Glossary of Critical Terms Action: The events that take place in. a story.

These may be eithér external

(those events that are narrated or dramatiżed) or internal (the thoughts .. of one or several characters).

Aesthetic Distance: , The effect produced when an emotion or experience is . objectified, especially by
thé use of form or technique. The personal or subjective is thes made-to seem "objective" and is
removed from what would be a personal or subjective experience.

Allegory: A.genre in vhich cbaracters, events, and at times, setting represent either other cbaracters,
eyents, and settings, or abstract or moral quali- ties. Pilgrim's Progress and Gulliver's Travels are
allegorical works.

Allusion: An indirect- reference to a character, event, ídea; or place.: An aliúsion often enriches the
meaning or strengthens the significance of a - story or a word.

Ambiguity: The use of a wòrd or phrase in such a way, that it has a number .of possible meanings. When
the ambiguity is not deliberate, the result is 'a weakening of the 'effectiveniess of the word or phrasè.
When the am- biguity is deliberate, the result may be positive, increasing the impact of : the word or
phrase, and consequently, the entire story.

Antagonist: The character or force that represents the opposition to the • protagonist, for which term
see below. In "The Use of Force" by William Carlos Williams, the doctor is the protagonist; the little girl is
the antago- nist.

Antielimax: A sudden drop from the important to the trivial or common- place. In a story something
becomes anticlimactic when it ocurs after the climax or major resolution has taken place. See also
climax.

A Glossary of Critical Tects

Apologue: A fable, a story about inanimate objects or animals that revcals

JAtmosphere:- The prevailing mood or the foeling aroused by the different the characteristics of human
beings elements in a story or novel. See also fone and mood.

Character: A characteir is a person in a story or novel. There are many ways to identify characters, çach
being dependent on the extent to which the author has identified them for us. A fat character is one
who has mttie or no variety; he may be described as one dimensional. A gereotype a character who has
been used to ofen in fction that be is recognized immediately and his traits are predictable. He may be,
for instance, the strong, silent sheriff of the typical Western movie or story.A round character is the
opposite of either a fat or stereotypical one; he is a complex personality and cannot be "typed." He is, in
short, very much like most human beings, a mixture of good and bad, conventional and unconventional.

Cliché: A term that is outworn, trite, overused; as a result of-continued use, .. it has lost all freshness and
effectiveness. Examples of trite expressions or clichés are "strong as an ox," "pretty as a picture," and "as
American as apple pie." Situations and plots may also be regarded as clichés. Typical is the one in which
the rich, spoiled young mán learns to value love and loyalty over money only after a series of reversals
and de- feats.
Climax: The culminating event-or idea in a sequence or series of events or ideas, the point in a stoy
where the forțunes of the hero or protagsnist take a'turn' for bétter of worse. See also anticlimax.

Ciosed Form: A term used tô denote a stòry or a novel with a clearly defined resolution or denouement,
for which term see below. Unlike the "open- ended" story, one with a closed énding leaves very' few
questions in the reader's mind. There is a sense of "closure," of loose ends being tied up. Conflict:.

Conflict is essential to any story or novel, for it is the narration or dramatization of conflict and its
eventual resolution that create suspense and interest. Conflict may be centered on two opposing
characters or ideas, or between a character and his environment. It may be external or internal, the
latter usually being centered on the thoughts or ideas of a single character. Most often the conflict is
between the protagonist and . hiis antagonist(s).

Connotation: The meanings suggested by or, associated with a word, rather . than the literal or
denotative meaning. The word snake, for instance, has a denotative meaning, but it suggests far more.
See also denotation.

Convention: Any device or practice that is accepted by generai agreemeni; any widely used and
accepted device or technique in fiction, such as the ominiscient narrator.

Denotation: The literal or exact meaning of a word.or term, as opposed to the suggested or
conniotátive meanings. Scientific wríting is usually. thought of as being mostly denotative, while poetry,
fiction, and drama depend greatly on the connotative values given to words and phrases. Se also
connotation.

Denouement: The firial unráveling or tesolution of the plot; the falling action "after the climax.

Determinism: An extreme form of naturalism. The main element of deter- mìnism is the belief that
circumitance, chance or environment detér- mines a person's fate See also realism, naturalism, and
expressionism. Deus ex Machina: In Latin, literally, "god from a machine." In ancient Greek and Roman
drama a deity was often brought in by stage ma- .chinery to intervene in the action. Consequently, the
phrase refers tó any device, character, or évent brought in suddenly to resolve a conflict or -situation.
The sudden discovery that a character is not really'a peasant but is of royal blood is án example of such a
resolution.

Dialogue: The conversation or exchange of words between or among charac ters in a stóry, novel, or
play. Very often the dialogue will be the means by which the author reveals an important part of the
plot or demon- strates some facet of character. Dialogue is a very important artistic element in a story or
novel.

Diction: The choice or selection of words by the author; the author's vocabu- lary.

Didactic: That intended for instruction; anything that is intended to improve or instruct the reader.
Novels and stories may be didactic. The theme of a story or novel is an important element if the work is
a didactic'one.

Empathy: The identification of one's own feeling or personality with' that of another person, often à
character in fiction or drana. The ability to empathize with a character may result in a better
understanding of him and his plight. Sometimes the term is expressed in German ás Einfüh- lung This is
not to be confuscd with, sympathy, for which term see below.

Episode: A divişion of the plot or a separate incident, usually narrated rather than dramatized, and
complete in itself. This is not to be confused with scene, for which term see below. An episodic plot is
one in which the episodes have no causal connection and simply follow one another in chronological
sequence.

Exposition: The information concerning such elements' as plot, character, and previous events that'
enables the reader to understand clearly and appreciate fully, the development and everițual climax and
resolution of the story, novel, or play. An exposition that is "naturål" and does nót seem gratuitously
provided is a mark of a mature ånd skilled author.

Expressionism: A late nineteenth- and carly twentiethi-century movement in the arts, in particular
drama; which attempted, especially by means of symbols, to give objective expression to inner feelings
and emotions- Directly opposed to realisim and naturališm, for which terms see below, expressiónism
relies mainly on distortion and other nonrealistic' means to portray the inner life of the characiers. In
expressionistic fiction, for instance, there is great'use made of dream sequences and hallucinatory
experiences. Franz Kaſka is often cited as the chief modern author of expressionistic fition.

Fable: A simple story or narrative often illustrating or making a point about human nature; the fable
often employs animals that speak and act like human beings. Figurative Language: Language that is
nọnliteral or nondenòtative, conțains many figures of speech, such as metaphor, simile, and
personification, and employs much Imagery, for which term sce below.

Figurative lan- guage seeks not only to convey information, but also to evoke responses. See also
connotation and denotation.

Flashback:. An interruption in the continuity öf a story, novel, ór play by the dramatization or narration
of an carlier episode or scene. A story that Buglis iith a dying mản recalling his early years vhight have a
series of flashbacks. See also in medias res

Foll: A character who is directly contrasted with another, ejther by behavior, appearance, attițude
towards life, or by all or'a combiriation of these. To be most éffective, a foil should illuminate the
reader's.conception of the character against whom he is set. Also he should rnot be flat, but should be a
character in his own right. Laertes, for example, is often cited as the foil of HamJet. *

Foreshadowing: A'hint to the reader concerning a future action or develop- ment. When used skillfully,
foreshadowing creates suspense; when used unskillfully, it merely reveals, prematurely, what the reader
should not know until much later and thus lessens the impact of the story.

Form: The ordering of all the elementi ofa work of art (potm, novel, play. picture) into an integrated,
interrelated whole. Form should not be con- fused with structure, for which term see below, which
usually refers to the more formal or mechanical arrangements of the parts of the work. Thus, form
might be seen as the soul of a work; structure,. the body.

Genre: In French, literally, a kind or type; thus, in critical terminoiogy a particular type or elass, such as
drama, poetry, fiction. These genres may,. of course, be further subdivided.
Imagery: Often definied as beihg simply a collective térm for figures of speech, it is also used as' a broad
designation for images-that is, any use of figurative language to 'suggest visual pictures. Very often an
author will use a consistent thread of imagery to unify the story or to illuminate the theme. In Hamlet,
for example, the imagery of disease is a pervasive one, while in Kafka's "In the Penal Colony" "religious"
imagery predomi- nates. See also connotation and denotation

, In Medias Res: In Latin, literally, "in the middle of things"; a term used in the criticism of fiction to
describe narratives that open in the middle of events 'rather than at their beginning. See also flashback,

: Irony: Distinctions are often'made between iróny of statement, situational irony, and drámatic irony.
Irony of statement refers to.a sarcastic or. humorous manner of discourse in which what is literally said
is meant to express its opposite. For example, **You are a bright boy" means "You are not very bright."
Situational ironý involves a situation, event, or pairing in which the main elements are emotionally or
rationally incom- patible because of contrast, conflict, or surprise. (See the various books of Gulliver's
Travels.) In dramatic irony the audience is made aware of something a character or participant does not
know.

Melodramatic: Something is snid to be "melodramátic" when the sersationial "and emotional are
indulged in for their own sake, with little or no reliance on motivation. The characters are always types,
the struggle is always betweea the wicked and the virtuous, and the virtuous always triumph, usually "in
the nick of time." –

Mood: The emotional effect or feeling that the story evokes in the'reader; not to be confused with tỏne,
for which term'see below. See also atmosphere.

Motif: A recurrent image, idea, or incident, the constant repetition of which supports the meaning or
theme. Various references to music, for in-. stance, form a motif in "Sonny's Blues."

Motivation: The presentatión of the actions of characters as plausible by providing, directly or indirectly,
recognízable psychological causation . for their actions.

Naturalism: Am emphatic form of realism reflecting the influence nine. .teenth-centurý biological and
social sciences had upon literary miethod. Emile Zola's Le Roman Experimental (1875) próvided the
movement with its manifesto. Affected by the ideas of Darwin and Marx, among others, naturalism has
been described as realism plus a deterministic philosophy. The following qualities are often found in
naturalism, though many naturalistic works will iack one or more of them:
1. A detached scientific objectivity. The strict naturalist presents his material without auctorial cómment
and without passing moral judg- ments.
2. Freedom of choice regàrding subject matter. Preedom to include the commonplace, the sensational,
the sordid, and the unpleasant
. 3. Freedom of method. Rejectióni of plot as artifcial and "unnatural." The presentation of a "slice of
life," in all its detail, in order tó demon- "strate the effect of heredity and environiment as the forces
molding the fate of the characters
. 4. Social purpóse. Conflicts often irivolve characters not only as individ- uals but also as representatives
of social groups. Sympathetic depiction of underprivileged social groups, such as in Zola's Germinal or
Haupt- mann's The Weavers, often'gives naturalistic works a social as well as an aesthetic objective. See
also expressionism and realism.
Open Form: A. term used synonymously with "open' ended" to denote a story or a novel whóse ending
does hot present a final resolution or,. denouement, for which term see above. In an ópen-ended story,
the reader is Jeft with many questions unanswered, but since this same situation applies in life itself, the
reader is not left with a sénse of frustration or dissatisfaction. The open form dépends for its
effectiyeness on the author's skillful presentation and development of the yarious. elements rather than
on an ending that- "ties up" all loose ends. See also closed form and struċture. utitude o

Parable: A short fictitious story that illustrates a imoral principle, See also allegory. of certain elemen

Persona: Commonly, a character in a drama, novel, or story. Alsò used in the psychological and critical
sense, for 'a mask, or the charactér or personality assumed, by the author to present, in disguise, his
'priváte voice and attitudes.

Plot: The scheme or pattern of the events, incidents, or situations of a stoty. Plot is not a mere
succession of events but'an organized series lihked by causal relationships' that are arranged according
to a pattern.

Polnt of View: Sometimes called the angle of narration, point of view has a specific meaning in the
technique of fiction; it refers to the angle from which the story is told. The most common angles are first
person and third person. In the first person point of view, the story is told by one of the characters.
A'tále told in the third person is presented by someone outside the story. If the writer chooses the first
person point of view, he mày employ the protagonist or leading character, or one or more of the minor
characters. If he chooses the third person point of view, he may write as the "cmaleclant" thor, revealing
not only the words, actions, and appearances but also the mental activities (thoughts, emoțions, de-
sires, and even the subconscious tendencies) of his .characters in their Various situations. Or-the writer
can present his material in the third person "limited," in which the narrative is confned to the
experience of a reflector character who reveals only what he knows of the characters and their action in
the narrative. A more complex angle of vision is the "multiple" point of view in which the circumstances
of a single situation are seen through the eyes of more than one narrator.

Protagonist: Originally, the actor who played the chief pairt in' a Greek drama. In fiction, the leading
character or the center of interest in a givèn narrative. See also antagonist.

Realism: Writing that attempts to present life as it is; frequently inclúding the commoniplace, the
average, and the unpleasant, It'differs from natu- ralism in that it employs more selection in the choice
of material and more organization (usually plot) in its presentation. See also expression- ism and
naturàlism.

Roman d Clef: A story or novel in which actual persons and events are presented under the guise of
fiction.

Scene: A scene is that part of the plot that is dramátized rather than nar- rated; the characters act and
talk: Not to be confused with episode, for which term see above.

Sentimentality: The indulgence of an emotion or emotions in extess of the particular occasion, most
often found in melodrama.
Settleg The physinal location in which the actions of a story teke place Thls does not always necessitate
the elaborate use of deseiption: the setting of a story may be wholly cóncrete, although a specific
geographical location is not revealed. (See "The Children's Campaign.") Setting as- sumes a relatively
important place in the meaning of a story. (See "Paul's Case.") It can be presented obliquely and
impressionistically. (See "The Killers.") To achieve a special effect, setting can encompass a particular
atmosphere and convey a certain tone. (See "The Fall of the House of Usher.")

Stream of Consciousness: A method of writing in which the author objec- tifies the inward thoughts,
feelings, and sensations of the characters in order to supplement or replace dialogue and narrated
action. The term was coined by William James in Principles of Psychology (1890) to de- scribe the flux of
mental imagery as it ranges from oonsciousness to unconsciousness. Writers who use this methodJames
Joyce and Vir- ginia Woolf, for example-frequently employ interior monologue to re- veal the minds and
personalities'of their characters. The method involves a flowing association of ideas and images,
frequently without punctua write as the "cmaleclant" thor, revealing not only the words, actions, and
appearances but also the mental activities (thoughts, emoțions, de- sires, and even the subconscious
tendencies) of his .characters in their Various situations. Or-the writer can present his material in the
third person "limited," in which the narrative is confned to the experience of a reflector character who
reveals only what he knows of the characters and their action in the narrative. A more complex angle of
vision is the "multiple" point of view in which the circumstances of a single situation are seen through
the eyes of more than one narrator. Protagonist: Originally, the actor who played the chief pairt in' a
Greek drama. In fiction, the leading character or the center of interest in a givèn narrative. See also
antagonist. Realism: Writing that attempts to present life as it is; frequently inclúding the
commoniplace, the average, and the unpleasant, It'differs from natu- ralism in that it employs more
selection in the choice of material and more organization (usually plot) in its presentation. See also
expression- ism and naturàlism. Roman d Clef: A story or novel in which actual persons and events are
presented under the guise of fiction. Scene: A scene is that part of the plot that is dramátized rather
than nar- rated; the characters act and talk: Not to be confused with episode, for which term see above.
Sentimentality: The indulgence of an emotion or emotions in extess of the particular occasion, most
often found in melodrama. Settleg The physinal location in which the actions of a story teke place Thls
does not always necessitate the elaborate use of deseiption: the setting of a story may be wholly
cóncrete, although a specific geographical location is not revealed. (See "The Children's Campaign.")
Setting as- sumes a relatively important place in the meaning of a story. (See "Paul's Case.") It can be
presented obliquely and impressionistically. (See "The Killers.") To achieve a special effect, setting can
encompass a particular atmosphere and convey a certain tone. (See "The Fall of the House of Usher.")
Stream of Consciousness: A method of writing in which the author objec- tifies the inward thoughts,
feelings, and sensations of the characters in order to supplement or replace dialogue and narrated
action. The term was coined by William James in Principles of Psychology (1890) to de- scribe the flux of
mental imagery as it ranges from oonsciousness to unconsciousness. Writers who use this methodJames
Joyce and Vir- ginia Woolf, for example-frequently employ interior monologue to re- veal the minds and
personalities'of their characters. The method involves a flowing association of ideas and images,
frequently without punctua- 260- P279
714, A Glossary. of Critical Terms lan losiesl tennsial er convaticnai byaiaa, io demonstrate the thend and
ceaseless activity of the mind.

Structure: The mechanical arrangement of the parts of a work of art, not to be confused with form, for
which term see above
Stylė: The author's style, or mode of expression, is the linguistic aspeci of the narrative and involves
language in a wide sense diction, rhythm, igura- tive language, sound, and sentence patterns. Style
should suit or grow. out of the theme and plot of a piece of fiction and be-a part of its total meahing

Surprise Ending: An ending in a story or novel that comes as a shock of is completely unexpected. The
stories by O. Henty are of this type. Thére are, of course, legitimate and illegitimate surprise endings,
depending on the skill and artistrý, of the author.

Symbol: Something that stands for or is emblematic of something else. A concrete object or an image
used to represent another object, emotion. or abstract idea.

Syapathy: A mutual liking or understanding based on 'the agresment of eniotions or other qualities. Not
to be confused with empathy, for which term see above.

Theme: The central idea elaborated in a story. There may also be minor themes. COnventiona iyuias, io
demonstrste the thd

Tone: The author's attitude towards his material as it can be inferred fron his work. Nốt to be confused
with atmosphere or mood, for which terms see above The author's tone may be light. serious, ironic,
compassionate, yayaikeris ot a ytapaisitie. To ny de used po gīvë a partisular diuension to ilhe
atmosphere.

Unréliable Narrator: A narrator who, as the terna ludicates, changes es he narrates and thus differs from
the more familiar "reliable," omájscjent nárator. For more information on-this and other, types of
narrators see Wayne Booth's The Rhetoric of Fiction.

Verisimilitude: Likeness to truth and actuality produced by multiplying rec- ognizable details and familiar
situations, and by employing normal moti- vation to achieve credibility.