'I

YOGA

yoga.sci ttavrtti nirodha !1.

Disciplined meditation involves the cessation of the functioning of ordinary
awareness.
-Patafijali, Yoga Sutras 1_2

HISTORY
Like the Sarpkhya school, the Yoga school holds that liberation is brought
about by discerning the duality between puru?a (consciousness) and prakrti
(materiality). They too believed that the material world emerged from
prakrti, given its proximity to puru?a. The ultimate goal was thus for the
puru~a to see itself as distinct from the prakrti and, consequently, for it to be
no longer born in the cycle of birth and rebirth. Patafijali's school of Yoga
offers a way to end the suffering of birth and rebirth that results in citta-
vrtii-nirodha (the cessation of ordinary awareness). Once one has ceased all
mental functions , one will attain "concentration without content."1 The
pun1?a , then, reaches a kaivalya (isolated) consciousness and is liberated.
The Sarpkhya and Yoga schools are very closely related and share some
similar concepts. The two are often referred to together or even combined
as "Sarpkhyayoga." Despite these attempts to coalesce the two, they are
still separate traditions with some significant differences.
Although the word yoga derives from the Sanskrit root ../yuj ("to bind,
yoke, join, or unite ") and often refers to any sort of disciplined practice,
the term is used in this context as "concentration" or "disciplined medita-
tion ." This characterization distinguishes the philosophical system de-
scribed by Patafijali from earlier forms of disciplined practice. Little is
 . __ Y11g.1 I ;q
tanJ·alJ , purpo1 ted author of t·hr Yoq s· .
of Pa . a . u11 a~(3~0-
1,1ov.1J1 a sutras became the foundation of ti . 450 ( .1.) Pa
J\J 11·'s yog . - w Yoga sch00 I f
tai1.i'1 h and is considered the foundation for th _ · o Indian
5op Y . d . e contenipor ,
hito that are practice outside of India . It g . ary variet
P f ,ogc1 - , - ave rise to tw .
·es
l
o ) ··es·
11 tall ·
vyasa s bha$ya (commentary) kn
, own as th v -
° canonical
co111n1e . ) and Vacaspatimisra's bhasya kno e Yrua-bha$ya
450 c.E, ' . . ' wn as the i .,_
(350~ e arding the Truth [of Yoga as Set Forth in V as , _attvavaisaradi
(c/orit)' R 9 y as Bh~ya]) (ca. 950
(,£,).

T£MOLOGY
£Pl S
Og
a school accepts three pramar:ias (sources of l'd k
1he Y a (perception),. • - . va 1 nowledge):
anumana (mference)· and agama ( l'd t .
ratya ks. . . ' va 1 estimony)
P -na rnoreover, 1s the first modification of the citta ( ) ·
prama . , . .. awareness . The
. (awareness) 1s a cogmtlve faculty and is the first prod t f k .
citta . . UC O pra ftI
(rnore on prakrt1 below). When the cztta comes into contact with objects it
is rnodified.

ONTOLOGY
According to the Yoga school, the universe is composed of only two ele-
ments, puru$a and prakrti. Like the Sarµkhya school, Patafijali proposed that
the world is brought about through the interaction between the puru~a and
the prakrti. The manifest world emerges from prakrti in a series of transfor-
mations. Ultimately, puru$a is kaivalya (isolated). God is mentioned in the
Yoga Sutras as a type of puru$a. Prakrti is composed of three gu,:ias (constitu-
ent processes).
The citta undergoes five kinds of vrttis (transformations): prama,:ia
(knowledge); viparyaya (error); vikalpa (conceptual construction); nidra
(sleep); and smrti (memory).Through these modifications the puru~a comes
to know the world and, unfortunately and incorrectly, to identify with it.
Since the citta is continuously modified, the goal is to end all of the mental
functions through concentration. These modifications, moreover, are ei-
ther kli~ta (afflicted) or ak!ista (unafflicted). When they are kli~ta they gen-
erate karma and lead to rebirth. When they are not kli~ta they do not give
rise to karma and eventually lead to an awareness of the difference be-
tween puru$a and prakrti. Patafijali thus states that there are five kle~as (af-
 - · r 1K A SC HOOLS
1RO r 1VE A':>
' in birt·h :rnd rebirth : avidya (igno .
. .
. 11 -) 1·hal" res11 11 , anee)
nict10 ~ ___11ment) ; dve.<a (h atr·ed); abhinive.fo (clingin ; asniita
·t)1)· 1"tl</<d,!ltJ L
I . .
g t0 ord · (eoltiar tiO
Y1,reJ

soTE RI OLOGY
·oned the goal of the Yoga school is for adh
~s alrea dYmen t1 ' • • • • • erents
'- . and the prakrt1 are distinct. This 1s attainabl toreai·
that the pw U?a _ . . e 6y i ?e
1

. en,ioined in the aJtw1ga (eight limbs) of Yoga ·th 0llowih

the practices 'J . • . , rou. h "&
one can begu1 . to control the C1tta and attain higher levels of awg which
eventually reaching samiidhi (altered state: of awareness) and the arehess,
of kaivalya (isolation) . The a?tm:1ga are: yama (rest . PreellJi-
nent state ___ raint)· .
(observance); asana (posture); prar;ayama (breath control)- , nlJa_
ma ) dh - (f· . ) dh - , Pratyah ·
(withdrawal of sense-org~ns .; arar;a 1xat10n ; yana (reflective ni a~a
. )·, and samiidhi (cult1vat10n of altered states of awareness) .
tat1011 edi-

THE TEXT
The entirety of Patafijali 's Yoga Sutras is included here. The Yoga Siitr; .
composed of 195 su~as ~ap_horisms) and is divided into four pii.das (boo~s;~
The first book, Samadh1-pada, concerns the levels of awareness. Book
2
sadhana-pada ' includes the means to attain these levels. Book 3, Vi'bh·Ut1-.'
pada, is a characterization of the siddhis (powers) that one attains when
one becomes more adept at Yoga. The fourth book, Kaivalya-pada, concerns
the nature of liberation. The sutras are often enigmatic and consequently
gave rise to a commentarial tradition. This translation has incorporated
some of the commentary from Vyasa's Vyasa-bh¾ya (350- 450 c.E.) and from
Vacaspatimisra's Tattvavaisaradf.

PATANJALI 'S YOGA SUTRAS

Book 1. On Altered States of Concentration (Samiidhi-pada)

1. Herein begins an inquiry into disciplined meditation based upon

past functioning of ordinary awareness (citta) .
2· Disciplined meditation involves the cessation of the functioning of
ordinary awareness.
3. Then, (that is, when the functioning of ordinary awareness has
ceased) th ere is the condition of the seer (that is, puru~a) as it is in itself
 i-nsroRY
_ -dir eva dharma~.
yaga
sacrifice and so on alone are dharma.
-Laugak~i Bhaskara, ArthasaT/lgraha 1.Z

The Mimarpsa school was cent~red chiefly upon the proper interpreta-
tions of Vedic passages and the implementation of the injunctions found
in them. Its proponen~s defended the authority, consistency, and integrity
of the Vedas. In so domg, they sought to cement what they perceived to
be the ultimate goal of the Vedas: to act according to one's dharma (duty/
obligation) and to perform the vidhis (injunctions) found in the Vedas.
Reflections on the import of the Vedas can be traced to 1000 s.c.E., al-
though they were not systematized until Jaimini composed the Mi'miirrisii
Siitras (ca. 25 c.E.).1 The text was commented upon by Sabara (400 c.E.) 2 in
his Sabara-bh¾)la, which was regarded as the standard point of reference
in Mfmarpsa. Subsequent commentaries by Mfmarpsa thinkers were large-
ly on the Sabara-bh¾)la. Two schools developed out of the tradition of com-
mentary on the Sabara-bhcfyya, one founded by Kumarila Bhatta (the Bhatta
school) and one by Prabhakara (the Prabhakara school), both of whom
lived in the seventh century c.E. The systematic hermeneutic and theory of
language that they developed was one of the most influential among the
schools of Indian thought.

EPISTEMOLOGY
The Prabhakara school of Mimamsa school accepts five pramii~as (sources
of valid knowledge): pratya~a (p~rception); anumiina (inference); upamiina

• r,
IL ~
 q1).: 1\ 5( \\ 00 1 s
r 1\ I i\ -
1..it, , (testimony); and arthcipatti (presu 117 .
{
._ )· sc1bc <.l • • k Pt10 )
( . 1n1pari:-on ' . that are given to ma e sense of s n . Ar L
,, , lanat1ons . . ometh· triq
-efers to exp . ,ever seen eatmg dunng the day 1rig " Pqt1
I ·f evadatta is t . . ' Yet is . ror I
ample, 1 D t 0 ne can surmise that Devadatta is h . gr0,~t ex
rpulen , av1n ( ing -
creasingIYco k The Bhatta school adds anupalabdh .( g at th 1Q.
·d ightsnac • 1 n0 e"
least) a m1 n . According to Kumarila, anupalabdhi 117 k ricogDi _e~
t. 1·st of five . . 'bl h . a es th t1ohl
to tr11s I O
f something poss1 e. T at 1s, the va\·d
1
e ai.. ,,
h absence cog • •var
ness of t e desk" is an apprehension of the no . 111 tion , e.
ey is not on my nexisteh fhe
111011k , d k 'Ice f
on one s es . o th
monkey up . ) which includes the Vedas, is of the e
Sabda (testimony ' - - - , . greatest .
. . trality to M1ma111sa. Sabda 1s of two variet· 'tnp
ce given its cen ies·a or.
tan ' l) dpauruseya (personal). The Vedas are apauru · ~au~(>\,
(impersona an · d _ $eya sabd 7 a
_ k st argue that the Ve as are svata~-pramiiny (· a. 1h
Mi'mamsa as mu d . f ll'b . . a Intrin . e
. ·. dd't' n to being eternal an m a 1 le. Their argurn s1cally
vahd), in a l 10 . h 11 ent reJ·
. •cal theory by wh1c a utterances are valid Th !es on
an ep1stemo1ogi . . . · eValidi
e however, 1s quest10nable. Smee the Vedas a ~ of
ahuman utt era ne ' . reapau
•mpersonal) they do not suffer this criticism A ~eyq
(aut hor1ess, 1 . . .. · ccordin
,b 1·nguistic utterance gives nse to a cogmt10n. If the gto
Sa ara, a l . cognitio .
nambiguous, then one can act on 1t. Moreover until th nis
Cleaf an d U . · 3
' eUtt
en falsified it cannot be Judged as false . This line of er.
ance has be _ .. . argume
is at the core of the Mimarpsa position and its defense of the Vedas. nt

ONTOLOGY
According to the Mimarpsa school, the universe is real, as are the deities
and places mentioned in the Vedas. Their padarthas (categories) are ver
similar to those put forth by the Nyaya-Vaise~ika school. Prabhakara holfs
that there are eight padarthas: dravya (substance); gu)'.la (quality); kanna
(action); samanya (generality); paratantra (inherence); sakti (power/poten-
cy); sadrsya (similarity); and sarrikhya (number). To this list Kumarila adds
abhava (nonexistence). There are nine dravyas (substances): prthivi(earth);
ap (water); vayu (air); agni (fire); akasa (ether); atman (self); manas (mind);
kala (time); and dik (space). To these Kumarila adds tamas (darkness) and
sabda (sound).
There are three types of Vedic activities that give rise to karma: nifya
(obligatory) acts; kamya (optional) acts, which also give rise to puQya (mer-
it) that may lead to rebirth in svarga (heaven); and pratisiddha (forbidden)
acts that give rise to papa (demerit).
 - - - 1 . Mimarrisa 197
tral to M1marrisa onto ogy 1s apilrva (th . . .
cen ) _. . e 1nv1s1ble
and effect . Apurva 1s an unseen pote h . potency between
cause ncy t at Is g
es in an action. It is because of the ap - h enerated when one
enga g urva t at th f£
. . thus the causal link that makes the karm h _e e ect occurs, and
,t ,s a mec anism possible.

soTERIOLOGY
There are several goals for the Mimamsaka· first t 0 10
c
11ow the dharma of
. . . · · '
the Vedas, namely to fulfill Vedic vidhis (iniunctions) t c ·-
. . )· d _ :.1 o penorm yaJnas
(sacrifices , secon , to perform kamya-karma (optional acts) that will result
in rebirth in svarga (heaven).

THE TEXT

The Mimaqisa text here is a selection (1.1.2- 1.1.4) from the Tarkapada (Sec-
tion on Reasoning) portion of the Sabara-bh~a. In it Sabara explains which
prama1;as give rise to knowledge of dharma. After defining dharma (1.1.2) ,
he explains that the Vedas are the only means by which one learns about
dharma (1 .1.3, 1.1.4). Within this section can be found the beginnings of the
arguments concerning svata~-pramci.]'.lya.

FROM SABARA' S SABARA -BHA$YA

1.1.2. Dharmais that which is indicated by [known by means on the
Veda as conducive to the highest good.
The term chodana they use in the sense of the injunctive text; men are found
saying "I am doing this act on being enjoined (choditah) by the Teacher." La.~a,:1a
is that by which something is indicated (pointed out): for instance, w~en fire is
. d' t d by smoke, they say that smoke is the lak?ar:ia (indicator) of ftre . That
m ica e . . h " th· conducive to
. h .. d1'cated by the said injunctive text is art a, some mg . . .
h
w 1c 1s m . h' h' hest ood.11115 1s
the highest good"; that is , it brings man into contact with is ig g

what we assert. . bl of making known (in-

. . th Vedic injunction that is capa e
As a matter of fact , it ,s e h . btle or hidden or remote
. t r future , also w at is su
dicating) what is past, presen ' o f ["But what is indicated or
d b ny organ o sense.
and such like; this cannot be one y a bin to be done, or things con-
h Vedic text is only an act, somet g -
made known by t e lished thing," says ~juvimala].
nected with that act, and not any accomp