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Table of Contents
Board of Editors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Editor’s Commentary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Commentary
Jean Piaget’s Debt to John Dewey. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
by Daniel Tanner, PhD
Research Articles
Why Not Allow School Boards to Choose Alternatives to Traditionally Trained Superintendents?. . .26
by John G. Ellis, PhD
Does Collective Bargaining Influence the Pay Satisfaction of Elementary School Teachers?. . . . . . . .37
by David G. Buckman, PhD; Henry Tran, MPA, SHRMP-CP, PHR, PhD; and
I. Phillip Young, EdD
Book Review
Education Policy Perils: Tackling the Tough Issues. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
edited by Christopher H. Tienken and Carol A. Mullen
reviewed by Yong Zhao
AASA Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
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Editors
Christopher Tienken, Seton Hall University
Kenneth Mitchell, Manhattanville College
Associate Editors
Barbara Dean, AASA, The School Superintendents Association
Kevin Majewski, Seton Hall University
Published by
AASA, The School Superintendents Association
1615 Duke Street
Alexandria, VA 22314
Available at www.aasa.org/jsp.aspx
ISSN 1931-6569
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The AASA Journal of Scholarship and Practice would like to thank AASA, The School
Superintendents Association, in particular the AASA Leadership Development Office, for its ongoing
sponsorship of the Journal.
We also offer special thanks to Kenneth Mitchell, Manhattanville College, and Christopher Tienken,
Seton Hall University, for their efforts in selecting the articles that comprise this professional
education journal.
The unique relationship between research and practice is appreciated, recognizing the mutual benefit to
those educators who conduct the research and seek out evidence-based practice and those educators
whose responsibility it is to carry out the mission of school districts in the education of children.
Without the support of AASA, Christopher Tienken and Kenneth Mitchell, the AASA Journal of
Scholarship and Practice would not be possible.
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Editor’s Commentary
Kenneth Mitchell, EdD
In the lead article, Rutgers University Professor Emeritus Daniel Tanner’s provocative commentary,
“Jean Piaget’s Debt to John Dewey,” begins with an exploration of the origins of Piaget’s
Developmental Stage Theory, guides the reader through the Deweyan view on the relationship between
the nature of the learner and the school’s response, and concludes with concerns of how today’s
reformers have failed to consider these elements as demonstrated by an emphasis on assessment-
determined achievement: “From the work of Dewey and Piaget, we should know that any reform in
education is destined for failure if it neglects or violates the nature and needs of the learner.”
The piece is a must-read for today’s educational leaders, especially those who lack a background in
developmental-stage theory or have had limited experience with John Dewey’s ideas – ideas that
should resonate with every educator with a heart and a brain. Tanner appears baffled by the departure
from the ideas of these iconic thinkers: “Even more of a mystery is the failure of the profession to
recognize, reveal, and build upon the Deweyan and Piagetian connection.”
While Tanner, past-president of the John Dewey Society, raises questions (and provides evidence)
about Piaget’s failure to acknowledge Dewey’s influence, he masterfully juxtaposes their ideas to lead
us toward a renewed understanding of their importance:
Tanner’s piece comes at a time when school leadership in America is changing. Rhode Island’s
recently appointed commissioner of education offered a narrow and concrete interpretation of
developmental-stage theory and its relationship to the learner and educational practice: This idea that
students are somehow stuck in discrete developmental stages has changed, this idea has changed in the
half century since Piaget was writing about developmental psychology. This leader’s dismissal of
fundamental principles of human development exemplifies the gap between an established science of
learning and the blind ambition of reformers operating without an empirical foundation.
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In other places dilettantes with political agendas, profit-seeking entrepreneurs, and inexperienced but
well-intentioned school officials have hijacked public education by imposing models of learning, based
not on the nature and needs of learners, but instead on Draconian and undemocratic principles and
strategies that appeal to base instincts for command and control. Examples include ‘no excuses’ charter
schools that can breed intolerant and insensitive teachers, as revealed in the recent case in New York
City’s Success Academy where a first grade teacher berated a six year old for failing to comprehend a
task and then tore up her paper in front of the other children. Teachers in such schools would benefit
from the author’s exploration of the question, “What is a child?”
Daniel Tanner’s review of Dewey and Piaget, albeit sparked with controversy, should be an inspiration
to leaders who strive to make schools places that consider the nature and needs of the child. He brings
us ‘back to the basics’ and makes a connection to ideas that must be re-examined before they are lost.
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Commentary ______________________________________________________________________
Abstract
Jean Piaget became a veritable institution unto himself in education and psychology, largely as the
result of his developmental-stage theory advanced over the second quarter of the twentieth century.
Not until Piaget was 73 did he make mention of John Dewey’s work at Dewey’s laboratory school,
founded in 1894 at the University of Chicago. But here he made no mention of Dewey’s findings on
thinking as a maturational growth process marked by distinctive sequential stages, as explicated by
Dewey (1899, 1902, 1910, 1933).This article examines the powerful and unmistakable isomorphism
between Piaget’s and Dewey’s stage theory and the mystery of why Piaget never gave recognition to
Dewey’s seminal work.
Key Words
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The Deweyan Legacy Dewey authored The School and Society. This
In his assessment of the experimentalist- was followed by The Child and the Curriculum
progressive movement in education as in 1902. In these two works, Dewey examined
orchestrated by John Dewey (1859-1952), the nature of the learner in the context of the
James B. Conant held that the movement was structure and function of the school curriculum,
inescapably an expression of the uniquely and life in and for a democratic society.
American experience. In Conant’s words, “I
had the feeling that, like the Austro-Hungarian With his focus on the school years,
Empire of the nineteenth century, if John Dewey had relatively little to say about
Dewey hadn’t existed he would have had to be infancy, although he trenchantly pointed out
invented” (1959, p. 94). that in coming to the traditional school, the
child “does not bring both his body and mind
Two years after the opening of the with him; he has to leave his mind behind,
University of Chicago in 1892, President because there is no way to use it in the school.
William Rainey Harper brought John Dewey to If he had a purely abstract mind, he could bring
Chicago to establish the Department of it to school with him, but his is a concrete one,
Pedagogy and the Department of Philosophy; interested in concrete things, and unless these
and only two years after Dewey’s arrival, the things get over into school life he cannot take
University Elementary School was opened as a his mind with him” (1899, p. 80). Dewey was
laboratory school in the Department of to elaborate extensively on the concrete stage
Pedagogy. of infancy and early childhood in How We
Think (1910, 1933).
Following a falling out with Harper,
Dewey moved to Columbia in 1903 Mind as Growth
(Dykhuizen, 1973). Although Dewey’s tenure In The School and Society, Dewey likened the
and work in the University Elementary School new findings on the nature of the learner
was short lived, he nevertheless was able to as a veritable Copernican revolution (1899, p.
develop his theory of thinking as a growth or 34). “Now we believe in the mind as a growing
sequential-maturational process expressed in affair, and hence as essentially changing,
stages of human development. presenting distinctive phases of capacity and
interest at different periods,” he hypothesized,
And whereas Piaget decades later as he went on to point to the profound
appropriately characterized his own implications for the needed curriculum
methodology with individual children as transformation:
clinical, Dewey’s observations and insights
were focused on the cognitive growth of the If once more we are in earnest
child in classroom and school-wide learning with the idea of mind as growth
situations with compeers – extending into carrying with it typical features
social, emotional and artistic expression and distinctive of its various stages, it
development. is clear that an educational
transformation is again indicated.
In 1899, from a series of lectures to It is clear that the selection and
parents and others interested in Dewey’s grading of material in the course
University of Chicago Elementary School, of study must be done with
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answer an intellectual question. But when the elemental level to the complete act of thought
power of reflective attention is realized, or reflection. Beginning in infancy, the first
intellectually speaking, the person becomes manifestation of curiosity is characterized by “a
educated with the power of self-directed vital overflow, an expression of an abundant
inquiry, personal interest and insight (pp. 145- organic energy. A physiological uneasiness
149). leads a child to get into everything – to be
reaching, poking, pounding, prying” (1910, p.
And what of the teacher? In Dewey’s 31).
words, “it is the teacher’s business to know
what powers are striving for utterance at a In this period of infancy and earliest
given period in the child’s development, and childhood, the individual learns to master the
what sorts of activity will bring them to helpful body through interactions with the physical and
expression, in order then to supply the requisite social environment. “The child has to learn to
stimuli and needed materials” (p. 130). do almost everything: to see, to hear, to creep,
to walk, and so on” (1910, p. 157). In effect, all
Fivefold Activities in Child of the child’s senses are forward-reaching and
Development out-reaching, “ceaselessly active in enlarging
Throughout all four stages, Dewey posited that the range of experience” (1910, p. 313).
the child’s drive for activity or engagement
develops in the following realms beyond Dewey then offers Wordsworth’s stanza
physical activity: (1) social activity – through as germane particularly to infancy and
conversation and interpersonal relationships, childhood (1910, p. 31):
(2) investigative activity (e.g., taking things
apart to see how they work – as distinguished The eye—it cannot choose but see;
from investigation or reflection through We cannot bid the ear be still;
hypothetical thinking for problem solving, Our bodies feel, where’er they be,
which is developed in the more matured child), Against or with our will.
(3) constructive activity – building or making
things and putting them together to make them “All our sense and motor organs are,
work, and (4) artistic activity (1899, pp. 43-62). when we are awake, acting and being acted
upon by something in the environment,”
“Life is the great thing after all, the life Dewey continued, as he went on to expand on
of the child at its time and in its measure no how this curiosity of interaction with the
less than the life of the adult,” wrote Dewey in environment grows and becomes intellectual as
pointing out that it would be strange indeed if well as instrumental (1933, pp. 36-39).
the child’s needs for a rich, expanding and
growing life should somehow conflict with As with the stages of cognitive
growth into the possibilities of later, adult life development, curiosity is manifested in the
(p. 60). infant as organic energy or an organic stage;
this stage is followed by a growing social
engagement or social stage of development, “as
From Curiosity to Reflective Thinking
the child learns that he can appeal to others”
In How We Think, published in 1910 (revised
and then when the child begins to realize “that
ed., 1933), Dewey offered teachers a
the facts which directly meet the senses are not
comprehensive explication of growth in the
the whole story, that there is more behind them
process of thinking, from the concrete or most
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and more to come from them, lies the germ of nature of the learner in and for a democratic
intellectual curiosity” (1910, p. 32). society (1916). Hence, for example, the
problem method or method of intelligence – the
From this stage, curiosity “becomes power of hypothetical thinking in action –
intellectual in the degree to which it is signals the great transformation for productive
transformed into interest in finding out for membership in a free society. In this
oneself the answers to questions that are connection, the school must be a designed
aroused by contact with persons and things” environment for the social and intellectual
(1933, p. 39). The purposeful and hypothetical transformation of the rising generation.
mode of thinking at this sequential stage is
expressed, “To the degree that a distant end In the Preface to Piaget’s The Language
controls a sequence of inquiries and and Thought of the Child, Edouard Claparede
observations and binds them together as means (1873-1940) identifies several notables whose
to an end, just to that degree does curiosity research was most influential for Piaget (1955,
assume a definitely intellectual character” p. 13; original French edition, 1923).
(1933, p. 39).
As a disciple of Claparede, Piaget
Dewey proceeded to address the succeeded Claparede as director of the Institute
significance of attitudes and appreciations in Rousseau, founded by Claparede in 1912,
this process of growth in thinking right up which became the Institute of Educational
through self-directed reflection for problem Sciences at the University of Geneva.
solving through the testing of hypotheses in the Claparede also founded the International
complete act of thought (1933, pp. 106-118). Bureau of Education which became an organ of
the United Nations with Piaget as successor to
Isomorphism: From Dewey to Piaget Paparede (Hamelme, D., 1998, pp.159-171).
It is unlikely that Dewey’s developmental stage
theory was largely unrecognized or ignored on In this Preface to Piaget’s The
the ground that Dewey’s credentials in Language and Thought of the Child, Claparede
psychology lacked standing. In fact, his also points out that Piaget was “lucky enough”
book on psychology, published in 1887 was to be initiated into psychology at a young age
hailed in many quarters as the “new when “vistas were opening out before our
psychology” for showing the emergent science” and, “for James, Flournoy and Dewey
influences of biology on psychology and other it was the dynamic and pragmatic tendency that
fields, and the essential role of experimental counted; for Freud, psycho-analysis; for
method in advancing the field of psychology Durkheim (no matter whether his doctrine was
(Dykhuizen, 1973, p.37). sound or not) the recognition of the role played
by social life in the formation of the individual
To Dewey psychology is philosophic mind; for Hall, Groos, Binet and the rest,
method (Early Works of Dewey, 1, pp. 153- genetic psychology propped up by a biological
167).Dewey, of course, was to go on to conception of the child. By a stroke of genius,
advance and orchestrate the American born M. Piaget having assimilated these new
philosophy of pragmatism or experimentalism theories, or rather having extracted the good
into an educational/social theory revealing how from each, has made them all converge on to an
the structure and function of the school interpretation of the child’s mentality” (1955,
curriculum must be in harmony with the very p. 13).
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Table I
Directness of social and personal interest and From initial egocentricity into a system of
promptness of relationship between relations that are decentralized with respect to
impressions, ideas and action; urgent and self, intellectually and socially. A gradual
immediate demand for a motor outlet. coordination of representative relations and
Transforming vague meaning of experience to thus a growing conceptualization which leads
secure practical and intellectual control of from the symbolic or pre-conceptual/prelogical
methods of activity and inquiry approaching phase to beginnings of intuitive reasoning with
social form as will enable the child to realize perceptual sensorimotor adjustments (1950,
results for himself in play, games, pictorial pp. 120-139).
imagination, conversation, and occupations
(1899, pp. 105-106).
“The earliest ‘whys’ seem more affective than
intellectual in character…. But we have yet to
Child’s incessant questioning of “What is ascertain how the child passes from that
that?” “Why?” – not for technical explanation, affective curiosity… to curiosity in general,
but for social engagement through language and finally to the more subtle forms of
and to expand acquaintance with mysteries of intellectual interest such as the search of
the environment, setting the germ for causes” (1955, p. 173).
intellectual activity (1910, p. 32).
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Mere play of activity no longer satisfies but Rules in games are the result of negotiation,
must accomplish something – leading to a compromise, agreement (1969, p. 127).
definite outcome. Hence the recognition of
rules in games and actions. A growing sense
of possible results of activities and necessity Development of organized/operational
for control of agencies for the skill necessary groupings of thought that can be manipulated
to reach the results. Command of basic skills or known through the senses in solving basic
not as mere symbolics but as tools for uses in physical problems by anticipating
the pursuit of knowledge for solution and consequences. Progressive development of
growth (1899, pp. 106-112). intuitive thought (1950, pp. 139-147).
Here we find that Piaget not only posits And, as shown in Table I, we find this
identical stages that had been formulated by expressed first by Dewey and later by Piaget,
Dewey more than a generation earlier, but that such as in relating how the child’s interactions
Piaget uses and paraphrases Dewey’s with the doll represent manifestations of the
expressions, examples and descriptions in process of transforming physical play into
explicating the progressive cognitive growth of symbolic meaning; or in how children learn to
the learner through the developmental stages. recognize the necessity of rules in the conduct
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of games (no rules, no game); or in how the meaning of experience from the pre-conceptual
child’s incessant use of “whys” is not an to conceptual control of activity in social form
expression of the need for technical through imagination and conversation, with the
explanation, but for social engagement; or in transformation of play into work and work as
how the power of hypothetical or reflective play. Here both Dewey and Piaget point out
thinking is expressed in the formulation of that at this stage the child’s incessant
systematic evidence for problem solving. questioning of “Why?” or “What is that?” is
not for intellectual explanation, but is
In building upon the seminal work of affectively motivated for social engagement
Dewey, it would seem clear that Piaget owed a through language, thereby setting the germ for
debt to Dewey. But no less important in the intellectual growth.
conduct and advance of scientific inquiry is the
obligation of attribution in connecting the At the stage of concrete operations
genesis and transformation of ideas from one (from 7-8 to 11-12 years), as shown in the
investigator to another. table, Dewey and Piaget point out that here
mere play no longer satisfies, but must
Again, as shown in Table I, Piaget’s accomplish something; hence the need for
framework marking the distinctive stages of agreed-upon rules. Activities are regarded as
cognitive development corresponds with that of consequential, and basic skills are no longer
Dewey’s, along with the sequential behavioral merely symbolic, but become tools for use in
descriptions and examples manifested by the learning.
learner at each stage.
Finally, at the stage of formal
At the sensory–motor stage (infancy to operations (late childhood through early
age 4), Dewey and Piaget provide descriptions adolescence), the power of reflective thought
and examples of the infant’s growth from pre- becomes manifested. Through hypothetical
conceptual perceptions and overflow of organic thinking, problems are tested for validity,
or physical energy to transforming the reliability and possibilities for solution and
utterance of sounds to imitation and then to application by devising appropriate means and
social and conceptual adaptation through the material resources. This development, of
learning of language. course, bears profound consequences for the
individual, the school curriculum and society.
Piaget, as with Dewey, relates how at
this stage the infant soon distinguishes persons Dewey repeatedly pointed to the
as the most important and interesting of all significance of ideas as indispensable
objects. And both Dewey and Piaget single out constituents of inference and in the formal
the significance of play and games in operations of thinking. “Without a guiding
developing perceptions, concepts and social idea, facts would be heaped up like grains of
growth – from simple symbolic play to sand; they would not be organized into
assimilation of reality and the organization and intellectual unity,” commented Dewey (1933,
connection of meanings. p. 133). Considering that the examination of
ideas tends to stimulate and hold adolescent
At the pre-operational or interest, to open possibilities for inquiry in the
representational level (ages 4-7 or 8), Dewey formulation of hypotheses, and to the uses of
and Piaget describe the transformation of vague factual knowledge as evidence, it is puzzling
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that so much teaching and testing in school critical periods of the lifespan—which, in turn
remain traditionally factual and error-oriented presents profound implications for the structure
rather than idea-oriented and problem-centered. and function of the school curriculum.
Returning to the mystery of why in his As noted earlier, Piaget never purported
writings Piaget chose not to connect his work to connect developmental-stage theory to the
with the earlier work of Dewey on needed systematic transformation of the school
developmental stage theory, we might ask: was curriculum and to the social development of the
Piaget in a race for the prize? Was he so child and adolescent. Such work was to be
imbued with his own clinical methodology that undertaken by Dewey from the time he
he sought not to give recognition to Dewey’s established his laboratory school through his
methodology of direct observation of children entire professional life.
in natural situations of the classroom, school
and playground? In Democracy and Education (1916),
Dewey held that “the school must itself be a
Then there is the mystery of why community life in all which that implies” and
Dewey’s early and powerful work on that, “Social perceptions can be developed only
maturational stage theory of cognitive in a genuinely social medium—one where there
development was so massively overlooked by is give and take in the building up of a common
the profession. This may be best explained, at experience…continuous with that out of
least partially, by the contrasting lifetime school” (p. 416). Here Dewey forged the
careers of the two men. connection between the curriculum and
cognitive and social growth for democratic
The twentieth century ushered in a living, in that democracy requires schools that
rising tide of knowledge eclosion and employ reflective thinking as method in the
specialism. Dewey was to go on to transform education of adolescents.
the uniquely American theory of pragmatism
into an experimentalist theory of education for In Democracy and Education, Dewey
democracy—what Gunnar Myrdal called “the not only devoted entire chapters titled
most perfected educational theory developed in “Education as a Social Function,” “Education
modern times” (1962, p. 883; originally as Growth,” “Thinking in Education,” and “The
published in 1944). Nature of Subject Matter,” but also chapters on
each of the broad fields of the curriculum. It is
Whereas Dewey was to become indeed puzzling that many students in the social
America’s leading philosopher, Piaget in and philosophical foundations of education
Europe concentrated his work on who are assigned to read Democracy and
developmental/cognitive psychology, and built Education fail to fully recognize the power of
an international reputation in his chosen Dewey’s curriculum connection.
specialized areas of research over his lifetime.
Over the years, the present author asked
The Curriculum Connection students who had just completed a philosophy
Developmental–stage theory informs educators of education course at Rutgers, in which John
on the nature of the learner and the conditions Dewey’s Democracy and Education was
necessary for the full growth of intelligence at required reading, to describe Dewey’s
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organizational framework for the curriculum as school before the opening of the twentieth
presented in the book. They invariably century. In a chapter titled “The Genesis of the
expressed surprise when I pointed out that the New Methods” in Science of Education and the
book contains separate chapters under such Psychology of the Child Piaget notes:
titles as “The Significance of Geography and
History,” “Science in the Course of Study,” In the United States, the reaction against the
“Intellectual and Practical Studies,” “Physical static nature of nineteenth century
and Social Studies,” and “Vocational Aspects psychology made itself apparent in two
of Education.” And it is doubtful that very ways. On the one hand the work of the
many teachers of educational philosophy pragmatists had revealed the role of action
realize that Democracy and Education was in the constitution of all mental operations,
originally published as a Macmillan textbook. and of thought in particular; on the other,
the science of mental development, of
Toward a Science of Education genetic psychology, had increased
Dewey contended that the sources of a science considerably in scope … These two trends
of education are to be determined by found their exact point of intersection in
educational problems, with educational John Dewey, who in 1896 was already
practices providing the data or subject matter creating an experimental school in which
which forms the problems for inquiry and the work of the students was centered upon
solution. Psychology and other social sciences the interests or the needs characteristic of
may be drawn upon, but the sources of the each age group (1970, p. 147; originally
problems must stem from educational practices published in French in 1969).
which are also the ultimate test of the validity
and value of the research findings. Of course, Dewey’s findings from work
in his laboratory school were far greater than
As for philosophy, its value as a source being centered on the interests and needs of
is determined only by the extent to which it students (Dewey, 1899, 1902; Mayhew &
provides working hypotheses of comprehensive Edwards, 1936; Tanner and Tanner, 1990;
application. To which Dewey added, “But if a Tanner, L., 1997).
philosophy starts to reason out its conclusions
without definite and constant regard to the It is clear that Piaget was well aware of
concrete experiences that define the problems Dewey’s research at the University of Chicago
of thought, it becomes speculative in a way that Elementary School. And although Piaget
justifies contempt” (1929, p.56). reviewed here the value of his own
developmental-stage theory to education
Dewey’s conviction that educational science, he made no mention of Dewey in this
practices provide the problems for investigation connection (1970, pp. 170-173), but went on to
and solution, and consequently are the sources discuss briefly the early experiments by Dewey
for the building of a science of education in his experimental school whereby the
(1929, pp.35-36) find expression and validation children were allotted an essential place in the
in the work he conducted in his laboratory social life with compeers in the classroom and
school at the University of Chicago. school by learning to collaborate in intellectual
activity as well as establishing self-governing
In 1969, Piaget offered some belated moral discipline (p. 174).
recognition of Dewey’s work in his laboratory
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At the outset, Piaget made note that which occur as they are occupied
over the period from 1935 to 1965, advances with their environment” (1916, p. 83). As
were made by “great writers” in most of the Dewey continued with regard to Herbartian
natural and social sciences, but no great theory,
pedagogue had emerged (1970, p. 9). He
proceeded to dismiss Dewey in this connection The theory represents the Schoolmaster
on the ground that Dewey was a philosopher, come to his own. The philosophy is
but nevertheless cited Dewey with Durkheim as eloquent about the duty of the teacher in
founders of a sociology of education as a instructing pupils; it is almost silent
discipline through the systematic study of the regarding his privilege in learning. It
school and classroom (p. 19), and listed Dewey emphasizes the influence of intellectual
among the great names in psychology (p. 145). environment upon the mind; it slurs
over the fact that the environment
Clearly, Piaget revealed that he was involves a personal sharing in common
well aware of Dewey’s orchestral contributions experience. It exaggerates beyond
to education and social thought, and more reason the possibilities of consciously
specifically to psychology. And he did credit formulated and used methods, and
the theorists of the new school with developing understates the role of vital,
the school curriculum “in forms assimilable to unconscious attitudes…. It takes, in
children of different ages in accordance with brief, everything educational into
their mental structure and the various stages of account save its essence…. (1916, pp.
their development” (p. 153). 83-84).
Returning to Piaget’s contention that no For Dewey, the essentials of method are
great pedagogue had emerged over the historic embodied in the complete act of thought or
period from 1935 to 1965, he apparently failed method of intelligence. Hence the teaching-
to recognize that the term pedagogy, came to be learning process becomes truly educational and
discarded by experimentalist-progressive not merely instructional. In Democracy and
educators for reducing education methods to Education (1916), Dewey orchestrated his
mechanical procedures and devices that thoughts on democratic theory and education
reciprocally treat subject matter as fixed bodies into his experimentalist philosophy based on
of ready-made content to be reproduced by rote the idea of progress for the individual and
for the recitation and examination (Dewey, society.
1933, p. 81). For Dewey, education is the
process of “reconstruction of experience which In his summing up of the modern
adds to the meaning of experience and which developments in psychology and pedagogy,
increases ability to direct the course of Piaget pointed out, as did Dewey decades
subsequent experience” (1916, pp. 89-90). before him, that as the child progresses to the
stage of hypothetico-deductorial operations,
The great deficiency of pedagogical “the child becomes capable both of combining
theory since the time of Herbart, continued those hypotheses and of verifying them
Dewey, “lies in ignoring the existence in a experimentally, then it goes without saying that
living being of active and specific functions our schools owe it to themselves to develop and
which are developed in the redirection and to direct such capacities in order to use them in
combination
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the development of the experimental attitude of to which we might add, a necessary phase in
mind and of methods of teaching” (1970, pp. development. “The traditional school reduced
52-53). all socialization whether intellectual or moral,
to a mechanism of constraint,” observed Piaget,
What is Childhood? whereas cooperation and collaboration are most
Piaget goes on to ask, “What is childhood then? apt to encourage real exchange of thought and
And how are we to adjust our educational discussion, which is to say, all the forms of
technique to beings at once so like and yet so behavior capable of developing the critical
unlike us?” (p. 153). He refers to the view of attitude of mind, objectivity, and discursive
childhood by the theorists of the new school led reflection” (p. 180).
by Dewey and fellow experimentalists.
Perhaps the best expression of “what is
In Piaget’s words: “Childhood, for the childhood” and the development of children’s
theorists of the new school is not a necessary thinking may be found in the following
evil; it is a biologically useful phase whose interchange as recorded by a mother of five
significance is that of a progressive adaptation children upon standing on the edge of a large
to a physical and social environment” (p. 153), urban construction site:
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Vol. 13, No. 1 Spring 2016 AASA Journal of Scholarship and Practice
21
the stage where he no longer the student to construct a correct answer in his
wonders about anything, merely own words, such as defining a problem or
demonstrates that he has lost the art formulating one or more hypotheses for solving
of reflective reasoning (1949, pp. 92- a given problem.
93).
The latter represents emergent learning
This loss in wonderment with maturity to the extent that it engages the learner in
is not necessarily inevitable. With every new reformulating and applying knowledge for
discovery or insight one’s world picture is solving a heretofore unseen problem situation,
expanded, deepened and enriched, thereby as opposed to simple recall or reproduction of
advancing the wondrous in the structure of the information. In the first instance, the answer is
world picture (p. 93). prefabricated for the student; in the second
instance, the answer is constructed by the
The Darwinian Influence: What student. The former may be answered correctly
by simple recall; the latter evokes evidence of
Would Darwin Think?
critical thinking.
Both Dewey and Piaget were profoundly
influenced by Darwin (Dewey, 1910, p. 127;
In contemporary times it is a strange
Boring, 1950, pp. 272-278; Piaget, 1950, p.
state of affairs that the worth of the learner, the
12). From Darwin to Dewey to Piaget, human
teacher and the school is measured by student
development was seen as encompassing three
scores on external, high-stakes, computer-
inexorably interdependent growth processes:
scored, multiple choice, standardized tests
physical, social and cognitive. For Dewey, the
focused on established-convergent learning to
rising generation requires the power of problem
the neglect of emergent learning.
solving in coping with a precarious and
changing environment. Consequently,
Considering that the power of
education should be the means of learning to
hypothetical thinking is the exalted stage of
think, and hypothetical thinking opens the door
evolution of the human mind, one is left to
to problem solutions and progress for the
ponder what Charles Darwin would think of the
individual and society.
multiple-choice test as the measure of mind.
And whereas teaching-to-the test was long
For Dewey, this meant that the school
considered to be cheating, it is now regarded as
curriculum must engage the learner in growth
a pedagogical best practice.
in the capability of dealing with the emergent
problems of life through the method of
intelligence (1933, 1938). But the curriculum Adolescence and Reflective Thinking
of the traditional school was focused During the era of progressive education in the
principally on established-convergent learning United States, experimentalist educators
regularities as opposed to emergent learning embarked on large-scale and intensive research
. studies and efforts in reconstructing the high-
The exemplar of established-convergent school curriculum so as to connect the
learning is the multiple-choice test which curriculum with the emerging potential power
requires the student to select the correct pre- of reflective intelligence or hypothetical
constructed answer from the other (incorrect) thinking in adolescence (Aikin, 1942; French &
pre-fabricated answers. In contrast is the short- Associates, 1957).
answer test item or short essay item which asks
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Vol. 13, No. 1 Spring 2016 AASA Journal of Scholarship and Practice
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“Adolescence is not a synonym for whereas the high-stakes tests of today are
magic,” observed Dewey (1933), but “affords designed largely as measures of efficiency in
an opportunity for thinking of a more knowledge transmission, subject-by-subject,
comprehensive and abstract type,” to which he with rankings and ratings of students, teachers
added: “Only by making the most of the and schools.
thought factor already active in the experiences
of childhood, is there any promise or warrant Why Reforms Often Fail
for the emergence of superior reflective power From the work of Dewey and Piaget, we should
at adolescence or at any later time period” (p. know that any reform in education is destined
89). for failure if it neglects or violates the nature
and needs of the learner.
In effect, the school, by means of the
curriculum, must constitute a designed Consequently, it is indeed puzzling that
environment and experience for the growth of no less a figure in cognitive psychology than
the powers of reflective thinking with the stage Jerome Bruner, responding to what he referred
of adolescence. The transformation will not to as “a long-range crisis in national security,”
happen magically or spontaneously. brought on by the Cold War and space race
(1960, p. 1) would declare that “intellectual
In the United States during the activity anywhere is the same, whether at the
progressive era and extending through mid- frontier of knowledge or in a third-grade
twentieth century, extraordinary efforts were classroom,” and that, “The schoolboy learning
undertaken to create instruments for measuring physics is a physicist, and it is easier for him to
growth in critical or hypothetical thinking in learn physics behaving like a physicist than
evaluating outcomes of the new problem- doing something else” (p. 14).
focused curricula of the high school (Smith &
Tyler, 1942; French & Associates, 1957). Bruner’s reconceptualization of the
Similar efforts followed in higher education nature of the learner apparently was made
around mid-twentieth century (Dressel & opportunistically to fit the federally financed
Mayhew, 1954). national discipline-centered curriculum reforms
in science and mathematics led by university
The findings clearly revealed that the scholar-specialists who had no interest in or
new curricula were yielding significant gains in concern for the nature of the learner, nor for the
critical thinking and problem-solving socio-civic democratizing function of the
capabilities on the part of adolescents (Aikin, curriculum.
1942). The tests or evaluative instruments
were determined by the curriculum, whereas Bruner’s pronouncement was made
the current nationalizing syndrome of high- through his position as chair and author of the
stakes testing in the United States puts the cart report of a national conference of university
before the horse by having the tests determine scholars and leaders convened in an air of
the curriculum. national emergency.
and stressed the need to connect the curriculum The school life of the learner and the
to the problems of our society and educational structure of the curriculum must be attuned to
opportunity including vocation (1971). the kind of society the people believe in.
Democracy requires an enlightened citizenry,
The current nationalistic foray for and this in turn requires that the rising
school reform in the United States, “Race to the generation commands the powers of reflective
Top,” also gives priority to the sciences and thinking, as individuals and as citizens.
mathematics.
According to Dewey, the fundamental
But whereas in the earlier reform factors in the education process are (1) the
movement, the public schools were to blame learner as a developing being, (2) the
for the alleged American lag in the space race, curriculum as a functioning and developing
the current crisis and national school-reform structure of knowledge and know-how
movement, Race to the Top, holds the public (methodology) for teaching and growth in
schools to blame for the alleged decline of learning, and (3) society as an emerging
America’s hegemonic dominance over the environment for constantly expanding lifelong
global economic marketplace. learning (Dewey, 1902, p.4).
And this time the cure is to be driven by In short, any education reform will fail
external high-stakes testing. As in the school- if the curriculum conflicts with the nature and
reform movement of the space race, Race to the needs of the learner. And any education reform
Top is fueled by international comparisons on will fail if it is not attuned to the democratic
achievement tests with no corrections made for prospect and if it conflicts with life in a free
the incommensurate pupil populations, nation society. The three fundamental factors must be
by nation. seen and treated in interdependence and not in
conflict if the problems of education are to be
From developmental-stage theory, solved and progress is to be made (pp. 4-5).
educators should know that to assess a child’s And, for both the individual and society,
or adolescent’s growth in achievement by progress is far better than reform. Reform has
results principally on external, standardized, an end. Progress has no end beyond itself.
high-stakes, multiple-choice tests only raises
points of conflict with the nature and needs of The Child, The Teacher and The
the learner and the structure and function of the
Curriculum
curriculum.
The conceptual framework for developmental
stage theory constructed by Dewey from his
Learning activities that children love
observations of children in his laboratory
and that develop the “mind’s eye” such as the
school during the short period of 1896 to 1904
studio arts (the visual arts and music) and shop
marked the opening of a new era—the Century
classes, once ubiquitous in the elementary
of the Child.
school, have been cut back vastly for purposes
of economy and priority favoring traditional
No longer was the child to be construed
academics in the cause of American economic-
as an unformed being on a waiting
industrial hegemony in the global marketplace.
list toward adult maturity. Now the case was
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Vol. 13, No. 1 Spring 2016 AASA Journal of Scholarship and Practice
24
the child authentically as “Child” who engages cannot set the destiny of the child; nor can she
his present capacities, attitudes and powers in know how those capacities, attitudes and
the experience of learning as a process of powers will be realized through the school
growth. The teacher knows full well that she curriculum.
In Dewey’s words:
From Dewey and Piaget we learn that the work of the child is never done. It is always in the
making.
Author Biography
Daniel Tanner is professor emeritus in the Rutgers University Graduate School of Education in New
Brunswick, NJ where he established and directed the doctoral programme in curriculum studies. He is
the author of 14 books and co-author of History of the School Curriculum. His articles have appeared
in The Atlantic Monthly, New York Times, Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, Educational Research
and other leading professional journals. Tanner is a former president of the John Dewey Society and
recipient of the Lifetime Achievement Award of the curriculum studies division of the American
Educational Research Association He has lectured at leading universities in the United States and
throughout the world. E-mail: dantan@rci.rutgers.edu
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Vol. 13, No. 1 Spring 2016 AASA Journal of Scholarship and Practice
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References
Aikin, W. M. (1942). The story of the Eight-Year Study. New York: Harper.
Boring, E. G., ed. (1950). The influence of evolutionary theory upon American psychological thought.
In S. Persons. Evolutionary Thought in America (Ch. 7).New Haven, CT: Yale University
Press.
Brandes, F. S. (1963). “Child thought.” Letters column. The New York Times, May 26, p. 11.
Bruner, J. S. (1960). The process of education. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Bruner, J. S. (1971). The process of education revisited. Phi Delta Kappan.53, 18-31.
Claparede, E. (1955). Preface in Piaget, J. The language and thought of the child. New York, NY:
World Publishing.
Claparede, E. (1967). Introduction to John Dewey. The school and the child, 7th ed., originally
published 1915.
Conant, J. B. (1959). The child, the parent, and the state. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Dewey, J. (1969). The early works.(Vol.1, 1882-1898). Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois University
Press.
Dewey, J. (1899). The school and society. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Dewey, J. (1902). The child and the curriculum. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Dykhuizen, G. (1973). The life and mind of John Dewey. Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois
Press.
Evans, R. I. (1973). Jean Piaget: The man and his ideas. New York, NY: E.P. Dutton.
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Vol. 13, No. 1 Spring 2016 AASA Journal of Scholarship and Practice
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French, W. & Associates. (1957). Behavioral goals of general education in high school. New York:
Russell Sage Foundation.
Hamelme, D. (1998). “Edouard Claparede (1870-1940)”. Prospects. Paris, France: UNESCO 23(1/2),
159-171.
Mayhew, K. C. & Edwards, A. C. (1936).The Dewey school. New York, NY: Appleton Century.
Piaget, J. (1926). The language and thought of the child. New York: Harcourt.
Piaget, J. (1928). Judgment and reasoning in the child. New York: Harcourt.
Piaget, J. (1929). The child’s conception of the world. New York: Harcourt.
Piaget, J. (1930). The child’s conception of physical causality. New York: Harcourt.
Piaget, J. (1950). The psychology of intelligence. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
Piaget, J. (1954). The construction of reality in the child. New York: Basic Books.
Piaget, J. & Inhelder, B. (1969). The psychology of the child. New York: Basic Books.
Piaget, J. (1970). Science of education and the psychology of the child. New York: Orion Press.
Piatelli-Palmarini, M., ed. (1980). Language and learning: The debate between Jean Piaget and Noam
Chomsky. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Planck, M. (1949). Scientific autobiography and other papers. New York: Philosophical Library.
Smith, E. R. & Tyler, R. W. (1942). Appraising and recording student progress. New York: Harcourt.
Tanner, L. N. (1997). Dewey’s laboratory school. New York: Teachers College Press.
Tanner, D. & Tanner, L. (1990). The history of the school curriculum. New York: McMillan.
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Abstract
This paper was prepared as a response to:
1. A national trend towards lessening the requirements to become a public school
superintendent and hiring non-traditional superintendents. State and national approaches to alternative
licensure for public school superintendents are reviewed, including the lessening or abolition of
standards. This is of concern to those aware of the need for highly qualified school leaders.
2. A national trend linking effective practices of school district leaders to improvements in
student achievement. Well-prepared superintendents have been tied to high student achievement. A
key part of this response involved pairing Educational Leadership Constituent Council’s (ELCC)
“District Level Standards,” with five key responsibilities Tim Waters and Robert Marzano (2006)
fulfilled by superintendents who positively impacted student test scores (p. 11-13). Profiles from the
Wallace Foundation, national groups, and district level studies are cited to establish a foundation
regarding the impact of highly trained on student success.
Key Words
school superintendent training, student achievement, impacting student achievement
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Vol. 13, No. 1 Spring 2016 AASA Journal of Scholarship and Practice
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The chairman left the group with a had developed alternative routes to licensure
challenge and a promise. First, he challenged (Kowalski, 2013).
us to “build support around what it takes to be a
successful superintendent.” Second, he What does it take to be a successful
cautioned us to be able to respond to the superintendent, and why is advanced,
question: Why not allow boards to make a specialized degree work a necessary part of
choice between alternative or traditionally preparing our superintendents and central office
trained candidates? Finally, if there is a need leaders? As noted by Allan Odden and
for highly trained superintendents, “get the Lawrence Picus (2014), “The goal is to have
right people to push that point as a perceived teachers use data to inform their instructional
need.” practice, identify students who need
interventions, and improve student
The chairman made a commitment to performance" (p.115).
the group: Get good information to me, and I’ll
get it out there. Two members of the majority In order to assist teachers in becoming
party of the state’s General Assembly had proficient, the leader of a school district must
agreed to author and carry a bill to again be well trained in instructional practices,
require certification above a master's degree for interventions, tracking student learning,
a superintendent’s licensure and eligibility for establishing procedures to deal with problems
appointment. Now came the challenge to get when noted, and providing enriched learning
good information. opportunities for students identified as
proficient.
I chose to develop my response to the
chairman in terms of how a highly qualified Research connecting the superintendent
and professionally trained superintendent, to improving student achievement has been
according to a preponderance of research, is the strong, thanks to studies commissioned by the
point person in improving student learning and Wallace Foundation (Louis, Leithwood,
performance. As I continually stress to my Wahlstrom & Anderson, 2010), and a definitive
graduate students working toward study in 2006 by Robert Marzano and Tim
administrative licensure, “If what you are doing Waters. The book Leaders of Learning: How
does not add to the improvement of student District, School, and Classroom Leaders
learning, why are you doing it?” Improve Student Achievement states it this way,
“Leadership from the central office matters—
Literature Review both in terms of raising student achievement
The following review of literature surrounding and in terms of creating the conditions for adult
this topic suggests that the need for highly learning that lead to higher levels of
trained educators, successful in completing achievement” (DuFour & Marzano, 2011, p.
advanced licensure programs, may never have 46).
been greater than it is today. At the same time,
national trends show licensing requirements for The challenge remains how to best
superintendents are actually declining. By make sure those filling positions as
2011, nine states had no licensure requirement superintendents are prepared to maximize such
for superintendents, while 22 states had potential impact once in the position.
developed waivers for licensure and 18 states
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Vol. 13, No. 1 Spring 2016 AASA Journal of Scholarship and Practice
36
County, Florida, are all endeavoring to utilize developing a focus on the instructional
the central office as a support system for core [which is] “the intersection of
developing instructional leadership in their content, the teacher and the student”
building level administrative staff (2014). A (Kaufman, Grimm & Doty, 2014, p.
study of 12 high achieving school districts in 21),
California (Murphy and Hallinger, 1988) paired expanding the definition of data to
district effectiveness with a superintendent’s include student work and instructional
ability to actively provide leadership in practices, and
curriculum and instruction. continuously monitor progress.
that Works: The Effect of Superintendent The National Policy Board documents
Leadership on Student Achievement, is quoted the research support for the ELCC District
frequently by researchers exploring Level Standards for Educational
superintendents' impact on student Administration (NPBEA). In the organization's
achievement. 2011 examination of the ELCC “District Level
Standards,” each standard discussed is followed
Their research found that the computed by a review of relevant literature under the
correlation between district leadership and section Research Support for ELCC Standard.
student achievement was .24. Based upon this Throughout the document, ELCC standards are
figure, consider the case of a superintendent at supported by the research of many experts, the
the 50th percentile in terms of leadership 2006 research on school district leadership
abilities who leads a district where average done by Waters, Marzano, and McNulty.
student achievement is also at the 50th
percentile. "Now, assume that the The Council of Chief State School
superintendent improves his or her leadership Officers (CCSSO) also noted the relationship
abilities by one standard deviation … we would between the ELCC/ISLLC Standards and the
predict that average student achievement in the 2006 Waters and Marzano research concerning
district would rise to the 59.5th percentile" (p. the link between specific school district
10). leadership practices and student performance.
assumption embedded within the 2011 ELCC already asserted that, due to a wealth of
leadership standards is that “improving student information about school and school district
achievement is the central responsibility of leaders available at that time, national discourse
district leadership” (p. 5). had advanced from whether leadership makes a
difference for students to how to prepare “high-
The ELCC 2011 standards for leaders quality leaders” to assume roles that can,
of school districts are research based and were indeed, contribute to raising student
updated from the earlier Interstate School achievement. To get there, the report states
Leaders Licensure Consortium (ISLLC) that:
standards using current research and
documentation from scholarly resources One of the clearest lessons from this
regarding district leadership preparation for research is that the states that are using
those training to lead school districts through leadership standards are on the right track.
transitional times (Young and Mawhinney, p. According to an extensive review of the
1). research literature, funded by the Wallace
Foundation, goal-and vision-setting
According to the research driving the articulated in the standards are areas in
ELCC Standards, “district-level standards are which education leaders have the most
meant to be used for advanced programs at the impact. (Council of Chief State School
master, specialist, or doctoral level that prepare Officers, 2008, p. 3)
assistant superintendents, superintendents,
curriculum directors, and supervisors and/or How clearly are the ELCC standards
other programs that prepare educational leaders based upon research? One way to test this is to
for a school compare them to the highly acclaimed research
district environment” (Young and Mawhinney, of Waters and Marzano. To demonstrate which
2012, p.42). of Waters' and Marzano's key responsibilities
are explored in each of the ELCC program
The earlier 2008 Educational standards, I created Table 1.
Leadership Policy Standards: ISLLC 2008, had
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35
Table 1
Alignment Between ELLC and Five Key Responsibilities for Superintendents Noted by Waters and
Marzano (2006)
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36
instructional district
program; 4. developing and
supervising the instructional
and leadership capacity
across the district; and 5.
promoting the most
effective and appropriate
technologies to support
teaching and learning
within the district.
Standard 3.0:
5. promotes the success of
every student by ensuring
the management of the
district’s organization,
operation, and resources
through 1. monitoring and
evaluating district
management and
operational systems;
efficiently using human,
fiscal, and technological Standard 3 - Standard 3 – Standard 3 –
resources within the
Category1 Category 2 Category 5
district; promoting district-
level policies and
procedures that protect the
welfare and safety of
students and staff across
the district; developing
district capacity for
distributed leadership; and
2. ensuring that district
time focuses on high-quality
instruction and student
learning
ELCC Standard 4.0:
A district-level education
leader 4. applies knowledge
that promotes the success
of every student by
collaborating with faculty
and community members,
responding to diverse Standard 4 – Standard 4 –
community interests and Category 4 Category 5
needs, and 5. mobilizing
community resources for
the district by collecting and
analyzing information
pertinent to improvement
of the district’s educational
environment; promoting an
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37
understanding,
appreciation, and use of the
community’s diverse
cultural, social, and
intellectual resources
throughout the district;
building and sustaining
positive district
relationships with families
and caregivers; and
cultivating productive
district relationships with
community partners.
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38
above. Standard 7 relates only to district level Marzano Responsibilities 2, 4, and 5. Standard
internships for students of educational 3 incorporates three of these key
leadership and is not directly applicable to responsibilities.
Waters and Marzano's responsibilities,
although internship experiences I have Conclusions
mentored as both a superintendent and a A businessperson with an MBA might be very
university mentorship supervisor have required capable of handling the finances of a school
interaction with all five responsibilities. corporation, but he or she may not know how
to invest the resources in education to get the
The linkage noted in Table 1 identify highest learning results from his funds. CEO’s
key responsibilities supported by the ELCC may have an understanding of high performing
Standards. Those sections within the first six organizations, but are they aware of how to link
ELCC Standards that can be linked to the instructional practices to student achievement?
corresponding “Responsibilities” noted above A teacher with a master's degree in education
have been underlined on Table 1 for ease of might well understand how to enhance
identification. Notice the intersect between education reform but not how to negotiate and
these two powerful national impacts on maintain a legal teachers' contract. Highly
superintendent preparation. Crucial trained, certified superintendents have a well-
responsibilities identified by Waters and rounded education that will prepare them for all
Marzano in 2006 can be supported by the aspects of leading a school corporation.
ELCC Standards, as presented in Table 1 noted
by Waters and Marzano (2006). The numbered Advanced degree programs for
sections within the ELCC Standards correspond superintendents aligned through the ELCC
with the number associated with the key network incorporate priorities that support what
responsibilities across the top of the page. noted research has shown to be the five most
important characteristics of highly successful
Table 1 examines the overlap of ELCC superintendents.
Standards 1-6 with the 2006 Waters and
Marzano research linking specific school Highly successful superintendents not
district leadership practices and student only efficiently manage resources, they must be
performance. For example, Responsibility 1 highly effective in directing resources into such
identified by Waters and Marzano (p. 7) areas as instructional coaching and sharing
include "The goal-setting process,” which opportunities to constantly improve the
aligns on the chart with the underlined ELCC delivery of daily instruction across a wide
Standard 1 comments: “facilitating the range of ages and abilities so all students can
development, articulation, implementation, and achieve at higher levels of academic
stewardship of a shared district vision of performance.
learning through the collection and use of data
to identify district goals, assess organizational Patrons, including board members
effectiveness, and implement district plans to charged with the responsibility of school
achieve district goals; evaluation of district district governance and policy-making, often
progress and revision of district plans have knowledge of and possibly even day-to-
supported by district stakeholders.” It was day neighborhood visibility of their local
interesting to note that ELCC Standard 2 (p. school. When in school, many of these patrons
10) requires skills noted under Waters and only had personal contact with the
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Author Biography
John Ellis is an assistant professor at Ball State University’s Department of Educational Leadership in
Muncie, IN. After serving twenty years as a superintendent, he served eight years as executive director
of the Indiana Association of Public School Superintendents prior to joining the Ball State in 2012.
His research focuses on leadership and policy. E-mail: jgellis@bsu.edu
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References
Canole, M. & Young, M. (2013). Standards for educational leaders: An analysis. Washington, D. C.:
Council of Chief State School Officers. Retrieved from
http://www.ccsso.org/Documents/Analysis%20of%20Leadership%20Standards-Final-070913-
RGB.pdf
Council of Chief State School Officers. (2008). Educational leadership policy standards: ISLLC
20008. Washington, D. C.: Council of Chief State School Officers.
Council of Chief State School Officers State Consortium on Education Leadership. (2010). SCEL
toolkit for SEAS to increase district leadership capacity. Washington, D. C.: Council of Chief
State School Officers. Retrieved from
http://www.ccsso.org/Documents/2010/SCEL_Draft_Toolkit_2010.pdf
DuFour, R., & Marzano, R. J. (2011). Leaders of learning: How district, school, and classroom
leaders improve student achievement. Bloomington, IN: Solution Tree Press.
Enfield, S., & Spicciati, A. (2014). Reculturing the central office: How Washington’s Highline
District is transforming central administration’s role in supporting its 39 schools to improve
instruction. The School Administrator, 71(4), 27-30.
Fink, S. & Silverman, M. (2014). Principals as instructional leaders. The School Administrator, 71(4),
23-26.
Honig, M. I., Copland, M. A., Rainey, L. Lorton, J. A. & Newton, M. (2010). Central office
transformation for district-wide teaching and learning improvement. Seattle, WA: Center for
the Study of Teaching and Policy at the University of Washington. Retrieved from
http://www.wallacefoundation.org/knowledge-center/school-leadership/district-policy-and-
practice/Documents/Central-Office-Transformation-District-Wide-Teaching-and-Learning.pdf
Indiana Department of Education. (2012). Rules for educator preparation and accountability: Change
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Abstract
The purpose of this study is to determine the impact of collective bargaining on teacher pay
satisfaction and offer knowledge of the factors contributing to the pay satisfaction of public elementary
school teachers. The study focuses on how human capital, occupational characteristics, and job related
characteristics impact the pay satisfaction of teachers. The results of our regression analysis suggest
that teachers represented by a labor union have higher levels of pay satisfaction than teachers who are
not (b=.32, p=.02, p < 0.05). This study’s unique contribution is that we focus not only on the public
K-12 school industry, but also we examine the relationship between the presence of collective
bargaining and teacher pay satisfaction in school districts across two states.
Key Words
labor unions, pay satisfaction, collective bargaining, decision modeling, teacher pay
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Bryson et al. studied the effect of union Similar to the results of the Currall et al.
membership on job satisfaction and satisfaction (2005) study, Gomez-Mejia and Balkin (1984)
with pay. This study found union members found that unions were positively related to pay
reported lower satisfaction levels than non- satisfaction.
union members. When comparing pay
satisfaction to other forms of job facets, union Theoretical Framework
members’ levels of dissatisfaction with their This study is based on the framework
job were not statistically significant for pay. established by Freeman and Medoff’s (1979)
Collective Voice/Exit theory. Bryson, et al.,
However, there is also evidence (2004) to interpret their findings concerning
indicating unionization has a strong positive higher pay satisfaction in collective bargaining
effect on pay satisfaction (Evans & Ondrack, environments, used this theory.
1990; Nelson, Stone, Frye, & Chown, 2008).
Evans and Ondrack (1990) found this According to the theory, employee’s
relationship in a blue collar setting. Similarly, dissatisfaction can be reduced when they have a
Currall, Towler, Judge, and Kohn (2005) found voice in the organizational decision making
that satisfaction with unions was positively process. Voice refers to the communication
related to pay satisfaction; however, their study used by employees in an effort to receive their
was limited because they did not compare desired work conditions. In the collective
unionized school districts to nonunionized bargaining environment, unions are typically
school districts. the vocal representatives of the employees.
Given that Nelson, Stone, Frye, and In addition, the reduction of satisfaction
Chown’s (2008) review of the literature found is theorized to decrease turnover. Similarly, in
mixed results for the effects of union our study, we posit that collective bargaining
membership on pay satisfaction, this suggests results in higher pay satisfaction, which in turn
that we do not have a complete understanding has been found to be related to lower turnover
of the topic and that much work is still needed. intentions (Tran, 2015) and those intentions
have been found to predict actual turnover (Lee
Review of the literature found mixed & Mowday, 1978).
results for the effects of union membership on
pay satisfaction; this suggests that we do not
Significance and Purpose
have a complete understanding of the topic and
The purpose of this study is to contribute to the
that much work is still needed.
body of literature concerning the potential
impacts of the presence of collective bargaining
Gomez-Mejia and Balkin (1984)
on teacher pay satisfaction. This study differs
examined the relationship between the presence
from prior studies in that we not only focus on
and absence of university faculty union
the public K-12 school industry, but we explore
membership and their pay satisfaction.
the relationship between the presence of
collective bargaining and teacher pay
The study consisted of faculty members
satisfaction in multiple school districts across
listed as either liberal arts or business
two states. Thus, the following research
administration at a unionized university system
question guided the present study:
(Minnesota) and a nonunionized university
system (Wisconsin).
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Does the presence of collective bargaining data, we found that while Ohio’s overall
influence pay satisfaction of elementary population is larger than South Carolina (e.g.,
school teachers? OH- 11.5 million; SC- 4.7 million), which
translates into a larger number of teachers (OH-
In the following section, the survey method 80,705; SC- 53,328), the percentage of the total
used to answer this research question is population that are teachers for both states are
presented. similar (OH- .07%; SC -1%; ODE, 2013; SC,
2013).
Methodology
The population of interest for this study is all The two states were also comparable in
traditional (non-charter) elementary public per capita income (OH- $25,857; SC- $23,906),
school teachers (grades K-5) in the states of high school graduation rates (OH- 88.2%; SC-
Ohio and South Carolina. Data from the Ohio 84%), unemployment rates (OH- 6.2%; SC-
Department of Education (ODE) and the South 6.8%) and geographic size (OH- 40,860 mi2;
Carolina Department of Education (SCDE) SC- 30,060 mi2) (U.S. Census Bureau, 2013).
were used to define a population of teachers High comparability between the states on
from public non-charter schools and obtain factors other than the presence of collective
school district salary schedules for each bargaining provides further confidence that
participant. MCH Strategic Data (MCH), a differences in outcomes between the states are
sales and marketing company, provided contact likely contributable to their decision making
information for all of the teachers. model.
contractual work days, g) region adjusted base In this study, highest degree is defined
salary, h) supplementary income, i) loan debt, by the aforementioned degree categories, and
j) district student teacher ratio, k) officer of a they were each dummy coded, with bachelor’s
professional organization, and l) district per degree serving as the reference in our analysis.
pupil expenditure, based on research that
suggests their potential influence on pay Experience based on the number of
satisfaction (Castetter and Young, 2000; Klein years serving as a teacher is another
& Maher, 1966; Lawler, 1971; Penzer, 1969; determinant of teacher pay in public school
Tang &Tang, 2012; Tran & Young, 2013; systems. Tang and Tang (2012) found that
Young, 1999). years of experience produced higher levels of
pay satisfaction when studying educators.
To illustrate the importance of some of
these variables, we provide a rationale for their In addition, the fixed based teacher
inclusion. Specifically, researchers identified salary schedule provided by the school district
the following as relevant human capital provides teachers step increases in pay as
endowments that may potentially influence pay determined by each year of service. Teachers
satisfaction: a) education level (Klein & are provided incremental increases in pay each
Maher, 1966; Penzer, 1969) and b) Years of year until they reach the maximum
Experience (Tang and Tang, 2012). compensable number of years of service
allowed by the school district for their
As it relates to the relationship between particular educational level.
education and pay satisfaction, Klein and
Maher (1966) found that higher education level In our study, teaching experience is
produced higher levels of pay dissatisfaction defined as the reported number of years the
after accounting for actual pay, and they posit respondents served as teachers.
that this was due to individuals with higher
levels of education having elevated perceptions Occupational characteristics may also
of self-worth and therefore may feel less impact pay satisfaction. These features are
positively about their pay. typically found within the employee contract
and provide details pertaining to their pay.
In addition, teacher education level in Important occupational characteristic that were
school systems is often used as a determinant accounted for in this study are: a) contractual
of teacher pay in public school systems. School work days and b) annual base salary.
district fixed salary schedules offer increases in
teacher pay status by attaining higher education Teachers are typically contracted for
levels. 180 days in Ohio (ODE), 190 days in South
Carolina (SCDE), and teaching position with
Because of the highly qualified teacher longer contracts are paid more. In addition,
requirements of NCLB (2001), certified salaries of teachers with labor union
teachers salary education requirements memberships have been found to be higher than
generally begin with a bachelor’s degree, and salaries of teachers with no labor union
pay increases occur at the master’s, master’s + membership (Bryson, Cappellari, & Lucifora,
30 credit hours, and doctorate levels (education 2004; Evans & Ondrack, 1990; Gomez-Mejia
requirements differ in certain school districts). & Balkin, 1984; Nelson et al., 2008) and
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research has identified that changes in pay level comparable cost index for the previous four
significantly predicts how satisfied individuals years (i.e., 2013, 2012, 2011, 2010). Near
are with their income (Berkowitz, Fraser, perfect correlations between the four
Treasure, & Cochran, 1987). comparable cost indexes (r>.99, p<.0001)
provides further evidence that the four year
However, past findings have suggested average was an appropriate substitute for the
that relative pay (e.g., teacher’s pay relative to 2014 CWI as the variation in wage pressure
their peers) may be more important than between districts remained mostly consistent
absolute dollar amount when it comes to how across time.
individuals feel about their pay (Baker,
Punswick & Belt, 2010). In addition to the aforementioned
variables, we also accounted for teacher’s racial
Indeed, past research has found that background (coded as white or not white), age,
educator’s pay satisfaction are influenced by whether the teacher worked in a professional
the pay of relevant others (Young, Young, organization, and district average student
Okhremtchouk, & Castaneda, 2009; Tran, teacher ratios.
2015). Consequently, we control for relative
pay by dividing teacher’s reported salary by Student teacher ratios were incorporated
their regional comparable wage index (CWI) because Adams’s Equity theory (1963) would
(Taylor, 2006). The CWI takes into suggest that pay satisfaction is influenced by
consideration the fact that different regions the balance of employee’s input and outcome
exert different amount of financial pressure for (e.g., pay) and larger class sizes may serve as
salary levels. For instance, an area with a high increased input (more work).
cost of living or a lack of amenities may require
higher absolute salary levels to attract Most of our respondents operated in
employees and accounting for this allows environments that did not have collective
absolute dollar amounts to be adjusted for bargaining (65.92%), held Master’s degrees
appropriate comparisons across regions. (41.34%) and were white (88.83%) and female
(62.57%). Further descriptive statistics for the
Because the 2014 CWI has not been sample used in our analysis (i.e., those with
made available at the time of our analysis, we complete data) are provided in Table 1.
estimated the 2014 CWI with the average
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Table 1
Std.
Variable Mean Min Max
Dev.
Pay
2.41 0.69 0.5 4.36842
Satisfaction
Teaching
13.15 9.53 0 42
Experience
Contractual
304.12 1415.13 80 190.56
Workdays
Region
Adjusted 36,409.4 10,228.2 28,69.22 64,979.8
Base Salary
District
Student 20.46 3.31 4.4 26.8
Teacher
Ratio
District Per
Pupil 97,47.61 17,00.04 7,765.86 20,669.3
Expenditure
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The items are rated on a five-point, To further address the issue of missing
Likert-type scale ranging from Very data and the lack of balance of respondents
Dissatisfied to Very Satisfied. Higher ratings on between states, we conducted a regression
the scale signify more positive reactions to a analysis using a Maximum Likelihood (ML)
particular facet in the form of satisfaction, estimation process.
while, lower ratings signify a more negative
response to the particular facet in the form of Furthermore, we compared this model
dissatisfaction. to a hierarchical linear model that takes into
account groupings based on districts and state.
This study used the PSQ because it is According to the results of the likelihood-ratio
one of the main surveys for measuring the test, χ2 (df=2) =.63, p=0. 73, groupings were
constructs of pay satisfaction and has been not needed.
found to have high levels of reliability and
validity (Judge & Welbourne, 1994; Lievens, We then compared the ML estimated
Anseel, Harris & Eisenberg, 2007; Mulvey, model (without nesting) to an ordinary least
Miceli & Near, 1991). squares (OLS) model with robust standard
errors clustered at the district level. Standard
In terms of reliability, Fields (2002) errors were clustered by district to account for
reviewed the psychometric properties of potential correlation in errors between districts
numerous administrations of the PSQ and (e.g., district specific pay practices that may
reported that the coefficient alpha for the influence the pay satisfaction of teachers).
composite measure of pay satisfaction varied
from .77 to .88. Similarly, we conducted an There was no practical difference
internal reliability assessment for the PSQ with between the results of the two models (i.e.,
our sample and found support of its reliability coefficients were of course identical, and p-
(α=.93). values did not substantively differ).
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Table 2
Regression Results for the Determinants of Pay Satisfaction Under Collective Bargaining
Variables b
Collective Bargaining 0.320*
a
(2.37)
Teaching Experience -0.021
(1.81)
Master’s degree -0.135
(1.15)
Master’s + 30 degree 0.012
(0.09)
Doctorate degree -0.105
(0.32)
Male -0.009
(0.10)
Nonwhite -0.110
(0.54)
Age -0.005
(0.62)
Contractual Workdays -0.000
(0.11)
Region Adjusted Base salary 0.000*
(2.12)
Supplementary Income 0.001
(0.01)
Loan Debt Amount -0.000
(0.58)
District Student Teacher Ratio -0.015
(1.13)
Officer at Professional Org -0.225
(1.15)
District Per Pupil Expenditure 0.000
(1.70)
Constant 2.071**
(3.76)
R2 0.22
N 179
a
Robust standard errors (clustered at the district level) appear in parentheses.
* p<0.05;
** p<0.01
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Author Biographies
Henry Tran is an assistant professor at the University of South Carolina who studies education human
resources (HR) and finance. He is a nationally certified HR professional and sits on the board of
advisors for the National Education Finance Conference. E-mail: tranhe@mailbox.sc.edu
I. Phillip Young is a professor and at the University of South Carolina’s Department of Educational
Leadership and Policies. His research interests are human resource issues in the public school setting.
E-mail: ipyoung@mailbox.sc.edu
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Bryson, A., Cappellari, L., & Lucifora, C. (2004). Does union membership really reduce job
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Economics 111(3), 671-718.
Currall, S. C., Towler, A. J., Judge, T. A., & Kohn, L. (2005). Pay satisfaction and organizational
outcomes. Personnel Psychology, 58(3), 613-640.
Deconinck, J. B., Stilwell, C. D., & Brock, B. A. (1996). A construct validity analysis of scores on
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Gomez-Mejia, L. R., & Balkin, D. B. (1984). Faculty satisfaction with pay and other job dimensions
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Book Review__________________________________________________________________
Local control is one of the traditional virtues Moreover, as guardians of the wellbeing
of American public education credited for of students in their schools, they may be
delivering the prosperity the nation has enjoyed compelled to take actions to fend off outside
for decades (Goldin, 2008). However this policies that may hurt their students.
virtue has been eroded gradually over the years. Furthermore, as a member of the education
profession, they need to actively contribute to
Today local education decisions are the development of healthy policies at the state
directly affected by policies and policy and national levels.
recommendations from the outside—at the
state, national, and sometimes even These complex tasks require education
international level. leaders to have a clear understanding of
policies and more importantly the politics and
As a result, education leaders live in a evidence behind them. Unfortunately, to have a
much more complex policy environment than clear understanding is not easy - not only are
ever before. They not only have to work with many of the policy issues complex in nature but
the local community but also must interpret and also because of the politics in policy making.
implement policies made beyond their control,
which may or may not be consistent with the Influenced by different interest groups,
culture and traditions of their local education policies in the U.S. are often the
communities. results of political comprises supported with
__________________________________________________________________________________
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53
selective uses of evidence, biased randomized trials like medical research. Thus,
interpretations of data, and wide spread myths results of educational research, especially those
(Hacsi, 2002); (Berliner, 1996); (Berliner, pertaining to large policy issues, are often
2014); (Ravitch, 2013); (Ravitch, 2010). As susceptible to reasonable doubts and deliberate
such, education policies and their associated manipulation.
politics and evidence are as complicated and
confusing as the U.S. tax laws. Consequently, educational policies have
often been made based not on evidence,
Education Policy Perils: Tackling the however limited it may be, but more on
Tough Issues, co-edited by Chris Tienken and ideology. The politically powerful are able to
Carol Mullen, offers excellent insights into influence the development of policies that favor
some of the toughest issues in education with their ideology and market them as necessary for
provocative but practical recommendations for the benefit of all children. Such is the case of
education leaders to navigate the complex and major education policies in the United States
complicated policy landscape. over the past few decades.
Each of the seven chapters in the book, The ideology of narrowing and defining
authored by accomplished researchers, is education outcomes as standardized test scores,
devoted to one significant and relevant issue in privatization and marketization of public
education: school choice and competition, education, and curriculum standardization as
corporate influence in public education, education equity has dominated major policies
English language learners and social justice at the national and state levels.
leadership, curriculum standardization and
customization, international assessment and The authors of this book collectively
comparison, state level politics and curriculum challenge the dominant ideology and policies.
policy, and standardized testing. Christopher Lubienski and P. S. Myers
question the wisdom of choice and competition
While these are not the only significant in education in their chapter The Rhetoric and
issues in education, they have been some of the Reality of School Reform: Choice, Competition,
major forces shaping the policy landscape in and Organizational Incentives in Market-
the United States. Oriented Education. Carol Mullen challenges
the proliferation of corporate networks in
These issues are tough because there are public education in her chapter Corporate
no easy and straightforward solutions that meet Networks and Their Grip on the Public School
the needs and expectations of all stakeholders. Sector and Education Policy.
They are tough also because there is no agreed
upon definition of the outcomes of education. Mariela A. Rodríguez criticizes the
As a result, empirical evidence collected to traditional “subtractive programs” for
support or reject certain proposed solutions can immigrant children with limited English
always be subject to questioning and proficiency in her chapter Leading in a Socially
reinterpretations based on ideology. Just Manner: Preparing Principals with a
Policy Perspective. Tom Tramaglini and
Furthermore, educational research has Christopher H. Tienken contest the one-size-
long suffered from methodological constraints fits call curriculum for all children, especially
in that it is not always possible to conduct truly for students in high poverty schools in their
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Reviewer Biography
Yong Zhao currently serves as the Presidential Chair and Director of the Institute for Global and Online
Education in the College of Education at the University of Oregon in Eugene. He is also a professor in
the department of educational measurement, policy and leadership at the university. Further, Zhao is a
professorial fellow at Victoria University’s Mitchell Institute for Health and Education Policy in
Australia. His work focuses on the implication of globalization and technology on education. He is the
author of World Class Learners: Educating Creative and Entrepreneurial Students; Catching Up or
Leading the Way: American Education in the Age of Globalization; and Who’s Afraid of the Big Bad
Dragon: Why China Has the Best (and Worst) Education in the World.
E-mail: yongzhao.uo@gmail.com
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References
Berliner, D. C., & Biddle, B. J. (1996). The manufactured crisis: Myths, fraud, and the attack on
America's public schools. New York: Persues Books.
Berliner, D. C., & Glass, G. V. (2014). 50 myths & lies that threaten America's public schools: The real
crisis in education. New York: Teachers College Press.
Goldin, C., & Katz, L. F. (2008). The race between education and technology. Cambridge, MA:
Harvard University Press.
Hacsi, T. A. (2002). Children as pawns: The politics of educational reform. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard
University Press.
Ravitch, D. (2010). The death and fife of the great American school system: How testing and choice are
undermining education. New York: Basic Books.
Ravitch, D. (2013). Reign of error: The hoax of the privatization Mmovement and the danger to
America's public schools. New York: Knopf.
Education Policy Perils: Tackling the Tough Issues is written by Christopher H. Tienken and Carol A.
Mullen, New York, NY: Routledge Press, 2015; 212 pages, paperback, $41.95.
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Mission and Scope, Copyright, Privacy, Ethics, Upcoming Themes, Author Guidelines,
Submissions, Publication Rates & Publication Timeline
The AASA Journal of Scholarship and Practice is a refereed, blind-reviewed, quarterly journal with a
focus on research and evidence-based practice that advance the profession of education administration.
The scope for submissions focus on the intersection of five factors of school and district administration:
(a) administrators, (b) teachers, (c) students, (d) subject matter, and (e) settings. The Journal encourages
submissions that focus on the intersection of factors a-e. The Journal discourages submissions that
focus only on personal reflections and opinions.
Copyright
Articles published by AASA, The School Superintendents Association (AASA) in the AASA Journal of
Scholarship and Practice fall under the Creative Commons Attribution-Non-Commercial-NoDerivs 3.0
license policy (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/). Please refer to the policy for rules
about republishing, distribution, etc. In most cases our readers can copy, post, and distribute articles
that appear in the AASA Journal of Scholarship and Practice, but the works must be attributed to the
author(s) and the AASA Journal of Scholarship and Practice. Works can only be distributed for non-
commercial/non-monetary purposes. Alteration to the appearance or content of any articles used is not
allowed. Readers who are unsure whether their intended uses might violate the policy should get
permission from the author or the editor of the AASA Journal of Scholarship and Practice.
Authors please note: By submitting a manuscript the author/s acknowledge that the submitted
manuscript is not under review by any other publisher or society, and the manuscript represents original
work completed by the authors and not previously published as per professional ethics based on APA
guidelines, most recent edition. By submitting a manuscript, authors agree to transfer without charge
the following rights to AASA, its publications, and especially the AASA Journal of Scholarship and
Practice upon acceptance of the manuscript. The AASA Journal of Scholarship and Practice is indexed
by several services and is also a member of the Directory of Open Access Journals. This means there is
worldwide access to all content. Authors must agree to first worldwide serial publication rights and the
right for the AASA Journal of Scholarship and Practice and AASA to grant permissions for use of
works as the editors judge appropriate for the redistribution, repackaging, and/or marketing of all works
and any metadata associated with the works in professional indexing and reference services. Any
revenues received by AASA and the AASA Journal of Scholarship and Practice from redistribution are
used to support the continued marketing, publication, and distribution of articles.
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Privacy
The names and e-mail addresses entered in this journal site will be used exclusively for the stated
purposes of this journal and will not be made available for any other purpose or to any other party.
Please note that the journal is available, via the Internet at no cost, to audiences around the world.
Authors’ names and e-mail addresses are posted for each article. Authors who agree to have their
manuscripts published in the AASA Journal of Scholarship and Practice agree to have their names and
e-mail addresses posted on their articles for public viewing.
Ethics
The AASA Journal of Scholarship and Practice uses a double-blind peer-review process to maintain
scientific integrity of its published materials. Peer-reviewed articles are one hallmark of the scientific
method and the AASA Journal of Scholarship and Practice believes in the importance of maintaining
the integrity of the scientific process in order to bring high quality literature to the education leadership
community. We expect our authors to follow the same ethical guidelines. We refer readers to the latest
edition of the APA Style Guide to review the ethical expectations for publication in a scholarly journal.
Submissions
Length of manuscripts should be as follows: Research and evidence-based practice articles between
2,800 and 4,800 words; commentaries between 1,600 and 3,800 words; book and media reviews
between 400 and 800 words. Articles, commentaries, book and media reviews, citations and references
are to follow the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, latest edition.
Permission to use previously copyrighted materials is the responsibility of the author, not the AASA
Journal of Scholarship and Practice.
Potential contributors should include in a cover sheet that contains (a) the title of the article, (b)
contributor’s name, (c) terminal degree, (d) academic rank, (e) department and affiliation (for inclusion
on the title page and in the author note), (f) address, (g) telephone and fax numbers, and (h) e-mail
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address. Authors must also provide a 120-word abstract that conforms to APA style and a 40-word
biographical sketch. The contributor must indicate whether the submission is to be considered original
research, evidence-based practice article, commentary, or book or media review. The type of
submission must be indicated on the cover sheet in order to be considered. Articles are to be submitted
to the editor by e-mail as an electronic attachment in Microsoft Word.
Acceptance Rates
The AASA Journal of Scholarship and Practice maintains of record of acceptance rates for each of the
quarterly issues published annually. The percentage of acceptance rates since 2010 is as follows:
2011: 16%
2012: 22%
2013: 15%
2014: 20%
2015: 22%
Publication Timeline
Additional Information
Contributors will be notified of editorial board decisions within eight weeks of receipt of papers at the
editorial office. Articles to be returned must be accompanied by a postage-paid, self-addressed
envelope.
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The AASA Journal of Scholarship and Practice reserves the right to make minor editorial changes
without seeking approval from contributors.
Materials published in the AASA Journal of Scholarship and Practice do not constitute endorsement of
the content or conclusions presented.
The Journal is listed in Cabell’s Directory of Publishing Opportunities. Articles are also archived in the
ERIC collection.
Editor
Kenneth Mitchell, EdD
AASA Journal of Scholarship and Practice
Submit articles electronically: kenneth.mitchell@mville.edu
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AASA Resources
Learn about AASA’s books program where new titles and special discounts are available to
AASA members. The AASA publications catalog may be downloaded at
www.aasa.org/books.aspx.
Join AASA and discover a number of resources reserved exclusively for members. Visit
www.aasa.org/Join.aspx. Questions? Contact C.J. Reid at creid@aasa.org.
2016 Orange Frog Workshop, Shawn Achor, May 10-11, 2016, Raleigh, NC
2016 AASA Advocacy Conference, July 12-14, Marriott Metro Center, Washington, DC
2017 National Conference, March 2-4, 2017, New Orleans, LA, Ernest N. Morial
Convention Center
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Vol. 13, No. 3 Spring 2016 AASA Journal of Scholarship and Practice