Mechanics of Materials: Stress and Strain - Axial Loading

CHAPTER MECHANICS OF
2 MATERIALS
Stress and Strain
– Axial Loading
(we study deformation of a member
under axial loading. Also need
deformations to solve statically
indeterminate structures)
MECHANICS OF MATERIALS
Contents
Normal Strain Poisson’s Ratio

Stress-Strain Test Shearing Strain
Stress-Strain Diagram: Ductile Materials Relation Among E, n, and G
Stress-Strain Diagram: Brittle Materials Generalized Hooke’s Law
Elastic vs. Plastic Behavior Dilatation: Bulk Modulus
Hooke’s Law: Modulus of Elasticity
Deformations Under Axial Loading Plane Stress Problem
(Uniform/Nonuniform cross-sections) Plane Strain Problem
Stress Concentration: Hole

Stress Concentration: Fillet
2-2
Normal Strain
P
   stress 2P P
A  
 2A A
   normal strain 
L 
L
If Nonuniform strain : P

  d A
  lim  2 
x  0  x dx  
2L L
2-3
Mechanical Properties / Behavior of Materials
Usual procedure to determine how materials behave when they are
subjected to loads is to conduct tensile or compressive testing
Tensile Testing of metals:
-Circular specimen with enlarged
ends where they fit in the grips so Univers
that failure doesn’t happen near the al
grips Tensile
-A gage length is fixed as per the IS Testing
standards. machine
-Extensometer arms are attached to
the specimen at gage marks
- Load is slowly increased and the
elongation is measured.
- Displacement controlled test
Stress-Strain Diagram for Structural Steel (Mild Steel):
Convert load-elongation curve to stress-strain curve to avoid dimension problem
Mild Steel
(ductile material)
Nominal Stress (aka conventional / engineering stress) – initial

area of the specimen is used
True Stress – actual area of specimen used at the cross-section
where failure occurs
Stress-Strain Diagram for Aluminum Alloy
-No obvious yield point.
-Yield stress may be
determined by offset method
Offset method:
At 0.2% strain (0.002) draw line
parallel to linear part. It cuts stress-
strain diagram at A, which is defined
as yield stress
- Note Aluminum alloy is also ductile
because it exhibits plasticity (large
permanent deformation) before failure
- Other ductile materials include copper,

nickel, bronze, etc.
Stress-Strain Diagram for Brittle materials (eg. Cast iron)
- Materials that fail in tension at relatively
low strains are classified as brittle. Failure
is sudden.
- Brittle materials fail only after a little Concrete,
elongation after the proportional limit glass, cast
(point A) is exceeded and doesn’t exhibit iron, stone,
significant plasticity as ductile materials ceramics
-No Necking
Stress-Strain Diagram for Rubber
(elastic material)
- Linear relationship between stress and strain
upto relatively large strain (as high as 0.1 or
0.2). Beyond that behavior is non-linear and
depends on type of rubber
- Rubber is not ductile because it doesn’t give
permanent deformation and returns to original
configuration upon release of load.
Stress-strain diagram in compression
- For ductile material linear regime
remains same as in tension
- With increasing load, specimen
takes barrel shape, finally flattens
out to provide great resistance to
further shortening
- For brittle materials bulging

doesn’t occur. Material actually
breaks. However, ultimate
compressive stress is much higher
than ultimate tensile stress For ductile materials
Elasticity and Plasticity Elastic
-Property of material returning to original Limit
dimension after unloading, called elasticity
- Property of material undergoing inelastic
strains beyond the strain at the elastic limit
(point E) is plasticity
- For steel, aluminium, Elastic limit or yield
point is close to proportional limit, i.e., most
of curve OE is straight line.
- When material loaded beyond elastic limit,
upon unloading it doesn’t come back to its
original dimension but follows path BC
which is parallel to tangent at O or straight
part of loading curve. Material has
permanently yielded and a residual strain
(or permanent strain) remains in the
material
- Residual elongation called permanent set
Elasticity and Plasticity
Aluminium
Reloading of Material
Materials reloaded from point C.
1. Linear elastic behavior from C to

(almost) B, with slope being parallel to
tangent to original loading curve at O
2. Proportional limit now at (almost) B
which is higher than the original elastic
limit (point E),
3. Thus, the material properties have been
changed - the proportional limit and elastic limit are raised
4. Ductility reduced because in ‘new stress strain diagram’ (path
CBF) the amount of yielding beyond elastic limit (B to F) is less
than in the original stress strain diagram (E to F)
Stress-Strain Relationship:
Hooke’s Law
The linear relationship between
stress and strain for a bar in
simple tension or compression
is expressed by the equation
  E
 Modulus of Elasticity (E) (aka Young’s Modulus). It is the ratio of normal
stress to normal strain (i.e., measure of resistance to elastic deformation),
evaluated below the proportional limit, i.e., slope of the straight-line portion
of the stress-strain curve.
Structural Steel E=210 GPa (30, 000 ksi)

Aluminum E=73 GPa (10,600 ksi)
Elongation of prismatic bar in tension
P 
Stress:  Strain: 
A L
Stress-strain   E
relationship:
P 
E
A L
PL Pi Li
  or  
AE Ai Ei
EA L
Stiffness : k  flexibilty : f 
L EA
EA  Axial Rigidity
Calculate elongation of bar AD
Example 2.1
Step 1: use equilibrium to obtain internal
forces in each segment
From F.B.D (b),
N1 = PD+PC-PB on segment AB
From F.B.D (c),
N2 = PC+PD on segment BC
From F.B.D (b),
N3 = PD on segment CD
Step 2: calculate elongation of each
segment and add them
 AD   AB   BC   CD
N1 L1 N 2 L2 N 3 L3
(a) Bar with external loads acting at  AD   
AE AE AE
intermediate points; (b) (c), and (d)
free-body diagrams showing the
Variant: non-uniform (stepped) bar
internal axial forces N1, N2, and N3.
Example 2.2
Horizontal rigid beam ABC supported by two

vertical non-rigid bars.
.
Calculate deflection at A
Step 1: Equilibrium:  F x  0;  F y  0;  M B  0 H=0; FCE=2P; FBD=3P
Step 2: Member F BD L BD FCE L CE
 BD   CE 
elongation/shortening EA BD EA CE
Step 3: Displacement at A ' A" B ' B"  A   CE    CE

A? (construct   BD
A" C  B " C  450  225 225
displacement diagram)
Non-uniform Bar with Distributed Axial Loading
Varying axial force, i.e., distributed force p(x) having units of force
per unit length. Distributed force may be caused by centrifugal force
(helicopter/turbine blade, friction, or simply weight of a bar hanging
in a vertical position) .
What is the elongation of the bar?

Bar with Non-Uniform Cross-section/ Loading
Need to solve this problem by considering a differential element, dx, at a distance x,

and obtain the elongation, dδ, of that differential element. Assume that the force acting
on the element is N(x). L L
N ( x)dx N ( x) dx
d      d  
A( x) E 0 0
A( x) E
Recall: So you need to find the internal force N(x) acting at a
distance x, on the segment. In this case L
PL
 N ( x)   p ( x)dx
AE x
Example 2.3
Calculate elongation of bar due to its own
weight and load (P) applied
Note: the weight of the bar itself
produces a varying internal axial force
which is zero at the lower end and is
maximum at the upper end
Internal force at a distance x from the upper end
L
N ( x )   Adx  P  A( L  x )  P
x Weight density of the material
L 2
N ( x)dx L PL
   
0
A( x) E 2 E AE
Static Indeterminacy
• Structures for which internal forces and reactions
cannot be determined from statics alone are
statically indeterminate.
• Structure will be statically indeterminate

whenever it is held by more supports than are
required to maintain its equilibrium.
• Redundant (i.e., excess) reactions are replaced

with unknown loads which along with the other
loads must produce compatible deformations.
• Deformations due to actual loads and redundant

reactions are determined separately and then added
or superposed to obtain the compatibility equation.
  L R  0
2 - 19
Example 2.4
Determine reactions at A and B for steel bar with
loading shown, assuming close fit at both
supports before loads applied.
SOLUTION:
• Consider reaction at B as redundant, release bar
from that support, and solve for the
displacement at B due to applied loads.
• Solve for displacement at B due to redundant
reaction at B.
• Require that displacements due to loads and due
to redundant reaction be compatible, i.e., in this
case require that their sum be zero. Solve
compatibility equation for RB
• Solve for the reaction at A due to the applied
loads and the reaction found at B.
2 - 20
Example 2.4
SOLUTION:
• Solve displacement at B due to applied loads, with
redundant constraint/reaction released,
P1  0 P2  P3  600  103 N P4  900  103 N
A1  A2  400 10 6 m 2 A3  A4  250  10 6 m 2

L1  L2  L3  L4  0.150 m
Pi Li 1.125  109
L   
i Ai Ei E
• Solve displacement at B due to redundant

constraint/reaction,
P1  P2   RB
A1  400 10 6 m 2 A2  250 106 m 2

L1  L2  0.300 m
δR  
Pi Li


1.95 103 RB
i Ai Ei E
2 - 21
Example 2.4
• Require that displacements due to loads and due to
redundant reaction be compatible,
  L R  0 (δ non-zero if initial gap at B)
  

1.125 109 1.95 103 RB0
E E
RB  577 103 N  577 kN
• Find reaction at A due to the loads and the reaction at B

 Fy  0  R A  300 kN  600 kN  577 kN
R A  323 kN
R A  323 kN
RB  577 kN
2 - 22
Thermal Stresses
• Temperature change results in change in length, i.e.,
thermal strain. No stress associated with thermal
strain, unless elongation restrained by supports.
• Treat additional support as redundant and apply the

principle of superposition.
PL
 T   T L P 
AE
  thermal expansion coef.
• Thermal deformation and deformation from
redundant support must be compatible, i.e.,
PL
  T   P  0   T L  0
AE
P
P   AE T      E T 
A
2 - 23
Poisson’s Ratio
• For slender bar subjected to axial loading:
x
x   y z  0
E
• Elongation in x- (i.e., longitudinal/axial)
direction is accompanied by contraction in the
other (i.e., lateral) directions.
y  z  0
• Poisson’s ratio defined as
lateral strain y z
   
longitudin al strain x x
• For common materials (metals) Poisson’s ratio
is positive, in the range 0.25-0.35. Positive for
. polymer foams.
Only two properties (eg., E and ) needed to characterize an isotropic material
2 - 24
Generalized Hooke’s Law
• For element subjected to multi-axial loading, the

normal strain components resulting from stress
components may be determined from principle
of superposition. This requires:
1) strain is linearly related to stress
2) deformations are small
• Thus:
 x  y  z
x    
E E E
 x  y  z
y    
E E E
 x  y  z
z    
E E E
2 - 25
Dilatation: Bulk Modulus
• Relative to the unstressed state, the change in volume is
(neglect nonlinear strain terms, e<<1 so e2 neglected)
    
e  1  1   x  1   y 1   z   1  1   x   y   z 
 x  y z
1  2

E

 x  y  z 
 dilatation (change in volume per unit volume)
• For element subjected to uniform hydrostatic pressure,

31  2  p
e  p 
E k
E
k  bulk modulus
31  2 
• Subjected to uniform pressure, dilatation must be

negative, therefore
0 <  < 12
Shearing Strain
• A cubic element subjected to shear stress will deform
into a skewed parallelopiped. The corresponding
shear strain is defined as change in angle between
adjacent sides.
• For isotropic material, shear stress related to shear

strain,
 xy  f  xy 
• Plot of shear stress vs. shear strain is similar to plot

of normal stress vs. normal strain, except that
(yield, ultimate) strength values are approximately
half. For small strains,
 xy  G  xy  yz  G  yz  zx  G  zx
where G is modulus of rigidity or shear modulus.
2 - 27
Example 2.5
• Determine the average angular deformation
or shearing strain of the block.
0.04 in.
 xy  tan  xy   xy  0.020 rad
2 in.
• Apply Hooke’s law for shearing stress and

strain to find the corresponding shearing
Rectangular block of material with stress.
G = 90 ksi is bonded to two rigid
plates. Lower plate fixed, upper plate  
 xy  G xy  90 103 psi 0.020 rad   1800 psi
moves 0.04 in. due to applied
horizontal force P. Find a) average
shearing strain in the material, and b) • Use the definition of shearing stress to find
force P exerted on plate. the force P.
P   xy A  1800 psi 8 in.2.5 in.  36  103 lb
P  36.0 kips
2 - 28
Relation Among E, , and G
• Consider axially loaded bar with initial
cube and rotated-cube elements as shown.
Cubic undergoes normal strain, rotated-
cubic undergoes shear strain. Diagonal of
cube and side of rotated -cube are similar.
Compare their angles wrt x-axis.
   '  1   x
tan     ,
 4 2  1   x
 
note small strains  ' and  x , tan  '   ' ,
do Taylor series of denominato rs, get
'
1 
2  1   x  1   '  1  (1   ) ,
' x
1  1   x
2
use stress  strain law,
E '  P P
 (1   ) x , for 45 0 plane  '  , x 
Result 1 G E 2A A
2G
2 - 29
Example 2.6
Circle of dia. d = 9 in. is scribed on unloaded

aluminum plate of thickness t = 3/4 in. Forces
acting in plane of plate cause normal stresses
sx = 12 ksi and sz = 20 ksi.
E = 10x106 psi and n = 1/3
Determine change in:
a) length of diameter AB,
b) length of diameter CD,
c) thickness of the plate, and
d) volume of the plate.
2 - 30
SOLUTION: Example 2.6
• Apply the generalized Hooke’s Law to • Evaluate the deformation components.
find the three components of normal
strain.

 B A   x d   0.533 103 in./in. 9 in. 
  y  z B A  4.8  103 in.
x   x  
E E E
1 1
C D  
  z d   1.600  103 in./in. 9 in.
 
 12 ksi   0  20 ksi 
10 106 psi  3  C D  14.4  103 in.
 0.533 103 in./in.  

 t   yt   1.067 103 in./in. 0.75 in.
 x  y  z  t  0.800 103 in.
y    
E E E
 1.067 103 in./in.
• Find the change in volume
 x  y  z
z     e   x   y   z  1.067 103 in 3/in 3
E E E
 1.600 103 in./in. V  eV  1.067 103 15 15  0.75in 3
V  0.187 in 3
2 - 31
Generalized Hooke’s law in 3D
(Stress-strain relationships)
x y  E
x 
E

E
 z
E
x 
(1   )(1  2 )
 
1    x    y   z 
y x z E
y 
E

E

E
y 
(1   )(1  2 )
 
(1   ) y    x   z 
z x y
z    E
E E E z 
(1   )(1  2 )
 
(1   ) z    x   y 
 xy
 xy   xy  G xy E= elastic
G
modulus
 yz
 yz   yz  G yz  = poisson’s
G ratio
 zx  zx  G zx G= shear modulus
 zx  E
G G
2(1   )
Hooke’s law in 2D
Plane Stress Problem
Assumptions:
 z  0; xz  0; yz  0
xz yz
So xz   0 , yz   0
A thin plate subject to in plane (x-y) G G
loading
x y
x   E
E E x  2

 x   y 
y (1   )
x
y  
E E E
x y y  2
 y   x 
 z    (1   )
E E
 xy  xy  G xy
 xy 
G
y
z t Hooke’s law
x in 2DStrain Problem
p 2r
Plane
L
Assumptions:
Fig. 1  z  0;  xz  0;  yz  0
A cylindrical pressure tube
constrained between rigid So xz  Gxz  0 , yz  Gyz  0
walls
x y z E
x    x 
(1   )(1  2 )

1    x   y 
E E E
y x z E
y 
E

E

E
y 
(1   )(1  2 )

1    y   x 
z x y
0   E
E E E z 
(1   )(1  2 )

 x y 
 xy
 xy 
G  xy  G xy
Saint-Venant’s Principle
• Loads transmitted through rigid
plates result in uniform distribution
of stress and strain.
• Concentrated loads result in large
stresses in the vicinity of the load
application point.
• Stress and strain distributions
become uniform at a relatively short
distance from the load application
points (plate width is b).
• Saint-Venant’s Principle:
Stress distribution may be assumed
independent of the method of load
application except in the immediate
vicinity of load application points.
• Note: Loads used to find far away
stresses should be statically eqvt.
2 - 35
Stress Concentration: Hole
Discontinuities of cross section may result in  max

K
high localized or concentrated stresses.  ave
2 - 36
Stress Concentration: Fillet
2 - 37
Example 2.7
• Determine the geometric ratios and
find the stress concentration factor
from Fig. 2.64b.
D 60 mm r 8 mm
  1.50   0.20
d 40 mm d 40 mm
K  1.82
Determine the largest axial load P • Find the allowable average normal
that can be safely supported by a stress using the material allowable
flat steel bar consisting of two normal stress and the stress
portions, both 10 mm thick, and concentration factor.
respectively 40 and 60 mm wide,  max 165 MPa
connected by fillets of radius r = 8  ave    90.7 MPa
K 1.82
mm. Assume an allowable normal
• Apply the definition of normal stress
stress of 165 MPa.
to find the allowable load.
P  A ave  40 mm 10 mm 90.7 MPa 
 36.3 103 N
P  36.3 kN
2 - 38
Elastoplastic Materials
• So far analyses based on assumption
of linear stress-strain relationship, i.e.,
stresses below the yield stress
• Assumption good for brittle materials
which rupture without yielding
• If yield stress of ductile material is
exceeded, plastic deformation occurs
• Analysis of plastic deformations is

simplified by assuming an idealized
elastoplastic material (elastic-
perfectly plastic)
• Deformations of an elastoplastic
material are divided into elastic and
plastic ranges
• Permanent deformations result from
loading beyond the yield stress
2- 39
Plastic Deformations
• Elastic deformation while
 A maximum stress is less than
P   ave A  max
K
yield stress
• Maximum stress is equal to
 A
PY  Y the yield stress at the
K
maximum elastic loading
• At loadings above the
maximum elastic load, a
region of plastic deformations
develop near the hole
PU   Y A
• As the loading increases, the
 K PY
plastic region expands until
the section is at a uniform
stress equal to the yield stress
2- 40
Residual Stresses
• When a single structural element is loaded
uniformly beyond its yield stress and then
unloaded, it is permanently deformed but all
stresses disappear. This is not so for a system.
• Residual stresses will remain in a structure
after loading and unloading if
- only part of the structure undergoes plastic
deformation
- different parts of the structure undergo
different plastic deformations
• Residual stresses also result from the uneven
heating or cooling of structures or structural
elements
2- 41
Example 2.8
Cylindrical rod placed inside

tube of same length. Ends of
rod and tube are attached to a
rigid support on one side and a
rigid plate on the other. Load on
the assembly increased from 0 to
25 kN and decreased back to 0.
a) draw load-deflection
diagram for assembly
b) find max elongation
c) find permanent set
d) calculate residual stresses in
rod and tube.
2- 42

Mechanics of Materials: Stress and Strain - Axial Loading

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Mechanics of Materials: Stress and Strain - Axial Loading

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CHAPTER MECHANICS OF

Normal Strain Poisson’s Ratio

Stress Concentration: Hole

Nominal Stress (aka conventional / engineering stress) – initial

- Other ductile materials include copper,

- For brittle materials bulging

1. Linear elastic behavior from C to

Structural Steel E=210 GPa (30, 000 ksi)

Horizontal rigid beam ABC supported by two

Step 3: Displacement at A ' A" B ' B"  A   CE    CE

What is the elongation of the bar?

Need to solve this problem by considering a differential element, dx, at a distance x,

• Structure will be statically indeterminate

• Redundant (i.e., excess) reactions are replaced

• Deformations due to actual loads and redundant

A1  A2  400 10 6 m 2 A3  A4  250  10 6 m 2

• Solve displacement at B due to redundant

A1  400 10 6 m 2 A2  250 106 m 2

• Find reaction at A due to the loads and the reaction at B

• Treat additional support as redundant and apply the

• For element subjected to multi-axial loading, the

• For element subjected to uniform hydrostatic pressure,

• Subjected to uniform pressure, dilatation must be

• For isotropic material, shear stress related to shear

• Plot of shear stress vs. shear strain is similar to plot

where G is modulus of rigidity or shear modulus.

• Apply Hooke’s law for shearing stress and

Circle of dia. d = 9 in. is scribed on unloaded

 0.533 103 in./in.  

Discontinuities of cross section may result in  max

• Analysis of plastic deformations is

Cylindrical rod placed inside

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