Geothermal Energy

GEOTHERMAL ENERGY
Marianne Salomón
Outline
Geothermal Energy
Nature and origin of geothermal energy
Structure of the Earth
Plate Tectonics
Geothermal Areas
Evidence of the Earth's Heat
History of Geothermal Energy
Classification of Geothermal Fluids
Utilization of Geothermal Energy
Domestic Uses
Balneology
Mineral Extraction
Electrical Power Generation
Geothermal Resources
Hydrothermal Resources
Geo-Pressurised Resources
Hot Dry Rock (HDR)
Magma
Geothermal Exploration Programmes
Thermal Gradients and Heat Flow
Main Characteristics of Geothermal Reservoirs
Present Status on Geothermal Energy
Exploration of Geothermal Resources
Renewable Energy Technology Course 2
Drilling And Extraction
High temperature wells
R ll
Roller-cone bit
bits
PDC
Low temperature wells
Cost of drilling
E t ti off fluids
Extraction fl id
Well-testing
Reservoir modelling
Distribution of fluids
R
Resource assessmentt
Resource sustainability
Cost of Generating Power from Geothermal Energy
Capital Costs Associated with Geothermal Power Generation
Operating and Maintenance costs
Problems Associated with Geothermal Energy
Environmental Aspects/Issues
Mineral deposition
Hydrological Changes
Corrosion
Pollutants in geothermal steam
Geothermal Waters
Carbon dioxide emissions
Reinjection of thermalRenewable
fluids intoEnergy
the reservoir after use
Technology Course 3
Ecological and Environmental Considerations
Geothermal Energy
Definition: g
geothermal energygy is the
thermal energy stored in the earth’s
crust 'Geothermal
crust. Geothermal energy'
energy is often
used nowadays, however, to indicate
that part of the Earth
Earth's
s heat that can,
can or
could, be recovered and exploited by
man.
(From Mary Dickson and Mario Fanelli. Geothermal energy – Utilization and Technology.
2003)

Earth’s structure

Earth’s structure

Geothermal energy
Heat p
passes by
y
1. Natural cooling and friction from the
core
2 Radioactive decay of elements such

2.
as uranium (U235 and U238), thorium
(Th232) and potassium (K40).
) This
represents the major source of heat
3. Chemical reactions
Geothermal gradient
Temperatures within the Earth's
interior increase with depth
The normal temperature
p g
gradient
within the Earth's interior is about
2.5~3°C/100
2.5 3 C/100 meters
Examples of geothermal gradient in
different areas
10 – 20 Kkm-1 in shield crust
30 - 60 Kk
Kkm-11 in
i platform
l tf areas
>100 Kkm-1 in volcanic areas
Typical Geothermal Gradients

Tectonic Plates

Tectonic Plates Processes

j

Geothermal Areas

Geothermal Reservoirs
Geothermal resources have four important
characteristics:
A permeable aquifer that contains fluids that is
accessible by drilling.
An impermeable (nonporous) cap of rock that
prevents
t geothermal
th l fluids
fl id ffrom escaping.
i
Impermeable basement rock that prevents
downward loss of the fluid
fluid.
A heat source need for exploitable geothermal
resources.
Permeability and porosity of the reservoir rocks.

Geothermal Reservoir

High Heat Flow – Sedimentary

High Heat Flow – Volcanic

Classification of Geothermal
Resources
By type
Low-enthalpy
Intermediate-enthalpy
High-enthalpy
By source
Hot Dry Rock
Liquid-Dominated Hydrothermal
Vapor-Dominated
Geopressurized
G i d fluids
fl id
Magma

Resources (by type)
Muffler Hoechstein Benderitter Nicholson
and (1990) and Cormy (1993)
Cataldi (1990)
High Enthalpy > 150 > 225 > 200 > 150
Medium 90 – 150 125 – 225 100 – 200 -

Enthalpy
Low Enthalpy < 90 < 125 < 100 < 100

High Enthalpy Areas

Resources (by source)
Liquid-dominated resources
Th
These are the
th mostt commons off the
th
hydrothermal resources. In a liquid-
dominated resource the water is the
continuous phase. It can be present as
vapour but also as bubbles. Depending on
th ttemperature
the t andd pressure there
th is
i more
or less vapour.
The pressure in these resources is fairly low

typically 0.5-1
0.5 1 MPa and the temperature is
around 180 °C.

Vapour-dominated systems
liquid water and vapour
normallyy co-exist in the
reservoir, with vapour as
the continuous,, pressure-
p
controlling phase.
Geothermal systems of this type, the best-

known of which are Larderello in Italy and
Th Geysers
The G in
i California,
C lif i are somewhat h t
rare, and are high-temperature systems.
They normally produce dry-to- dry to superheated
steam. Renewable Energy Technology Course 23
Geopressurized fluids
G
Geopressurised
i d geothermal
th l systems
t are hot
h t water
t
reservoir (aquifer) mixed with dissolved gases like
methane that can reach 200C and are under huge g
pressures (50-100 MPa). The depth ranges from 3–
6 km, and are normally located in sedimentary
formations.
formations
The resource can be exploited for their thermal

energy, calorific energy of gases and hydraulic
energy due to high pressure. The price of electricity
generated
t d by
b geopressurised
i d fluids
fl id is
i nott
competitive when compared with conventional
resources.
Hot Dry Rock (HDR)
P j t were experimented
Projects i t d ffor the th first
fi t time
ti att Los
L
Alamos, New Mexico, USA, in 1970, both the fluid
and the reservoir are artificial.
High-pressure water is pumped through a specially
drilled well into a deep body of hot, compact rock,
causingi itits hydraulic
h d li ffracturing.
t i Th water
The t
permeates these artificial fractures, extracting heat
from
o the surrounding
e su ou d g rock,oc , which c ac actss as a natural
aua
reservoir. This 'reservoir' is later penetrated by a
second well, which is used to extract the heated
water.
water
The system therefore consists of (i) the borehole
used for hydraulic fracturing, through which cold
water is injectedRenewable
into (ii) the artificial reservoir, and 25
Energy Technology Course
(iii) the borehole used to extract the hot water.
Schematic of a commercial-scale
Hot Dry Rock
Developments in
France, Australia,
Japan, the U.S. and
Switzerland. The
biggest HDR
project is currently
installed in
Australia.

Magma
These resources offer extremely high-
temperature
p geothermal opportunities,
g pp , but
existing technology does not allow recovery
of heat.
However in the future there might be

However,
available them the technology required to
exploit these resources,
resources and thus might
become an important resource of energy

Terminology
Resource Base
all of the thermal energy contained in the
earth’s crust, whether its existence is known
or unknown and regardless of cost
considerations
Accessible Resource Base

All of the thermal energy between the earth’s
surface and a specific depth in the crust
beneath a specified area and referenced to a
mean annual temperature
Resource Base Estimates
Resource type Total Q [1021 J]
Hydrothermal 130
G
Geopressurized
i d 540
Magma
g 5’000
Hot Dry Rock 105’000
Moderate to high grade (T > 26’500

40°C/km)
Low grade (T > 40°C/km) 78’500
*For depths of 10 km Renewable Energy Technology Course 29

Terminology
Resource:
Thermal energy that could be extracted at cost
competitive with other forms of energy at a
f
foreseeable
bl titime, under
d reasonable
bl assumptions
ti
of technological improvement and economic
favorability
Reserve
Th t partt off the
That th geothermal
th l resource that
th t is
i
identified and also can be extracted at a cost
competitive with other commercial energy
sources at present.

Depth vs. Temperature

Exploration
The main objectives of geothermal exploration are:
1. T
1 To identify
id tif geothermal
th l phenomena.
h
2. To ascertain that a useful geothermal production field
exists.
3. To estimate the size of the resource.
4. To determine the type of geothermal field.
5 To locate productive zones
5. zones.
6. To determine the heat content of the fluids that will be
discharged by the wells in the geothermal field.
7 To compile a body of basic data against which the results
7.
of future monitoring can be viewed.
8. To determine the pre-exploitation values of
environmentally
i t ll sensitive
iti parameters.
t
9. To acquire knowledge of any characteristics that might
cause problems during field development.

Strategies for Assessment of
SURVEYS
On national,, local and site-scale
Key parameters: temperature, permeability, volume, existing
infrastructure
Inventory hot springs, temperature in drill holes
Satellite imagery and aerial photography
Geological and hydrological Stratigraphy,

Stratigraphy
Lithology porosity
permeability
Structure
S
modelling
33
Strategies for Assessment of
Geochemical chemistry of natural water
Geophysical subsurface structure Gravity (porosity)

S i i ((structure))
Seismics
Magnetic (structure,
temperature)
Electric (porosity)
Electromagnetic (porosity)
modeling
Exploratory wells confirmation of models

Measurements electric resistivity
other physical properties
chemistry of ground water
flow tests
fracturing tests 34
Exploration programme
It consist of 3 steps:
reconnaissance,
pre-feasibility and
f
feasibility
ibilit
The main
Th i objective
bj ti iis tto eliminate li i t lless
interesting areas and concentrate I the most
promising ones
ones.
The size and budget of the entire
programme should be proportional to its
objectives, to the importance of the
resources we expect to find, and to the
planned forms of utilization.
Utilization of Geothermal
Energy
DIRECT USE Cooling
C li 0 – 20 °C
Heating Low temperature 25-35 °C
g temperature
High p 70 –110 °C
Hot water production
COMBINED USE Cooling – heating (seasonal storage systems)

Heating – electricity
INDIRECT USE Electricity low temperature 70-100

70 100 °C
C
High temperature 100 – 200 °C

Energy Use

Geothermal Utilization in the World for
Electricity Generation and Direct Heat Uses

Geothermal Power Generation

N r Installatio
ons
Ic
e
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Bu la nd
lg
G ari
er a
m
R an
om y
a
S l n ia
ov
Sl a k i
ov a
en
ia
Sw
i tz ta ly I
er
l
G and
eo
r
Europe (1999)
G g ia
re
e
F r ce
an
Au c e
s
Be t r ia
lg
P o iu m
M r tu
ac g
ed a l
o
C n ia
ze
Renewable Energy Technology Course
ch
Ir e R
la
Po n d
la
C nd
ro
a
S w t ia
ed
en
U U
K
Installed Geothermal Energy in
kr
a
H in
un e
ga
ry
41
Ic
1
10
100
1000
10000
el
B u and
lg
G a ri
er a
m
R an
om y
S l an ia
ov
S l a ki a
ov
en
ia
Sw
itz It al
er y
l
G and
eo
r
G gia
Europe (1999)
re
e
F r ce
an
A u ce
s
B e tria
lg
P o ium
M rtu
ac g
ed al
o
C n ia
ze
ch
Ir e R
la
Renewable Energy Technology Course
P o nd
la
C nd
ro
S w atia
ed
en
U UK
kr
a
H in e
un
ga
ry
Installed Geothermal Energy in
42
MWt
Mwe
Potential Power Production
biomass
biofuel
biogas
min
geothermal
max
wind
solar
hydro
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800

[TWh/a]

Potential Final Energy
biomass
biofuel
biogas
present use
geothermal min
max
i d
wind
solar
hydro
y
0 50 100 150 200 250 300

[TWh/a]

Advantages
Its reserves are enormous- virtually
i fi it on hi
infinite historical
t i l scale.
l
It is less polluting than combustible
f l or nuclear
fuels l energy.
It is an indigenous resource that can
b d
be developed
l d and
d make
k a country
t
less reliant politically and
economically and can alleviate the
national balance of payments. As a
rule of thumb; one kilowatt of
geothermal base load can substitute
about 2 tons of oil annually.
Advantages
It is highly
g y versatile
Unlike hydropower it is not subject
t the
to th variations
i ti off the
th weather.
th
It is not labour intensive.
intensive Once the
exploitation of geothermal energy is
t bli h d it iis th
established; thus lless
p
vulnerable to disputes y
such as say
strikes in coal mining.
Disadvantage
There are no many ypplaces on the earth
highly suitable for exploit. Most suited
areas are on edges of the tectonic
plates, namely areas of high volcanic
and tectonic activity
activity.
expensive exploration
brines are corrosive and poisonous
complicated reservoir management
sensitive to underground
g disturbances
Sustainability
The earth radiogenic heat production
and average heat flow
are insufficient to sustain geothermal energy retrieval over very long time
periods.
Geothermal energy uses the stored heat in the uppermost crustal regions (to
ca 5 km depth), accumulated over a very long period of heat diffusion and
warming.
Geothermal energy retrieval results in long term slow cooling of the heat
exchange region at reservoir depth.
Depending on flow rate and re-injection temperature a two hole exchange

re injection temperature,
system with ca 1.5 km spacing is calculated to last ca 20 years.
After that period adjacent volumes can be explored. In the exhausted volume
gradually ambient temperatures will be re-established.
re established
Heat exchange volumes may gradually degrade by poor reservoir

management, precipitation of minerals in the flow paths, compaction of
h t d volumes,
exhausted l …
Sustainability
There are some important exceptions to the stated situations:
In volcanic and sub-volcanic regions (occurrence of recent

intrusive rocks at depth) extremely high heat flows can provide
y over veryy long
sustainability g time p
periods
If heating requirements can be balanced with cooling

q
requirements over the seasonal cycle
y
Increased sustainability can be achieved by low temperature

drop, low temperature heatingg systems
y or energy
gy cycles,
y and
proper reservoir management.
Environmental sustainability requires closed systems for the

heat exchange (re-injection of extracted ground water).
The best energy is the energy not used

Environmental Impacts
The most important issues regarding
geothermal energy are:
Land Used
Disposal of Drilling Fluids
Noise
Ground subsidence
Non-Condensable Gas Emissions
and Air Pollution
Induced Seismicity
Effluent Disposal
p and Water Pollution
Environmental issues
Key issues: Air pollution, water pollution, noise
Dissolved in natural water CO2 , H2S (oxidises to SO2 and

finally H2SO4), N2, Rn (from uranium containing rocks,
radioactive decay products emit -radiation),
-radiation) NH3, B,
B Hg
Hg,
HgS,3H (age indicator)
C t i d in
Contained i steam
t CO2 H2S,
CO2, S HCl
HCl, HF,
HF NH3, CH4, H2.
From added energy

gy
When produced by combustion (of oil, gas, biomass…)
CH4
H2
CO2
NOx causes ozone formation in lower
atmosphere
t h
Environmental issues
Ground water pollution
From system
y leakageg NH3 ((in case of low temperature
p energy
gy
cycles)
From brines
Wh di
When discharged
h d iinto
t natural
t l waters
t
Cl- , F- , Br-, I-
SO42-
HCO3-
Ca2+ Mn2+ , Fe2+,
Na+, K+ , Li+ , Rb+ , Cs+,
SiO2, NH3, As,As B,B noble gases
Re-injection should always be practiced

Land subsidence
from withdrawal of fluids
Induced seismicity
Low level earthquakes from withdrawal and re-injection of fluids
NOISE
during drilling operations and
Renewable pump
Energy testingCourse
Technology 52
Comparison of CO2 Emissions
from Electricity Production

Local Emissions from District
Heating System
1000
900
800
700
600
month]
500
Emission
CO2
400
[ton/m
C
300
200
100
0
January
February
March
Fuel Oil Plants

April
May
Natural Gas Plants

June
July
ugust
Geothermal Plants
Septem ber
ber
er
Novembe
Au
Octob
December
Investment Cost of Typical
Phases
M€

Risk Management

Field Cost Typical Breakdown

Plant Cost Typical Breakdown (55
MW)

Drilling Cost in Europe versus
Well Depth

EU incentives
To stimulate the creation of European
consortia and joint ventures
To favour National Geothermal
Associations, and the European Branch of
IGA
To support the newly created EGEC
(European Geothermal Energy Council)
The maintenance and improvement of the
EU
EU’ss existing research and financing
programmes,

EU incentives
To promote the environmental benefits of
geothermal energy through favourable
financing condition such as:
tax exemptions or reductions for RE products;
tax incentives to be addressed to geothermal
projects financing
financial incentives for end-users to buy
i
equipment d services
and i
loans and special interest rates devoted to
investments
i t t in
i RE resources iin general.
l

EU incentives
Geothermal energy should be included in
specific
ifi "t
"targett projects"
j t " and
dddemonstration
t ti
projects such as the European Green Cities.
Examples of special target projects could
be:
partial or total replacement of fossil fuels by
geothermal energy for the generation of
electricity in the Azores, the Greek islands, as
wellll as It l ’ smallll iislands
Italy’s l d and
d th
the C i
Canaries
technical and financial support for demonstration
projects in the use of medium temperature
geothermal water for electricity production using
binary fluids.
EU incentives
To establish an insurance system for EU countries
in order to cover the geological risk which is an
effective measure to stimulate and re-launch the
geothermal European market and improve the
exploitation of this renewable resource
resource.
Implement proper actions devoted to the systematic
integration of geothermal energy into existing and
ne EU and national RE development
new de elopment
programmes. This action should move in two
directions:
integration of geothermal energy in national and regional
New and Renewable Energy development programmes
integration of geothermal energy use in the development of
new district
di t i t heating
h ti systems
t and
d the
th rehabilitation
h bilit ti off
existing networks within EU countries and especially in
countries which could become associated in the near
future.
EU incentives
Promote directives in order to
acknowledge RE investments with an
extra price or a contribution for the
KWhe/KWht produced → tax (green
tax) charged on the KWhe/KWht
produced through conventional
sources.

Geothermal Energy

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GEOTHERMAL ENERGY

Renewable Energy Technology Course 4

Renewable Energy Technology Course 5

Renewable Energy Technology Course 6

2 Radioactive decay of elements such

Renewable Energy Technology Course 10

Renewable Energy Technology Course 11

Renewable Energy Technology Course 12

Renewable Energy Technology Course 13

Renewable Energy Technology Course 14

Renewable Energy Technology Course 15

Renewable Energy Technology Course 16

Renewable Energy Technology Course 17

Renewable Energy Technology Course 18

Renewable Energy Technology Course 19

Medium 90 – 150 125 – 225 100 – 200 -

Low Enthalpy < 90 < 125 < 100 < 100

Renewable Energy Technology Course 20

Renewable Energy Technology Course 21

The pressure in these resources is fairly low

Renewable Energy Technology Course 22

Geothermal systems of this type, the best-

The resource can be exploited for their thermal

Renewable Energy Technology Course 26

However in the future there might be

Renewable Energy Technology Course 27

Accessible Resource Base

Hot Dry Rock 105’000

Moderate to high grade (T > 26’500

*For depths of 10 km Renewable Energy Technology Course 29

Renewable Energy Technology Course 30

Renewable Energy Technology Course 31

Renewable Energy Technology Course 32

Inventory hot springs, temperature in drill holes

Satellite imagery and aerial photography

Geological and hydrological Stratigraphy,

Geophysical subsurface structure Gravity (porosity)

Exploratory wells confirmation of models

COMBINED USE Cooling – heating (seasonal storage systems)

INDIRECT USE Electricity low temperature 70-100

Renewable Energy Technology Course 36

Renewable Energy Technology Course 38

Renewable Energy Technology Course 39

Renewable Energy Technology Course 40

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800

Renewable Energy Technology Course 43

0 50 100 150 200 250 300

Renewable Energy Technology Course 44

Depending on flow rate and re-injection temperature a two hole exchange

Heat exchange volumes may gradually degrade by poor reservoir

In volcanic and sub-volcanic regions (occurrence of recent

If heating requirements can be balanced with cooling

Increased sustainability can be achieved by low temperature

Environmental sustainability requires closed systems for the

The best energy is the energy not used

Dissolved in natural water CO2 , H2S (oxidises to SO2 and

From added energy

Re-injection should always be practiced

Renewable Energy Technology Course 53

Fuel Oil Plants

Natural Gas Plants

Renewable Energy Technology Course 55

Renewable Energy Technology Course 56