ARC20011 Mechanics of Student Name: Kushan Hirantha

Wijesekara Pathirana.
Structures
ID No: 103128879

Laboratory Session #2:

Beam Bending Moment, measurements and analysis.

1) Introduction
Knowing the distribution of the shear force and the bending moment in a beam is essential
for the computation of stresses and deformations.

There are two parts to this laboratory session. Stress calculation is to be completed prior to
the session in your own time and involves the calculation required parameters to drawing
Free Body Diagram (FBD), Shear- Moment Equations and Shear-Moment Diagrams. Stress
measurement is to be completed in laboratory time where actual readings from various strain
gauges will be taken from software for later student’s analysis.

2) Theoretical Consideration

Beams
A structural element which is designed and used to bear high load of structure and other
external loads is called beam. The term beam refers to a slender bar that carries transverse
loading; that is, the applied forces are perpendicular to the bar. There are many different
types of beam such as cantilever beam, simple supported beam and overhanging beam.

The internal forces give rise to two kinds of stresses on a transverse section of a beam: (1)
normal stress that is caused by bending moment and (2) shear stress due to the shear force.

Bending of Beam
When an external load or the structural load applied in beam is large enough to displace the
beam from its present place, then that deflection of beam from its resent axis is called
bending of beam.

Bending Moment
In simple words bending moment is the product of force applied on beam with the distance
between the point of application of force and fixed end of the beam. In a beam, the internal
force system consists of a shear force and a bending moment acting on the cross section of
the bar. The shear force and the bending moment usually vary continuously along the length
of the beam.

Support and Loading:

Beams are classified according to their supports. Students will measure and analyse a
simply supported beam, shown in Fig.6. The simply supported refers to a pin connection
ARC20011 Laboratory Session #2 TP2-2019 Page 1 of 22
that is free to move parallel to the axis of the beam; this type of support suppresses only the
transverse displacement support prevents displacement of the end of the beams.

A distributed load is applied over a finite area. The intensity ω of this loading is expressed
as force per unit length. The load distribution may be uniform, as shown in Fig. 1(a) or it
may vary with distance along the beam, as in Fig. 2(a). Fig.1 (b) and
Fig. 2(b) show the equivalent load for the two distributed loads.

(a) (a)

(b) (b)

Fig. 1: (a) Rectangular distributed load Fig. 2: (a) Triangular distributed load (b)
Equivalent load (b) Equivalent load

The first step in finding the internal loads (moment, shear force, and axial force) at any point
along the beam, is to determine the reactions at all supports. To assist in this task, equivalent
forces replace the distributed loads. This is done by using the three equilibrium equations.

∑ 𝑀𝑖 = 0; ∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0; ∑ 𝐹𝑥𝑦 = 0

After the reaction forces are known, the structure is cut at the location where the internal
loads need to be determined. `

In order to maintain a segment of a beam in equilibrium, there exists an internal vertical force
V at the cut to satisfy the equation in the y-direction. This internal force, which is vertical to
the axis of the beam, is called the shearing force. It should be noted that the same shear is
opposite in direction in the left and right sections

After the reaction forces are known, the structure is cut at the location where the internal
loads need to be determined.

In order to maintain a segment of a beam in equilibrium, there exists an internal vertical force
V at the cut to satisfy the equation in the y-direction. This internal force, which is vertical to
the axis of the beam, is called the shearing force. It should be noted that the same shear is
opposite in direction in the left and right sections.
ARC20011 Laboratory Session #2 TP2-2019 Page 2 of 22
Similarly, there exists an internal resisting moment M at the cut to keep a segment of the
beam in equilibrium. This internal moment acts in a direction opposite to the external
moment to satisfy the moment equation.

Sign convention is important at this point. The unknown internal loads should be drawn as
positive loads. Remember, the left and right sections have opposite positive directions. If the
two sections were joined again, M, V, and internal loads need to cancel out since there is
no external resultant force at cut location

Shear- Moment Equations and Shear-Moment Diagrams

The determination of the internal force system acting at a given section of a beam: draw a
free-body diagram that expose these forces and then compute the forces using equilibrium
equations. The goal of the beam analysis － determine the shear force V and the bending
moment M at every cross section of the beam.

To derive the expressions for V and M in terms of the distance x measured along the beam.
By plotting these expressions to scale, obtain the shear force and bending moment diagrams
for the beam.

The shear force and bending moment diagrams are convenient visual references to the
internal forces in a beam; in particular, they identify the maximum values of V and M.

Procedure for determining shear force and bending moment diagrams

• Compute the support reactions from the free-body diagram (FBD) of the entire beam.
• Divide the beam into segment so that the loading within each segment is
continuous. Thus, the endpoints of the segments are discontinuities of loading,
including concentrated loads and couples.
• Perform the following steps for each segment of the beam:
1. Introduce an imaginary cutting plane within the segment, located at a distance x
from the left end of the beam, that cuts the beam into two parts.
2. Draw FBD for the part of the beam lying either to the left or to the right of the
cutting plane, whichever is more convenient. At the cut section, show V and M
acting in their positive directions.
• Determine the expressions for V and M from the equilibrium equations obtainable
from the FBD. These expressions, which are usually functions of x, are the shear
force and bending moment equations for the segment.
• Plot the expressions for V and M for the segment. It is visually desirable to draw the
V-diagram below the FBD of the entire beam, and then draw the M-diagram below
the V-diagram.
• The bending moment and shear force diagrams of the beam are composites of the V
and M diagrams of the segments. These diagrams are usually discontinuous, or have
discontinuous slopes, at the endpoints of the segments due to discontinuities in
loading.

Relationships between Shear and Bending Moment

Useful relationships between the loadings, shear force, and bending moment can be derived
from the equilibrium equations.

ARC20011 Laboratory Session #2 TP2-2019 Page 3 of 22

These relationships enable us to plot the shear force diagram directly from the load diagram,
and then construct the bending moment diagram from the shear force diagram.

Relationship between load, the shear force, and the bending moment
1. The load intensity 𝝎 at any section of a beam is equal to the negative of the slope of the
shear force diagram at the section:

𝑑𝑉
𝜔=−
𝑑𝑥

2. The shear force V at any section is equal to the slope of the bending moment diagram at
that section.
𝑑𝑀
𝑉=
𝑑𝑥

3. The difference between the shear forces at two sections of a beam is equal to the negative
of the area under the load diagram between those two sections.

𝜔 = − 𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑥 = ∫𝑥𝑥𝐴𝐵 𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑉𝐵 − 𝑉𝐴 = − ∫𝑥𝑥𝐴𝐵 𝜔 𝑑𝑥 Where

𝑉𝐵 − 𝑉𝐴 = − [𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝜔 − 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚]𝐵𝐴

4. The difference between the bending moments at two sections of a beam is equal to the
area of the shear force diagram between these two sections.

𝑑𝑀 𝑥𝐵 𝑑𝑀 𝑥𝐵
𝑉=− =∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑀𝐵 − 𝑀𝐴 = − ∫ 𝑉 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑥𝐴 𝑑𝑥 𝑥𝐴

Where 𝑀𝐵 − 𝑀𝐴 = [𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑉 − 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚]𝐵𝐴

5. If the load W diagram is a polynomial of degree n, then shear force V diagram is

polynomial of degree (n+1), and the bending moment M diagram is polynomial of degree
(n+2).

Procedure for the Drawing Shear-Bending Moment Diagram

1. Compute the support reactions force the free-body diagrams (FBD) of the entire beam.
2. Draw the load diagram of the beam (which is essentially the FBD) showing the values of
the loads, including the support reactions.
3. Use the sign conventions in to determine the correct sign of each load.
4. Working from left to right, construct the V-and M-diagram for each segment of the beam
using the relationship between V and M.
5. When reach the right end of the beam, check to see whether the computed values of V
and M are consistent with the end conditions.

ARC20011 Laboratory Session #2 TP2-2019 Page 4 of 22

Stresses in Bending Beams
The following is the relationship between bending moment and shear force and the normal
bending stress and shear stress:
𝜎= 𝑀 𝑌
𝐼
Where 𝜎 is normal stress, M is the bending moment, I is the second area moment of the
cross section and Y is the distance from neutral axis to where the stress 𝜎 is calculated.

𝜏= 𝑉 𝑄
𝐼𝑏
where 𝜏 is shear stress, V is the shear force, I is the second area moment of the cross
section, b is the width of the cross section where the stress 𝜏 is calculated and
𝑄 = 𝑦′𝐴′

Stress and Strain relationship

Fundamental “stress-strain” equation for materials is given as:

𝜎=𝐸.∈

Where 𝜎 is stress in N/m2 (Pascals), ∈ is strain usually measure in µ (microns) and E is

Young’s modulus measured in N/m2or Pa (Pascals) or GPa (109 N/m2).

Strain Gauges
A strain gauge is a device used to measure strain on an object. The most common type of
strain gauge consists of an insulating flexible backing which supports a metallic foil pattern
(Fig. 3).

Fig. 3: Strain gauges

The gauge is attached to the object by a suitable adhesive. As the object is deformed, the
foil is deformed, causing its electrical resistance to change. This resistance change, usually
measured using a Wheatstone bridge, is related to the strain by the quantity known as the
gauge factor.

In this laboratory strains are measured using a data acquisition system that connects Strain
Gauge with computer to measure strains that are produced in the test beam at a specific
location due to the application of the load. The following is a schematic of the actual
measuring equipment.

ARC20011 Laboratory Session #2 TP2-2019 Page 5 of 22

 Fig. 4: Apparatus used to measure strains

Fig. 5: Data Acquisition

ARC20011 Laboratory Session #2 TP2-2019 Page 6 of 22

 Pre-Lab Calculation

Stress Calculation for beam with I, T and Box cross section

For the beam shown below (Fig. 6, 7 and 8) calculate the stress at the location 1, 2, 3, 4 and
9 and tabulate your data in Table 1 for the three cases. Beam dimension and sensor location
shown in Fig. 6 is the same regardless of their cross sections. The cross-section’s
dimensions are given in Fig. 7 along with the distributed load’s data in Fig. 8.

Fig. 6: Beam dimension and sensor locations.

76 m m

79 m m

(a) (b) (c)

ARC20011 Laboratory Session #2 TP2-2019 Page 7 of 22

Fig. 7: Cross section properties of (a) I Cross section, (b) T Cross section and (c) Box cross
sections

(a) (b)

Fig. 8: Load distribution for (a) rectangular distribution (b) triangular distributed

Note: To place the load in its location along the beam, align the distributed loads on top of
the beam so that their bottom left corner is at the distance of 0.3 m from left side of the
beam.

ARC20011 Laboratory Session #2 TP2-2019 Page 8 of 22

Following tables to be completed by students prior to commencing the prac. Show all your
calculations in separate sheets at the end of the report.
•

Table 1: Calculated values

Case 1: Normal stress (σ) calculation for the “I” cross section beam under distributed loads
Rectangular Distributed Load Triangular Distributed Load
Sensors Moment (N/m ) 2 Stress (Pascals) Moment (N/m2) Stress (Pascals)
1 0.46458 1.23 0.16320 0.432
2 0.52080 1.378 0.16313 0.432
3 0.51291 1.357 0.20567 0.544
4 0.24408 0.645 0.11005 0.29
9 0.52080 0 0.16313 0

Case 2: Normal stress (σ) calculation for “T” cross section beam under distributed loads
Rectangular Distributed Load Triangular Distributed Load
Sensors Moment (N/m ) 2 Stress (Pascals) Moment (N/m2) Stress (Pascals)
1
2
3
4
9

Case 3: Normal stress (σ ) calculation for “Box” cross section beam under distributed loads
Rectangular Distributed Load Triangular Distributed Load
Sensors Moment (N/m ) 2 Stress (Pascals) Moment (N/m2) Stress (Pascals)
1 0.46458 2.315 0.16320 0.813
2 0.52080 2.595 0.16313 0.813
3 0.51291 2.56 0.20567 1.02
4 0.24408 1.27 0.11005 0.548
9 0.52080 0 0.16313 0

ARC20011 Laboratory Session #2 TP2-2019 Page 9 of 22

 Measurements Stress measurement for the beam
In this experiment you will be loading a beam with different cross section with two different
distributed loads. Strain gauges are mounted on pre-determined location along the length
of the beam as shown if Fig. 9 (the locations are the same for all beams).

The following pictures (Fig. 9 and 10) show the beams cross section, loading and sensors
locations and set up for the beams.

Fig. 9: I and box beams

ARC20011 Laboratory Session #2 TP2-2019 Page 10 of 22

Fig. 10: Experimental set-up for a box beam showing typical rectangular and triangular
distributed loads.
Students also will received excel file with all strain gauges reading for statistical analysis
purposes. A sample of the file for Case 1: Box cross section beam under distributed load is
shown below.

Each sensor is to have its data averaged and the uncertainty calculated before its value is
entered into the corresponding table (Table 2).

Excel file for Case 1: Box cross section beam under distributed load

Time Sensor 1 Sensor 2 Sensor 3 Sensor 4

Measure strains for the following sensors (shown in table below) calculate the corresponding
stress and report them in the table below.

Cross-Section:-----------------

Table 2: Measured values

Rectangular Distributed Load Triangular Distributed Load
Sensors Strains (µs) Stress (Pascals) Strains (µs) Stress (Pascals)
1
2
3
4
5
ARC20011 Laboratory Session #2 TP2-2019 Page 11 of 22
 6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16

3) Conclusion
1) Compare the measured and calculated values (for the cross-section you used) and
comment on it:
a) Discuss what are the major sources of error
b) How accurately your calculated values compares to measured values. Discuss

2) Comment on the values of strains measured for all 16 sensors:

a) Positive, negative values
b) Any discrepancies

ARC20011 Laboratory Session #2 TP2-2019 Page 12 of 22

ARC20011 Laboratory Session #2 TP2-2019 Page 13 of 22
ARC20011 Laboratory Session #2 TP2-2019 Page 14 of 22
ARC20011 Laboratory Session #2 TP2-2019 Page 15 of 22
ARC20011 Laboratory Session #2 TP2-2019 Page 16 of 22
ARC20011 Laboratory Session #2 TP2-2019 Page 17 of 22
ARC20011 Laboratory Session #2 TP2-2019 Page 18 of 22
ARC20011 Laboratory Session #2 TP2-2019 Page 19 of 22
ARC20011 Laboratory Session #2 TP2-2019 Page 20 of 22
ARC20011 Laboratory Session #2 TP2-2019 Page 21 of 22
ARC20011 Laboratory Session #2 TP2-2019 Page 22 of 22