A Manual for the

MECHANICS of FLUIDS LABORATORY

William S. Janna
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Memphis State University
 ©1997 William S. Janna

All Rights Reserved.

No part of this manual may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
system, or transcribed in any form or by any means—electronic, magnetic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise—
without the prior written consent of William S. Janna

2
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Item Page

Report Writing.................................................................................................................4
Cleanliness and Safety ....................................................................................................6
Experiment 1 Density and Surface Tension.....................................................7
Experiment 2 Viscosity.........................................................................................9
Experiment 3 Center of Pressure on a Submerged Plane Surface.............10
Experiment 4 Measurement of Differential Pressure..................................12
Experiment 5 Impact of a Jet of Water ............................................................14
Experiment 6 Critical Reynolds Number in Pipe Flow...............................16
Experiment 7 Fluid Meters................................................................................18
Experiment 8 Pipe Flow .....................................................................................22
Experiment 9 Pressure Distribution About a Circular Cylinder................24
Experiment 10 Drag Force Determination .......................................................27
Experiment 11 Analysis of an Airfoil................................................................28
Experiment 12 Open Channel Flow—Sluice Gate .........................................30
Experiment 13 Open Channel Flow Over a Weir ..........................................32
Experiment 14 Open Channel Flow—Hydraulic Jump ................................34
Experiment 15 Open Channel Flow Over a Hump........................................36
Experiment 16 Measurement of Velocity and Calibration of
a Meter for Compressible Flow.............................39
Experiment 17 Measurement of Fan Horsepower .........................................44
Experiment 18 Measurement of Pump Performance....................................46
Appendix .........................................................................................................................50

3
 REPORT WRITING

All reports in the Fluid Mechanics

Bibliography
Laboratory require a formal laboratory report
unless specified otherwise. The report should be Calibration Curves
written in such a way that anyone can duplicate
the performed experiment and find the same Original Data Sheet
results as the originator. The reports should be (Sample Calculation)

simple and clearly written. Reports are due one Appendix

week after the experiment was performed, unless Title Page

specified otherwise. Discussion & Conclusion

The report should communicate several ideas (Interpretation)

to the reader. First the report should be neatly Results (Tables

done. The experimenter is in effect trying to and Graphs)

convince the reader that the experiment was Procedure (Drawings

and Instructions)
performed in a straightforward manner with
great care and with full attention to detail. A Theory
(Textbook Style)
poorly written report might instead lead the
reader to think that just as little care went into Object
(Past Tense)
performing the experiment. Second, the report
should be well organized. The reader should be Table of Contents
Each page numbered
able to easily follow each step discussed in the
text. Third, the report should contain accurate
results. This will require checking and rechecking Experiment Number
Experiment Title
the calculations until accuracy can be guaranteed.
Your Name
Fourth, the report should be free of spelling and
grammatical errors. The following format, shown Due Date

in Figure R.1, is to be used for formal Laboratory Partners’ Names

Reports:

Title Page–The title page should show the title

and number of the experiment, the date the
experiment was performed, experimenter's
name and experimenter's partners' names.
Table of Contents –Each page of the report must
be numbered for this section.
Object –The object is a clear concise statement
explaining the purpose of the experiment.
This is one of the most important parts of the
laboratory report because everything
included in the report must somehow relate to
the stated object. The object can be as short as
one sentence and it is usually written in the
past tense.
Theory –The theory section should contain a
complete analytical development of all
important equations pertinent to the
experiment, and how these equations are used
in the reduction of data. The theory section
should be written textbook-style.
Procedure – The procedure section should contain
a schematic drawing of the experimental
setup including all equipment used in a parts
list with manufacturer serial numbers, if any.
Show the function of each part when
necessary for clarity. Outline exactly step-
FIGURE R.1. Format for formal reports.
by-step how the experiment was performed in
case someone desires to duplicate it. If it
cannot be duplicated, the experiment shows
nothing.
Results – The results section should contain a
formal analysis of the data with tables,
graphs, etc. Any presentation of data which
serves the purpose of clearly showing the
outcome of the experiment is sufficient.
Discussion and Conclusion – This section should
give an interpretation of the results
explaining how the object of the experiment
was accomplished. If any analytical
expression is to be verified, calculate % error†
and account for the sources. Discuss this
experiment with respect to its faults as well
† % error–An analysis expressing how favorably the
empirical data approximate theoretical information.
There are many ways to find % error, but one method is
introduced here for consistency. Take the difference
between the empirical and theoretical results and divide
by the theoretical result. Multiplying by 100% gives the
% error. You may compose your own error analysis as
long as your method is clearly defined.

4
 as its strong points. Suggest extensions of the
experiment and improvements. Also
recommend any changes necessary to better
accomplish the object.
Each experiment write-up contains a
number of questions. These are to be answered
or discussed in the Discussion and Conclusions
section.
Appendix
(1) Original data sheet.
(2) Show how data were used by a sample
calculation.
(3) Calibration curves of instrument which
were used in the performance of the
experiment. Include manufacturer of the
instrument, model and serial numbers.
Calibration curves will usually be supplied
by the instructor.
(4) Bibliography listing all references used.
Features of note
• Border is drawn about the entire graph.
• Axis labels defined with symbols and
units.
• Grid drawn using major axis divisions.
• Each line is identified using a legend.
• Data points are identified with a
symbol: “ ´” on the Qac line to denote
data points obtained by experiment.
• The line representing the theoretical
results has no data points represented.
• Nothing is drawn freehand.
• Title is descriptive, rather than
something like Q vs ∆h.
Short Form Report Format
Often the experiment requires not a formal
report but an informal report. An informal report
includes the Title Page, Object, Procedure,
Results, and Conclusions. Other portions may be
added at the discretion of the instructor or the
writer. Another alternative report form consists
of a Title Page, an Introduction (made up of
shortened versions of Object, Theory, and
Procedure) Results, and Conclusion and
Discussion. This form might be used when a
detailed theory section would be too long.
Graphs
In many instances, it is necessary to compose a
plot in order to graphically present the results.
Graphs must be drawn neatly following a specific
format. Figure R.2 shows an acceptable graph
prepared using a computer. There are many
computer programs that have graphing
capabilities. Nevertheless an acceptably drawn
graph has several features of note. These features
are summarized next to Figure R.2.
0.2
Q
th
flow rate Q in m /s
0.15 Q
3
ac
0.1
0.05
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
head loss ∆ h in m
FIGURE R.2. Theoretical and actual volume flow rate
through a venturi meter as a function of head loss.
5
 CLEANLINESS AND SAFETY
Cleanliness
There are “housekeeping” rules that the user
of the laboratory should be aware of and abide
by. Equipment in the lab is delicate and each
piece is used extensively for 2 or 3 weeks per
semester. During the remaining time, each
apparatus just sits there, literally collecting dust.
University housekeeping staff are not required to
clean and maintain the equipment. Instead, there
are college technicians who will work on the
equipment when it needs repair, and when they
are notified that a piece of equipment needs
attention. It is important, however, that the
equipment stay clean, so that dust will not
accumulate too badly.
The Fluid Mechanics Laboratory contains
equipment that uses water or air as the working
fluid. In some cases, performing an experiment
will inevitably allow water to get on the
equipment and/or the floor. If no one cleaned up
their working area after performing an
experiment, the lab would not be a comfortable or
safe place to work in. No student appreciates
walking up to and working with a piece of
equipment that another student or group of
students has left in a mess.
Consequently, students are required to clean
up their area at the conclusion of the performance
of an experiment. Cleanup will include removal
of spilled water (or any liquid), and wiping the
table top on which the equipment is mounted (if
appropriate). The lab should always be as clean
or cleaner than it was when you entered. Cleaning
the lab is your responsibility as a user of the
equipment. This is an act of courtesy that students
who follow you will appreciate, and that you
will appreciate when you work with the
equipment.
Safety
The layout of the equipment and storage
cabinets in the Fluid Mechanics Lab involves
resolving a variety of conflicting problems. These
include traffic flow, emergency facilities,
environmental safeguards, exit door locations,
etc. The goal is to implement safety requirements
without impeding egress, but still allowing
adequate work space and necessary informal
communication opportunities.
Distance between adjacent pieces of
equipment is determined by locations of floor
drains, and by the need to allow enough space
around the apparatus of interest. Immediate
access to the Safety Cabinet is also considered.
Emergency facilities such as showers, eye wash
fountains, spill kits, fire blankets and the like
are not found in the lab. We do not work with
hazardous materials and such safety facilities
are not necessary. However, waste materials are
generated and they should be disposed of
properly.
Every effort has been made to create a
positive, clean, safety conscious atmosphere.
Students are encouraged to handle equipment
safely and to be aware of, and avoid being
victims of, hazardous situations.
6
 EXPERIMENT 1
FLUID PROPERTIES: DENSITY AND SURFACE TENSION
There are several properties simple
Newtonian fluids have. They are basic
properties which cannot be calculated for every
fluid, and therefore they must be measured.
These properties are important in making
calculations regarding fluid systems. Measuring
fluid properties, density and viscosity, is the
object of this experiment.
Part I: Density Measurement.
Equipment
Graduated cylinder or beaker
Liquid whose properties are to be
measured
Hydrometer cylinder
Scale
The density of the test fluid is to be found by
weighing a known volume of the liquid using the
graduated cylinder or beaker and the scale. The
beaker is weighed empty. The beaker is then
filled to a certain volume according to the
graduations on it and weighed again. The
difference in weight divided by the volume gives
the weight per unit volume of the liquid. By
appropriate conversion, the liquid density is
calculated. The mass per unit volume, or the
density, is thus measured in a direct way.
A second method of finding density involves
measuring buoyant force exerted on a submerged
object. The difference between the weight of an
object in air and the weight of the object in liquid
is known as the buoyant force (see Figure 1.1).
Part II: Surface Tension Measurement
Equipment
Surface tension meter
Beaker
Test fluid
Surface tension is defined as the energy
required to pull molecules of liquid from beneath
the surface to the surface to form a new area. It is
therefore an energy per unit area (F⋅L/L2 = F/L).
A surface tension meter is used to measure this
energy per unit area and give its value directly. A
schematic of the surface tension meter is given in
Figure 1.2.
The platinum-iridium ring is attached to a
balance rod (lever arm) which in turn is attached
W2
W1
FIGURE 1.1. Measuring the buoyant force on an
object with a hanging weight.
Referring to Figure 1.1, the buoyant force B is
found as
B = W1 - W2
The buoyant force is equal to the difference
between the weight of the object in air and the
weight of the object while submerged. Dividing
this difference by the volume displaced gives the
weight per unit volume from which density can be
calculated.
Questions
1. Are the results of all the density
measurements in agreement?
2. How does the buoyant force vary with
depth of the submerged object? Why?
to a stainless steel torsion wire. One end of this
wire is fixed and the other is rotated. As the wire
is placed under torsion, the rod lifts the ring
slowly out of the liquid. The proper technique is
to lower the test fluid container as the ring is
lifted so that the ring remains horizontal. The
force required to break the ring free from the
liquid surface is related to the surface tension of
the liquid. As the ring breaks free, the gage at
the front of the meter reads directly in the units
indicated (dynes/cm) for the given ring. This
reading is called the apparent surface tension and
must be corrected for the ring used in order to
obtain the actual surface tension for the liquid.
The correction factor F can be calculated with the
following equation
7
 clamp
balance rod

platinum
iridium ring
torsion wire

FIGURE 1.2. A schematic of the test liquid

surface tension meter.

F = 0.725 + √

0.000 403 3( σ a/ρ ) + 0.045 34 - 1.679(r/R)

where F is the correction factor, σa is the

apparent surface tension read from the dial
(dyne/cm), ρ is the density of the liquid (g/cm3),
and (r/R) for the ring is found on the ring
container. The actual surface tension for the
liquid is given by

σ = Fσa

8
 EXPERIMENT 2

FLUID PROPERTIES: VISCOSITY

One of the properties of homogeneous liquids
is their resistance to motion. A measure of this
resistance is known as viscosity. It can be
measured in different, standardized methods or
tests. In this experiment, viscosity will be
measured with a falling sphere viscometer.
The Falling Sphere Viscometer
When an object falls through a fluid medium,
the object reaches a constant final speed or
terminal velocity. If this terminal velocity is
sufficiently low, then the various forces acting on
the object can be described with exact expressions.
The forces acting on a sphere, for example, that is
falling at terminal velocity through a liquid are:
Weight - Buoyancy - Drag = 0
4 4
ρsg πR3 - ρg πR3 - 6πµVR = 0
3 3
where ρs and ρ are density of the sphere and
liquid respectively, V is the sphere’s terminal
velocity, R is the radius of the sphere and µ is
the viscosity of the liquid. In solving the
preceding equation, the viscosity of the liquid can
be determined. The above expression for drag is
valid only if the following equation is valid:
average the results. With the terminal velocity
of this and of other spheres measured and known,
the absolute and kinematic viscosity of the liquid
can be calculated. The temperature of the test
liquid should also be recorded. Use at least three
different spheres. (Note that if the density of
the liquid is unknown, it can be obtained from any
group who has completed or is taking data on
Experiment 1.)
Questions
1. Should the terminal velocity of two
different size spheres be the same?
2. Does a larger sphere have a higher
terminal velocity?
3. Should the viscosity found for two different
size spheres be the same? Why or why not?
4. If different size spheres give different
results for the viscosity, what are the error
sources? Calculate the % error and account
for all known error sources.
5. What are the shortcomings of this method?
6. Why should temperature be recorded.
7. Can this method be used for gases?
8. Can this method be used for opaque liquids?
9. Can this method be used for something like
peanut butter, or grease or flour dough?
Why or why not?

ρVD
< 1
µ

where D is the sphere diameter. Once the

viscosity of the liquid is found, the above ratio
should be calculated to be certain that the
mathematical model gives an accurate
description of a sphere falling through the d
liquid.

Equipment
Hydrometer cylinder
V
Scale
Stopwatch
Several small spheres with weight and
diameter to be measured FIGURE 2.1. Terminal velocity measurement (V =
Test liquid d/time).

Drop a sphere into the cylinder liquid and

record the time it takes for the sphere to fall a
certain measured distance. The distance divided
by the measured time gives the terminal velocity
of the sphere. Repeat the measurement and

9
 EXPERIMENT 3
CENTER OF PRESSURE ON A SUBMERGED
PLANE SURFACE
Submerged surfaces are found in many
engineering applications. Dams, weirs and water
gates are familiar examples of submerged
surfaces used to control the flow of water. From
the design viewpoint, it is important to have a
working knowledge of the forces that act on
submerged surfaces.
A plane surface located beneath the surface
of a liquid is subjected to a pressure due to the
height of liquid above it, as shown in Figure 3.1.
Increasing pressure varies linearly with
increasing depth resulting in a pressure
distribution that acts on the submerged surface.
The analysis of this situation involves
determining a force which is equivalent to the
pressure, and finding the location of this force.
yF
F
FIGURE 3.1. Pressure distribution on a submerged
plane surface and the equivalent force.
For this case, it can be shown that the
equivalent force is:
F = ρgycA (3.1)
in which ρ is the liquid density, yc is the distance
from the free surface of the liquid to the centroid
of the plane, and A is the area of the plane in
contact with liquid. Further, the location of this
force yF below the free surface is
Ix x
yF = + yc (3.2)
y cA
in which Ixx is the second area moment of the
plane about its centroid. The experimental
verification of these equations for force and
distance is the subject of this experiment.
Center of Pressure Measurement
Equipment
Center of Pressure Apparatus
Weights
Figure 3.2 gives a schematic of the apparatus
used in this experiment. The torus and balance
arm are placed on top of the tank. Note that the
pivot point for the balance arm is the point of
contact between the rod and the top of the tank.
The zeroing weight is adjusted to level the
balance arm. Water is then added to a
predetermined depth. Weights are placed on the
weight hanger to re-level the balance arm. The
amount of needed weight and depth of water are
then recorded. The procedure is then repeated for
four other depths. (Remember to record the
distance from the pivot point to the free surface
for each case.)
From the depth measurement, the equivalent
force and its location are calculated using
Equations 3.1 and 3.2. Summing moments about the
pivot allows for a comparison between the
theoretical and actual force exerted. Referring to
Figure 3.2, we have
WL
F= (3.3)
(y + y F )
where y is the distance from the pivot point to
the free surface, yF is the distance from the free
surface to the line of action of the force F, and L is
the distance from the pivot point to the line of
action of the weight W. Note that both curved
surfaces of the torus are circular with centers at
the pivot point. For the report, compare the force
obtained with Equation 3.1 to that obtained with
Equation 3.3. When using Equation 3.3, it will be
necessary to use Equation 3.2 for yF.
Questions
1. In summing moments, why isn't the buoyant
force taken into account?
2. Why isn’t the weight of the torus and the
balance arm taken into account?
10
 L
level

y zeroing weight
Ri

pivot point
torus (point of contact)
yF
Ro
weight
hanger h

w
F

FIGURE 3.2. A schematic of the center of pressure apparatus.

11
 EXPERIMENT 4
MEASUREMENT OF DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE
Pressure can be measured in several ways.
Bourdon tube gages, manometers, and transducers
are a few of the devices available. Each of these
instruments actually measures a difference in
pressure; that is, measures a difference between
the desired reading and some reference pressure,
usually atmospheric. The measurement of
differential pressure with manometers is the
subject of this experiment.
Manometry
A manometer is a device used to measure a
pressure difference and display the reading in
terms of height of a column of liquid. The height
is related to the pressure difference by the
hydrostatic equation.
Figure 4.1 shows a U-tube manometer
connected to two pressure vessels. The manometer
reading is ∆h and the manometer fluid has
density ρm. One pressure vessel contains a fluid of
density ρ1 while the other vessel contains a fluid
of density ρ2. The pressure difference can be found
by applying the hydrostatic equation to each
limb of the manometer. For the left leg,
p2
p1 z2
2 convert all readings into psi or Pa units, calculate
z1
1
h Before beginning, be sure to zero each manometer
pA pA
m each contains a different liquid. Manometer
FIGURE 4.1. A U-tube manometer connected to
two pressure vessels.
p1 + ρ1gz1 = pA
Likewise for the right leg,
p2 + ρ2gz2 + ρmg∆h = pA
Equating these expressions and solving for the
pressure difference gives
p1 - p2 = ρ2gz2 + ρ1gz1 + ρmg∆h
If the fluids above the manometer liquid are both
gases, then ρ1 and ρ2 are small compared to ρµ.
The above equation then becomes
p1 - p 2 = ρ m g ∆ h
Figure 4.2 is a schematic of the apparatus
used in this experiment. It consists of three U-tube
manometers, a well-type manometer, a U-
tube/inclined manometer and a differential
pressure gage. There are two tanks (actually, two
capped pieces of pipe) to which each manometer
and the gage are connected. The tanks have bleed
valves attached and the tanks are connected
with plastic tubing to a squeeze bulb. The bulb
lines also contain valves. With both bleed valves
closed and with both bulb line valves open, the
bulb is squeezed to pump air from the low pressure
tank to the high pressure tank. The bulb is
squeezed until any of the manometers reaches its
maximum reading. Now both valves are closed
and the liquid levels are allowed to settle in
each manometer. The ∆h readings are all
recorded. Next, one or both bleed valves are
opened slightly to release some air into or out of a
tank. The liquid levels are again allowed to
settle and the ∆h readings are recorded. The
procedure is to be repeated until 5 different sets of
readings are obtained. For each set of readings,
the average value and the standard deviation.
and the gage.
Questions
1. Manometers 1, 2 and 3 are U-tube types and
4 is a well-type manometer. Is there an
advantage to using this one over a U-tube
type?
2. Manometer 5 is a combined U/tube/inclined
manometer. What is the advantage of this
type?
3. Note that some of the manometers use a
liquid which has a specific gravity
different from 1.00, yet the reading is in
inches of water. Explain how this is
possible.
4. What advantages or disadvantages does
the gage have over the manometers?
12
5. Is a low value of the standard deviation
expected? Why?
6. What does a low standard deviation
imply?
7. In your opinion, which device gives the
most accurate reading. What led you to this
conclusion?

High pressure tank Low pressure tank Bleed valves

Gage

U-tube manometers Well-type U-tube/inclined

manometer manometer
FIGURE 4.2. A schematic of the apparatus used in this experiment.

13
 EXPERIMENT 5
IMPACT OF A JET OF WATER
A jet of fluid striking a stationary object
exerts a force on that object. This force can be
measured when the object is connected to a spring
balance or scale. The force can then be related to
the velocity of the jet of fluid and in turn to the
rate of flow. The force developed by a jet stream
of water is the subject of this experiment.
Impact of a Jet of Liquid
Equipment
Jet Impact Apparatus
Object plates
Figure 5.1 is a schematic of the device used in
this experiment. The device consists of a tank
within a tank. The interior tank is supported on a
pivot and has a lever arm attached to it. As
water enters this inner tank, the lever arm will
reach a balance point. At this time, a stopwatch
is started and a weight is placed on the weight
hanger (e.g., 10 lbf). When enough water has
entered the tank (10 lbf), the lever arm will
again balance. The stopwatch is stopped. The
elapsed time divided into the weight of water
collected gives the weight or mass flow rate of
water through the system (lbf/sec, for example).
The outer tank acts as a support for the table
top as well as a sump tank. Water is pumped from
the outer tank to the apparatus resting on the
table top. As shown in Figure 5.1, the impact
apparatus contains a nozzle that produces a high
velocity jet of water. The jet is aimed at an object
(such as a flat plate or hemisphere). The force
exerted on the plate causes the balance arm to
which the plate is attached to deflect. A weight
is moved on the arm until the arm balances. A
summation of moments about the pivot point of
the arm allows for calculating the force exerted
by the jet.
Water is fed through the nozzle by means of
a centrifugal pump. The nozzle emits the water in
a jet stream whose diameter is constant. After the
water strikes the object, the water is channeled to
the weighing tank inside to obtain the weight or
mass flow rate.
The variables involved in this experiment
are listed and their measurements are described
below:
1. Mass rate of flow–measured with the
weighing tank inside the sump tank. The
volume flow rate is obtained by dividing
mass flow rate by density: Q = m/ρ.
2. Velocity of jet–obtained by dividing volume
flow rate by jet area: V = Q/A. The jet is
cylindrical in shape with a diameter of 0.375
in.
3. Resultant force—found experimentally by
summation of moments about the pivot point
of the balance arm. The theoretical resultant
force is found by use of an equation derived by
applying the momentum equation to a control
volume about the plate.
Impact Force Analysis
The total force exerted by the jet equals the
rate of momentum loss experienced by the jet after
it impacts the object. For a flat plate, the force
equation is:
ρQ2
F= (flat plate)
A
For a hemisphere,
2ρQ2
F= (hemisphere)
A
For a cone whose included half angle is α,
ρQ2
F= (1 + cos α) (cone)
A
For your report, derive the appropriate
equation for each object you use. Compose a graph
with volume flow rate on the horizontal axis,
and on the vertical axis, plot the actual and
theoretical force. Use care in choosing the
increments for each axis.
14
 balancing
weight lever arm with
pivot flat plate attached

flat plate
water
jet
nozzle

drain

flow control
valve

weigh tank

tank pivot plug

weight hanger

sump tank

motor pump
FIGURE 5.1. A schematic of the jet impact apparatus.

15
 EXPERIMENT 6
CRITICAL REYNOLDS NUMBER IN PIPE FLOW
The Reynolds number is a dimensionless ratio
of inertia forces to viscous forces and is used in
identifying certain characteristics of fluid flow.
The Reynolds number is extremely important in
modeling pipe flow. It can be used to determine
the type of flow occurring: laminar or turbulent.
Under laminar conditions the velocity
distribution of the fluid within the pipe is
essentially parabolic and can be derived from the
equation of motion. When turbulent flow exists,
the velocity profile is “flatter” than in the
laminar case because the mixing effect which is
characteristic of turbulent flow helps to more
evenly distribute the kinetic energy of the fluid
over most of the cross section.
In most engineering texts, a Reynolds number
of 2 100 is usually accepted as the value at
transition; that is, the value of the Reynolds
number between laminar and turbulent flow
regimes. This is done for the sake of convenience.
In this experiment, however, we will see that
transition exists over a range of Reynolds numbers
and not at an individual point.
The Reynolds number that exists anywhere in
the transition region is called the critical
Reynolds number. Finding the critical Reynolds
number for the transition range that exists in pipe
flow is the subject of this experiment.
Critical Reynolds Number Measurement
Equipment
Critical Reynolds Number Determination
Apparatus
Figure 6.1 is a schematic of the apparatus
used in this experiment. The constant head tank
provides a controllable, constant flow through
the transparent tube. The flow valve in the tube
itself is an on/off valve, not used to control the
flow rate. Instead, the flow rate through the tube
is varied with the rotameter valve at A. The
head tank is filled with water and the overflow
tube maintains a constant head of water. The
liquid is then allowed to flow through one of the
transparent tubes at a very low flow rate. The
valve at B controls the flow of dye; it is opened
and dye is then injected into the pipe with the
water. The dye injector tube is not to be placed in
the pipe entrance as it could affect the results.
Establish laminar flow by starting with a very
low flow rate of water and of dye. The injected
dye will flow downstream in a threadlike
pattern for very low flow rates. Once steady state
is achieved, the rotameter valve is opened
slightly to increase the water flow rate. The
valve at B is opened further if necessary to allow
more dye to enter the tube. This procedure of
increasing flow rate of water and of dye (if
necessary) is repeated throughout the
experiment.
Establish laminar flow in one of the tubes.
Then slowly increase the flow rate and observe
what happens to the dye. Its pattern may
change, yet the flow might still appear to be
laminar. This is the beginning of transition.
Continue increasing the flow rate and again
observe the behavior of the dye. Eventually, the
dye will mix with the water in a way that will
be recognized as turbulent flow. This point is the
end of transition. Transition thus will exist over a
range of flow rates. Record the flow rates at key
points in the experiment. Also record the
temperature of the water.
The object of this procedure is to determine
the range of Reynolds numbers over which
transition occurs. Given the tube size, the
Reynolds number can be calculated with:
VD
Re =
ν
where V (= Q/A) is the average velocity of
liquid in the pipe, D is the hydraulic diameter of
the pipe, and ν is the kinematic viscosity of the
liquid.
The hydraulic diameter is calculated from
its definition:
4 x Area
D=
Wetted Perimeter
For a circular pipe flowing full, the hydraulic
diameter equals the inside diameter of the pipe.
For a square section, the hydraulic diameter will
equal the length of one side (show that this is
the case). The experiment is to be performed for
both round tubes and the square tube. With good
technique and great care, it is possible for the
transition Reynolds number to encompass the
traditionally accepted value of 2 100.
16
Questions
1. Can a similar procedure be followed for
gases?
2. Is the Reynolds number obtained at
transition dependent on tube size or shape?
3. Can this method work for opaque liquids?

dye reservoir

drilled partitions B

on/off valve
rotameter
transparent tube

inlet to
tank
overflow
to drain A
to drain
FIGURE 6.1. The critical Reynolds number determination apparatus.

17
 EXPERIMENT 7
FLUID METERS IN INCOMPRESSIBLE FLOW
There are many different meters used in pipe
flow: the turbine type meter, the rotameter, the
orifice meter, the venturi meter, the elbow meter
and the nozzle meter are only a few. Each meter
works by its ability to alter a certain physical
characteristic of the flowing fluid and then
allows this alteration to be measured. The
measured alteration is then related to the flow
rate. A procedure of analyzing meters to
determine their useful features is the subject of
this experiment.
The Venturi Meter
The venturi meter is constructed as shown in
Figure 7.1. It contains a constriction known as the
throat. When fluid flows through the
constriction, it must experience an increase in
velocity over the upstream value. The velocity
increase is accompanied by a decrease in static
pressure at the throat. The difference between
upstream and throat static pressures is then
measured and related to the flow rate. The
greater the flow rate, the greater the pressure
drop ∆p. So the pressure difference ∆h (= ∆p/ρg)
can be found as a function of the flow rate.
h
2 Re =
1
FIGURE 7.1. A schematic of the Venturi meter.
Using the hydrostatic equation applied to
the air-over-liquid manometer of Figure 7.1, the
pressure drop and the head loss are related by
(after simplification):
p 1 - p2
= ∆h
ρg
By combining the continuity equation,
Q = A1 V 1 = A2 V 2
with the Bernoulli equation,
p 1 V 12 p2 V 22
+ = +
ρ 2 ρ 2
and substituting from the hydrostatic equation, it
can be shown after simplification that the
volume flow rate through the venturi meter is
given by
√

2g ∆ h
Qth = A2 (7.1)
1 - (D 24/D 14)
The preceding equation represents the theoretical
volume flow rate through the venturi meter.
Notice that is was derived from the Bernoulli
equation which does not take frictional effects
into account.
In the venturi meter, there exists small
pressure losses due to viscous (or frictional)
effects. Thus for any pressure difference, the
actual flow rate will be somewhat less than the
theoretical value obtained with Equation 7.1
above. For any ∆h, it is possible to define a
coefficient of discharge Cv as
Qac
Cv =
Qth
For each and every measured actual flow rate
through the venturi meter, it is possible to
calculate a theoretical volume flow rate, a
Reynolds number, and a discharge coefficient.
The Reynolds number is given by
V2D2
(7.2)
ν
where V 2 is the velocity at the throat of the
meter (= Q ac/A 2).
The Orifice Meter and
Nozzle-Type Meter
The orifice and nozzle-type meters consist of
a throttling device (an orifice plate or bushing,
respectively) placed into the flow. (See Figures
7.2 and 7.3). The throttling device creates a
measurable pressure difference from its upstream
to its downstream side. The measured pressure
difference is then related to the flow rate. Like
the venturi meter, the pressure difference varies
with flow rate. Applying Bernoulli’s equation to
points 1 and 2 of either meter (Figure 7.2 or Figure
7.3) yields the same theoretical equation as that
for the venturi meter, namely, Equation 7.1. For
any pressure difference, there will be two
associated flow rates for these meters: the
theoretical flow rate (Equation 7.1), and the
18
actual flow rate (measured in the laboratory). rotor supported
The ratio of actual to theoretical flow rate leads on bearings to receiver
to the definition of a discharge coefficient: Co for (not shown)
the orifice meter and Cn for the nozzle.

flow turbine rotor

straighteners rotational speed
2 proportional to
1 flow rate

FIGURE 7.4. A schematic of a turbine-type flow

meter.

FIGURE 7.2. Cross sectional view of the orifice
meter.
h inlet at the bottom. Fluid entering the bottom
1 2
FIGURE 7.3. Cross sectional view of the nozzle-
type meter, and a typical nozzle.
The Rotameter (Variable Area Meter)
The variable area meter consists of a tapered
metering tube and a float which is free to move
inside. The tube is mounted vertically with the
raises the float until the forces of buoyancy, drag
and gravity are balanced. As the float rises the
annular flow area around the float increases.
Flow rate is indicated by the float position read
against the graduated scale which is etched on
the metering tube. The reading is made usually at
the widest part of the float. Figure 7.5 is a sketch
of a rotameter.
outlet

For each and every measured actual flow

freely
rate through the orifice or nozzle-type meters, it
suspended
is possible to calculate a theoretical volume flow float
rate, a Reynolds number and a discharge
coefficient. The Reynolds number is given by
Equation 7.2. tapered, graduated
transparent tube
The Turbine-Type Meter
The turbine-type flow meter consists of a
section of pipe into which a small “turbine” has inlet
been placed. As the fluid travels through the
pipe, the turbine spins at an angular velocity
that is proportional to the flow rate. After a FIGURE 7.5. A schematic of the rotameter and its
certain number of revolutions, a magnetic pickup operation.
sends an electrical pulse to a preamplifier which
in turn sends the pulse to a digital totalizer. The Rotameters are usually manufactured with
totalizer totals the pulses and translates them one of three types of graduated scales:
into a digital readout which gives the total 1. % of maximum flow–a factor to convert scale
volume of liquid that travels through the pipe reading to flow rate is given or determined for
and/or the instantaneous volume flow rate. the meter. A variety of fluids can be used
Figure 7.4 is a schematic of the turbine type flow with the meter and the only variable
meter.

19
 encountered in using it is the scale factor. The
scale factor will vary from fluid to fluid.
2. Diameter-ratio type–the ratio of cross
sectional diameter of the tube to the
diameter of the float is etched at various
locations on the tube itself. Such a scale
requires a calibration curve to use the meter.
3. Direct reading–the scale reading shows the
actual flow rate for a specific fluid in the
units indicated on the meter itself. If this
type of meter is used for another kind of fluid,
then a scale factor must be applied to the
readings.
Experimental Procedure
Equipment
Fluid Meters Apparatus
Stopwatch
The fluid meters apparatus is shown
schematically in Figure 7.6. It consists of a
centrifugal pump, which draws water from a
sump tank, and delivers the water to the circuit
containing the flow meters. For nine valve
positions (the valve downstream of the pump),
record the pressure differences in each
manometer. For each valve position, measure the
actual flow rate by diverting the flow to the
volumetric measuring tank and recording the time
required to fill the tank to a predetermined
volume. Use the readings on the side of the tank
itself. For the rotameter, record the position of
the float and/or the reading of flow rate given
directly on the meter. For the turbine meter,
record the flow reading on the output device.
Note that the venturi meter has two
manometers attached to it. The “inner”
manometer is used to calibrate the meter; that is,
to obtain ∆h readings used in Equation 7.1. The
“outer” manometer is placed such that it reads
the overall pressure drop in the line due to the
presence of the meter and its attachment fittings.
We refer to this pressure loss as ∆H (distinctly
different from ∆h). This loss is also a function of
flow rate. The manometers on the turbine-type
and variable area meters also give the incurred
loss for each respective meter. Thus readings of
∆H vs Qac are obtainable. In order to use these
parameters to give dimensionless ratios, pressure
coefficient and Reynolds number are used. The
Reynolds number is given in Equation 7.2. The
pressure coefficient is defined as
g∆H
Cp = (7.3)
V2/2
All velocities are based on actual flow rate and
pipe diameter.
The amount of work associated with the
laboratory report is great; therefore an informal
group report is required rather than individual
reports. The write-up should consist of an
Introduction (to include a procedure and a
derivation of Equation 7.1), a Discussion and
Conclusions section, and the following graphs:
1. On the same set of axes, plot Qac vs ∆h and
Q th vs ∆ h with flow rate on the vertical
axis for the venturi meter.
2. On the same set of axes, plot Qac vs ∆h and
Q th vs ∆ h with flow rate on the vertical
axis for the orifice meter.
3. Plot Qac vs Qth for the turbine type meter.
4. Plot Qac vs Qth for the rotameter.
5. Plot Cv vs Re on a log-log grid for the
venturi meter.
6. Plot Co vs Re on a log-log grid for the orifice
meter.
7. Plot ∆H vs Qac for all meters on the same set
of axes with flow rate on the vertical axis.
8. Plot Cp vs Re for all meters on the same set
of axes (log-log grid) with C p vertical axis.
Questions
1. Referring to Figure 7.2, recall that
Bernoulli's equation was applied to points 1
and 2 where the pressure difference
measurement is made. The theoretical
equation, however, refers to the throat area
for point 2 (the orifice hole diameter)
which is not where the pressure
measurement was made. Explain this
discrepancy and how it is accounted for in
the equation formulation.
2. Which meter in your opinion is the best one
to use?
3. Which meter incurs the smallest pressure
loss? Is this necessarily the one that should
always be used?
4. Which is the most accurate meter?
5. What is the difference between precision
and accuracy?
20
 manometer

orifice meter

volumetric
measuring
tank
venturi meter

return
rotameter

sump tank

turbine-type meter

motor pump valve

FIGURE 7.6. A schematic of the Fluid Meters Apparatus. (Orifice and Venturi meters: upstream
diameter is 1.025 inches; throat diameter is 0.625 inches.)

21
 EXPERIMENT 8
PIPE FLOW
Experiments in pipe flow where the presence
of frictional forces must be taken into account are
useful aids in studying the behavior of traveling
fluids. Fluids are usually transported through
pipes from location to location by pumps. The
frictional losses within the pipes cause pressure
drops. These pressure drops must be known to
determine pump requirements. Thus a study of
pressure losses due to friction has a useful
application. The study of pressure losses in pipe
flow is the subject of this experiment.
Pipe Flow
Equipment
Pipe Flow Test Rig
Figure 8.1 is a schematic of the pipe flow test
rig. The rig contains a sump tank which is used as
a water reservoir from which a centrifugal pump
discharges water to the pipe circuit. The circuit
itself consists of four different diameter lines and
a return line all made of drawn copper tubing. The
circuit contains valves for directing and
regulating the flow to make up various series and
parallel piping combinations. The circuit has
provision for measuring pressure loss through the
use of static pressure taps (manometer board not
shown in schematic). Finally, because the circuit
also contains a rotameter, the measured pressure
losses can be obtained as a function of flow rate.
As functions of the flow rate, measure the
pressure losses in inches of water for (as specified
by the instructor):
1. 1 in. copper tube 5. 1 in. 90 T-joint
2. 3/4-in. copper tube 6. 1 in. 90 elbow (ell)
3. 1/2-in copper tube 7. 1 in. gate valve
4. 3/8 in copper tube 8. 3/ 4-in gate valve
• The instructor will specify which of the
pressure loss measurements are to be taken.
• Open and close the appropriate valves on the
apparatus to obtain the desired flow path.
• Use the valve closest to the pump on its
downstream side to vary the volume flow
rate.
• With the pump on, record the assigned
pressure drops and the actual volume flow
rate from the rotameter.
• Using the valve closest to the pump, change
the volume flow rate and again record the
pressure drops and the new flow rate value.
• Repeat this procedure until 9 different
volume flow rates and corresponding pressure
drop data have been recorded.
With pressure loss data in terms of ∆h, the
friction factor can be calculated with
2g ∆ h
f=
V 2 (L/D)
It is customary to graph the friction factor as a
function of the Reynolds number:
VD
Re =
ν
The f vs Re graph, called a Moody Diagram is
traditionally drawn on a log-log grid. The graph
also contains a third variable known as the
roughness coefficient ε/D. For this experiment
the roughness factor ε is that for drawn tubing.
Where fittings are concerned, the loss
incurred by the fluid is expressed in terms of a loss
coefficient K. The loss coefficient for any fitting
can be calculated with
∆h
K=
V2/2g
where ∆h is the pressure (or head) loss across the
fitting. Values of K as a function of Qac are to be
obtained in this experiment.
For the report, calculate friction factor f and
graph it as a function of Reynolds number Re for
items 1 through 4 above as appropriate. Compare
to a Moody diagram. Also calculate the loss
coefficient for items 5 through 8 above as
appropriate, and determine if the loss coefficient
K varies with flow rate or Reynolds number.
Compare your K values to published ones.
Note that gate valves can have a number of
open positions. For purposes of comparison it is
often convenient to use full, half or one-quarter
open.
22
 rotameter

tank

valve

motor static pressure tap

pump

FIGURE 8.1. Schematic of the pipe friction apparatus.

23
 EXPERIMENT 9
PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION ABOUT A CIRCULAR CYLINDER
In many engineering applications, it may be
necessary to examine the phenomena occurring
when an object is inserted into a flow of fluid. The
wings of an airplane in flight, for example, may
be analyzed by considering the wings stationary
with air moving past them. Certain forces are
exerted on the wing by the flowing fluid that
tend to lift the wing (called the lift force) and to
push the wing in the direction of the flow (drag
force). Objects other than wings that are
symmetrical with respect to the fluid approach
direction, such as a circular cylinder, will
experience no lift, only drag.
Drag and lift forces are caused by the
pressure differences exerted on the stationary
object by the flowing fluid. Skin friction between
the fluid and the object contributes to the drag
force but in many cases can be neglected. The
measurement of the pressure distribution existing
around a stationary cylinder in an air stream to
find the drag force is the object of this
experiment.
Consider a circular cylinder immersed in a
uniform flow. The streamlines about the cylinder
are shown in Figure 9.1. The fluid exerts pressure
on the front half of the cylinder in an amount
that is greater than that exerted on the rear
half. The difference in pressure multiplied by the
projected frontal area of the cylinder gives the
drag force due to pressure (also known as form
drag). Because this drag is due primarily to a
pressure difference, measurement of the pressure
distribution about the cylinder allows for finding
the drag force experimentally. A typical pressure
distribution is given in Figure 9.2. Shown in
separation
point
0 30
(a) Polar Coordinate Graph
FIGURE 9.2. Pressure distribution around a circular cylinder placed in a uniform flow.
Figure 9.2a is the cylinder with lines and
arrowheads. The length of the line at any point
on the cylinder surface is proportional to the
pressure at that point. The direction of the
arrowhead indicates that the pressure at the
respective point is greater than the free stream
pressure (pointing toward the center of the
cylinder) or less than the free stream pressure
(pointing away). Note the existence of a
separation point and a separation region (or
wake). The pressure in the back flow region is
nearly the same as the pressure at the point of
separation. The general result is a net drag force
equal to the sum of the forces due to pressure
acting on the front half (+) and on the rear half
(-) of the cylinder. To find the drag force, it is
necessary to sum the components of pressure at
each point in the flow direction. Figure 9.2b is a
graph of the same data as that in Figure 9.2a
except that 9.2b is on a linear grid.
Freestream Stagnation
Velocity V Streamline Wake
FIGURE 9.1. Streamlines of flow about a circular
cylinder.
p
60 90 120 150 180
separation
point
(b) Linear Graph
24
Pressure Measurement
Equipment
A Wind Tunnel
A Right Circular Cylinder with Pressure
Taps
Figure 9.3 is a schematic of a wind tunnel. It
consists of a nozzle, a test section, a diffuser and a
fan. Flow enters the nozzle and passes through
flow straighteners and screens. The flow is
directed through a test section whose walls are
made of a transparent material, usually
Plexiglas or glass. An object is placed in the test
section for observation. Downstream of the test
section is the diffuser followed by the fan. In the
Plot the pressure distribution on polar coordinate
graph paper for both cases. Also graph pressure
difference (pressure at the point of interest minus
the free stream pressure) as a function of angle θ
on linear graph paper. Next, graph ∆p cosθ vs θ
(horizontal axis) on linear paper and determine
the area under the curve by any convenient
method (counting squares or a numerical
technique).
The drag force can be calculated by
integrating the flow-direction-component of each
pressure over the area of the cylinder:
π
Df = 2RL ∫ ∆p cosθdθ
0

tunnel that is used in this experiment, the test

section is rectangular and the fan housing is The above expression states that the drag force is
circular. Thus one function of the diffuser is to twice the cylinder radius (2R) times the cylinder
gradually lead the flow from a rectangular length (L) times the area under the curve of ∆p
section to a circular one. cosθ vs θ.
Figure 9.4 is a schematic of the side view of Drag data are usually expressed as drag
the circular cylinder. The cylinder is placed in coefficient CD vs Reynolds number Re. The drag
the test section of the wind tunnel which is coefficient is defined as
operated at a preselected velocity. The pressure
tap labeled as #1 is placed at 0° directly facing Df
the approach flow. The pressure taps are CD =
ρV2A/2
attached to a manometer board. Only the first 18
taps are connected because the expected profile is The Reynolds number is
symmetric about the 0° line. The manometers will
provide readings of pressure at 10° intervals ρVD
about half the cylinder. For two different Re =
µ
approach velocities, measure and record the
pressure distribution about the circular cylinder.

inlet flow
straighteners
nozzle fan
diffuser
test section

FIGURE 9.3. A schematic of the wind tunnel used in this experiment.

25
where V is the free stream velocity (upstream of
the cylinder), A is the projected frontal area of
the cylinder (2RL), D is the cylinder diameter, ρ
is the air density and µ is the air viscosity.
Compare the results to those found in texts.

90
60 120

30 150
static pressure
0 taps attach to 180
manometers

FIGURE 9.4. Schematic of the experimental

apparatus used in this experiment.

26
 EXPERIMENT 10

DRAG FORCE DETERMINATION

An object placed in a uniform flow is acted in which ρ is the fluid density, V is the free
upon by various forces. The resultant of these stream velocity, and A is the projected frontal
forces can be resolved into two force components, area of the object. Traditionally, the drag
parallel and perpendicular to the main flow coefficient is graphed as a function of the
direction. The component acting parallel to the Reynolds number, which is defined as
flow is known as the drag force. It is a function of
a skin friction effect and an adverse pressure VD
Re =
gradient. The component perpendicular to the ν
flow direction is the lift force and is caused by a
pressure distribution which results in a lower where D is a characteristic length of the object
pressure acting over the top surface of the object and ν is the kinematic viscosity of the fluid. For
than at the bottom. If the object is symmetric each object assigned, graph drag coefficient vs
with respect to the flow direction, then the lift Reynolds number and compare your results to
force will be zero and only a drag force will exist. those published in texts. Use log-log paper if
Measurement of the drag force acting on an object appropriate.
immersed in the uniform flow of a fluid is the
subject of this experiment. Questions
1. How does the mounting piece affect the
Equipment readings?
Subsonic Wind Tunnel 2. How do you plan to correct for its effect, if
Objects necessary?
A description of a subsonic wind tunnel is
given in Experiment 9 and is shown schematically
in Figure 9.3. The fan at the end of the tunnel
draws in air at the inlet. An object is mounted on a
stand that is pre calibrated to read lift and drag object
forces exerted by the fluid on the object. A
schematic of the test section is shown in Figure
10.1. The velocity of the flow at the test section is
also pre calibrated. The air velocity past the mounting stand
object can be controlled by changing the angle of uniform flow
the inlet vanes located within the fan housing.
Thus air velocity, lift force and drag force are
read directly from the tunnel instrumentation.
There are a number of objects that are
available for use in the wind tunnel. These
include a disk, a smooth surfaced sphere, a rough
drag force
surface sphere, a hemisphere facing upstream,
measurement
and a hemisphere facing downstream. For
whichever is assigned, measure drag on the object lift force
as a function of velocity. measurement
Data on drag vs velocity are usually graphed
in dimensionless terms. The drag force Df is
customarily expressed in terms of the drag
FIGURE 10.1. Schematic of an object mounted in
coefficient CD (a ratio of drag force to kinetic
the test section of the wind tunnel.
energy):

Df
CD =
ρV2A/2

27
 EXPERIMENT 11
ANALYSIS OF AN AIRFOIL
A wing placed in the uniform flow of an
airstream will experience lift and drag forces.
Each of these forces is due to a pressure
difference. The lift force is due to the pressure
difference that exists between the lower and
upper surfaces. This phenomena is illustrated in
Figure 11.1. As indicated the airfoil is immersed
in a uniform flow. If pressure could be measured at
selected locations on the surface of the wing and
the results graphed, the profile in Figure 11.1
would result. Each pressure measurement is
represented by a line with an arrowhead. The
length of each line is proportional to the
magnitude of the pressure at the point. The
direction of the arrow (toward the horizontal
axis or away from it) represents whether the
pressure at the point is less than or greater than
the free stream pressure measured far upstream of
the wing.
c
stagnation
point
negative pressure
Cp
gradient on upper
pressure surface
coefficient
positive pressure
stagnation on lower surface
point chord, c
FIGURE 11.1. Streamlines of flow about a wing
and the resultant pressure distribution.
Lift and Drag Measurements for a Wing
Equipment
Wind Tunnel (See Figure 9.3)
Wing with Pressure Taps
Wing for Attachment to Lift & Drag
Instruments (See Figure 11.2)
Experiment I
Mount the wing with pressure taps in the
tunnel and attach the tube ends to manometers.
Select a wind speed and record the pressure
distribution for a selected angle of attack (as
assigned by the instructor). Plot pressure vs chord
length as in Figure 11.1, showing the vertical
component of each pressure acting on the upper
surface and on the lower surface. Determine
where separation occurs for each case.
Mount the second wing on the lift and drag
balance (Figure 11.2). For the same wind speed
and angle of attack, measure lift and drag exerted
on the wing.
lift
c
drag
uniform flow mounting stand
drag force
measurement
lift force
measurement
FIGURE 11.2. Schematic of lift and drag
measurement in a test section.
The wing with pressure taps provided
pressure at selected points on the surface of the
wing. Use the data obtained and sum the
horizontal component of each pressure to obtain
the drag force. Compare to the results obtained
with the other wing. Use the data obtained and
sum the vertical component of each pressure to
obtain the lift force. Compare the results
obtained with the other wing. Calculate %
errors.
28
Experiment II
For a number of wings, lift and drag data
vary only slightly with Reynolds number and
therefore if lift and drag coefficients are graphed
as a function of Reynolds number, the results are
not that meaningful. A more significant
representation of the results is given in what is
known as a polar diagram for the wing. A polar
diagram is a graph on a linear grid of lift
coefficient (vertical axis) as a function of drag
coefficient. Each data point on the graph
corresponds to a different angle of attack, all
measured at one velocity (Reynolds number).
Referring to Figure 11.2 (which is the
experimental setup here), the angle of attack α is
measured from a line parallel to the chord c to a
line that is parallel to the free stream velocity.
If so instructed, obtain lift force, drag force and
angle of attack data using a pre selected velocity.
Allow the angle of attack to vary from a negative
angle to the stall point and beyond. Obtain data
at no less than 9 angles of attack. Use the data to
produce a polar diagram.
Analysis
Lift and drag data are usually expressed in
dimensionless terms using lift coefficient and drag
coefficient. The lift coefficient is defined as
Lf
CL =
ρV A/2
2
where Lf is the lift force, ρ is the fluid density, V
is the free stream velocity far upstream of the
wing, and A is the area of the wing when seen
from a top view perpendicular to the chord
length c. The drag coefficient is defined as
Df
CD =
ρV2A/2
in which Df is the drag force.
29
 EXPERIMENT 12

OPEN CHANNEL FLOW—SLUICE GATE

Liquid motion in a duct where a surface of the

fluid is exposed to the atmosphere is called open V 2 V 02
h0 = - +h
channel flow. In the laboratory, open channel 2g 2g
flow experiments can be used to simulate flow in a
river, in a spillway, in a drainage canal or in a In terms of flow rate, the velocities are written as
sewer. Such modeled flows can include flow over
bumps or through dams, flow through a venturi Q Q
flume or under a partially raised gate (a sluice V0 = =
A bh0
gate). The last example, flow under a sluice gate,
is the subject of this experiment. Q
V=
bh
Flow Through a Sluice Gate
where b is the channel width at the gate.
Equipment Substituting into the Bernoulli Equation and
Open Channel Flow Apparatus simplifying gives
Sluice Gate Model
Q2 1
Figure 12.1 shows a schematic of the side h0 =  - 1 +h
2gb2  h 2 h 0 2 
view of the sluice gate. Flow upstream of the gate
has a depth h o while downstream the depth is h.
The objective of the analysis is to formulate an Dividing by h 0,
equation to relate the volume flow rate through
Q2
(or under) the gate to the upstream and
1=  1 - 1 + h
downstream depths. 2gb 2 h 0  h 2 h 0 2  h 0

hand crank Rearranging further,

sluice gate
2 2
 1 - h  = Q2 2  1 - h 2 
patm  h 0  2gb h h 0  h0 
direction of
movement Multiplying both sides by h2/h02, and continuing
ho patm
to simplify, we finally obtain
h
h 2/h02 Q2
=
1 + h/h 0 2gb 2 h 0 3
FIGURE 12.1. Schematic of flow under a sluice
gate. here Q is the theoretical volume flow rate. The
right hand side of this equation is recognized as
1/2 of the upstream Froude number. So by
The flow rate through the gate is maintained at measuring the depth of liquid before and after
nearly a constant value. For various raised the sluice gate, the theoretical flow rate can be
positions of the sluice gate, different liquid calculated with the above equation. The
heights h o and h will result. Applying the theoretical flow rate can then be compared to the
Bernoulli equation to flow about the gate gives actual flow rate obtained by measurements using
the orifice meters.
p 0 V 02 p V2 For 9 different raised positions of the sluice
+ + h0 = + +h gate, measure the upstream and downstream
ρg 2g ρg 2g
depths and calculate the actual flow rate. In
Pressures at the free surface are both equal to addition, calculate the upstream Froude number
atmospheric pressure, so they cancel. Rearranging for each case and determine its value for
gives maximum flow conditions. Graph h/h0 (vertical

30
axis) versus (Q 2/b 2h 03g). Determine h/h0
corresponding to maximum flow. Note that h/h0
varies from 0 to 1.
Figure 12.2 is a sketch of the open channel
flow apparatus. It consists of a sump tank with a
pump/motor combination on each side. Each pump
draws in water from the sump tank and
discharges it through the discharge line to
calibrated orifice meters and then to the head
tank. Each orifice meter is connected to its own
manometer. Use of the calibration curve
(provided by the instructor) allows for finding
the actual flow rate into the channel. The head
tank and flow channel have sides made of
Plexiglas. Water flows downstream in the
channel past the object of interest (in this case a
sluice gate) and then is routed back to the sump
tank.
Questions
1. For the required report, derive the sluice
gate equation in detail.
2. What if it was assumed that V 0 << V, and
so V0 could be canceled from the Bernoulli
equation? Derive the resulting equation
which will contain h/h0 and the upstream
Froude number.
2. What is the significance of Froude number?
3. What is the significance of the Reynolds
number in this or in any open channel flow
situation?
4. Where are sluice gates found?
5. What are they used for?

head tank hand crank

flow channel

sluice gate

orifice pump discharge

valve
meter pipe

sump tank
pump/motor

FIGURE 12.2. Schematic of the open channel flow apparatus.

31
 EXPERIMENT 13
OPEN CHANNEL FLOW OVER A WEIR
Flow meters used in pipes introduce an
obstruction into the flow which results in a
measurable pressure drop that in turn is related to
the volume flow rate. In an open channel, flow
rate can be measured similarly by introducing an
obstruction into the flow. A simple obstruction,
called a weir, consists of a vertical plate
extending the entire width of the channel. The
plate may have an opening, usually rectangular,
trapezoidal, or triangular. Other configurations
exist and all are about equally effective. The use
of a weir to measure flow rate in an open channel
is the subject of this experiment.
Flow Over a Weir
Equipment
Open Channel Flow Apparatus (See
Figure 12.1)
Several Weirs
The open channel flow apparatus allows for
the insertion of a weir and measurement of liquid
depths. The channel is fed by two centrifugal
pumps. Each pump has a discharge line which
contains an orifice meter attached to a
manometer. The pressure drop reading from the
manometers and a calibration curve provide the
means for determining the actual flow rate into
the channel.
Figure 13.1 is a sketch of the side and
upstream view of a 90 degree (included angle) V-
notch weir. Analysis of this weir is presented
here for illustrative purposes. Note that
upstream depth measurements are made from the
lowest point of the weir over which liquid flows.
pa
V y axis
Vo h
pa
FIGURE 13.1. Side and upstream views of a 90° V-notch weir.
This is the case for the analysis of all
conventional weirs. A coordinate system is
imposed whose origin is at the intersection of the
free surface and a vertical line extending upward
from the vertex of the V-notch. We select an
element that is dy thick and extends the entire
width of the flow cross section. The velocity of
the liquid through this element is found by
applying Bernoulli's equation:
p a Vo 2 pa V2
+ + gh = + + g(h - y)
ρ 2 ρ 2
Note that in pipe flow, pressure remained in the
equation when analyzing any of the differential
pressure meters (orifice or venturi meters). In open
channel flows, the pressure terms represents
atmospheric pressure and cancel from the
Bernoulli equation. The liquid height is
therefore the only measurement required here.
From the above equation, assuming Vo negligible:
V=
√
2 gy (13.1)
Equation 13.1 is the starting point in the analysis
of all weirs. The incremental flow rate of liquid
through layer dy is:
dQ = 2Vxdy = 
√
2 gy(2x)d y
From the geometry of the V-notch and with
respect to the coordinate axes, we have y = h - x.
y
dy
x axis
32
Therefore, It is convenient to combine the effects of the
constant C and the coefficient C’ into a single
h coefficient Cvn for the V-notch weir. Thus we
Q= ∫ (2√2g)y 1/2 (h - y)d y reformulate the previous two equations to obtain:
0
Qac
Cvn ≈ (13.3)
Integration gives Qth

8 Q ac = Cvnh5/2 (13.4)
15 
Qth = √2g h5/2 =Ch 5/2 (13.2)

Each type of weir will have its own coefficient.

where C is a constant. The above equation
represents the ideal or theoretical flow rate of
liquid over the V-notch weir. The actual
discharge rate is somewhat less due to frictional
and other dissipative effects. As with pipe
meters, we introduce a discharge coefficient
defined as:
Qac
C' =
Qth
The equation that relates the actual volume flow
rate to the upstream height then is
Qac = C'Ch5/2
Calibrate each of the weirs assigned by the
instructor for 7 different upstream height
measurements. Use the flow rate chart provided
with the open channel flow apparatus to obtain
the actual flow rate. Derive an appropriate
equation for each weir used (similar to Equation
13.4) above. Determine the coefficient applicable
for each weir tested. List the assumptions made
in each derivation. Discuss the validity of each
assumption, pointing out where they break down.
Graph upstream height vs actual and theoretical
volume flow rates. Plot the coefficient of
discharge (as defined in Equation 13.3) as a
function of the upstream Froude number.

FIGURE 13.2. Other types of weirs–semicircular, contracted and suppressed.

33
 EXPERIMENT 14

OPEN CHANNEL FLOW—HYDRAULIC JUMP

When spillways or other similar open Simplifying,

channels are opened by the lifting of a gate,
liquid passing below the gate has a high velocity Q2
h 22 + h 2h 1 - 2 =0
and an associated high kinetic energy. Due to the gb 2 h 1
erosive properties of a high velocity fluid, it
may be desirable to convert the high kinetic Solving for the downstream height yields one
energy (e.g. high velocity) to a high potential physically (nonnegative) possible solution:
energy (e.g., a deeper stream). The problem then
becomes one of rapidly varying the liquid depth

√
over a short channel length. Rapidly varied flow h1 2Q 2 h 12
h2 = - + +
of this type produces what is known as a 2 gb 2 h 1 4
hydraulic jump.
Consider a horizontal, rectangular open from which the downstream height can be found.
channel of width b, in which a hydraulic jump By applying Bernoulli’s Equation along the free
has developed. Figure 14.1 shows a side view of a surface, the energy lost irreversibly can be
hydraulic jump. Figure 14.1 also shows the depth calculated as
of liquid upstream of the jump to be h1, and a
downstream depth of h2. Pressure distributions g(h2 - h1)3
Lost Energy = E =
upstream and downstream of the jump are drawn 4h 2 h 1
in as well. Because the jump occurs over a very
short distance, frictional effects can be neglected. and the rate of energy loss is
A force balance would therefore include only dW
pressure forces. Applying the momentum equation = ρQE
dt
in the flow direction gives:
The above equations are adequate to properly
p 1A 1 - p 2A 2 = ρ Q(V 2 - V 1) describe a hydraulic jump.

Pressure in the above equation represents the Hydraulic Jump Measurements

pressure that exists at the centroid of the cross
section. Thus p = ρg(h/2). With a rectangular Equipment
cross section of width b (A = bh), the above Open Channel Flow Apparatus (Figure 12.1)
equation becomes The channel can be used in either a
horizontal or a sloping configuration. The device
h 1g h 2g
(h 1 b) - (h 2b) = Q(V 2 - V 1) contains two pumps which discharge water
2 2 through calibrated orifice meters connected to
manometers. The device also contains on the
From continuity, A1V1 = A2V2 = Q. Combining and channel bottom two forward facing brass tubes.
rearranging, Each tube is connected to a vertical Plexiglas
tube. The height of the water in either of these
h 12 - h 22 Q 2 1 1 tubes represents the energy level at the
=  -  respective tube location. The difference in height
2 gb 2  h 2 h 1  is the actual lost energy (E) for the jump of
interest.

p2 V2
FIGURE 14.1. Schematic of a h2
p1
hydraulic jump in an open h1
V1
channel.

34
 Develop a hydraulic jump in the channel;
record upstream and downstream heights,
manometer readings (from which the actual
volume flow rate is obtained) and the lost energy
E. By varying the flow rate, upstream height,
downstream height and/or the channel slope,
record measurements on different jumps. Derive
the applicable equations in detail and substitute
appropriate values to verify the predicted
downstream height and lost energy. In other
words, the downstream height of each jump is to
be measured and compared to the downstream
height calculated with Equation 14.1. The same
is to be done for the rate of energy loss (Equation
14.2).
Analysis
Data on a hydraulic jump is usually specified
in two ways both of which will be required for
the report. Select any of the jumps you have
measurements for and construct a momentum
diagram . A momentum diagram is a graph of
liquid depth on the vertical axis vs momentum on
the horizontal axis. The momentum of the flow is
given by:
2Q 2 h 2
M= +
gb 2 h 4
Another significant graph of hydraulic jump
data is of depth ratio h 2 /h 1 (vertical axis) as a
function of the upstream Froude number, Fr1 (=
Q2/gb2h13 ). Construct such a graph for any of the
jumps for which you have taken measurements.
35

OPEN CHANNEL FLOW OVER A HUMP
Flow over a hump in an open channel is a
problem that can be successfully modeled in order
to make predictions about the behavior of the
fluid. This experiment involves making
appropriate measurements for such a system, and
relating flow rate to critical depth. The flow
rate, critical depth, and specific energy are
determined theoretically and experimentally.
Theory
Flow in a channel is modeled in terms of a
parameter called the specific energy head (or just
specific energy) of the flow, E. The specific
energy head is defined as
Q2
E=h+
2gh 2 b 2
where h is the depth of the flow, Q is the volume
flow rate, g is gravity, and b is the channel
width. The dimension of the specific energy head
is L (ft or m).
total energy line
flow
direction hc
Ec
E1 h1 h E
zc
z hump
channel bed
We can illustrate the relationship between
these parameters graphically by drawing a
specific energy head diagram, as illustrated in
Figure 15.2. This graph has flow depth on the
vertical axis and specific energy head on the
horizontal axis. The condition of the flow is
represented by the solid line with arrows
showing how the flow changes from subcritical to
supercritical. At the location on the hump where
the height is z, the energy head is E. We draw a
vertical line at this value of the specific energy
head; it will intersect the line at h (upstream)
and h’ (downstream).
EXPERIMENT 15
Figure 15.1 is a sketch of flow over a hump,
with flow from left to right. Shown is the chan-
nel bed and the hump. Upstream of the hump
(subscript 1 notation), the flow is subcritical;
downstream (subscript 2) the flow is super-
critical. Just at the highest point of the hump,
the flow is critical (subscript c). Also shown in
the figure is the total energy line, which we
assume is parallel to the flow channel bed; i.e.,
the total energy remains a constant in the flow.
Upstream of the hump, the total specific
energy head of the flow is denoted as E1, and the
depth of the liquid is h1, as shown graphically in
Figure 15.1. At any location z on the hump before
zc, the energy head is E, and the depth is h. At
this same height z downstream of zc, the liquid
(15.1)
depth is h’, but the energy head is still E. At the
highest point of the hump zc, the energy head is
E c and the liquid depth is hc. The total specific
energy head and the liquid depth anywhere are
related according to Equation 15.1.
h'
h2 FIGURE 15.1. Flow over a
hump in an open
channel.
h1
h
depth h
z
zc subcritical
hc
supercritical
h'
h2
Ec E E1, E2
specific energy head E
FIGURE 15.2. Specific energy diagram.
36
 At any upstream (of the hump) location, say
h1, we see that the corresponding specific energy
head is E 1. The vertical line that locates E 1 also
locates the energy E2 which is downstream of the
hump. A vertical line drawn at E1 intersects the
line at h1 and h2, which are the upstream and
downstream liquid heights, respectively. Note
that the minimum specific energy head is at the
highest point of the hump zc, and the energy
head there is E c.
As water flows over the hump, the initial
specific energy head E1 is reduced to a value E by
an amount equal to the height of the hump. So at
any location along the hump, the specific energy
head is E 1 - z, where z is the elevation above the
channel bed. At the point where the flow is
critical, the critical depth h c is given by
Q 2 1/3 2Ec
hc =   =
 b 2g  3
Flow Over a Hump
Equipment
Open Channel Flow Apparatus (Figure
12.1)
Installed hump
The open channel flow apparatus is described
in Experiment 12 and illustrated schematically in
Figure 12.1. Adjust the channel so that it is
horizontal. Make every effort to minimize
leakage of water past the sides of the hump.
Start both pumps and adjust the valves to give a
smooth water surface profile over the hump. For
one set of conditions, take readings from the
manometers to determine the volume flow rate
over the hump.
The open channel flow apparatus has a
depth gage attached. It will be necessary to
1 2 3 4 5 6
flow
direction
hump
2 0.313
0.276
measure the water depth at certain specific
locations on or about the hump. These locations
are shown in Figure 15.3 (dimensions are in feet).
There are 8 water depths to be measured. So for
one flow rate, two manometer readings and 8
water depths will be recorded. Gather data for
the assigned number of flow rates.
Results
Although the data taken in this experiment
seem simple, the calculations required to reduce
the data appropriately can occupy much time.
With the data obtained:
Determine the flow rate using the manometer
readings. This value will be referred to as the
actual flow rate Q AC (subscript AC will refer
to an actual value, while TH refers to a
theoretical value).
(15.2)
Calculate the flow rate using a rearranged
form of Equation 15.2. This value will be
referred to as the theoretical flow rate Q TH.
Compare the two flow rates and find % error.
Use Equation 15.2 to find the value of the
critical depth using QAC. Compare this value
to the measured value, and find % error.
Calculate the theoretical and actual values
of the minimum energy Ec using Equation 15.2.
Compare the results.
Calculate the actual specific energy head EAC
at each measurement station using Equation
15.1. Determine also the total energy head
HAC (= EAC + z) for all readings.
Compose a chart using the column and row
headings shown in Table 15.1.
7 8
FIGURE 15.3. Water depth
measurement locations
0.313 0.313 0.313 1 for flow over a hump.
(Dimensions in feet.)
37
TABLE 15.1. Data reduction table for flow over a hump.
Station 1 2
Depth of flow hAC in ft
Specific energy head EAC in ft
Height of hump above channel bed z
in ft
Total energy head HAC in ft
Construct a graph of the flow configuration.
On the horizontal axis, plot distance
downstream, and plot depth on the vertical
axis. On this set of axes, plot (a) the total
energy line (HAC); (b) the water surface
profile; and, (c) the elevation z. Show data
points on the graph.
Construct a specific energy head diagram
similar to that of Figure 15.2. Show the
theoretical results (based on QTH), and show
the actual data points.
Derive Equation 2.
3 4 5 6 7 8
Questions
1. What is the value of the Froude number (a)
upstream of the hump, (b) at the highest
point of the hump, and (c) downstream of the
hump?
2. Is the Froude number used in finding the
critical depth in Equation 15.2?
3. What equations is used to develop the
expression for specific energy head (Equation
15.1)?
4. How is the second term in Equation 15.1 (i.e.;
Q2/2gh2b2) related to the Froude number?
5. Is the total energy line (HAC) a constant as we
assumed with reference to Figure 15.1, or does
it change?
38
 EXPERIMENT 16

MEASUREMENT OF VELOCITY
AND
CALIBRATION OF A METER FOR COMPRESSIBLE FLOW

The objective of this experiment is to the tap that is perpendicular to the flow gives
determine a calibration curve for a meter placed the static pressure.
in a pipe that is conveying air. The meters of When the pitot-static tube is immersed in the
interest are an orifice meter and a venturi meter. flow of a fluid, the pressure difference
These meters are calibrated in this experiment by (stagnation minus static) can be read directly
using a pitot-static tube to measure the velocity, using a manometer and connecting the pressure
from which the flow rate is calculated. taps to each leg. Applying the Bernoulli equation
between the two pressure taps yields:
Pitot Static Tube
When a fluid flows through a pipe, it exerts manometer
connections
pressure that is made up of static and dynamic
components. The static pressure is indicated by a section A-A
measuring device moving with the flow or that enlarged
causes no velocity change in the flow. Usually, to
measure static pressure, a small hole
perpendicular to the flow is drilled through the
container wall and connected to a manometer (or
four to eight holes
pressure gage) as indicated in Figure 16.1. equally spaced
The dynamic pressure is due to the movement A
of the fluid. The dynamic pressure and the static
pressure together make up the total or stagnation A
flow direction
pressure. The stagnation pressure can be measured
in the flow with a pitot tube. The pitot tube is an
open ended tube facing the flow directly. Figure FIGURE 16.2. Schematic of a pitot-static tube.
16.1 gives a sketch of the measurement of
stagnation pressure.
p 1 V 12 p V2
+ + z1 = 2 + 2 + z2
ρg 2g ρg 2g
stagnation pressure
flow measurement where state “1” as the stagnation state (which
static pressure will be changed to subscript “t”), and state “2” as
measurement pitot tube
the static state (no subscript). Elevation
differences are negligible, and at the point where
stagnation pressure is measured, the velocity is
zero. The Bernoulli equation thus reduces to:
h h

pt p V2
= +
ρg ρg 2g
FIGURE 16.1. Measurement of static and
Next, we rearrange the preceding equation and
stagnation pressures.
solve for velocity
The pitot-static tube combines the effects of

√

static and stagnation pressure measurement into 2(p t - p)
one device. Figure 16.2 is a schematic of the pitot- V=
ρ
static tube. It consists of a tube within a tube
which is placed in the duct facing upstream. The A manometer connected to the pitot-static tube
pressure tap that faces the flow directly gives a would provide head loss readings ∆h given by
measurement of the stagnation pressure, while

39
 pt - p
∆h =
ρg
where density is that of the flowing fluid. So
velocity in terms of head loss is
V=
√
2g ∆ h
Note that this equation applies only to
incompressible flows. Compressibility effects are
not accounted for. Furthermore, ∆h is the head
loss in terms of the flowing fluid and not in terms
of the reading on the manometer.
For flow in a duct, manometer readings are to
be taken at a number of locations within the cross
section of the flow. The velocity profile is then
plotted using the results. Velocities at specific
points are then determined from these profiles.
The objective here is to obtain data, graph a
velocity profile and then determine the average
velocity.
Average Velocity
The average velocity is related to the flow
rate through a duct as
Q Equipment
V=
A Axial flow fan apparatus
where Q is the volume flow rate and A is the
cross sectional area of the duct. We can divide
the flow area into five equal areas, as shown in
Figure 16.3. The velocity is to be obtained at
those locations labeled in the figure. The chosen
positions divide the cross section into five equal
concentric areas. The flow rate through each area
labeled from 1 to 5 is found as
Q 1 = A 1V 1 Q 2 = A 2V 2
Q 3 = A 3V 3 Q 4 = A 4V 4
Q 5 = A 5V 5
0.837 R
0.707 R
0.548 R
0.316 R
R
FIGURE 16.3. Five positions within the cross
section where velocity is to be determined.
The total flow rate through the entire cross
section is the sum of these:
5
Qtotal = ∑Q i = A1V1 + A2V2 + A3V3 + A4V4
1
+ A 5V 5
or Qtotal = A1 (V1 + V2 + V3 + V4 + V5)
The total area Atotal is 5A1 and so
Qtotal (A total/5)(V 1 + V 2 + V 3 + V 4 + V 5)
V= =
Atotal Atotal
The average velocity then becomes
(V 1 + V 2 + V 3 + V 4 + V 5 )
V=
5
The importance of the five chosen radial
positions for measuring V1 through V5 is now
evident.
Velocity Measurements
Pitot-static tube
Manometer
The fan of the apparatus is used to move air
through the system at a rate that is small enough
to allow the air to be considered incompressible.
While the fan is on, make velocity profile
measurements at a selected location within the
duct at a cross section that is several diameters
downstream of the fan. Repeat these
measurements at different fan speed settings so
that 9 velocity profiles will result. Use the
velocity profiles to determine the average
velocity and the flow rate.
Questions
1. Why is it appropriate to take velocity
measurements at several diameters
0.949 R downstream of the fan?
2. Suppose the duct were divided into 6 equal
areas and measurements taken at select
positions in the cross section. Should the
average velocity using 6 equal areas be the
same as the average velocity using 5 or 4
equal areas?
40
Incompressible Flow Through a Meter
Incompressible flow through a venturi and an
orifice meter was discussed in Experiment 9. For
our purposes here, we merely re-state the
equations for convenience. For an air over liquid
manometer, the theoretical equation for both
meters is
somewhat different. When the fluid flows
through a meter and encounters a change in area,
the velocity changes as does the pressure. When
pressure changes, the density of the fluid changes
and this effect must be accounted for in order to
obtain accurate results. To account for
compressibility, we will rewrite the descriptive
equations.

√

2g ∆ h
Qth = A2 Venturi Meter
(1 - D 24/D 14)
Consider isentropic, subsonic, steady flow of
Now for any pressure drop ∆hi, there are two an ideal gas through a venturi meter. The
corresponding flow rates: Qac and Qth. The ratio of continuity equation is
these flow rates is the venturi discharge
· ·
coefficient Cv, defined as ρ 1A 1V 1 = ρ 2A 2V 2 = m isentropic = ms

Qac where section 1 is upstream of the meter, and

Cv = = 0.985
Qth section 2 is at the throat. Neglecting changes in
potential energy (negligible compared to changes
for turbulent flow. The orifice discharge in enthalpy), the energy equation is
coefficient can be expressed in terms of the Stolz
equation: V 12 V 2
h1 + = h2 + 2
2 2
Co = 0.595 9 + 0.031 2β 2.1 - 0.184β 8 +
106 0.75 The enthalpy change can be found by assuming
+ 0.002 9β 2.5  
 Re β that the compressible fluid is ideal:
β4 
+ 0.09L1 - L (0.003 37β 3) h 1 - h 2 = C p (T 1 - T 2 )
1 - β 4 2
Combining these equations and rearranging gives
ρVoDo 4ρQac D
where Re = = β= o
µ π D oµ D1 · 2 · 2
m s m s
CpT1 + = CpT2 +
2ρ1 A 1
2 2 2 ρ 22A 22
L1 = 0 for corner taps
L1 = 1/D1 for flange taps
1 or
L1 = 1 for 1D & 2 D taps
· 2 1 1
and if L1 ≥ 0.433 3, the coefficient of the  β 4
4
m s 2A 2 - ρ 2A 2
 = 2Cp(T1 - T2)
ρ
 2 2 1 
1 - β  1

T2
= 2CpT1  1 - 
term becomes 0.039.
 T 1
L2 = 0 for corner taps
L2 = 1/D1 for flange taps
1 If we assume an isentropic compression process
L2 = 0.5 - E/D1 for 1D & 2 D taps through the meter, then we can write
E = orifice plate thickness
γ
p2 T γ-1
Compressible Flow Through a Meter =  2
p 1  T 1
When a compressible fluid (vapor or gas)
flows through a meter, compressibility effects
where γ is the ratio of specific heats (γ = C p/C v).
must be accounted for. This is done by introduction
Also, recall that for an ideal gas,
of a compressibility factor which can be
determined analytically for some meters
Rγ
(venturi). For an orifice meter, on the other hand, Cp =
the compressibility factor must be measured. γ - 1
The equations and formulation developed
thus far were for incompressible flow through a Substituting, rearranging and simplifying, we get
meter. For compressible flows, the derivation is
41
 could be plotted as compressibility factor Y versus
· 2  γ - 1 
m
 ρ 22A 22 Rγ
 p2
 γ pressure ratio p2/p1 for various values of D2/D1.
T 1 - 
s
1 - 2 2 =2
ρ 22A 22  ρ1 A 1  γ - 1 1 p 1   The advantage of using this approach is that a
pressure drop term appears just as with the
incompressible case, which is convenient if a
For an ideal gas, we write ρ = p/RT. Substituting
manometer is used to measure pressure. Moreover,
for the RT1 term in the preceding equation yields
the compressibility effect has been isolated into
one factor Y.
· 2
m s γ  p 1  1 - (p 2/p 1) (γ - 1)/γ
= 2ρ22
A2 2 γ - 1  ρ1  1 - ( ρ 2 2 A 2 2 / ρ 1 2 A 1 2 ) Orifice Meter
The equations and formulation of an analysis
For an isentropic process, we can also write for an orifice meter is the same as that for the
venturi meter. The difference is in the evaluation
p1 p2 of the compressibility factor. For an orifice meter
= the compressibility factor is much lower than
ρ1γ ρ2γ
that for a venturi meter. The compressibility
p 2 1/γ factor for an orifice meter cannot be derived, but
or ρ2 =   ρ1 instead must be measured. Results of such tests
p 1  have yielded the Buckingham equation, Equation
16.4 of Table 16.1, which is valid for most
from which we obtain manometer connection systems.
p 2 2/γ 2
ρ22 =   ρ1 Calibration of a Meter
p 1  Figures 16.4 and 16.5 show how the apparatus
is set up. An axial flow fan is attached to the
Substituting into the mass flow equation, we get shaft of a DC motor. The rotational speed of the
after considerable manipulation Equation 16.1 of motor, and hence the volume flow rate of air, is
Table 16.1, which summarizes the results. controllable. The fan moves air through a duct
Thus for compressible flow through a venturi into which a pitot-static tube is attached. The
meter, the measurements needed are p1, p2, T1, pitot static tube is movable so that the velocity
the venturi dimensions, and the fluid properties. at any radial location can be measured. An orifice
By introducing the venturi discharge coefficient or a venturi meter can be placed in the duct
C v, the actual flow rate through the meter is system.
determined to be The pitot static tube has pressure taps which
are to be connected to a manometer. Likewise each
· =C m
· meter also has pressure taps, and these will be
mac v s
connected to a separate manometer.
Combining this result with Equation 16.1 gives A meter for calibration will be assigned by
Equation 16.2 of Table 16.1. the instructor. For the experiment, make
It would be convenient if we could re-write measurements of velocity using the pitot-static
Equation 16.2 in such a way that the tube to obtain a velocity profile. Draw the
compressibility effects could be consolidated into velocity profile to scale. Obtain data from the
one term. We attempt this by using the flow rate velocity profile and determine a volume flow
equation for the incompressible case multiplied rate.
by another coefficient called the compressibility For one velocity profile, measure the pressure
factor Y; we therefore write drop associated with the meter. Graph volume
flow rate as a function of head loss ∆h obtained
from the meter, with ∆h on the horizontal axis.

√

· = C Yρ A 2(p 1 - p 2 ) Determine the value of the compressibility factor
mac v 1 2
ρ 1 (1 - D 2 4 /D 1 4 ) experimentally and again using the appropriate
equation (Equation 16.3 or 16.4) for each data
We now set the preceding equation equal to point. A minimum of 9 data points should be
Equation 16.2 and solve for Y. We obtain Equation obtained. Compare the results of both
16.3 of the table. calculations for Y.
The ratio of specific heats γ will be known for
a given compressible fluid, and so Equation 16.3

42
TABLE 16.1. Summary of equations for compressible flow through a venturi or an orifice meter.

( γ - 1)/ γ
· = A  2p 1 ρ 1 (p 2 /p 1 ) 2/ γ [γ /( γ - 1)] [1 - (p 2 /p 1 ) ]1/2
m s 2 2/ γ 4 4  (16.1)
 1 - (p 2 /p 1 ) (D 2 /D 1 ) 

( γ - 1)/ γ 1/2
· = C A  2p 1 ρ 1 (p 2 /p 1 ) 2/ γ [γ /( γ - 1)] [1 - (p 2 /p 1 ) ]

m ac v 2 2/ γ (D /D )
4 4 (16.2)
 1 - (p 2 /p 1 ) 2 1 

Y=
√

γ [(p 2 /p 1 ) 2/ γ - (p 2 /p 1 ) (γ + 1)/γ](1 - D 2 4 /D 1 4 )
γ - 1 [1 - (D 2 4 /D 1 4 )(p 2 /p 1 ) 2/ γ ](1 - p 2 /p 1 )
(venturi meter) (16.3)

(1 - p2/p1)
Y = 1 - (0.41 + 0.35β 4) (orifice meter) (16.4)
γ

manometer
connections
rounded
inlet

pitot-static
tube
motor
axial flow outlet duct venturi meter
fan
FIGURE 16.4. Experimental setup for calibrating a venturi meter.

manometer
connections
rounded
inlet

pitot-static
tube
motor
axial flow outlet duct orifice plate
fan

FIGURE 16.5. Experimental setup for calibrating an orifice meter.

43
 EXPERIMENT 17

MEASUREMENT OF FAN HORSEPOWER

The objective of this experiment is to measure

performance characteristics of an axial flow fan, u1 - u2 = Cv(T1 - T2)
and display the results graphically.
Figure 17.1 shows a schematic of the With a fan, however, we assume an isothermal
apparatus used in this experiment. A DC motor · =
process, so that T ≈ T and ρ ≈ ρ = ρ. With m
1 2 1 2
rotates an axial flow fan which moves air ρ A V (evaluated at the outlet, section 2), the
through a duct. The sketch shows a venturi meter equation for power becomes
used in the outlet duct to measure flow rate.
However, an orifice meter or a pitot-static tube  ρ V 12  ρ V 22
= A2V 2  p 1 +
dW
can be used instead. (See Experiment 16.) The - p2 + 
control volume from section 1 to 2 includes all the
dt  2   2 
fluid inside. The inlet is labeled as section 1, and
has an area (indicated by the dotted line) so huge Recall that in this analysis, we set up our control
that the velocity at 1 is negligible compared to volume so that the inlet velocity V 1 = 0; actually
the velocity at 2. The pressure at 1 equals V 1 << V 2. Thus
atmospheric pressure. The fan thus accelerates
p1 + ρ V 1  - p2 + ρ V 2  ≈ p 1 - p 2 - ρ V 2 
2 2 2
the flow from a velocity of 0 to a velocity we
identify as V2. The continuity equation is  2   2   2 

· =m·
m 1 2 in which p 1 is atmospheric pressure, and p 2 is
measured at section 2. The quantity in brackets in
The energy equation is the previous equation is the change in total
pressure ∆pt. Thus, the power is
dW ·  V 2 2
+ m1 h 1 + 1  - m
· h + V 2 
0=- 2 2 dW
dt  2   2  = ∆pt Q (17.1)
dt
where dW/dt is the power input from the fan to
the air, which is what we are solving for. By This is the power imparted to the air from the
substituting the enthalpy terms according to the fan.
definition (h = u + pv), the preceding equation
becomes Data Acquisition
The motor controller is used to set the
dW · rotational speed of the fan, which in turn controls
= m (u1 - u2) the volume flow rate of air through the duct. On
dt
2 2
the side of the motor is a shaft (a torque arm)
·  p 1 + V 1  -  p 2 + V 2   that extends outward normal to the axis of
+ m  
 ρ 2  ρ 2  rotation. When the fan rotates, the motor tends to
rotate in the opposite direction. A weight can be
Assuming ideal gas behavior, we have

manometer
rounded
1 2 connections
inlet

motor
axial flow outlet duct venturi meter
fan

FIGURE 17.1. Schematic of setup of fan horsepower experiment.

44
placed on the torque arm to reposition the motor 1. An appropriate reading for the flow meter.
to its balanced position. The product of weight 2. Weight needed to balance the motor, and its
and torque arm length gives the torque input from position on the torque arm.
motor to fan. 3. Rotational speed of the fan and motor.
A tachometer is used to measure the 4. The static pressure at section 2.
rotational speed of the motor. The product of
torque and rotational speed gives the power input With these data, the following parameters
to the fan: can be calculated, again for each setting of the
motor controller:
dWa 1. Outlet velocity at section 2: V 2 = Q/A 2.
= Tω (17.2)
dt 2. The power using Equation 17.1.
3. The input power using Equation 17.2.
This is the power delivered to the fan from the 4. The efficiency using Equation 17.3.
motor.
The efficiency of the fan can now be Presentation of Results
calculated using Equations 1 and 2: On the horizontal axis, plot volume flow
rate. On the vertical axis, graph the power using
dW/dt Equation 1, and Equation 2, both on the same set of
η= (17.3) axes. Also, again on the same set of axes, graph
d W a/ d t
total pressure ∆pt as a function of flow rate. On a
Thus for one setting of the motor controller, the separate graph, plot efficiency versus flow rate
following readings should be obtained: (horizontal axis).

45
 EXPERIMENT 18

MEASUREMENT OF PUMP PERFORMANCE

The objective of this experiment is to perform The parameters used to characterize the
a test of a centrifugal pump and display the pump are calculated with the raw data obtained
results in the form of what is known as a from the test (listed above) and are as follows:
performance map. input power to the pump, the total head
Figure 18.1 is a schematic of the pump and difference as outlet minus inlet, the power
piping system used in this experiment. The pump imparted to the liquid, and the efficiency. These
contains an impeller within its housing. The parameters are summarized in Table 18.2. These
impeller is attached to the shaft of the motor parameters must be expressed in a consistent set of
and the motor is mounted so that it is free to units.
rotate, within limits. As the motor rotates and
the impeller moves liquid through the pump, the TABLE 18.2. Pump characterization parameters.
motor housing tends to rotate in the opposite
direction from that of the impeller. A calibrated Reduced Data
measurement system gives a readout of the torque
exerted by the motor on the impeller. Parameter Symbol Dimensions
The rotational speed of the motor is obtained
with a tachometer. The product of rotational input power dW a/dt F·L/T
speed and torque is the input power to the total head diff ∆H L
impeller from the motor.
power to liquid dW/dt F·L/T
Gages in the inlet and outlet lines about the
pump give the corresponding pressures in gage efficiency η —
pressure units. The gages are located at known
heights from a reference plane.
After moving through the system, the water
The raw data are manipulated to obtain the
is discharged into an open channel containing a
reduced data which in turn are used to
V-notch weir. The weir is calibrated to provide
characterize the performance of the pump. The
the volume flow rate through the system.
input power to the pump from the motor is the
The valve in the outlet line is used to control
product of torque and rotational speed:
the volume flow rate. As far as the pump is
concerned, the resistance offered by the valve
dW a
simulates a piping system with a controllable - = Tω (18.1)
dt
friction loss. Thus for any valve position, the
following data can be obtained: torque, rotational
where the negative sign is added as a matter of
speed, inlet pressure, outlet pressure, and volume
convention. The total head at section 1, where
flow rate. These parameters are summarized in
the inlet pressure is measured (see Figure 18.1), is
Table 18.1.
defined as
TABLE 18.1. Pump testing parameters.
p 1 V 12
Raw Data H1 = + + z1
ρg 2g

Parameter Symbol Dimensions where ρ is the liquid density and V1 (= Q/A) is

the velocity in the inlet line. Similarly, the
torque T F·L total head at position 2 where the outlet pressure
rotational speed ω 1/T is measured is
inlet pressure p1 F/L 2
p 2 V 22
outlet pressure p2 F/L 2 H2 = + + z2
ρg 2g
volume flow rate Q L 3/ T
The total head difference is given by

46
 p 2 V 22 dW/dt
∆ H = H2 - H 1 = + + z2 η= (18.3)
ρg 2g d W a/ d t
p 1 V 12
-  + + z1 Experimental Method
 ρg 2g 
The experimental technique used in obtaining
data depends on the desired method of expressing
The dimension of the head H is L (ft or m). The
performance characteristics. For this experiment,
power imparted to the liquid is calculated with
data are taken on only one impeller-casing-motor
the steady flow energy equation applied from
combination. One data point is first taken at a
section 1 to 2:
certain valve setting and at a preselected
2
rotational speed. The valve setting would then be
-
dW ·g
=m p 2 + V 2 + z  changed and the speed control on the motor (not
dt   ρg 2g 2
 shown in Figure 18.1) is adjusted if necessary so
p V 2 that the rotational speed remains constant, and
-  1 + 1 + z 1 the next set of data are obtained. This procedure
 ρg 2g 
is continued until 6 data points are obtained for
one rotational speed.
In terms of total head H, we have
Next, the rotational speed is changed and
dW · · g ∆H the procedure is repeated. Four rotational speeds
- = mg (H2 - H1) = m (18.2) should be used, and at least 6 data points per
dt
rotational speed should be obtained.
The efficiency is determined with

v-notch weir

return

valve

1 nominal
schedule 40
control panel PVC pipe inlet
and gages •
sump tank
pressure
tap

pressure valve
z2 tap

1-1/2 nominal
motor pump z1 schedule 40
motor shaft PVC pipe

FIGURE 18.1. Centrifugal pump testing setup.

47
Performance Map
A performance map is to be drawn to dW
= f3(ρ , µ , Q, ω , D)
summarize the performance of the pump over its dt
operating range. The performance map is a graph
if the total head ∆ H versus flow rate Q Performing a dimensional analysis gives the
(horizontal axis). Four lines, corresponding to the following results:
four pre-selected rotational speeds, would be
drawn. Each line has 6 data points, and the ρω D 2 Q 
efficiency at each point is calculated. Lines of η = f1  ,
 µ ω D 3
equal efficiency are then drawn, and the resulting
graph is known as a performance map. Figure 18.2
g∆H ρω D 2 Q 
is an example of a performance map. = f2  ,
ω D
2 2
 µ ω D 3
Efficiency in %
40
3600 rpm
dW/dt
 ρω D 2 Q 
65% = f ,
75% ρω 3D 5 3
 µ ω D 3
2700 75%
30 80%
65%
where
Total head in ft

1760
85%
20 g∆H
= energy transfer coefficient
900
ω 2D 2
10 Q
= volumetric flow coefficient
ωD3
0
0 200 400 600 800 ρω D 2
= rotational Reynolds number
Volume flow rate in gallons per minute µ
dW/dt
FIGURE 18.2. Example of a performance map of = power coefficient
ρω 3D 5
one impeller-casing-motor combination
obtained at four different rotational speeds. Experiments conducted with pumps show that the
rotational Reynolds number (ρωD2/µ) has a
smaller effect on the dependent variables than
Dimensionless Graphs does the flow coefficient. So for incompressible
To illustrate the importance of flow through pumps, the preceding equations
dimensionless parameters, it is prudent to use the reduce to
data obtained in this experiment and produce a
dimensionless graph. Q
A dimensional analysis can be performed for η ≈ f1   (18.4)
ω
 D 3
pumps to determine which dimensionless groups
are important. With regard to the flow of an
g∆H Q
incompressible fluid through a pump, we wish to ≈ f2   (18.5)
relate three variables introduced thus far to the ω 2D 2 ω D 3
flow parameters. The three variables of interest
here are the efficiency η, the energy transfer rate dW/dt Q
g ∆ H, and the power dW/dt. These three ≈ f3   (18.6)
ρω 3D 5 ω
 D 3
parameters are assumed to be functions of fluid
properties density ρ and viscosity µ, volume flow For this experiment, construct a graph of
rate through the machine Q, rotational speed ω , efficiency, energy transfer coefficient, and power
and a characteristic dimension (usually impeller coefficient all as functions of the volumetric flow
diameter) D. We therefore write three functional coefficient. Three different graphs can be drawn,
dependencies: or all lines can be placed on the same set of axes.
η = f1(ρ, µ, Q, ω , D )

g∆H = f2(ρ , µ , Q, ω , D)

48
Specific Speed
A dimensionless group known as specific ω Q 1/2
ωs =  rpm = rpm(gpm)1/2
speed can also be derived. Specific speed is found ∆ H 3/4  ft 3/4 
by combining head coefficient and flow
coefficient in order to eliminate characteristic
in which the rotational speed ω is expressed in
length D:
rpm, volume flow rate Q is in gpm, total head ∆H
is in ft of liquid, and specific speed ωs is
Q 1/2 ω 2 D 2 3/4
ωss =     arbitrarily assigned the unit of rpm. The equation
ω D 3  g ∆ H  for specific speed ωss is dimensionless whereas
ωs is not.
ω Q 1/2 The specific speed of a pump can be
or ωss = [dimensionless]
(g ∆ H) 3/4 calculated at any operating point, but
customarily specific speed for a pump is
Exponents other than 1/2 and 3/4 could be used (to determined only at its maximum efficiency. For
eliminate D), but 1/2 and 3/4 are customarily the pump of this experiment, calculate its
selected for modeling pumps. Another definition specific speed using both equations.
for specific speed is given by

49
 Appendix

Calibration Curves

Orifice plates—open channel flow apparatus .................................... 51

V-notch weir—turbomachinery experiments...................................... 52

50
 1

large orifice
volume flow rate in ft /s
3

small orifice
0.1

0.01
0.01 0.1 1 10

manometer deflection in ft of water

FIGURE A.1. Calibration curve for the open channel flow device.

51
 120

100

80
height reading in mm

60

40

20

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350

volume flow rate in liters/min

FIGURE A.2. Calibration curve for the V-notch weir, turbomachinery experiments.

52