c S





S 

Ú Native American History - Native Americans and the Europeans The Native Americans of the east
coast met the new 16th and 17th century visitors from Europe with enthusiasm. They regarded
these bearded white men as strange but were delighted with the steel knives, mirrors, copper
kettles, and other intriguing novelties. The indigenous tribes were more than accommodating and
hospitable. Without their aid, the first waves of settlers would not have survived in the land they
knew little about.

Ú But in time the Europeans disregarded all respect for the valued land and resources and instead
displayed insatiable greed and arrogance. The Europeans soon pursued their intent to conquer this
new continent with brutal attacks and invasion. The Native Americans soon realized that the
invaders would arrive in overwhelming numbers, as many ³as the stars in heaven.´ Initially, the
people of this land tried to co-exist with the Europeans. But many more problems arose. With all
their intriguing gadgets, the white men brought deadly diseases to the Native Americans.

Ú The colonists and explorers brought measles, smallpox, cholera, yellow fever, and many more
devastating diseases. This drastically diminished the Native American population and annihilated
entire villages. In addition to this, the arrogant attitude of the ever-growing whites led to the Indian
Wars, the Indian Removal Act (1830), and in 1890 one of the worst massacres ever²Wounded
Knee, South Dakota. Here warriors, women, and children alike were ferociously slaughtered by the
U.S. Cavalry. The U.S, government began Relocation Programs and the now famous Trail of Tears
march where hundreds of Cherokee died from starvation, exposure, and illnesses. The Native
American peoples were not only reduced in number but taken from their homes, stripped of their
customs, and even forbidden to speak their native languages. Their children were taken from them
and sent to schools to ³civilize´ them, forced to abandon every aspect of their heritage. In January
1876, the U.S. government forced them to live on µreservations¶ where the majority of Native
Americans still reside today.

Ú Native American History - The 20th Century Native Americans Some consider Native Americans as
a resilient people. The Indian Citizen Act of 1924 offered official citizenship to the Native American
tribes. This was partly due to the heroic service of many of them in World War I. Others like Jim
Thorpe, Sequoyah, and Sacajawea have represented their people with greatness. There are well
over 500 recognized tribal governments currently in the U.S. They are self-governed and
considered to be sovereign nations of people within America. There are currently more than 2.48
million Native Americans, according to the 2000 census bureau.

Ú While most still live on the reservations, they are considered some of the most poverty-ridden areas
in the United States. Unemployment is 5 times higher than the general U. S. population, according
to the 2002 Bureau of Indian Affairs. As with many defeated, oppressed people, they have suffered
tremendously from the plagues of alcoholism and suicide. These were once a vibrant and
resourceful people. They have been robbed, humiliated, and removed from all they knew. Though
many have tried through the centuries to civilize, Christianize, and Americanize the Native
American people, there are organizations today that recognize the important heritage of these
nations. For example, Wiconi International says ³we want to see Indigenous people come to know
and experience ultimate freedom, and deliverance from the powers of darkness that still prevail in
lands and communities«´ (cite website
http://www.allabouthistory.org/native-american-history.htm) The Americanization of Native
Americans was an assimilation effort by the United States to transform Native American culture to
European-American culture between the years of 1790±1920.[1][2] George Washington and Henry
Knox were first to propose the cultural transformation of Native Americans.[3] They formulated a
policy to encourage the "civilizing" process.[2] With increased waves of immigration from Europe,
there was growing public support for education to encourage a standard set of cultural values and
practices to be held in common by the majority of citizens. Education was viewed as the primary
method in the acculturation process for minorities.
Ú Americanization policies were based on the idea that when indigenous people learned United
States (European-American) customs and values, they would be able to merge tribal traditions with
European-American culture and peacefully join the majority society. After the end of the Indian
Wars, in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the government outlawed the practice of traditional
religious ceremonies. It established boarding schools which children were required to attend. In
these schools they were forced to speak English, study standard subjects, attend church, and leave
tribal traditions behind.

Ú The Dawes Act of 1887, which allotted tribal lands in severalty to individuals, was seen as a way to
create individual homesteads for Native Americans. Land allotments were made in exchange for
Native Americans' becoming US citizens and giving up some forms of tribal self-government and
institutions. It resulted in the transfer of an estimated total of 93 million acres (6,100 km ) from
Native American control. Most was sold to individuals. The Indian Citizenship Act of 1924 was also
part of Americanization policy.

Ú · 
(from the Latin revolutio, "a turn around")

Ú a fundamental change in power or organizational structures that takes place in a relatively short
period of time. Its use to refer to political change dates[1] from the scientific revolution occasioned
by Copernicus' famous De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium.[2] Aristotle described two types of
political revolution:

Ú Complete change from one constitution to another

Ú Modification of an existing constitution.[3]

Ú Revolutions have occurred through human history and vary widely in terms of methods, duration,
and motivating ideology. Their results include major changes in culture, economy, and
socio-political institutions.

Ú u.



Ú The Dutch and the Swedish were the first to settle in the middle colonies. Later the Dutch colonies
became New York, New Jersey, and Delaware. There were many nation as people here including:
Scotts-Irish, English Quakers, Germans, Welsh, and French Colonists. Germans built an efficient
wood burning stove that others copied. The Quakers and Dutch believed in toleration religion.
Quakers welcomed Germans and protestants as there people multiplied.

Ú Farmers and other people lived in very small houses farmers usually about ten to twenty miles out
of town. The farms were very big; they stretched from the suburbs all the way to the seacoast.
Farmers gathered: wheat, barley, rye, and other grains and fruits. Manufacturing was a very big
industry; they made-clocks, watches, guns, locks, cloth, and hats. They owned large plantations
small lands and farms. Most of them lived in small villages or on grand plantations. they had many
cash crops for trade and sell. Cash crop- grown to be sold. The idle colonists grew so much bread
it became known as the ³bread basket colony.´

Ú Benjamin Franklin born and raised in the middle colonies was a well known resident. many workers
would be in the press by this they had ³freedom of the press.´ The middle colony had a fire
department and a public library thanks to Benjamin Franklin. African-Americans and woman could
not attend college even though there were very little colleges and schools.
Ú Î 

 

(January 17, 1706 [O.S. January 6, 1705[1]] ± April 17, 1790)
Ú was one of the Founding Fathers of the United States. A noted polymath, Franklin was a leading
author and printer, political theorist, politician, postmaster, scientist, inventor, satirist, civic activist,
statesman, and diplomat. As a scientist, he was a major figure in the American Enlightenment and
the history of physics for his discoveries and theories regarding electricity. He invented the lightning
rod, bifocals, the Franklin stove, a carriage odometer, and the glass 'armonica'. He formed both the
first public lending library in America and the first fire department in Pennsylvania.

Ú Franklin earned the title of "The First American" for his early and indefatigable campaigning for
colonial unity; as a writer and spokesman in London for several colonies, then as the first United
States Ambassador to France, he exemplified the emerging American nation.[2] Franklin was
foundational in defining the American ethos as a marriage of the practical and democratic values of
thrift, hard work, education, community spirit, self-governing institutions, and opposition to
authoritarianism both political and religious, with the scientific and tolerant values of the
Enlightenment. In the words of historian Henry Steele Commager, "In Franklin could be merged the
virtues of Puritanism without its defects, the illumination of the Enlightenment without its heat."[3]
To Walter Isaacson, this makes Franklin, "the most accomplished American of his age and the
most influential in inventing the type of society America would become."[4]

Ú Franklin, always proud of his working class roots, became a successful newspaper editor and
printer in Philadelphia, the leading city in the colonies. He was also partners with William Goddard
and Joseph Galloway the three of whom published the Pennsylvania Chronicle, a newspaper that
was known for its revolutionary sentiments and criticisms of the British monarchy in the American
colonies. [5] He became wealthy publishing Poor Richard's Almanack and The Pennsylvania
Gazette. Franklin gained international renown as a scientist for his famous experiments in
electricity and for his many inventions, especially the lightning rod. He played a major role in
establishing the University of Pennsylvania and was elected the first president of the American
Philosophical Society. Franklin became a national hero in America when he spearheaded the effort
to have Parliament repeal the unpopular Stamp Act. An accomplished diplomat, he was widely
admired among the French as American minister to Paris and was a major figure in the
development of positive Franco-American relations. For many years he was the British postmaster
for the colonies, which enabled him to set up the first national communications network. He was
active in community affairs, colonial and state politics, as well as national and international affairs.
From 1785 to 1788, he served as governor of Pennsylvania. Toward the end of his life, he freed his
slaves and became one of the most prominent abolitionists.

Ú ü  


 
Ú were shadow governments organized by the Patriot leaders of the Thirteen Colonies on the eve of
American Revolution. They coordinated responses to Britain and shared their plans; by 1774-75
they had emerged as shadow governments, superseding the colonial legislature and royal officials.
The Maryland Committee of Correspondence was instrumental in setting up the First Continental
Congress, which met in Philadelphia. These served an important role in the Revolution, by
disseminating the colonial interpretation of British actions between the colonies and to foreign
governments. The committees of correspondence rallied opposition on common causes and
established plans for collective action, and so the group of committees was the beginning of what
later became a formal political union among the colonies. A total of about 7000 to 8000 Patriots
served on these committees at the colonial and local levels, comprising most of the leadership in
their communities²the Loyalists were excluded. The committees became the leaders of the
American resistance to British actions, and largely determined the war effort at the state and local
level. When Congress decided to boycott British products, the colonial and local Committees took
charge, examining merchant records and publishing the names of merchants who attempted to
 defy the boycott by importing British goods. They promoted patriotism and home manufacturing,
advising Americans to avoid luxuries, and lead a more simple life. The committees gradually
extended their power over many aspects of American public life. They set up espionage networks
to identify disloyal elements, displaced the royal officials, and helped topple the entire Imperial
system in each colony. In late 1774 in early 1775, they supervised the elections of provincial
conventions, which took over the actual operation of colonial government.[1]

Ú  



 
Ú a convention of delegates from twelve of the thirteen North American colonies that met on
September 5, 1774, at Carpenters' Hall in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, early in the American
Revolution. It was called in response to the passage of the Coercive Acts (also known as
Intolerable Acts by the Colonial Americans) by the British Parliament. The Intolerable Acts had
punished Boston for the Boston Tea Party. The Congress was attended by 56 members appointed
by the legislatures of twelve of the Thirteen Colonies, the exception being the Province of Georgia,
which did not send delegates. At the time, Georgia was considered a convict state and was not
taken into consideration in the colonies.[1]

Ú The Congress met briefly to consider options, including an economic boycott of British trade;
publishing a list of rights and grievances; and petitioning King George for redress of those
grievances.

Ú The Congress also called for another Continental Congress in the event that their petition was
unsuccessful in halting enforcement of the Intolerable Acts. Their appeal to the Crown had no
effect, and so the Second Continental Congress was convened the following year to organize the
defense of the colonies at the onset of the American Revolutionary War. The delegates also urged
each colony to set up and train its own militia.

Ú î 





 
Ú a convention of delegates from the Thirteen Colonies that met beginning on May 10, 1775, in
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, soon after warfare in the American Revolutionary War had begun. It
succeeded the First Continental Congress, which met briefly during 1774, also in Philadelphia. The
second Congress managed the colonial war effort, and moved incrementally towards
independence, adopting the United States Declaration of Independence on July 4th, 1776. By
raising armies, directing strategy, appointing diplomats, and making formal treaties, the Congress
acted as the de facto national government of what became the United States.[1] With the
ratification of the Articles of Confederation, the Congress became known as the Congress of the
Confederation.

Ú ^  


 ! "Sîîü Sî^u
  

! #




Ú began as a war between the Kingdom of Great Britain and thirteen British colonies in North
America, and concluded in a global war between several European great powers.

Ú The war was the culmination of the political American Revolution, whereby many of the colonists
rejected the legitimacy of the Parliament of Great Britain to govern them without representation,
claiming that this violated the Rights of Englishmen. The First Continental Congress met in 1774 to
 coordinate relations with Great Britain and the by-then thirteen self-governing and individual
provinces, petitioning George III of Great Britain for intervention with Parliament, organizing a
boycott of British goods, while affirming loyalty to the British Crown. Their pleas ignored, and with
British soldiers billeted in Boston, Massachusetts, by 1775 the Provincial Congresses formed the
Second Continental Congress and authorized a Continental Army. Additional petitions to the king to
intervene with Parliament resulted in the following year with Congress being declared traitors and
the states to be in rebellion. The Americans responded in 1776 by formally declaring their
independence as one new nation ² the United States of America ² claiming their own sovereignty
and rejecting any allegiance to the British monarchy.

Ú France's government under King Louis XVI secretly provided supplies, ammunition and weapons to
the revolutionaries starting in 1776, and the Continentals' capture of a British army in 1777 led
France to openly enter the war in early 1778, which evened the military strength with Britain. Spain
and the Dutch Republic ± French allies ± also went to war with Britain over the next two years,
threatening an invasion of Great Britain and severely testing British military strength with
campaigns in Europe ² including attacks on Minorca and Gibraltar ² and an escalating global
naval war. Spain's involvement culminated in the expulsion of British armies from West Florida,
securing the American colonies' southern flank.

Ú Throughout the war, the British were able to use their naval superiority to capture and occupy
American coastal cities, but control of the countryside (where 90% of the population lived) largely
eluded them because of the relatively small size of their land army. French involvement proved
decisive, with a French naval victory in the Chesapeake leading at Yorktown in 1781 to the
surrender of a second British army. In 1783, the Treaty of Paris ended the war and recognized the
sovereignty of the United States over the territory bounded by what is now Canada to the north,
Florida to the south, and the Mississippi River to the west.

Ú £ 
$ 
Ú a US political philosophy which opposes the concept of Federalism. In short, Anti-Federalists
dictate that the central governing authority of a nation should be equal or inferior to, but not having
more power than, its sub-national states (state government). A book titled "The Anti-Federalist
Papers" is a detailed explanation of American Anti-Federalist thought.

Ú Anti-Federalism also refers to a movement that opposed the creation of a stronger U.S. federal
government and which later opposed the ratification of the Constitution of 1787. The previous
constitution, called the Articles of Confederation, gave state governments more authority. Led by
Patrick Henry of Virginia, Anti-Federalists worried, among other things, that the position of
president, then a novelty, might evolve into a monarchy.

Ú S    

Ú an American political party in the period 1792 to 1816, the era of the First Party System, with
remnants lasting into the 1820s. The Federalists controlled the federal government until 1801. The
party was formed by Alexander Hamilton, who, during George Washington's first term, built a
network of supporters, largely urban bankers and businessmen, to support his fiscal policies.
These supporters grew into the Federalist Party committed to a fiscally sound and nationalistic
government. The United States' only Federalist president was John Adams; although George
Washington was broadly sympathetic to the Federalist program, he remained an independent his
 entire presidency.[1] The Federalist policies called for a national bank, tariffs, and good relations
with Britain as expressed in the Jay Treaty negotiated in 1794. Their political opponents, the
Republicans, led by Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, denounced most of the Federalist
policies, especially the bank, and vehemently attacked the Jay Treaty as a sell-out of republican
values to the British monarchy. The Jay Treaty passed, and indeed the Federalists won most of the
major legislative battles in the 1790s. They held a strong base in the nation's cities and in New
England. The Republicans, with their base in the rural South, won the hard-fought election of 1800;
the Federalists never returned to power. The Federalists, too wedded to an upper-class style to win
the support of ordinary voters, grew weaker every year. They recovered some strength by intense
opposition to the War of 1812; they practically vanished during the Era of Good Feelings that
followed the end of the war in 1815.[2]

Ú The Federalists left a lasting imprint as they fashioned a strong new government with a sound
financial base, and (in the person of Chief Justice John Marshall) decisively shaped Supreme Court
policies for another three decades.

Ú SS.% 
&
(May 29, 1736 ± June 6, 1799)
Ú was an orator and politician who led the movement for independence in Virginia in the 1770s. A
Founding Father, he served as the first and sixth post-colonial Governor of Virginia from 1776 to
1779 and subsequently, from 1784 to 1786. Henry led the opposition to the Stamp Act of 1765 and
is well remembered for his "Give me Liberty, or give me Death!" speech. Along with Samuel Adams
and Thomas Paine, he is remembered as one of the most influential exponents of Republicanism,
promoters of the American Revolution and Independence, especially in his denunciations of
corruption in government officials and his defense of historic rights. After the Revolution, Henry was
a leader of the anti-federalists in Virginia who opposed the United States Constitution, fearing that it
endangered the rights of the States, as well as the freedoms of individuals.

Ú S· 



 "
'
(  Sî^î  

 )
Ú was an agreement between large and small states reached during the Constitutional Convention of
1787 that in part defined the legislative structure and representation that each state would have
under the United States Constitution. It proposed a bicameral legislature, resulting in the current
United States Senate and House of Representatives.

Ú Su  


) ' Sî£ 
Ú he French and Indian War is the common U.S. name for the war between Great Britain and
France in North America from 1754 to 1763. In 1756 the war erupted into the world-wide conflict
known as the Seven Years' War and thus came to be regarded as the North American theater of
that war. In Canada, it is usually just referred to as the Seven Years' War, although French
speakers in Quebec often call it La guerre de la Conquête ("The War of Conquest"). In Europe,
there is no specific name for the North American part of the war. The name refers to the two main
enemies of the British colonists: the royal French forces and the various Native American forces
allied with them.

Ú The war was fought primarily along the frontiers between the British colonies from Virginia to Nova
Scotia, and began with a dispute over the confluence of the Allegheny and Monongahela Rivers,
the site of present-day Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. The dispute resulted in the Battle of Jumonville
Glen in May 1754. British attempts at expeditions in 1755, 1756 and 1757 in the frontier areas of
Pennsylvania and New York all failed, due to a combination of poor management, internal
divisions, and effective French and Indian offense. The 1755 capture of Fort Beauséjour on the
border separating Nova Scotia from Acadia was followed by a British policy of deportation of its
French inhabitants, to which there was some resistance.

 Ú After the disastrous 1757 British campaigns (resulting in a failed expedition against Louisbourg and
the Siege of Fort William Henry, which was followed by significant atrocities on British victims by
Indians), the British government fell, and William Pitt came to power, while France was unwilling to
risk large convoys to aid the limited forces it had in New France. Pitt significantly increased British
military resources in the colonies, and between 1758 and 1760 the British military successfully
penetrated the heartland of New France, with Montreal finally falling in September 1760.

Ú The outcome was one of the most significant developments in a century of Anglo-French conflict.
France ceded French Louisiana west of the Mississippi River to its ally Spain in compensation for
Spain's loss to Britain of Florida. France's colonial presence north of the Caribbean was reduced to
the islands of Saint Pierre and Miquelon, confirming Britain's position as the dominant colonial
power in the eastern half of North America.


Ú SÎ *  
Ú is the quality or state of being neutral

Ú Sü + 
(April 13, 1743 ± July 4, 1826)

Ú was the third President of the United States (1801±1809) and the principal author of the Declaration
of Independence (1776). Jefferson was one of the most influential Founding Fathers, known for his
promotion of the ideals of republicanism in the United States. Jefferson envisioned America as the
force behind a great "Empire of Liberty"[3] that would promote republicanism and counter the
imperialism of the British Empire.

Ú Major events during his presidency include the Louisiana Purchase (1803) and the Lewis and Clark
Expedition (1804±1806), as well as escalating tensions with both Britain and France that led to war
with Britain in 1812, after he left office.

Ú As a political philosopher, Jefferson was a man of the Enlightenment and knew many intellectual
leaders in Britain and France. He idealized the independent yeoman farmer as exemplar of
republican virtues, distrusted cities and financiers, and favored states' rights and a strictly limited
federal government. Jefferson supported the separation of church and state[4] and was the author
of the Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom (1779, 1786). He was the eponym of Jeffersonian
democracy and the cofounder and leader of the Democratic-Republican Party, which dominated
American politics for 25 years. Jefferson served as the wartime Governor of Virginia (1779±1781),
first United States Secretary of State (1789±1793), and second Vice President of the United States
(1797±1801).

Ú S ,
 &
"January 11, 1755 or 1757[1] ± July 12, 1804)

Ú was the first United States Secretary of the Treasury, a Founding Father, economist, and political
philosopher. Aide-de-camp to General George Washington during the American Revolutionary
War, he was a leader of American nationalists calling for a new Constitution; he was one of
America's first constitutional lawyers, and wrote most of the Federalist Papers, a primary source for
Constitutional interpretation. Hamilton was the primary author of the economic policies of the
George Washington Administration, especially the funding of the state debts by the Federal
government, the establishment of a national bank, a system of tariffs, and friendly trade relations
with Britain. He created and dominated the Federalist Party, and was opposed by Thomas
Jefferson and his Democratic-Republican Party. Jefferson denounced Hamilton as too loose with
the Constitution, too favorable to monarchy and particularly to Britain, and too partial to the
moneyed interests of the cities at home, but Hamilton's policies were generally enacted. A believer
 in a militarily strong national government, Hamilton helped defeat the tax revolt of western farmers
in 1794, and built a new army to oppose France in the Quasi War of 1798, but Federalist President
John Adams found a diplomatic solution that avoided war. Hamilton opposed Adams, as well as the
opposition candidates Jefferson and Aaron Burr, in the election of 1800; he supported Jefferson
over Burr when the House of Representatives had to choose in an electoral tie between them.
Tensions with Burr escalated to a duel, in which Hamilton was killed.

Ú Sî +
(October 30, 1735 ± July 4, 1826)

Ú was an American statesman, diplomat and political theorist. A leading champion of independence
in 1776, he was the second President of the United States (1797±1801). A New England Yankee,
he was deeply read and represented Enlightenment values promoting republicanism. A
conservative Federalist, he was one of the most influential Founding Fathers of the United States.

Ú Adams came to prominence in the early stages of the American Revolution. As a delegate from
Massachusetts to the Continental Congress, he played a leading role in persuading Congress to
declare independence, and assisted Thomas Jefferson in drafting the United States Declaration of
Independence in 1776. As a representative of Congress in Europe, he was a major negotiator of
the eventual peace treaty with Great Britain, and chiefly responsible for obtaining important loans
from Amsterdam bankers. A political theorist and historian, Adams largely wrote the Massachusetts
state constitution in 1780, but was in Europe when the federal Constitution was drafted on similar
principles later in the decade. One of his greatest roles was as a judge of character: in 1775, he
nominated George Washington to be commander-in-chief, and 25 years later nominated John
Marshall to be Chief Justice of the United States.

Ú Adams' revolutionary credentials secured him two terms as George Washington's vice president
and his own election in 1796 as the second president. During his one term, he encountered
ferocious attacks by the Jeffersonian Republicans, as well as the dominant faction in his own
Federalist Party led by his bitter enemy Alexander Hamilton. Adams signed the controversial Alien
and Sedition Acts, and built up the army and navy especially in the face of an undeclared naval war
(called the "Quasi War") with France, 1798-1800. The major accomplishment of his presidency was
his peaceful resolution of the conflict in the face of Hamilton's opposition.

Ú S^ 

,
Ú Born and raised in the Caribbean, Hamilton attended King's College (now Columbia University) in
New York. At the start of the American Revolutionary War, he organized an artillery company and
was chosen as its captain. Hamilton became the senior[2] aide-de-camp and confidant to General
George Washington, the American commander-in-chief. After the war, Hamilton was elected to the
Continental Congress from New York, but he resigned to practice law and found the Bank of New
York. He served in the New York Legislature, and he was the only New Yorker who signed the U.S.
Constitution. He wrote about half the Federalist Papers, which helped to secure ratification of the
Constitution by New York and remain the single most important interpretation of the Constitution.[3]
In the new government under President Washington he became Secretary of the Treasury.[4] An
admirer of British political systems, Hamilton was a nationalist who emphasized strong central
government and successfully argued that the implied powers of the Constitution could be used to
fund the national debt, assume state debts, and create the government-owned Bank of the United
States. These programs were funded primarily by a tariff on imports and a highly controversial
excise tax on whiskey.

Ú S£ 






Ú The ratification, or adoption, of the Constitution took place between September of 1787 and July of
1788. The Federal Convention, which had drafted the Constitution between May and September
1787, had no authority to impose it on the American people. Article VII of the Constitution and
 resolutions adopted by the convention on September 17, 1787, detailed a four-stage ratification
process: (1) submission of the Constitution to the Confederation Congress, (2) transmission of the
Constitution by Congress to the state legislatures, (3) election of delegates to conventions in each
state to consider the Constitution, and (4) ratification by the conventions of at least nine of the
thirteen states.

Ú The procedure reflected the political realities and principles of 1787-1788. Putting the Constitution
in the hands of specially elected conventions would avoid the hostility of state officials jealous of
their state's sovereignty, as would the nine-states requirement (the Articles required all thirteen
states' consent for ratification of an amendment). The delegates also viewed the Constitution as a
fundamental law requiring a form of adoption more solemn and significant, and less vulnerable to
shifts of public opinion, than approval by state legislatures. The ratification process itself would
induce Americans to think of themselves as a nation, encouraging them to look beyond their state's
borders in deciding whether to support the Constitution and disposing them to adopt a new
government for the American nation. Finally, the Constitution's proponents hoped, a series of quick
ratifications by the first state conventions might generate momentum that would be difficult to resist.

Ú Ratification was not guaranteed, however. The Confederation Congress might reject the
Constitution, rewrite it, or refer it to a second general convention, claiming that the first had violated
its limited mandate to suggest amendments to the Articles. For the same reason, the states might
refuse to elect ratifying conventions. Enough state conventions might spurn the Constitution
(whether as an illegitimate proposal or on its merits) to prevent its implementation. Finally, rejection
by the legislatures or conventions of any or all of four key states--Massachusetts, New York,
Pennsylvania, and Virginia--might cripple the Constitution, even if the necessary nine states did
approve it. These possibilities dominated American politics of the time.

Ú On September 28, 1787, after three days of bitter debate, the Confederation Congress sent the
Constitution to the states with neither an endorsement nor a condemnation. This action, a
compromise engineered by Federalist members, disposed of the argument that the convention had
exceeded its mandate; in the tacit opinion of Congress, the Constitution was validly before the
people. The state legislatures' decisions to hold ratifying conventions confirmed the Constitution's
legitimacy.

Ú The ratification controversy pitted supporters of the Constitution, who claimed the name
"Federalists," against a loosely organized group known as "Antifederalists." The Antifederalists
denounced the Constitution as a radically centralizing document that would destroy American
liberty and betray the principles of the Revolution. The Federalists urged that the nation's problems
were directly linked to the frail, inadequate Confederation and that nothing short of the Constitution
would enable the American people to preserve their liberty and independence, the fruits of the
Revolution.

Ú The Federalists--led by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, John Jay, John Marshall, James
Wilson, John Dickinson, and Roger Sherman--had several advantages. In a time of national
political crisis, they offered a clear prescription for the nation's ills; they were well organized and
well financed; and they were used to thinking in national terms and to working with politicians from
other states. They also had the support of the only two truly national political figures, George
Washington and Benjamin Franklin.

Ú · 
-



)
Ú Despite the growing concern throughout the nation over a string of acts asserting national over
state power, the Washington administration remained dominated by Federalists, led by Secretary
of Treasury Alexander Hamilton. Hamilton's initiatives aroused the ire of those who maintained the
politics of the Anti-federalists. Hamilton's main goals were to achieve the financial stability
 necessary to fight another war should one arise with the foreign threats of Britain and Spain, and to
dull assertions of state power that might diminish national power. In his Report on Public Credit,
submitted to Congress in January 1790, Hamilton calculated the US debt at $54 million, with
individual states owing an additional $25 million. American credit abroad was poor, and continued
to fall with every day the debt was left unpaid. Hamilton suggested funding the debt by selling
government bonds, and further proposed that state debts be assumed by the national government.

Ú Hamilton advocated the selling of western land to pay off US debt to European nations in order to
rebuild credit, but suggested that the debt to US creditors be maintained as a perpetual debt. He
argued the US could continue paying interest on its domestic debt, thus maintaining good credit, if
the US creditors would accept the debt as a secure investment which paid yearly interest. This plan
generated opposition from many, objecting to the fact that under the plan, astute wealthy
speculators who had bought the debt certificates of others, many at great discounts, would benefit,
while the Americans who actually financed the war would lose out.

Ú Heavy opposition arose to Hamilton's proposal that the national government assume the debts of
the states as well. Opposition ran especially high in the South, which, excluding South Carolina,
had paid off 83 percent of the region's debt. Southern states saw in Hamilton's proposal a plan to
alleviate the tax burden on northern states lagging in their debt payments, while southern states
had already reduced their debt at great internal cost. In the end, Hamilton pushed his proposals
through Congress with the aid of much political wheeling and dealing. The nation reaped the
economic rewards of Hamilton's efforts to improve credit, as Europeans increasingly purchased US
government bonds and invested elsewhere in the US economy.

Ú In December 1790, Hamilton began his second controversial policy campaign. Having increased
the amount of capital available for investment, he planned to establish a national bank. One-fifth of
the bank's stock would be owned by the US Treasury, which would have one-fifth control of the
board of directors. The remainder would fall into private hands. Hamilton claimed the Bank of the
United States would, at negligible cost, provide a secure depository for federal revenue and a
source of federal loans, as well as issue currency. The bank would regulate the activities of the
nation's banks and extend credit to US citizens in order to expand the economy.

Ú The proposal for the national bank brought Hamilton more opposition than had any previous
initiative. Most notably, Thomas Jefferson, the Secretary of State, joined the ranks of Hamilton's
opponents. Jefferson and other political leaders recalled how the Bank of Britain had undermined
democracy, and feared that the creation of the bank would tie private individuals too closely to
public institutions. They predicted that politicians would manipulate bank shareholders and that
members of Congress who held bank shares would vote for the best interests of the bank over
those of the nation. Hamilton's opponents further pointed out that the Constitution did not grant the
federal government the power to grant charters. Despite this opposition, Congress approved the
bank by a thin margin, and the Bank of the United States obtained a twenty-year charter in
February 1791.

Ú ·S .) 
of 1807 and the subsequent Nonintercourse Acts were American laws
restricting American ships from engaging in foreign trade 1807 and 1812. They led to the War of
1812 between the U.S. and Britain.

Ú Britain and France were engaged in a life-and-death struggle for control of Europe, and the small,
remote USA became a pawn in their game. The Acts were diplomatic responses by presidents
Thomas Jefferson and James Madison designed to protect American interests and avoid war. They
failed, and helped cause the war. The Acts were bitterly opposed by New England shipping
interests which suffered greatly from them.

Ú ·· 
 (March 1768 ± October 5, 1813), also known as Tecumtha or Tekamthi,
Ú a Native American leader of the Shawnee and a large tribal confederacy that opposed the United
States during Tecumseh's War and the War of 1812. He grew up in the Ohio country during the
American Revolutionary War and the Northwest Indian War, where he was constantly exposed to
warfare.[1]

Ú His brother Tenskwatawa was a religious leader who advocated a return to the ancestral lifestyle of
the tribes. A large following and a confederacy grew around his prophetic teachings. The Native
American independence movement led to strife with settlers on the frontier. The confederacy
eventually moved farther into the northwest and settled Prophetstown, Indiana in 1808. Tecumseh
confronted Indiana Governor William Henry Harrison to demand that land purchase treaties be
rescinded. Tecumseh traveled to the southern United States in an attempt to unite Native American
tribes in a confederacy throughout the North American continent.[1] Before he left, he warned his
brother against fighting the Americans. His brother ignored him. While Tecumseh was traveling,
Tenskwatawa was defeated in the 1811 Battle of Tippecanoe.

Ú During the War of 1812, Tecumseh's confederacy allied with the British in Canada and helped in
the capture of Fort Detroit. The Americans, led by Harrison, launched a counter assault and
invaded Canada. They killed Tecumseh in the Battle of the Thames, in which they were also
victorious over the British. Tecumseh has subsequently become a legendary folk hero. He is
remembered by many Canadians for his defense of the country

Ú ·u   
Ú the forced relocation and movement of Native Americans from the present-day United States. It has
been described as an act of genocide.

Ú The removal included many members of the Cherokee, Muscogee (Creek), Seminole, and
Choctaw nations among others in the United States, from their homelands to Indian Territory
(present day Oklahoma) in the Western United States. The phrase originated from a description of
the removal of the Choctaw Nation in 1831.[2] Many Native Americans suffered from exposure,
disease, and starvation while on route to their destinations, and many died, including 4,000 of the
15,000 relocated Cherokee.

Ú In 1831, the Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Muscogee-Creek, and Seminole (sometimes

collectively referred to as the Five Civilized Tribes) were living as autonomous nations in what
would be called the American Deep South. The process of cultural transformation (proposed by
George Washington and Henry Knox) was gaining momentum, especially among the Cherokee
and Choctaw.[4] Andrew Jackson continued the removal of the Native Americans with the passage
of the Indian Removal Act of 1830. In 1831 the Choctaw were the first to be removed, and they
became the model for all other removals. After the Choctaw, the Seminole were removed in 1832,
the Creek in 1834, then the Chickasaw in 1837, and finally the Cherokee in 1838.[5] After removal,
some Native Americans remained in their ancient homelands - the Choctaw are found in
Mississippi, the Seminole in Florida, the Creek in Alabama, and the Cherokee in North Carolina. A
limited number of non-native Americans (including African-Americans - usually as slaves) also
accompanied the Native American nations on the trek westward.[5] By 1837, 46,000 Native
Americans from these southeastern states had been removed from their homelands thereby
opening 25 million acres (100,000 km2) for settlement.[5]

c 24. 
Ú a Native American people historically settled in the Southeastern United States (principally
Georgia, the Carolinas and East Tennessee). Linguistically, they are part of the Iroquoian language
family. In the 19th century, historians and ethnographers recorded their oral tradition that told of the
tribe having migrated south in ancient times from the Great Lakes region, where other
Iroquoian-speaking peoples were located.[4]
Ú In the 19th century, white settlers in the United States called the Cherokees one of the "Five
Civilized Tribes", because they had assimilated numerous cultural and technological practices of
European American settlers. According to the 2000 U.S. Census, the Cherokee Nation has more
than 300,000 members, the largest of the 563 federally recognized Native American tribes in the
United States.[5]

Ú Of the three federally recognized Cherokee tribes, the Cherokee Nation and the United Keetoowah
Band of Cherokee Indians have headquarters in Tahlequah, Oklahoma. They were forcibly
relocated there in the 1830s. The Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians is located on the Qualla
Boundary in western North Carolina.

c ·ü !%  
Ú Was a political party of the United States during the era of Jacksonian democracy. Considered
integral to the Second Party System and operating from the early 1830s to the mid-1850s,the party
was formed in opposition to the policies of President Andrew Jackson and his Democratic Party.
Ú In particular, the Whigs supported the supremacy of Congress over the presidency, and favored a
program of modernization and economic protectionism. This name was chosen to echo the
American Whigs of 1776, who fought for independence, and because "Whig" was then a widely
recognized label of choice for people who saw themselves as opposing tyranny.
Ú The Whig Party counted among its members such national political luminaries as Daniel Webster,
William Henry Harrison, and their preeminent leader, Henry Clay of Kentucky. In addition to
Harrison, the Whig Party also nominated war heroes generals Zachary Taylor and Winfield Scott.
Abraham Lincoln was the chief Whig leader in frontier Illinois.

c · /

% 
Ú is one of two major contemporary political parties in the United States, along with the Republican
Party. The party's social liberal and progressive platform is largely considered center-left in the U.S.
political spectrum.
Ú The party has the lengthiest record of continuous operation in the United States. The party had 72
million registered voters in 2004. President Barack Obama is the 15th Democrat to hold the office.
Ú In the 112th Congress following the 2010 elections, the Democratic Party will hold a minority of
seats in the House of Representatives and state governorships, as well as a minority of state
legislatures. It will continue to hold a narrow majority of seats in the Senate at the beginning of the
112th Congress.

c ·î.&

 

)


Ú the First Bank was a bank chartered by the United States Congress on February 25, 1791. The
charter was for 20 years. The Bank was created to handle the financial needs and requirements of
the central government of the newly formed United States, which had previously been thirteen
individual states with their own banks, currencies, financial institutions, and policies.
Ú Officially proposed by Alexander Hamilton, Secretary of the Treasury, to the first session of the First
Congress in 1790, the concept for the Bank had both its support and origin in and among Northern
merchants and more than a few New England state governments. It was, however, eyed with great
suspicion by the representatives of the Southern States, whose chief industry, agriculture, did not
require centrally concentrated banks, and whose feelings of states' rights and suspicion of Northern
motives ran strong.
Ú The bank's charter expired in 1811 under President James Madison. The bill to recharter failed in
the House of Representatives by one vote, 65 to 64, on January 24, 1811. It failed in the Senate
when Vice President George Clinton broke a tie vote that February 20. In 1816, however, Madison
revived it in the form of the Second Bank of the United States.

c ·^  )

Ú was an armed uprising in central and western Philadelphia (mainly Springfield) from 1786 to 1787.
The rebellion is named after Daniel Shays, a veteran of the American Revolutionary war. The
rebellion started on August 29, 1786, and by January 1787, over one thousand Shaysites had been
 arrested.
Ú A militia that had been raised as a private army defeated an attack on the federal Springfield
Armory by the main Shaysite force on February 3, 1787, and four rebels were killed in the action.
Ú There was a lack of an institutional response to the uprising, which energized calls to reevaluate the
Articles of Confederation and gave strong impetus to the Philadelphia Convention which began in
May 17, 1787. Shays' Rebellion produced fears that the Revolution's democratic impulse had
gotten out of hand.

c ·£ % 
!


Ú was the dominant military and political leader of the new United States of America from 1775 to
1797. As the leader of the Continental Army in the American Revolution, he led the American
victory over Great Britain. He then presided over the writing of the Constitution in 1787, and he was
unanimously elected as the first President of the United States, a position he held from 1789-1797.
Ú During his presidency, he developed the forms and rituals of government that have been used ever
since, such as using a cabinet system and delivering an inaugural address.
Ú Acclaimed ever since as the "Father of his country", Washington, along with Abraham Lincoln, has
become a central icon of republican values, self sacrifice in the name of the nation, American
nationalism and the ideal union of civic and military leadership.

c u  

Ú also known as the American Revenue Act or the American Duties Act, was a revenue-raising act
passed by the Parliament of Great Britain on April 5, 1764. The preamble to the act stated: "it is
expedient that new provisions and regulations should be established for improving the revenue of
this Kingdom ... and ... it is just and necessary that revenue should be raised ... for defraying the
expenses of defending, protecting, and securing the same.
Ú The earlier Molasses Act of 1733, which had imposed a tax of six pence per gallon of molasses,
had never been effectively collected due to colonial evasion. By reducing the rate by half and
increasing measures to enforce the tax, the British hoped that the tax would actually be collected.
Ú These incidents increased the colonists' concerns about the intent of the British Parliament and
helped the growing movement that became the American Revolution

c uS % 


( '$ 0


0  
c The railroads were of vital importance in 'opening up' the vast interior of the U.S. to
settlement and economic development. Before the construction of the railroads,
areas like the Great Plains were difficult and expensive to reach from areas like the
East Coast and the South, for example.
Ú Railroads changed logistics during the Civil War, and then railroads changed the logistics of
industry--iron and steel, energy, manufacturing, distribution, and marketing. Route-miles of track
grew to 70,000 in 1873, compared to 30,000 just 13 years before.
Ú By 1890, mileage was rapidly approaching 165,000. Growth in freight ton-miles tells the tale.

c u· !1 ( 


Ú was a prominent American abolitionist, journalist, and social reformer.
Ú He is best known as the editor of the abolitionist newspaper The Liberator, and as one of the
founders of the American Anti-Slavery Society.
Ú he promoted "immediate emancipation" of slaves in the United States. Garrison was also a
prominent voice for the women's suffrage movement.

c uu. 

)1'
Ú was the American businessman for whom the city of Lowell, Massachusetts, United States is
named, and who was instrumental in bringing the Industrial Revolution to the United States.He was
born in Newburyport, Massachusetts, the son of John Lowell (1743±1802) and Susanna Cabot
(1754±1777), and a member of the prominent Boston Lowell family.
Ú To raise capital for their mills, Lowell and partners pioneered a basic tool of modern corporate
finance by selling $1000 shares of stock to the public. This form of shareholder corporation quickly
became the method of choice for structuring new American businesses, and endures to this day in
the well-known form of public stock offerings.
Ú In 1814, the Boston Manufacturing Company built its first mill beside the Charles River in Waltham,
housing an integrated set of technologies that converted raw cotton all the way to finished cloth.
This Waltham mill was thus the forerunner of the 19th century American factory. Lowell also
pioneered the employment of women, from the age of 15-35 from New England farming families, as
textile workers, in what became known as the Lowell system. He paid these "mill girls"(also known
as lowell girls) lower wages than men, but offered attractive benefits including in well-run company
boardinghouses with chaperones, cash wages, and benevolent religious and educational activities.
He lobbied heavily for a protective tariff on cotton products; they were included in the Tariff of
1816[4]
Ú Although he died early at age 42, only 3 years after building his first mill, Lowell left his Boston
Manufacturing Company in superb financial health. In 1821, dividends were paid out at an
astounding 27.5% to shareholders. In 1822, Lowell's partners named their new mill town at the
Pawtucket Falls on the Merrimack River "Lowell," after their visionary leader. One of his sons,
Francis Cabot Lowell Jr., continued to work in his father's footsteps.
Ú Lowell was inducted into the Junior Achievement U.S. Business Hall of Fame in 1978.

c uÎ  ( 



 

Ú was a Presbyterian and Congregationalist figure in the Second Great Awakening. His influence
during this period was enough that he has been called The Father of Modern Revivalism.
Ú Finney was known for his innovations in preaching and religious meetings such as having women
pray in public meetings of mixed gender, development of the "anxious seat", a place where those
considering becoming Christians could come to receive prayer, and public censure of individuals by
name in sermons and prayers.
Ú He was also known for his use of extemporaneous preaching.

c 35  



Ú is a social movement urging reduced use of alcoholic beverages.
Ú Temperance movements may criticize excessive alcohol use, promote complete abstinence.
Ú Also to pressure the government to enact anti-alcohol legislation

c u * 


 ) 
'
Ú as a nation, the United States was still primarily agricultural in the years before, during and
immediately after the Civil War. About three-quarters of the population lived in rural areas, including
farms and small towns. Nevertheless, the Industrial Revolution that had hit England decades
before gradually established itself in the "former colonies."
Ú While factories were built all over the North and South, the vast majority of industrial manufacturing
was taking place in the North. The South had almost 25% of the country's free population, but only
10% of the country's capital in 1860. The North had five times the number of factories as the South,
and over ten times the number of factory workers. In addition, 90% of the nation's skilled workers
were in the North.
Ú The labor forces in the South and North were fundamentally different, as well. In the North, labor
was expensive, and workers were mobile and active. The influx of immigrants from Europe and
Asia provided competition in the labor market, however, keeping wages from growing very quickly.
The Southern economy, however, was built on the labor of African American slaves, who were
oppressed into providing cheap labor. Most Southern white families did not own slaves: only about
384,000 out of 1.6 million did. Of those who did own slaves, most (88%) owned fewer than 20
slaves, and were considered farmers rather than planters. Slaves were concentrated on the large
plantations of about 10,000 big planters, on which 50-100 or more slaves worked. About 3,000 of
these planters owned more than 100 slaves, and 14 of them owned over 1,000 slaves. Of the four
million slaves working in the South in 1860, about one million worked in homes or in industry,
construction, mining, lumbering or transportation. The remaining three million worked in agriculture,
 two million of whom worked in cotton.
Ú Since Eli Whitney's 1793 invention of the cotton 'gin, the cotton industry became a lucrative field for
Southern planters and farmers. Utilizing slave labor, cotton planters and farmers could cut costs as
they produced cotton for sale to other regions and for export to England. In exchange, Southern
farmers and planters purchased manufactured goods from the North, food items from the West and
imported luxuries like European designer clothes and furniture from England. The growth of the
Southern cotton industry served as an engine of growth for the entire nation's economy in the
antebellum years.
Ú The other critical economic issue that divided the North from the South was that of tariffs. Tariffs
were taxes placed on imported goods, the money from which would go to the government.
Throughout the antebellum period, whenever the federal government wanted to raise tariffs,
Southern Congressmen generally opposed it and Northern Congressmen generally supported it.
Southerners generally favored low tariffs because this kept the cost of imported goods low, which
was important in the South's import-oriented economy. Southern planters and farmers were
concerned that high tariffs might make their European trading partners, primarily the British, raise
prices on manufactured goods imported by the South in order to maintain a profit on trade.
Ú In the North, however, high tariffs were viewed favorably because such tariffs would make imported
goods more expensive. That way, goods produced in the North would seem relatively cheap, and
Americans would want to buy American goods instead of European items. Since tariffs would
protect domestic industry from foreign competition, business interests and others influenced
politicians to support high tariffs.
Ú Americans in the West were divided on the issue. In the Southwest, where cotton was a primary
commodity, people generally promoted low tariffs. In the Northwest and parts of Kentucky, where
hemp was a big crop, people supported high tariffs.

c uî 



 ) 
'
Ú The Southern economy was built on the labor of African American slaves, who were oppressed into
providing cheap labor.
Ú Most Southern white families did not own slaves: only about 384,000 out of 1.6 million did. Of those
who did own slaves, most owned fewer than 20 slaves, and were considered farmers rather than
planters. Slaves were concentrated on the large plantations of about 10,000 big planters, on which
50-100 or more slaves worked.
Ú About 3,000 of these planters owned more than 100 slaves, and 14 of them owned over 1,000
slaves. Of the four million slaves working in the South in 1860, about one million worked in homes
or in industry, construction, mining, lumbering or transportation. The remaining three million worked
in agriculture, two million of whom worked in cotton.

c u^ ,

,
S^Îüwas the annexation of the Republic of Texas to the United

States of America as the twenty-eighth state. This act quickly led to the Mexican War
(1846±48) in which the U.S. captured additional territory (known as the Mexican Cession of
1848) extending the 19th century southern U.S. territorial acquisitions from Mexico all the
way to the Pacific Ocean.
Ú Texas then claimed, but never actually controlled, the eastern part of this new territory, which
comprised parts of present-day Colorado, Kansas, New Mexico, Oklahoma, and Wyoming.
Ú This created a continuing dispute between Texas, the federal government and the New Mexico
Territory until the Compromise of 1850, when these lands became parts of other territories of the
United States in exchange for the U.S. federal government assuming the Texas Republic's $10
million in debt.

c u£ '
 

' during the tumultuous years of the Civil War, women
who did not have a right to vote, own property and had few civic liberties of their own,
unified in support of the war efforts. Women who had not worked a day in their
Ú lives, with grit and determination hid their identity and took up arms of their own, cared for sick and
dying soldiers, risked their lives to gather information, cooked, cleaned and care for children. The
tenacity and love with which these women served their country was astounding, and yet often
 overlooked.
Ú Although women were not allowed to serve in the army, that did not stop some women from
disguising themselves as men and taking up arms. Women would create masculine names and
hide their identity from officials. We do not know how many women served because they did so
secretly. On occasion, their sex was revealed. Mary Owens, after being shot in the armed, was
discovered to be female. Upon returning home, despite her sex, she was received warmly. Both the
Union and Confederate army refused to acknowledge that women had served.

Ú During wartime, women who were not fighting also played very important roles. When battle began,
both armies were unprepared for the wounded. Women with no medical training would rush out to
the front lines to help injured soldiers. Within two months, it was decided that Dorothea Dix would
be appointed Superintendent of Nurses.
Ú Ms. Dix had high standards for women wishing to serve as nurses. Women were to be over the age
of thirty, plain looking, wear service dresses, and be interviewed by her personally. These nurses
worked strenuously 12 hour shifts sometimes attending to forty patients at a time. Many nurses
literally worked themselves to death. A good chronicle of the life of a nurse is Louisa May Alcott's
"Hospital Sketches."
Ú Some women chose to nurse independent of Ms. Dix. One such woman was Clara Carton who
would later be credited as founder of the American Red Cross. To help assist in the war efforts she
would collect and distribute necessities to the soldiers.

c Î  0 
0
)

1
0   

 
 0
Ú was a U.S. federal government agency that aided distressed refugees and freedmen (freed slaves)
in 1865-1872, during the Reconstruction era of the United States.
Ú The Freedman's Bureau Bill, which created the Freedman's Bureau, was initiated by President
Abraham Lincoln and was intended to last for one year after the end of the Civil War. It was passed
on March 3, 1865, by Congress to aid former slaves through legal food and housing, oversight,
education, health care, and employment contracts with private landowners. It became a key
agency during Reconstruction, assisting freedmen (freed ex-slaves) in the South. The Bureau was
part of the United States Department of War. Headed by Union Army General Oliver O. Howard,
the Bureau was operational from 1865 to 1872. It was disbanded under President Ulysses S. Grant.
Ú At the end of the war, the Bureau's main role was providing emergency food, housing, and medical
aid to refugees, though it also helped reunite families. Later, it focused its work on helping the
freedmen adjust to their conditions of freedom. Its main job was setting up work opportunities and
supervising labor contracts. It soon became, in effect, a military court that handled legal issues. By
1866, it was attacked by Southern whites for organizing blacks against their former masters.
Although some of their subordinate agents were unscrupulous or incompetent, the majority of local
Bureau agents were hindered in carrying out their duties by the opposition of former Confederates,
the lack of a military presence to enforce their authority, and an excessive amount of paperwork.
c President Andrew Johnson vetoed a bill for an increase of power of the Bureau, supported
by Radical Republicans, on February 19, 1866.

c ÎS + 

/

Ú was an American statesman and leader of the Confederacy during the American Civil War; serving
as the President for its entire history. A West Point graduate, Davis fought in the Mexican-American
War as a colonel of a volunteer regiment, and was the United States Secretary of War under
President Franklin Pierce. Both before and after his time in the Pierce administration, he served as
a U.S. Senator representing the State of Mississippi. As a senator, he argued against secession,
but did agree that each state was sovereign and had an unquestionable right to secede from the
Union.
Ú On February 18, 1861, after he resigned from the U.S. Senate, Davis was selected provisional
President of the Confederate States of America; he was elected without opposition to a six-year
term that November. During his presidency, Davis took charge of the Confederate war plans but
was unable to find a strategy to stop the larger, more powerful and better organized Union. His
 diplomatic efforts failed to gain recognition from any foreign country, and he paid little attention to
the collapsing Confederate economy, printing more and more paper money to cover the war's
expenses.
Ú Historians have criticized Davis for being a much less effective war leader than his Union
counterpart Abraham Lincoln, which they attribute to Davis being overbearing, over controlling, and
overly meddlesome, as well as being out of touch with public opinion, and lacking support from a
political party According to historian Bell I. Wiley, the flaws in his personality and temperament
made him a failure as the highest political officer in the Confederacy. His preoccupation with detail,
inability to delegate responsibility, lack of popular appeal, feuds with powerful state governors,
inability to get along with people who disagreed with him, and his neglect of civil matters in favor of
military were only a few of the shortcomings which worked against him.

c η ) 1



Ú served as the 16th President of the United States from March 1861 until his assassination in April
1865. He successfully led the country through its greatest internal crisis, the American Civil War,
preserved the Union, and ended slavery. Reared in a poor family on the western frontier, he was
mostly self-educated. He became a country lawyer, an Illinois state legislator, and a one-term
member of the United States House of Representatives, but failed in two attempts at a seat in the
United States Senate. He was an affectionate, though often absent, husband, and father of four
children.
Ú Lincoln was an outspoken opponent of the expansion of slavery in the United States, which he
deftly articulated in his campaign debates and speeches.[1] As a result, he secured the Republican
nomination and was elected president in 1860. As president he concentrated on the military and
political dimensions of the war effort, always seeking to reunify the nation after the secession of the
eleven Confederate States of America. He vigorously exercised unprecedented war powers,
including the arrest and detention, without trial, of thousands of suspected secessionists. He issued
his Emancipation Proclamation in 1863, and promoted the passage of the Thirteenth Amendment
to the United States Constitution, abolishing slavery.
Ú Lincoln closely supervised the war effort, especially the selection of top generals, including Ulysses
S. Grant. He brought leaders of various factions of both parties into his cabinet and pressured them
to cooperate. He defused a confrontation with Britain in the Trent affair late in 1861. Under his
leadership, the Union took control of the border slave states at the start of the war and tried
repeatedly to capture the Confederate capital at Richmond. Each time a general failed, Lincoln
substituted another, until finally Grant succeeded in 1865. A shrewd politician deeply involved with
patronage and power issues in each state, he managed his own re-election in the 1864 presidential
election.

c Îu 

/

Ú was an American politician from the western state of Illinois, and was the Northern Democratic
Party nominee for President in 1860. He lost to the Republican Party's candidate, Abraham Lincoln,
whom he had defeated two years earlier in a Senate contest following a famed series of debates.
He was nicknamed the "Little Giant" because he was short of stature but was considered by many
a "giant" in politics. Douglas was well-known as a resourceful party leader, and an adroit, ready,
skillful tactician in debate and passage of legislation.
Ú As chairman of the Committee on Territories, Douglas dominated the Senate in the 1850s. He was
largely responsible for the Compromise of 1850 that apparently settled slavery issues. However, in
1854 he reopened the slavery question by the highly controversial Kansas-Nebraska Act, that
allowed the people of the new territories to decide for themselves whether or not to have slavery
(which is known as "popular sovereignty"). The protest movement against this became the
Republican Party.
Ú Douglas supported the Dred Scott Supreme Court decision of 1857, and denied that it was part of a
Southern plot to introduce slavery in the Northern states; but also argued it could not be effective
when the people of a territory declined to pass laws supporting it.[1] When President James
Buchanan and his Southern allies attempted to pass a Federal slave code, to support slavery even
against the wishes of the people of Kansas, he battled and defeated this movement as
undemocratic. This caused the split in the Democratic Party in 1860, as Douglas won the
nomination but a breakaway southern faction nominated their own candidate, Vice President John
C. Breckinridge. Douglas deeply believed in democracy, arguing the will of the people should
always be decisive.[2] When civil war came in April 1861, he rallied his supporters to the Union with
all his energies, but he died a few weeks later.

c ÎÎ 
)

 
c were a loose faction of American politicians within the Republican Party from about 1854
(before the American Civil War) until the end of Reconstruction in 1877. They
called themselves "radicals" and were opposed during the war by moderates and after
the war by self described "conservatives" (in the South) and "Liberals" (in the
North).
c During the war, Radical Republicans opposed President Abraham Lincoln's policies in
terms of selection of generals and his efforts to bring states back into the Union;
Lincoln vetoed the Radical plan in 1864 and was putting his own policies in effect
when he was assassinated in 1865.
c Radicals pushed for the uncompensated abolition of slavery, and after the war supported
Civil rights for freedmen (the newly freed slaves), such as measures ensuring the right
to vote. They initiated the Reconstruction Acts, and reduced rights for
ex-Confederate soldiers. The Radicals were vigorously opposed by the Democratic
Party and usually by moderate and Liberal Republicans as well.

c Îü. 




   
c is a contiguous network of railroad trackage that crosses a continental land mass with
terminals at different oceans or continental borders. Such networks can be via the
tracks of either a single railroad, or over those owned or controlled by multiple railway
companies along a continuous route.
c Although Europe is crisscrossed by railways, the railroads within Europe are usually not
considered transcontinental, with the possible exception of the historic Orient
Express.
c Transcontinental railroads helped open up unpopulated interior regions of continents to
exploration and settlement that would not otherwise have been feasible. In many
cases they also formed the backbones of cross-country passenger and freight
transportation networks.

c Î ( 
 
c in 1867, Kelley formed the National Grange of the Patrons of Husbandry, a fraternal
organization complete with its own secret rituals.
c Local affiliates were known as "granges" and the members as "grangers."
c In its early years, the Grange was devoted to educational events and social gatherings.

c Îî

  


c is a structured method of transmitting securities transactions in real-time. In the United
States, national market systems are governed by section 11A of the Securities Exchange
Act of 1934.
c In addition to processing the transactions themselves, these plans also emit the price and
volume data for these transactions. Information on each securities trade is sent to
a central network at the Securities Industry Automation Corporation (SIAC) where it
is then distributed, consolidated with other trades on the same "tape".

c There are three major tapes in the United States: Tape A and Tape B (which together are
called the "Consolidated Tape"), and Tape C.

c 48 %

S^£u
c was a serious economic depression in the United States that began in that year.Similar to
the Panic of 1873, this panic was marked by the collapse of railroad overbuilding and
 shaky railroad financing which set off a series of bank failures.
c Compounding market overbuilding and a railroad bubble was a run on the gold supply and
a policy of using both gold and silver metals as a peg for the US Dollar value.
c Until the Great Depression, the Panic of '93 was considered the worst depression the
United States had ever experienced.

Ú 49.) progressive era

Ú The Progressive Era in the United States was a period of social activism and reform that flourished
from the 1890s to the 1920s.
Ú The main goal of the Progressive movement was purification of government, as Progressives tried
to expose and undercut political machines and bosses.
Ú Many people led efforts to reform local government, education, medicine, finance, insurance,
industry, railroads, churches, and many other areas

Ú 50.) robert lafollette

Ú Robert Marion La Follette, Sr. nicknamed "Fighting Bob" La Follette (June 14, 1855± June 18,
1925) was an American politician who served as a U.S. Congressman, the 20th Governor of
Wisconsin (1901±1906), and Republican Senator from Wisconsin (1906±1925).
Ú He ran for President of the United States as the nominee of his own Progressive Party in 1924,
carrying Wisconsin and 17% of the national popular vote.
Ú His wife Belle Case La Follette and sons Robert M. La Follette, Jr. and Philip La Follette led his
political faction in Wisconsin into the 1940s.

Ú 51.) philippines
Ú The Philippines , officially known as the Republic of the Philippines , is a country in Southeast Asia
in the western Pacific Ocean.
Ú With an estimated population of about 92 million people, the Philippines is the world's 12th most
populous country
Ú The arrival of Ferdinand Magellan in 1521 marked the beginning of an era of Spanish interest and
eventual dominance.

Ú 52.)sharecroppers
Ú Sharecropping is a system of agriculture in which a landowner allows a tenant to use the land in
return for a share of the crop produced on the land
Ú This should not be confused with a crop fixed rent contract, in which a landowner allows a tenant to
use the land in return for a fixed amount of crop per unit of land .
Ú Sharecropping has a long history and there are a wide range of different situations and types of
agreements that have encompassed the system.

Ú 53.)dred scott case

Ú Dred Scott v. Sandford, 60 U.S. 393 (1857) commonly referred to as the Dred Scott decision, was a
 ruling by the U.S. Supreme Court that people of African descent imported into the United States
and held as slaves (or their descendants,whether or not they were slaves) were not protected by
the Constitution and could never be U.S. citizens.
Ú The court also held that the U.S. Congress had no authority to prohibit slavery in federal territories
and that, because slaves were not citizens, they could not sue in court.
Ú Lastly, the Court ruled that slaves, as chattels or private property, could not be taken away from
their owners without due process. The Supreme Court's decision was written by Chief Justice
Roger B. Taney.

Ú 54.) Northwest ordinance

Ú The Northwest Ordinance was an act of the Congress of the Confederation of the United States.
Ú The primary effect of the ordinance was the creation of the Northwest Territory as the first
organized territory of the United States out of the region south of the Great Lakes, north and west of
the Ohio River, and east of the Mississippi River.
Ú On August 7, 1789, the U.S. Congress affirmed the Ordinance with slight modifications under the
Constitution.

Ú 55.)spanish american war

Ú The Spanish±American War was a conflict in 1898 between Spain and the United States.[6]
Revolts against Spanish rule had been endemic for decades in Cuba and were closely watched by
Americans; there had been war scares before, as in the Virginius Affair in 1873.
Ú By 1897±98 American public opinion grew angrier at reports of Spanish atrocities, magnified by the
"yellow journalism".
Ú After the mysterious sinking of the American battleship Maine in Havana harbor, political pressures
from the Democratic Party pushed the government headed by President William McKinley, a
Republican, into a war McKinley had wished to avoid.\l

Ú 56.)u.s. mexico war

Ú The Mexican±American War was an armed conflict between the United States and Mexico from
1846 to 1848 in the wake of the 1845 U.S. annexation of Texas, which Mexico considered part of its
territory despite the 1836 Texas Revolution.
Ú In addition to a naval blockade off the Mexican coast, American forces invaded and conquered New
Mexico, California, and parts of what is currently northern Mexico.
Ú Another American army captured Mexico City, forcing Mexico to agree to the sale of its northern
territories to the U.S.

Ú 57.)business management practice in late 1800s

Ú Founded in 1851, Massachusetts Mutual Life Insurance Company (MassMutual) is a leading
mutual life insurance company that is run for the benefit of its members and participating
policyholders.
Ú The company has a long history of financial strength and strong performance, and although
dividends are not guaranteed,
Ú MassMutual has paid dividends to eligible participating policyholders every year since the 1860s.

Ú 58.)U.S. territory acquired after spanish america war

Ú Manifest Destiny was the 19th century American belief that the United States was destined to
expand across the North American continent,
Ú From the Atlantic seaboard to the Pacific Ocean.
Ú It was used by Democrats in the 1840s to justify the war with Mexico; the concept was denounced
by Whigs, and fell into disuse after the mid 1800s.

Ú 59.)samoa
Ú Samoa, officially the Independent State of Samoa, formerly known as Western Samoa and German
Samoa, is a country governing the western part of the Samoan Islands in the South Pacific Ocean.
Ú It became independent from New Zealand in 1962. The two main islands of Samoa are Upolu and
one of the biggest islands in Polynesia, Savai'i.
Ú The capital city Apia and Faleolo International Airport are situated on the island of Upolu.

Ú 60.)ida wells
Ú Ida Bell Wells-Barnett (July 16, 1862 ± March 25, 1931) was an African American journalist,
newspaper editor and, with her husband, newspaper owner Ferdinand L. Barnett, an early leader in
the civil rights movement.
Ú She documented the extent of lynching in the United States, and was also active in the women's
rights movement and the women's suffrage movement.
Ú Ida¶s father James was a master at carpentry and known as a race man. He was also very
interested in politics, but he never took office.

Ú 61.) muller vs. oregon

Ú Muller v. Oregon, 208 U.S. 412 (1908), was a landmark decision in United States Supreme Court
history, as it justifies both sex discrimination and usage of labor laws during the time period.
Ú The case upheld Oregon state restrictions on the working hours of women as justified by the
special state interest in protecting women's health.
Ú The case was decided a mere three years after Lochner v. New York, 198 U.S. 45 (1905), in which
a New York law restricting the weekly working hours of bakers was invalidated.

Ú 62.) american federation labor (AFL)

Ú The American Federation of Labor (AFL) was one of the first federations of labor unions in the
 United States.
Ú It was founded in 1886 by an alliance of craft unions disaffected from the Knights of Labor, a
national labor association.
Ú Gompers promoted harmony among the different craft unions that comprised the AFL.

Ú 63.)yellow journalism

Ú yellow journalism or the yellow press is a type of journalism that presents little or no legitimate
well-researched news and instead uses eye-catching headlines to sell more newspapers.
Ú Techniques may include exaggerations of news events, scandal-mongering, or sensationalism.
Ú By extension "Yellow Journalism" is used today as a pejorative to decry any journalism that treats
news in an unprofessional or unethical fashion.

Ú 64.trusts :

Ú A special trust or business trust is a business entity formed with intent to monopolize business, to
restrain trade, or to fix prices.
Ú Trusts gained economic power in the U.S. in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
Ú Involvement in money and banks

Ú 65.theodore rooselvelt :

Ú Theodore "Teddy" Roosevelt October 27, 1858 ± January 6, 1919) was the 26th President of the
United States.
Ú He is noted for his energetic personality, range of interests and achievements, leadership of the
Progressive Movement, and his "cowboy" image and robust masculinity.
Ú Born into a wealthy family, Roosevelt was an unhealthy child who suffered from asthma and stayed
at home studying natural history.

Ú 66.nativist fears in early 1900s

Ú The main explanation for the origins of the American Civil War is slavery, especially Southern anger
at the attempts by Northern antislavery political forces to block the expansion of slavery into the
western territories.
Ú States' rights and the tariff issue became entangled in the slavery issue, and were intensified by it.
Ú In different periods of American history, the role of Congress shifted along with changing relations
with the other branches of government, and was sometimes marked by intense partisanship and
other times by cooperation across the aisle.

Ú 67.college enrollment in late 1800/early 1900s

Ú Mount Saint Joseph Academy is an all-girls, Roman Catholic college preparatory school in the
Brighton neighborhood of Boston, Massachusetts.
Ú The school is located within the Archdiocese of Boston, and is accredited by the New England
Association of Schools and Colleges.
Ú The first documented French visitor to the Kansas City area was Étienne de Veniard, Sieur de
Bourgmont, who was also the first European to explore the lower Missouri River.

Ú 68.american socialists
Ú The American Socialist Union was recognised in 1954 as the sympathising organisation in the
United States of the International Secretariat of the Fourth International.
Ú Its best-known members were Bert Cochran, Harry Braverman and Paul N. Siegel. It dissolved in
1959.
Ú In the first decades of the 20th Century, it drew significant support from many different groups,
including trade unionists, progressive social reformers, populist farmers, and immigrant
communities.

Ú 69.william howard taft

Ú William Howard Taft (September 15, 1857 ± March 8, 1930) was the 27th President of the United
States and later the 10th Chief Justice of the United States.
Ú he is the only person to have served in both offices.
Ú Riding a wave of popular support of President (and fellow Republican) Theodore Roosevelt, Taft
won an easy victory in his 1908 bid for the presidency.

Ú 70.crispus attucks

Ú Crispus Attucks (1723 ± March 5, 1770) was killed in the Boston Massacre in Boston,
Massachusetts.
Ú He has been named as the first martyr of the American Revolution.
Ú In the early nineteenth century, as the Abolitionist movement gained momentum in Boston, Attucks
was lauded as an example of a black American who played a heroic role in the history of the United
States [2] Because Crispus Attucks had Wampanoag ancestors, his story also holds special
[3]
significance for many Native Americans.

Ú 71.thomas paine

Ú Thomas "Tom" Paine (February 9, 1737 [O.S. January 29, 1736[1]] ± June 8, 1809) was an author,
pamphleteer, radical, inventor, intellectual, revolutionary, and one of the Founding Fathers of the
United States.
Ú He has been called "a staymaker by trade, a journalist by profession, and a propagandist by
inclination."
Ú Born in Thetford, in the English county of Norfolk, Paine emigrated to the British American colonies
in 1774 in time to participate in the American Revolution.

Ú 72.george 3rd

Ú George III (George William Frederick; 4 June 1738[1] ± 29 January 1820 [N.S.]) was King of Great
Britain and King of Ireland from 25 October 1760 until the union of these two countries on 1 January
1801, after which he was King of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland until his death.
Ú He was concurrently Duke and prince-elector of Brunswick-Lüneburg ("Hanover") in the Holy
Roman Empire until his promotion to King of Hanover on 12 October 1814.
Ú He was the third British monarch of the House of Hanover, but unlike his two predecessors he was
born in Britain and spoke English as his first language.[2] Despite his long life, he never visited
Hanover.
Ú 73 . ) dr.benjamin rush

Ú Benjamin Rush (January 4, 1746 [O.S. December 24, 1745] ± April 19, 1813) was a Founding
Father of the United States.
Ú Rush lived in the state of Pennsylvania and was a physician, writer, educator, humanitarian
Ú and a Universalist,[1] as well as the founder of Dickinson College in Carlisle, Pennsylvania.

Ú îÎ %



Ú He lived by lands west of the Appalachians, settlers claimed Native American hunting grounds that
the French had protected.
Ú He was an Ottawa chief that led the proclamation of 1763.
Ú Within a few months Native Americans captured or destroyed British forts killing settlers.

Ú îü +( 


Ú An enslaved laborer who escaped from his master and joined the colonists.
Ú He ³saw liberty poles and people all engaged for the purpose of freedom,´
Ú A small amount of African Americans living in the colonies served in the continental army.

Ú î &
 

Ú A member of congress from Kentucky, he was a war hawk. He organized his ideas into an
economic plan called the American System.This system was based on the idea that a stronger
national government would benefit each of the different sections of the country. also ,Clay
supported the 1816 bill to increase tariffs. This bill passed.
Ú In 1816 congress faced whether or not to charter a new Bank of the United States. Clay supported
the Bank arguing that it would stabilize the economy and encourage investments. The bill passed.
Ú Clay wanted the government to supply money for improvements such as roads. The south saw the
benefits. The north did not want this; they argued that there were roads and canals already. They
would not directly benefit.Three of clays internal improvement bills were passed by congress and
then vetoed by three different presidents. Clay was disappointed that these Presidents paid so little
attention to internal improvements.

Ú îî /
!)

Ú Worked with Henry Clay during the bank crisis in 1832.

Ú They knew how Jackson felt and planned to strengthen the bank and embarrass the president at
the same time.
Ú Together they drafted a bill re-chartering the bank, even though the bank¶s original charter still had
4 years remaining. They reasoned that Jackson would not dare to veto a bill in his reelection year.
Ú The bill passed congress and reached the president in July 1832.

Ú î^ /



Ú Daniel Boone an American pioneer, explorer, and frontiersman whose frontier exploits made him
 one of the first folk heroes of the United States.
Ú Boone is most famous for his exploration and settlement of what is now the Commonwealth of
Kentucky ,which was then beyond the western borders of the settled part of Thirteen Colonies .
Ú Despite some resistance from American Indian tribes such as the Shawnee, in 1778 Boone blazed
his Wilderness Road through the Cumberland Gap in the Appalachian Mountains - from North
Carolina and Tennessee into Kentucky.

Ú î£ +
 


Ú Was the seventh Vice President of the United States and a leading Southern politician from South
Carolina during the first half of the 19th century.
Ú His redefinition of Republicanism was widely accepted in the South and rejected in the North at the
time.
Ú His defense of slavery became defunct, but his concept of concurrent majority, whereby a minority
has the right to object to or perhaps even veto hostile legislation directed against it, has been
incorporated into the American value system.
Ú ^ 
 '+


Ú His image as a no nonsense frontiersman who had worked his way up the ladder of society
appealed to many voters , but lost the election of 1824, causing the Democratic Republican party to
split. Democrats supported him and won the election of 1828.
Ú Jackson was an active executive who vetoed more bills than all previous presidents. He believed in
rewarding loyalty and appealing to the masses. He relied on an informal group of advisors called
the "Kitchen Cabinet" to set policy instead of his real cabinet. During Jackson's presidency,
sectional issues began to arise. Many Southern states wished to preserve states' rights. They were
upset over tariffs and when in 1832, Jackson signed a moderate tariff, South Carolina felt they had
the right through "nullification" (the belief that a state could rule something unconstitutional) to
ignore it. Jackson stood strong against South Carolina, ready to use the military if necessary to
enforce the tariff. In 1833, a compromise tariff was enacted that helped mollify the sectional
differences for a time.
Ú In 1832, Jackson vetoed the Second Bank of the United State's charter. He believed the
government could not constitutionally create such a bank and that it favored the wealthy over the
common people. This action led to federal money being put into state banks who then loaned it out
freely leading to inflation. Jackson stopped the easy credit by requiring all land purchases be made
in gold or silver which would have consequences in 1837. Jackson supported Georgia's expulsion
of the Indians from their land to reservations in the West. He used the Indian Removal Act of 1830
to force them to move, even discounting the Supreme Court ruling in x

 

 (1832)
that said they could not be forced to move. From 1838-39, troops led over 15,000 Cherokees from
Georgia in what is called the Trail of Tears.

Ú ^S 1
2
Ú Lucretia Coffin Mott was an American Quaker, abolitionist, social reformer, and proponent of
women's rights.
Ú She is credited as the first American "feminist" in the early 19th century but was, more accurately,
the initiator of women's political advocacy.
Ú By the 1830s, Mott was gaining considerable recognition as an abolitionist.
Ú ^· 


Ú Remained in Ohio after the Ohio confederation and preached to the remaining Shawnee people of
Native American pride, power, and unity. They would reclaim the lost land and form a boundary that
would separate them from the white people.
Ú Established a community called Prophet¶s Town along Indiana¶s Tippecanoe river.
Ú The whites of the territory became aware of the town and attacked it. Tecumseh survived and
continued the resistance, until he was killed fighting in the war of 1812.
^u 3 
Ú Spent 12 years devising an alphabet for the Cherokee language.
Ú Using the alphabet the Cherokee printed a newspaper called Cherokee phoenix.
Ú His invention enabled many of the Cherokee to read and write in their own language as well as in
English.

^Î 2  

Ú In 1914, launched a drive to inform women of ways to prevent pregnancy.
Ú Her idea was considered obscene, and she was arrested for violating the Comstock act.
Ú Charges against her were dropped in1916.

^ü  

! 
Ú Led the women¶s Christian temperance union. (WCTU)
Ú Advocated voting rights for women.
Ú Lobbied prison, reform, world peace, various health issues.
Ú Her slogan was ³Do everything´

^ ! 

)

Ú Leader of the social gospel movement, he was the six- generation minister.
Ú After he studied theology in New York and Germany he became pastor of the second German
Baptist church in New York City.
Ú His church bordered a region named hell¶s kitchen, because of alcoholism, unemployment, and
poverty.
Ú He turned to the Bible and faith for a response to an industrial system that made ³ the margin of
life narrow in order to make the margin of profit wide.´
Ú He believed that environmental conditions caused the ill in society, and believed every Christian
should strive to better economics and political conditions.

^î # )
Ú Muckraker who rote a series of widely read articles detailing the rise of standard oil company.
Ú She exposed methods used by John D. Rockefeller.
Ú He would crush his competition including Tarbell¶s father.

^^ 4


 
Ú Grew up near povery in Baltimore. Hs father a salesperson, who suffered from alcoholism.
Ú Wrote novels about an individual who fought against social injustice.
Ú A newspaper ³Appeal to reason´ hired Sinclair to write a novel about exploitation of workers in the
U.S.
Ú Wrote ³The Jungle´ which is about a Lithuanian immigrant who worked in a meat packing industry.
It made customers mad.

^£ +

Ú Purchased the Hull house, which was a community center.
Ú Also opened a day nursery, for parents that needed a place to take their children while they worked.
Ú Advocated reforms. ± of problems caused by industrialization and urbanization.

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Ú A Danish immigrant who was impressed by the ethnic diversity of American Cities.
Ú Said ³ A map of the city, colored to designate nationalities, would show more stripes than on the
skin of a zebra, and more colors than any rainbow.´
Ú Most others disagrees and found the large number of immigrants frustrating.

£S 1 

Ú During the Muller vs. Oregon case, Josephine Goldmark asked Louis Brandeis to defend Oregon.
Ú His evidence proved persuasive, the supremem court upheld the Oregon law to protect public
interest.
Ú The state government had the right to regulate the work of women, to protect the public interest.

£·  

5
Ú Lived and worked at Jane Addams Hull house.
Ú Said that children in working conditions were hazardous to their health.
Ú Pressed the government to outlaw child labor.
Ú Ws secretary of the national consumer¶s league, and held boycotts of goods manufactured by
children.
£u +
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Ú He was a philosopher.
Ú He said that the schools overemphasized memorization of knowledge.
Ú Dewey argued schools should teach students to be good citizens.
 £Î +
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Ú Progressive, who followed the Muller vs. Oregon case.
Ú She recruited her brother in law, Louis Brandeis to defend Oregon law.
Ú She collected evidence showing how long hours damaged the health of women.
Ú Her evidence proved persuasive and the Oregon law was upheld.

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Ú A political machine in the country, that controlled life in New York City was head quartered in the
Tammy Hall machine.
Ú A newspaper reporter observed Plunkitt¶s actions.
Ú Tammy hall associates rewarded him for his ability to deliver a large number of votes to party
candidates each election day.

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Ú The Triangle Shirtwaist Factory fire in New York City, New York, United States on March 25, 1911,
was the deadliest industrial disaster in the history of the city of New York, and resulted in the fourth
highest loss of life from an industrial accident in U.S. history.
Ú The fire caused the deaths of 146 garment workers, most of them women, who either died from the
fire or jumped from the fatal height. Most of the workers could not escape the burning building
because the managers locked the doors to the stairwells and exits to keep them from leaving early.
People jumped from the eighth, ninth, and tenth floors as the ladders on the existing fire trucks
could only reach the sixth floor. 
Ú The fire led to legislation requiring improved factory safety standards and helped spur the growth of
the International Ladies' Garment Workers' Union, which fought for better and safer working
conditions for sweatshop workers in that industry. 
Ú The Triangle Shirtwaist Factory was located inside the Asch Building, now known as the Brown
Building of Science. It has been designated as a National Historic Landmark and a New York City
landmark.