Reynolds' Number

Reynolds number (Rn) is defined as Rn=( VL)/μ=(VL)/ , where V is the fluid velocity
relative to the body and L is a typical length.

From: Marine Propellers and Propulsion (Fourth Edition), 2019

Related terms:

Turbulence, Laminar Flows, Boundary Layer, Viscosity, Drag Coefficient, Friction

Factor

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Situational Problems in MPD

Bill Rehm, ... Jerome Schubert, in Managed Pressure Drilling, 2008

Reynolds Number
The Reynolds number is the ratio of inertial forces to viscous forces. The Reynolds
number is a dimensionless number used to categorize the fluids systems in which
the effect of viscosity is important in controlling the velocities or the flow pattern of
a fluid. Mathematically, the Reynolds number, NRe, is defined as

(2.6)

where

The Reynolds number is used to determine whether a fluid is in laminar or turbulent

flow. Based on the API 13D recommendations, it is assumed that a Reynolds number
less than or equal to 2100 indicates laminar flow, and a Reynolds number greater
than 2100 indicates turbulent flow. In field units, the equation for calculating the
Reynolds number becomes

(2.7)

where
Depending on which rheological model is used, the associated correlation for the
Reynolds number may vary. Table 2.1 presents the different expressions, which
correlate the Reynolds number.

Table 2.1. Reynolds Number Terms

Pipe Annulus
Newtonian model:

Bingham plastic model:

Power law model:

API 13D model (2003):

Herschel–Bulkley model:

> Read full chapter

Fluid Flow in Pipes

E. Shashi Menon, in Transmission Pipeline Calculations and Simulations Manual,
2015

3 Liquid: Reynolds Number

Flow in a liquid pipeline may be smooth, laminar flow also known as viscous flow.
In this type of flow, the liquid flows in layers or laminations without causing eddies
or turbulence. If the pipe is transparent and we inject a dye into the flowing stream,
it would flow smoothly in a straight line confirming smooth or laminar flow. As the
liquid flow rate is increased, the velocity increases and the flow will change from
laminar flow to turbulent flow with eddies and disturbances. This can be seen clearly
when a dye is injected into the flowing stream.

An important dimensionless parameter called the Reynolds number is used in

classifying the type of flow in pipelines.

Reynolds number of flow, R, is calculated as follows:

(5.14)

where:

V – average velocity, ft/s

D – pipe internal diameter, ft
– liquid density, slugs/ft3
μ – absolute viscosity, lb-s/ft2
R – Reynolds number is a dimensionless value

Because of, the kinematic viscosity  = μ/ , the Reynolds number can also be
expressed as

(5.15)

where:

– kinematic viscosity, ft2/s

Care should be taken to ensure that proper units are used in Eqns (5.14) and (5.15)
such that R is dimensionless.

Flow-through pipes are classified into three main flow regimes.

1. Laminar flow – R < 2000

2. Critical flow – R > 2000 and R < 4000

3. Turbulent flow – R > 4000

Depending upon the Reynolds number, flow-through pipes will fall in one of these
three flow regimes. Let us first examine the concepts of the Reynolds number.
Sometimes an R value of 2100 is used as the limit of laminar flow.

Using customary units in the pipeline industry, the Reynolds number can be
calculated using the following formula:

(5.16)

where:

Q – flow rate, bbl/day

D – internal diameter, in
– kinematic viscosity, cSt

Equation (5.16) is simply a modified form of Eqn (5.15) after performing conversions
to commonly used pipeline units. R is still a dimensionless value.

Another version of the Reynolds number in English units is as follows:

(5.17)

where:

Q – flow rate, gal/min

D – internal diameter, in
– kinematic viscosity, cSt

A similar equation for the Reynolds number in SI units is

(5.18)

where

Q – flow rate, m3/h

D – internal diameter, mm
– kinematic viscosity, cSt

As indicated previously, if the Reynolds number is less than 2000, the flow is
considered to be laminar. This is also known as viscous flow. This means that the
various layers of liquid flow without turbulence in the form of laminations. We will
now illustrate the various flow regimes using an example.

Consider a 16-in pipeline, 0.250-in wall thickness transporting a liquid of viscosity

250 cSt. At a flow rate of 50,000 bbl/day, the Reynolds number is, using Eqn (5.16),

Because R is less than 2000, this flow is laminar. If the flow rate is tripled to
150,000 bbl/day, the Reynolds number becomes 3570 and the flow will be in the
critical region. At flow rates above 168,040 bbl/day, the Reynolds number exceeds
4000 and the flow will be in the turbulent region. Thus, for this 16-in pipeline and
given liquid viscosity of 250 cSt, flow will be fully turbulent at flow rates above
168,040 bbl/day.

As the flow rate and velocity increase, the flow regime changes. With a change in
flow regime, the energy lost from pipe friction increases. At laminar flow, there is
less frictional energy lost compared to turbulent flow.

> Read full chapter

Fluids
Bastian E. Rapp, in Microfluidics: Modelling, Mechanics and Mathematics, 2017

9.9.8 Reynolds Number

The Reynolds number is one of the most important dimensionless quantities in
microfluidics. It correlates the inertia forces to the viscous forces. The Reynolds
number was first described by Reynolds in 1883 [5], although others have used the
quantity before, e.g., Stokes [6]. It is defined as
(Eq. 9.20)

The Reynolds number is important for describing the transport properties of a fluid
or a particle moving in a fluid. As an example, for very small organism, e.g., bacteria,
the Reynolds number is very small, typically in the range of 1 × 10−6. Given the
small dimensions, these objects do not have a significant inertia and are thus
mainly driven by the viscous forces of the fluid. For such objects, a fluid would feel
significantly more rigid, i.e., it would be difficult for a bacteria to force a path
through a moving fluid not following the streamlines. As the objects grow larger,
their inertia starts to dominate over the viscous forces. For most fish, the Reynolds
number is in the range of 1 × 105, for a human it is in the range of 1 × 106. At higher
Reynolds numbers, an object is able to force its way through a flow field even across
the streamlines. A good example is a large vessel or ship (with Reynolds numbers in
the range of 1 × 109) compared to a folded origami or paper boat: the large vessel can
force its way through the current and the waves, whereas the light paper boat would
not be able to do so. Rather it has to stay with the streamline and will be dragged
along.

As the Reynolds number is so important for microfluidics, we will detail its meaning
and application when discussing the concept of dimensional analysis in section
11.8.3.

> Read full chapter

Vertical Axis Wind Turbines

Robert Whittlesey, in Wind Energy Engineering, 2017

10.3.6 Blade Reynolds Number

The Reynolds number is a commonly used nondimensional parameter in fluid
mechanics, which describes the ratio of inertial forces to viscous forces. In the
context of VAWTs, the Reynolds number is defined using the kinematic viscosity of
the air, the freestream velocity of the wind, and the chord length of the blade as
follows:

where c is the chord length, is the freestream velocity of the wind, and is the
kinematic viscosity. Using this definition of the Reynolds number, Kirke suggests
that low Reynolds numbers contribute to difficulty in the self-starting of a VAWT.
Hence larger Reynolds numbers are desired. Additional research in this area by
Brusca et al. found a similar result: increasing the Reynolds number increased the
power coefficient of a given VAWT [18].

In practice, this advice is synonymous with ensuring that (1) the wind velocity
magnitude is high and (2) the blade chord, which is proportional to the blade area, is
large. However, it is not clear if the fault is in the wind velocity or if there is actually
a Reynolds number dependence on performance (e.g., transition to turbulence or
drag buckets). This should also be considered in more detail.

> Read full chapter

Basic Flow Measurement Laws

Paul J. LaNasa, E. Loy Upp, in Fluid Flow Measurement (Third Edition), 2014

Reynolds Number
The Reynolds number is a useful tool for relating how a meter will react to a variation
in fluids from gases to liquids. Since an impossible amount of research would be
required to test every meter on every fluid we wish to measure, it is desirable that a
relationship between fluid factors be known. Reynolds’ work in 1883 defines these
relationships through his Reynolds number, which is defined by the equation:

(2.6)

where:

Re=Reynolds number, a dimensionless number;

=density of the fluid;
D=diameter of the passage way;
v=velocity of the fluid;
μ=viscosity of the fluid.

Note: All parameters are given in the same units, so that when multiplied together
they all cancel out, and the Reynolds number has no units. Units in the pound, foot,
second system are shown below:

Re=no units;
=#/cubic feet;
D=feet;
v=feet/sec;
μ=#/foot-sec.
Based on Reynolds’ work, the flow profile (which affects all velocity-sensitive meters
and some linear meters) has several important values. At values of 2,000 and below,
the flow profile is bullet-shaped (parabolic). Between 2,000 and 4,000 the flow is in
the transition region. At 4,000 and above the flow is in the turbulent flow area and
the profiles are fairly flat. Thus, calculation of the Reynolds number will define the
flow velocity pattern and approximate limits of the meter’s application. To completely
define the meter’s application there must be no deformed profiles, such as after an
elbow or where upstream piping has imparted swirl to the stream.

These effects will be further discussed in the sections covering the description and
application of different meters, in Chapters 8, 9, and 10Chapter 8Chapter 9Chapter
10, and the equations will be covered more thoroughly later in this book.

These equations can be combined and rewritten in simplified forms. However, it is

important to recognize the assumptions which have been made, so that if a metering
situation deviates from what has been assumed, a “flag will go up” to indicate that
the effect of Reynolds number must be evaluated and treated.

> Read full chapter

Transportation
Dr.Boyun Guo, Dr.Ali Ghalambor, in Natural Gas Engineering Handbook (Second
Edition), 2005

11.2.1.2 Reynolds Number

The Reynolds number (NRe) is defined as the ratio of fluid momentum force to
viscous shear force. The Reynolds number can be expressed as a dimensionless
group defined as

(11.5)

where

D = pipe ID, ft
u = fluid velocity, ft/sec
= fluid density, lbm/ft3
μ = fluid viscosity, lbm/ft-sec

The Reynolds number can be used as a parameter to distinguish between laminar

and turbulent fluid flow. The change from laminar to turbulent flow is usually
assumed to occur at a Reynolds number of 2,100 for flow in a circular pipe. If U.S.
field units of ft for diameter, ft/sec for velocity, lbm/ft3 for density and centipoises for
viscosity are used, the Reynolds number equation becomes

(11.6)

If a gas of specific gravity g and viscosity μ (cp) is flowing in a pipe with an inner
diameter D (in) at flow rate q (Mcfd) measured at base conditions of Tb (°R) and pb
(psia), the Reynolds number can be expressed as:

(11.7)

As Tb is 520 °R and pb varies only from 14.4 psia to 15.025 psia in the United States,
the value of 711pb/Tb varies between 19.69 and 20.54. For all practical purposes, the
Reynolds number for natural gas flow problems may be expressed as

(11.8)

where

q = gas flow rate at 60 °F and 14.73 psia, Mcfd

g = gas-specific gravity (air = 1)
μ = gas viscosity at in-situ temperature and pressure, cp
D = pipe diameter, in

> Read full chapter

Aerodynamic characteristics of wind

turbine blade airfoils
W.A. Timmer, C. Bak, in Advances in Wind Turbine Blade Design and Materials, 2013

4.4.2 The effect of the Reynolds number

The Reynolds number is a scaling parameter and basically gives the ratio of the
mechanical forces in the flow (associated with velocity and mass or density of the
fluid) and the viscous forces (viscosity). It is defined as

[4.6]

V is the test section velocity, c is the model chord, p is the density of the fluid and u
is the dynamic viscosity of the fluid. The ratio μ/ is called v, the kinematic viscosity,
also depending on the fluid density and temperature. For dry air at standard sea
level conditions the value of v is 14.6 × 10–6. The higher the Reynolds number, the
lesser the viscosity plays a role in the flow around the airfoil.
With increasing Reynolds number the boundary layer gets thinner, which results
in a lower drag. Increasing the Reynolds number also has a destabilizing effect on
the boundary layer flow, which results in the transition location moving towards
the leading edge, leading to a turbulent boundary layer over a longer part of the
airfoil surface. The net effect is a lower drag but a smaller low-drag range of angles
of attack. This implies that the maximum lift–drag ratio will increase, but that the
design lift coefficient will have a lower value.

This is demonstrated in Fig. 4.9 for airfoil NACA 643–418. At a Reynolds number of
3 × 106 the maximum lift–drag ratio is 131 at a lift coefficient of 0.93. At the higher
Reynolds number of 9 × 106 the maximum lift–drag ratio has increased to 138 at a
reduced lift coefficient of 0.69.

Figure. 4.9. The aerodynamic performance of airfoil NACA 643 −418 for Re = 3 × 106

and 9 × 106.

The example demonstrates that for a good design the characteristics at the right
Reynolds number should be derived. Since most data are available at a lower
Reynolds number it may be tempting to use these data for the blade design without
translation to a higher Reynolds number. This will create uncertainty in the rotor
efficiency.

> Read full chapter

Wing Design
Pasquale Sforza, in Commercial Airplane Design Principles, 2014

5.4.5 Reynolds number in flight

The Reynolds number based on the chord length may be written in terms of the
Mach number V/V* as follows:
(5.27)

Using the information on the atmosphere presented in Appendix B, one may

determine the ratio V*/ as a function of altitude and then show that Rec/Mc =-
 7 × 106exp(−z/32,000), where z is the altitude in feet, represents a good fit to the
atmospheric data. For typical commercial aircraft applications the Reynolds number
per foot of chord length lies between 1.5 and 2 million per foot, as illustrated
in Figure 5.21. Note that for the major operations of takeoff and cruise, the
unit Reynolds numbers for turboprop and turbofan airliners fall in the range of
1.5–2 million per foot. The data given in Table 5.5 show that the mean aerodynamic
chord for turboprop aircraft lies in the range 6.9 ft < cMAC < 10.6 ft and for turbofan
airliners in the range of 13.3 ft < cMAC < 26.9 ft, while for very large aircraft the
range is 30.6 ft < cMAC < 40.33 ft. Thus the actual Reynolds number based on
mean aerodynamic chord is 10–20 million for turboprop airliners, 20–54 million for
turbofan airliners, and 45–80 million for very large aircraft like the B747 and A380.
Note that for highly tapered wings the outboard chords may be considerably smaller
than the mean aerodynamic chord and will experience lower Reynolds numbers.
For example, with a taper ratio  = 0.4 the tip chord ct   0.4cMAC. During low-speed
operations like landing and takeoff, high lift devices such as flaps and slats are
deployed. Because the characteristic lengths of these elements are considerably
smaller than the local wing chord they will be operating at lower Reynolds number
and therefore more susceptible to flow separation and stalling.

Figure 5.21. The variation of unit Reynolds number Re/cMAC is shown for typical
commercial aircraft applications.

In the limited Reynolds number range achieved for the smooth NACA airfoils,
3 × 106 < Rec < 9 × 106, the maximum lift coefficient has its lowest value at
3 × 106 and then increases to a constant value for Reynolds numbers of 6 × 106 and
9 × 106. The general trend is for cl,max to increase slowly, if at all, with increases in
Reynolds number and for that increase to be more substantial for thicker sections.
This is understandable because as the Reynolds number increases the boundary layer
effects become relatively weaker allowing the flow to remain attached to the airfoil
for longer distances along the airfoil surface. The lift of an airfoil depends primarily
on keeping the flow attached to the airfoil while friction drag itself weakly influences
the lift of an airfoil. However, little experimental data are available at higher Reynolds
numbers, being limited to about 25 million in the traditional variable-density wind
tunnels, but rising to as much as 100 million in cryogenic wind tunnels, as previously
described in Section 5.2.2.

> Read full chapter

Microfluidics
Francesca Bragheri, ... Roberto Osellame, in Three-Dimensional Microfabrication
Using Two-photon Polymerization, 2016

2.1 Flow Laminarity

The Reynolds number is the most important among the dimensionless parameters
in forced flows and, being defined as the ratio of inertial to viscous force densities,
it allows identifying the laminar or turbulent flow regime. Viscous forces arise from
gradients in viscous stress and can be expressed as follows:

(12.3.4)

where v0 is the fluid velocity and L0 is the typical length scale of a microchannel (e.g.,
the diameter of a circular cross-section microchannel). Inertial forces are instead due
to the variation of the fluid state of motion and can be expressed by the following
relation:

(12.3.5)

The Reynolds number can be then expressed as follows:

(12.3.6)

The flow regime is typically divided in three cases on the basis of the value of the
Reynolds number: for the flow is laminar; for the flow is turbulent, while for the
flow falls in an intermediate regime. In microfluidics typical values of the Reynolds
number are in the range , thus confirming that inertial forces are irrelevant with
respect to viscous ones and allowing the use of Eq. (12.3.3), since nonlinear terms
can be neglected for such low values. The laminar flow, described as the parallel flow
of infinitesimal layers without mixing (see Fig. 12.3.1), replaces the turbulent flow
common at the macroscopic scale, where Reynolds number assumes much larger
values.

Figure 12.3.1. Experimental Picture of Laminar Flux in a Double-Y-Shaped Mi-

crochannelThe two liquids coming from the two input branches on the left (light
gray (red in the web version) and dark gray (blue in the web version)) flow in parallel
in the central channel without mixing [5].

> Read full chapter

Hydraulics
Yong Bai, Qiang Bai, in Subsea Pipelines and Risers, 2005

Turbulent flow

When Reynolds number is larger than 4000, the flow inside the pipe is turbulent
flow; the fiction factor depends not only upon Reynolds number but also upon the
relative roughness, /D and others. In the complete turbulence region, the region
above a dashed line in the upper right part of Moody diagram, the friction factor f is
a function only of roughness D. For a pipe in transition zone, the friction factor
decreases rapidly with increasing Reynolds number and decreasing pipe relative
roughness. The lowest line in the Figure 18.4 is the line of friction factor for the
smoothest pipe, where the roughness /D is so small that it has no effect.

Although single-phase flow in pipe has been studied extensively, it still involves an
empirically determined friction factor for turbulent flow calculations. The depen-
dence of this friction factor on pipe roughness, which must usually be estimated,
makes the calculated pressure gradients subject to considerable error. Table 18.6
summarizes the correlations of Darcy-Weisbach friction factor for different flow
ranges. The correlations for smooth pipe and complete turbulence regions are sim-
 plified from the one for transitional region. For smooth pipe, the relative roughness
term is ignored, while for the complete turbulence region, Reynolds term is ignored.

Table 18.6. Darcy-Weisbach friction factor correlations (Larock et al.).

Flow Region Friction factor, f Reynolds Range

Laminar f = 64/Re Re &lt; 2100

Smooth pipe Re &gt; 4000 and /D→0

Transitional, Colebrook-White Re &gt; 4000 and transitional
correlation region
Complete turbulence Re &gt; 4000 and complete tur-
bulence

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