are classified within the plastic industry as being either a durable or
non-durable plastic good. These classifications are used to refer to a product’s expected life.
Durables - Products with a useful life of three years or more are referred to as durables.
Examples:

 Appliances,
 Furniture,
 Consumer electronics,
 Automobiles,
 Building and construction materials.
Non-Durables - Products with a useful life of less than three years are generally referred to as
non-durables.
Examples:

 Packaging
 Trash bags
 Cups
 Eating utensil
 Sporting and recreational equipment
 Toys
 Medical devices
 Disposable diapers
7 Major Plastics
Many consumer products, such as water bottles and product containers, are made from
various types of plastic. The Society of the Plastics Industry (SPI) established a classification
system in 1988 to allow consumers and recyclers to properly recycle and dispose of different
types of plastic. Manufacturers follow a coding system and place an SPI code, or number, on
each plastic product, which is usually molded into the bottom. Although you should always verify
the plastic classification number of each product you use, this guide provides a basic outline of
the different plastic types associated with each code number
(1) PET - Polyethylene terephthalate
Plastic marked with an SPI code of 1 is made with Polyethylene Terephthalate, which is also
known as PETE or PET. Containers made from this plastic sometimes absorb odors and flavors
from foods and drinks that are stored in them. Items made from this plastic are commonly
recycled. PETE plastic is used to make many common household items like beverage bottles,
medicine jars, peanut butter jars, combs, bean bags, and rope. Recycled PETE is used to make
tote bags, carpet, fiberfill material in winter clothing, and more.

(2) HDPE - High density polyethylene

Plastic marked with an SPI code of 2 is made with High-Density Polyethylene, or HDPE. HDPE
products are very safe and they are not known to transmit any chemicals into foods or drinks.
HDPE products are commonly recycled. Items made from this plastic include containers for
milk, motor oil, shampoos and conditioners, soap bottles, detergents, and bleaches. Many
personalized toys are made from this plastic as well.
(Please note: it is NEVER safe to reuse an HDPE bottle as a food or drink container if it didn’t
originally contain food or drink!) Recycled HDPE is used to make plastic crates, plastic lumber,
fencing, and more.

(3) PVC - Unplasticised polyvinyl chloride UPVC / Plasticised polyvinyl chloride PPVC
Plastic labeled with an SPI code of 3 is made with Polyvinyl Chloride, or PVC. PVC is not often
recycled and it can be harmful if ingested. PVC is used for all kinds of pipes and tiles, but it's
most commonly found in plumbing pipes. This kind of plastic should not come in contact with
food items. Recycled PVC is used to make flooring, mobile home skirting, and more.

(4) LDPE – Low density polyethylene

Plastic marked with an SPI code of 4 is made with Low-Density Polyethylene, or LDPE. LDPE is
not commonly recycled, but it is recyclable in certain areas. It is a very healthy plastic that tends
to be both durable and flexible. Plastic cling wrap, sandwich bags, squeezable bottles, and
plastic grocery bags are all made from LDPE. Recycled LDPE is used to make garbage cans,
lumber, furniture, and more.
(5) PP – Polypropylene
Plastic marked with an SPI code of 5 is made with Polypropylene, or PP. PP is not commonly
recycled, but it is accepted in many areas. This type of plastic is strong and can usually
withstand higher temperatures. Among many other products, it is used to make plastic diapers,
Tupperware, margarine containers, yogurt boxes, syrup bottles, prescription bottles, and some
stadium cups. Plastic bottle caps are often made from PP as well. Recycled PP is used to make
ice scrapers, rakes, battery cables, and more.
 (6) PS - Polystyrene PS / Expanded Polystyrene EPS
Plastic marked with an SPI code of 6 is made with Polystyrene, also known as PS and most
commonly known as Styrofoam. It is commonly recycled, but it is difficult to do so and often
ends up in landfills anyway. Disposable coffee cups, plastic food boxes, plastic cutlery, packing
foam, and packing peanuts are made from PS. Recycled PS is used to make insulation, license
plate frames, rulers, and more.
(7) Other
The SPI code of 7 is used to designate miscellaneous types of plastic that are not defined by
the other six codes. Polycarbonate and Polylactide are included in this category. These types of
plastics are difficult to recycle. Polycarbonate, or PC, is used in baby bottles, large water bottles
(multiple-gallon capacity), compact discs, and medical storage containers. Recycled plastics in
this category are used to make plastic lumber, among other products.

Other plastics definition:

 ABS : a terpolymer made from three monomers, acrylonitrile, butadiene and styrene.
Acrylonitrile and styrene provide chemical resistance, butadiene adds impact resistance
and makes the plastic suitable for furniture, computer housings etc.
 Acrylic: a hard thermoplastic made from acrylic acid or a derivative of acrylic acid. Best
known as a glass substitute, typically under the trade names Perspex, Lucite and
Plexiglas.
 Amino plastics: Plastics made from ammonia based compounds, namely urea
formaldehyde and melamine formaldehyde.
 Bakelite : really a trade name but frequently used as a generic name for phenol
formaldehyde (phenolic).
 Cellophane : A Du Pont trade name for film made from regenerated wood pulp
(cellulose).
 Cellulose : The fibrous matter in all plant cells, with a long chain molecular structure. The
most common sources used for making plastics are cotton fibres and wood pulp
 Cellulose acetate: A tough thermplastic made from cellulose in the form of cotton linters,
treated with acetic acid and acetic anhydride. Used for many domestic mouldings such
as spectacle frames, toothbrush handles, and as transparent packaging film.
 Cellulose acetate butyrate: A thermoplastic made from cellulose treated with acetic and
butyric acids. Transparent, opaque or coloured, with excellent moulding qualities, used
where more moisture resistance and dimensional stability than cellulose acetate is
required.
 Copolymer: A plastic made by polymerizing two monomers, eg styrene and acrylonitrile .
 Elastomer: A synthetic plastic with the flexible properties of rubber.
 Epoxy resin: A very tough thermosetting resin used as a coating, or reinforced to make
mouldings or laminates.
 Ester : A compound produced by the reaction between an acid and an alcohol.
 GRP : Glass reinforced polyester, ie polyester resin strengthened by glass fibres,
making the resin, which has no strength of its own, into a very tensile material. Widely
used to build boats, furniture and cars.
 HIPS : High impact polystyrene
 LLDPE : Linear low density polyethylene, a new type of low density polythene.
 Melalmine : Melamine formaldehyde, a thermoset produced by reacting (triaminotriazine)
with formaldehyde. A tough glossy plastic usually strengthened with a filler of wood pulp.
 Monomer: A simple low molecular weight compound. Polymerization links monomers
together to form high molecular weight polymers.
 Nylon: Not one material but a group of very tough and flexible materials called
polyamides. Thermoplastic and usually found as fibres or used solid, as gears, zips and
more recently as dyed jewellery.
 Phenolic: abbreviated version of phenol - formaldehyde. Phenolic is usually reinforced
with a filler, but cast phenolic has no filler and can be translucent. It can be easily
coloured and is used decoratively for jewellery, radio cabinets and all kinds of
ornaments.
 Polycarbonate : A very tough thermoplastic, usually found as a substitute for glass, eg:
vandal proof telephone kiosks,bullet proof shields, baby bottles and picnicware.
 Polyesters : Complex ester compounds which are thermosetting and can be polymerized
at room temperature, eg GRP.
 Polymer : Another word for a plastic material: one which has been made from chains of
molecules of one or more monomers. Polymers (plastics) are organic substances, made
from hundreds or thousands of molecules linked together in a repeating chain pattern
(also known as macromolecules).
 Polymerization : The chemical process of linking monomers to form new compounds
called polymers. For example,ethylene is polymerized into polyethylene, (polythene for
short).
 Polypropylene : A thermoplastic polymerized from propene, very close to polythene in
molecular structure, but harder, stronger and less flexible.
 Polystyrene : A brittle.water white thermoplastic polymerized from styrene -
(phenylethylene). The brittleness is overcome by adding some butadiene, which results
in toughened polystyrene also known as high impact polystyrene (HIPS), a copolymer of
butadiene and styrene. Expanded polystyrene is the rigid white foam used for
packaging.