Programa

1. Introdução aos circuitos eléctricos

2. Grafos e circuitos resistivos lineares
3. Circuitos dinâmicos lineares
– Condensadores e bobinas
– Circuitos de 1ª e 2ª ordem
– Resposta a excitações escalão
– Introdução do Modelo de Estado
4. Regime forçado sinusoidal
5. Análise no domínio da frequência complexa
6. Circuitos resistivos não-lineares
1
 FIRST AND SECOND-ORDER
TRANSIENT CIRCUITS

In circuits with inductors and capacitors voltages and currents

CANNOT CHANGE INSTANTANEOUSLY.
Even the application, or removal, of constant sources creates a
TRANSIENT BEHAVIOR.

LEARNING GOALS

FIRST ORDER CIRCUITS

Circuits that contain a single energy storing elements.
Either a capacitor or an inductor

SECOND ORDER CIRCUITS

Circuits with two energy storing elements in any combination

2
 ANALYSIS OF LINEAR CIRCUITS WITH INDUCTORS AND/OR CAPACITORS
The conventional analysis using mathematical models requires the determination
of (a set of) equations that represent the circuit.
Once the model is obtained analysis requires the solution of the equations for
the cases required.
For example in node or loop analysis of resistive circuits one represents the
circuit by a set of algebraic equations

THE MODEL
Gv=i

When there are inductors or capacitors the models become linear ordinary
differential equations (ODEs). Hence, in general, one needs all those tools
in order to be able to analyze circuits with energy storing elements.

A method based on Thevenin will be developed to derive mathematical models

for any arbitrary linear circuit with one energy storing element.

The general approach can be simplified in some special cases when the form of
the solution can be known beforehand.
The analysis in these cases becomes a simple matter of determining some
parameters.
Two such cases will be discussed in detail for the case of constant sources.
One that assumes the availability of the differential equation and a second
that is entirely based on elementary circuit analysis… But it is normally
longer. 3
We will also discuss the performance of linear circuits to other simple inputs
INTRODUÇÃO

1. Comutador posicionado à esquerda: 2. Muda para a direita: o cond.

o condensador recebe carga da bateria. descarrega pela resist.

4
INTRODUÇÃO

Rs ic + vc = Vs
dvc
Rs C + vc = Vs
dt 5
RESPOSTA GENÉRICA: Circuitos de primeira ordem
Including the initial conditions t t0 t x
1
the model for the capacitor eτ x (t ) − e τ x (t0 ) = ∫ e τ fTH ( x )dx
t0 τ
voltage or the inductor current −
t
will be shown to be of the form τ
dividir por e
dx
(t ) + ax (t ) = f (t ); x (0+) = x0 −
t −t0 t
−
t−x
1
∫e
dt
x(t ) = e τ
x(t0 ) + τ
fTH ( x)dx
dx τ
τ + x = fTH ; x (0+) = x0 t0

dt This expression allows the computation

of the response for any forcing function.
Solving the differential equation we will concentrate in the special case
using integrating factors, one when the RIGHT HAND SIDE IS CONSTANT
tries to convert the LHS into an
exact derivative τ is called the " time constant."
t
dx 1 it will be shown to provide significant
τ + x = fTH multiplicar por e τ
dt τ information on the reaction speed of the
t t t circuit
dx 1 τ 1
eτ + e x = e τ fTH
dt τ τ The initial time, t o , is arbitrary. The
general expression can be used to
d ⎛ τ ⎞ 1 τ
t t t
⎜ e x ⎟ = e fTH aplicar ∫ study sequential switchings . 6
dt ⎜⎝ ⎟ τ
⎠ t0
RESPOSTA GENÉRICA: Circuitos de primeira ordem

dx −
t −t0
⎛ t t
⎞ −
t 0

τ + x = fTH ; x (0+ ) = x0 x(t ) = e τ

x(t0 ) + fTH e τ ⎜ eτ − e τ ⎟
dt ⎝ ⎠
t −t0 t−x t −t0
− t −
x(t ) = fTH + ( x(t0 ) − fTH )e
τ 1 τ −
x (t ) = e x (t0 ) + ∫ e fTH ( x )dx τ
τ t0

t ≥ t0
If the RHS is constant, i.e. fTH=const
t −t 0 t t−x
− fTH − The form of the solution is
x(t ) = e τ
x(t0 ) +
τ ∫ e τ
dx
−
t −t0 TIME
x(t ) = K1 + K 2e ; t ≥ t0
t0 τ CONSTANT
t −t 0 t t x
− fTH −
x(t ) = e τ
x(t0 ) +
τ
e τ
∫ dx
e
t0
τ
TRANSIENT

t Any variable in the circuit is of

−
t −t 0
fTH ⎛ ⎞ −
t x

x(t ) = e τ
x(t0 ) + e τ ⎜τe τ ⎟ the same form t −t
−
τ
0

⎝ ⎠t 0 y (t ) = K1 + K 2e τ
; t ≥ t0
Only the values of the constants 7
K_1, K_2 will change
 EVOLUTION OF THE TRANSIENT AND INTERPRETATION OF
THE TIME CONSTANT

Tangent reaches x-axis in one time constant

With less than 2% error

Drops 0.632 of initial transient is zero
value in one time constant beyond this point

A QUALITATIVE VIEW:
THE SMALLER THE THE TIME
CONSTANT THE FASTER THE
TRANSIENT DISAPPEARS

8
THE TIME CONSTANT
The following example illustrates t
For practical purposes
− the capacitor is
the physical meaning of time t e τ charged when the
constant τ transient is negligible
0.368
Charging a capacitor 2τ 0.135 With less than 1%
3τ 0.0498 error the transient
vC − v S RS a KCL@a : 4τ 0.0183 is negligible after
RS + dv v − v S five time constants
C c+ C =0 5τ 0.0067
vS + dt RS
C v
− c
_ The model
dvC
dv b
C C RTH C + vC = vTH
dt dt
τ = RTH C

Assuming a discharged capacitor and

a constant source:
vC (0) = 0, vS = VS
the solution is
−
t τ = RTH C
vC (t ) = V S − V S e τ
transient 9

t
 CIRCUITS WITH ONE ENERGY STORING ELEMENT
Simplified approach
CONDITIONS
1. The circuit has only constant independent sources
2. The differential equation for the variable of interest
is simple to obtain. Normally using basic analysis tools;
e.g., KCL, KVL. . . or Thévenin
3. The initial condition for the differential equation
is known, or can be obtained using steady state analysis

FACT : WHEN ALL INDEPENDEN T SOURCES ARE CONSTANT

FOR ANY VARIA BLE, y ( t ) , IN THE CIRCUIT THE
SOLUTION IS OF THE FORM
( t − tO )
−
y (t ) = K1 + K 2e τ
, t > tO

Solution strategy: use the differential equation and the

initial conditions to find the parameters K1 , K 2 ,τ
10
 CIRCUITS WITH ONE ENERGY STORING ELEMENT
Simplified approach

If the diff. eq (ODE) for y

is known in the form Use the initial condition to get
one more equation
⎧ dy
⎪a1 + a0 y = f We can use this y (0 + ) = K 1 + K 2
⎨ dt info to find
⎪⎩ y (0+ ) = y0 the unknowns Eq3 (K2) K 2 = y (0+ ) − K1

Use the ODE to find 2 equations

by replacing the form of Summary:
y(t) into the ODE a1 f
t t τ= , K1 = , K 2 = y ( 0 + ) − K1
− dy K2 −τ a0 a0
τ
y ( t ) = K1 + K 2 e , t > 0 ⇒ =− e
dt τ
⎛ K2 − t ⎞ ⎛ −
t
⎞ shortcut: writing the ODE
a1 ⎜ − e τ ⎟ + a0 ⎜ K1 + K 2 e τ ⎟= f in a normalized form with
⎜ τ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ coef. of y = 1

f a1 dy f
Eq1 (K1)
a K
0 1 = f ⇒ K 1 = +y=
a 0 a0 dt a0
Eq2 (τ )
t
⎛ a1 ⎞ − a 11
⎜ − + a0 ⎟ K 2 e τ = 0 ⇒ τ = 1
⎝ τ ⎠ a0 τ K1
LEARNING EXAMPLE FIND v ( t ), t > 0. ASSUME v (0) = VS
t
−
2 x ( t ) = K1 + K 2 e τ ,t > 0
Ex1
K1 = x (∞); K1 + K 2 =t x (0+ )
−
ANSWER : v ( t ) = VS − (VS / 2)e RC , t > 0

Step 2 steady state analysis

t
−
SOLUTION IS v (t ) = K1 + K 2e τ , t >0
for τ > 0 and t → ∞, v(t) → K1 (steady state value)
MODEL FOR t > 0. USE KCL @ v (t ) in steady state the solution is
a constant. hence its derivative
v (t ) − V S dv
+C (t ) = 0 */ R is zero. from diff eq.
R dt
initial condition v (0) = VS / 2 dv
= 0 ⇒ v = VS Steady state value
dt from diff. eq.
(diff. eq. known,
initial condition known) ∴ (equating steady state values)
K1 = V S
Step 1 time constant dy
dy IF THE MODEL IS τ + y = f THEN K1 = f
τ +y= f dt
dt Step 3 use of initial condition
dv
RC ( t ) + v (t ) = Vs AT t = 0
dt
v ( 0 ) = K 1 + K 2 ⇒ K 2 = v ( 0) − K 1
12
Get time constant as K 2 = v ( 0) − f
coefficient of derivative v (0) = VS / 2 ⇒ K 2 = −VS / 2
 FIND i ( t ), t > 0 −
t
LEARNING EXAMPLE x ( t ) = K1 + K 2 e τ ,t > 0
Ex2 + vR − K1 = x (∞); K1 + K 2 = x (0+ )

KVL +
vL
i (t )
− i (t )

MODEL. USE KVL FOR t > 0 INITIAL CONDITION

di t < 0 ⇒ i (0−) = 0 ⎫
VS = v R + v L = Ri (t ) + L (t ) ⎬i ( 0 + ) = 0
dt inductor ⇒ i (0−) = i (0+ )⎭

L di V L
STEP 1 (t ) + i (t ) = S τ=
R dt R R
STEP 2 STEADY STATE i (∞) = K = VS
1
R
STEP 3 INITIAL CONDITION ⎛ −
t
⎞
VS ⎜ L ⎟
i ( 0 + ) = K1 + K 2 ANS : i (t ) = ⎜ 1− e R ⎟ 13
R⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎠
 LEARNING BY DOING
Ex3

v (t )

v (t )
MODEL. KCL FOR t > 0 IS =
+ i (t )
R
di
v ( t ) = L (t ) ⇒ I = L di (t ) + i (t )
dt S
R dt
INITIAL CONDITION : i (0+ ) = 0

L
STEP 1 τ =
R
STEP 2 i (∞) = I S ⇒ K1 = I S ⎛ −
t
⎞
⎜ L ⎟
STEP 3 i ( 0 + ) = 0 = K1 + K 2 ANS : i (t ) = I S ⎜1 − e R ⎟
⎜ ⎟ 14
⎝ ⎠
 t
Ex4 −
i ( t ) = K1 + K 2 e τ ,t > 0

INITIAL CONDITIONS

CIRCUIT IN STEADY STATE FOR t < 0

MODEL FOR t > 0

3k
vC ( 0 − ) = (12) = 4V ⇒ v (0+ ) = 4V
3k + 6k
v (t )
i (t ) =
R2 STEP 1
τ = RP C = (2 × 103 Ω)(100 × 10−6 F ) = 0.2 s
STEP 2 v (∞) = K1 = 0
It is simpler to determine
model for capacitor voltage STEP 3 v (0+ ) = K1 + K 2 = 4V ⇒ K 2 = 4V
v (t ) dv v (t ) −
t
+ C (t ) + = 0; RP = R1 || R2 v ( t ) = 4e 0.2 [V ], t >0
R1 dt R2
RP = 3k || 6k = 2kΩ t
dv v (t ) 4 − 0.2 15
C (t ) + =0 ANS : i ( t ) = e [ mA], t > 0
dt RP 3
 t
LEARNING EXAMPLE −
x ( t ) = K1 + K 2 e τ ,t > 0
Ex5 FIND vO (t ), t > 0
K1 = x (∞); K1 + K 2 = x (0+ )
t
−
vO ( t ) = K1 + K 2 e τ ,t > 0
i(t)
Step 2: find k1 using steady state
analysis
KVL(t>0)
dvO
0.5 (t ) + vO (t ) = 6 ⇒ vO (∞) = 6V
dt
vO ( ∞ ) = K1
∴ K1 = 6V

The next step requires the initial

value of the variable, vO (0+)
MODEL FOR t > 0. USE KVL
di
− VS1 + R1i ( t ) + L ( t ) + R3i ( t ) = 0 For the initial condition one needs
dt the inductor current for t<0 and
di
2 (t ) + 4i (t ) = 12 vO (t ) = 2i ( t )[V ] uses the continuity of the inductor
dt current during the switching .
di
0.5 (t ) + i ( t ) = 3[ A] The steady state assumption for t<0
dt simplifies the analysis
dv 16
0.5 O (t ) + vO ( t ) = 6V τ = 0.5 STEP 1
dt
 CIRCUIT IN STEADY STATE (t<0)
a
i L (t ) RTH = 2 || 2 = 1Ω
I1
t <0 − 12 + 4 I1 − 4 = 0
I1 = 4[ A]
KVL
KVL VTH = VOC = 2 I1 − 4 = 4[V ]

b 4
i L (0−) = i (0+ ) = [ A]
3
MUST FIND i L (t ) 4 8
i (0+ ) = ⇒ vO (0+ ) = [V ]
FOR EXAMPLE USE THEVENIN 3 3
ASSUMING INDUCTOR IN STEADY 8 10
K1 + K 2 = = 6 − K 2 ⇒ K 2 =
STATE 3 3
t
− t
vO ( t ) = K1 + K 2 e τ ,t > 0 10 − 0.5
5 −
t vO (t ) = 6 − e [V ], t > 0
i ( t ) = 3 − e 0.5 , t > 0 3
3 17
 t
−
LEARNING EXTENSION FIND vO (t ), t > 0 vC ( t ) = K1 + K 2 e τ ,t > 0
Ex6 K1 = vC (∞); K1 + K 2 = i1 (0+ )

R1
R2
C

MODEL FOR t > 0. USE KCL DETERMINE vc (t )

dv vC dv 2 1
C C (t ) + = 0 ⇒ ( R1 + R2 )C C (t ) + vc = 0 vO (t ) = v C ( t ) = vC ( t )
dt R1 + R2 dt 2+4 3
STEP 1 τ = ( R1 + R2 )C = (6 × 103 Ω)(100 × 10 −6 F ) = 0.6 s 8 −
t
vO (t ) = e 0.6 [V ], t > 0
−
t 3
STEP 2
vC ( t ) = K1 + K 2 e τ , t > 0 K1 = 0

INITIAL CONDITIONS. CIRCUIT IN STEADY STATE t<0 STEP 3

vC (0+ ) = 8 = K1 + K 2 ⇒ K 2 = 8[V ]
+ −
t
6 vC (t ) = 8e >0
vC (0−) = (12)V
0.6 [V ], t
9
− 18
 t
LEARNING EXTENSION FIND i1 ( t ), t > 0 −
τ
i1 ( t ) = K1 + K 2e ,t > 0
Ex7
K1 = i1 (∞); K1 + K 2 = i1 (0+ )
CIRCUIT IN STEADY STATE
i1 ( t ) PRIOR TO SWITCHING

i1 (0−)

+
vL
L
−

MODEL FOR t > 0. USE KVL

di 1 di1 12V
L 1 + 18i1 (t ) = 0 ⇒ (t ) + i1 (t ) = 0 i1 (0−) = = 1A
dt 9 dt 12Ω
1
STEP 1 τ = s
9 STEP 3
STEP 2 K1 = 0 i1 (0−) = i1 (0+ ) = K1 + K 2 ⇒ K 2 = 1[ A]
t
−
FOR INITIAL CONDITIONS ONE NEEDS 1
INDUCTOR CURRENT FOR t<0 ANS : i1(t ) = e 9 [ A] = e −9 t [ A], t > 0 19
 USING THEVENIN TO OBTAIN MODELS
Obtain the voltage across the capacitor
or the current through the inductor

a
Circuit RTH a
with Inductor
resistances or Inductor
and Capacitor VTH +
sources or
Thevenin − Capacitor
b

Representation of an arbitrary b
circuit with one storage element
RTH a RTH a
KCL@ node a Use KVL
ic
+
ic + iR = 0 + vR − +
vR + vL = vTH
+ iR +
VTH
−
C vc dvC VTH L
vL vR = RTH iL
ic = C
_ −
iL diL
dt − vL = L
b
vC − vTH b dt
Case 1.1 iR = Case 1.2
Voltage across capacitor RTH Current through inductor diL
L + RTH iL = vTH
dvC vC − vTH dt
C + =0
dvC dt RTH ⎛ L ⎞ diL vTH
⎜ ⎟
20
RTH C + vC = vTH ⎜ R ⎟ dt + i L = = iSC
dt ⎝ TH ⎠ RTH
 EXAMPLE Thevenin for t>0
at inductor terminals
Ex8 Find iO (t); t > 0
a
6Ω 6Ω
iO (t )
6Ω 6Ω 6Ω
6Ω
3H + b
+ 24V − 6Ω
t =0 6Ω t >0
24V −

vTH = 0 RTH = 6 + (6 || (6 + 6))

The variable of interest is the L 3H
inductor current. The model is τ= = = 0 .3 s
RTH 10Ω
L diO vTH
+ iO = diO
RTH dt RTH 0.3 + iO = 0 ; t > 0
dt
And the solution is of the form
⎛ K 2 − 0t.3 ⎞ −
t

−
t 0.3⎜ − e ⎟ + K1 + K 2 e = 0
0.3

iO (t ) = K1 + K 2e τ ; t > 0 ⎝ 0.3 ⎠
t
−
K1 = 0 ⇒ iO (t ) = K 2e 0.3
;t >0 21

Next: Initial Condition

Determine iO ( 0 + ). Use steady state
assumption and continuity of
6i1 + 6(i1 − i3 ) + 6(i1 − i2 ) = 0 Loop analysis
inductor current − 24 + 6(i2 − i1 ) + 6(i2 − i3 ) = 0 iC (0+ ) = i3
Circuit for t<0 6(i3 − i1 ) + 6(i3 − i2 ) = 0
v1 v1 v1 − 24
+ + = 0 ⇒ v1 = 8 Node analysis
iO (t )
6Ω 6Ω 6 6 6
6Ω 32
solution : iC (0 +) = mA
3H 6
+
24V − 6Ω
t <0

Since K1=0 the solution is

iO (0−) = iO (0+)
t
i1 −
6Ω 6Ω iO (t ) = K 2e 0 .3
;t >0
6Ω v1 32
i3 Evaluating at 0+ K 2 =
6
+ i2 iO (0+ ) =
24 v1
+
24V − 6Ω 6 6 32 −
t
t <0 iO (t ) = e 0.3 ; t >0
6 22
 EXAMPLE Find iO (t), t > 0
Ex9
6k 100μ F 6k
RTH = 6k || 6k = 3k
iO (t ) + vC − τ = 3 *103 Ω *100 *10 −6 F = 0.3s
12V +
6k
-
6k t =0
Model for v C
vC
For t > 0 iO = dvC
6k 0 .3 + vC = 6
Hence, if the capacitor voltage dt −
t

is known the problem is solved vC = K 1 + K 2 e 0.3

Model for v_c ⎛ K2 − t ⎞ −

t
1.5⎜ − e 1.5 ⎟ + K1 + K 2e 0.3 = 6
dvC ⎜ 1.5 ⎟
RTH C + vC = vTH ⎝ ⎠
dt K1 = 6
6k a b 6k
+ vTH − Now we need to determine
iO (t ) the initial value v_c(0+)
12V + using continuity and the
-
6k t >0 6k
steady state assumption 23
 circuit in steady state
before the switching
6k 6k
+ vC (0−) −
iO (t )
12V +
6k
-
6k t <0

vC (0−) = 6V
Continuity of capacitor voltage

vC (0+ ) = 6V
K1 + K 2 = vC (0+ )
K1 = 6 ⇒ K 2 = 0
vC (t ) = 6V ; t > 0 ⇒
vC
iO (t ) = = 1mA ; t > 0
6k 24
 Notas
1. A solução homogénea (ou natural) tem forma exponencial
2. A constante de tempo τ (tau) caracteriza a velocidade de
resposta de um circuito e pode ser obtida por inspecção da
equação diferencial
3. A resposta total considerando fontes constantes contém parte
forçada+ parte natural e tem a forma
x(t)=K1+K2.e-(t-t0)/τ
4. Formas expeditas para a resposta considerando t=0 e t →∞
vC(t) = vC (∞) + (vC (0+)-vC (∞)) .e-(t-t0)/τ
iL(c) = iL (∞) + (iL (0+)-iL (∞)) .e-(t-t0)/τ

25