Empirical Solutions

 Rather than using the Moody diagram to determine f, we can

also obtain this value using an empirical formula that
provides a close fit to the curves.
 This is particularly helpful when using a computer program
or spreadsheet. The Colebrook equation is most often used for
this purpose. It is

 Unfortunately, this is a transcendental equation that cannot

be solved explicitly for f, and therefore it must be solved
using an iterative procedure, something that can be done on a
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pocket calculator or personal computer.
 A more direct approximation would be to use the following
formulation developed by S. Haaland in 1983.

 This equation gives a result that is within 2% to that obtained

using the Moody diagram or the Colebrook equation.*

* Another set of formulas has been developed by P. K.

Swamee and A. K. Jain.

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 Whatever method is used to determine f, keep in mind that
experimental approximations were made in producing the
Moody diagram, such as specifying the surface roughness of
the pipe, or curve- fitting the data.
 As a result the expected accuracy of the data from this
diagram will be between 10% and 15%.
 Also, as stated before, the surface roughness of a pipe and its
diameter will change with time due to sediment and scale
deposits, or corrosion.
 Thus, calculations based on f have a rather limited reliability.
 Sufficient allowance should be made for future use, by
increasing any value of f using sound judgment.
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 Once the final diameter of a pipe is determined, a chart that
lists standard diameters, either in inches or in millimeters,
should be used so that the size conforms to industry
standards.
 This size should be slightly larger than the one that is
“required.” A typical chart that lists these sizes is published by
the American National Standards Institute and can be found
on the Internet.

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 Noncircular Conduits
 Throughout this discussion we have only considered pipes
having a circular cross section; however, the formulations can
also be applied to conduits having a noncircular cross section,
such as those that are oval or rectangular.

 In such cases the hydraulic diameter for the conduit is

normally used as the “characteristic length” when calculating
the Reynolds number.

 This “diameter” is Dh=4A/P, where A is the cross-sectional

area of the conduit and P is its perimeter.

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 For example, for a circular pipe, Dh=[4(πD2/4)]/(πD)=D.

 Once Dh is known, then the Reynolds number, relative

roughness, and the Moody diagram can be used in the usual
manner.

 The results obtained are generally within a range of accuracy

that is acceptable for engineering practice, although they are
not very reliable for extremely narrow shapes such as an
annulus or elongated opening.

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 Hazen–Williams Equation
 Engineers who design water pipes that are used for water
distribution, irrigation or sprinkler systems sometimes use an
empirical equation proposed by A. Hazen and G. Williams.
 Because it does not depend upon the Reynolds number,
suitable accuracy is obtained when it is applied to pipes having
a diameter of 2 in. or greater, and the water temperature is
between 40°F to 75°F. For calculating the pressure drop per
foot of pipe, the formula is
Δp=4.52Q1.85C−1.85D−4.87 (10–8)
 Here Q is in gal/min, D is in inches, and the roughness
coefficient C is dimensionless.
 Typical values, accounting for the effects of pitting of the pipe
wall, or build-up of scale over time, are C=130 for copper pipes,
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C=140 for steel pipes, and C=150 for PVC pipe.
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 Losses Occurring from Pipe Fittings and
Transitions
 In the previous sections, we learned how a major head loss
occurs along a straight length of pipe due to the frictional
effects of viscosity and pipe roughness.
 In addition to this, the effects of turbulence can produce head
losses at pipe connections such as bends, valves, fittings,
entrances, and transitions.
 These are called minor losses. Realize though, in cases where
a system of pipes has short lengths, this term can be a
misnomer since the minor losses will often be greater than
the major losses in all the straight lengths of pipe.
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 Minor losses are the result of accelerated turbulent mixing
of the fluid within the connection as the fluid passes
through it.

 The eddies or swirls that are produced are carried

downstream, where they decay and generate heat before
fully developed laminar or turbulent flow is restored.

 Although a minor loss is not necessarily localized within

the connection, for application of the energy equation, we
will assume it is and will express this loss in terms of the
velocity head as we did in the case for a major loss.
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 Here we will formulate it as

where KL is called the resistance or loss coefficient, which is

determined from experiment.
 Design manuals often provide such data; however, care should be
taken when selecting a loss coefficient, since the reported values
can vary for a particular fitting that is manufactured from
different sources.
 Generally, the manufacturer's recommendations should be
considered.
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 What follows is a partial list of values for KL for some common
types of fittings encountered in practice, and we will use these
values for problem solving.
 Flow coefficients are sometimes used in the valve industry to
report minor losses.
 This is particularly true for control valves.
 This factor is similar to the resistance coefficient, and can be
related to it by the Darcy–Weisbach equation.
 At the end of this section, we will also discuss how discharge
coefficients are used to represent losses incurred in various
types of nozzles and flow meters.

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 Friction loss experiment in a horizontal pipe

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_hSL9_eo4n8

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 Friction Losses in Pipes Live Experiment

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=w7n0srAzm8g

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 Inlet and Exit Transitions
 When fluid enters a pipe from a reservoir, it will cause a
minor loss that depends upon the type of transition that is
used.
 Well-rounded transitions, as in the Figure a, will cause the
smallest loss, since they provide a gradual change in flow.
The value of KL depends upon the radius r of the transition;
however, as noted in the figure, if r/D≥0.15 then KL =0.04.

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 Entrance transitions that produce greater losses may have a
flush entrance, KL = 0.5, Figure b, or have a re-entrant pipe,
KL = 1.0, Figure c.
 These situations can cause the fluid to separate from the
wall of the pipe and form a vena contracta or “necking” of
the fluid near the entrance, because the fluid streamlines
are not able to suddenly bend 90° around a sharp corner.
 Because the vena contracta constricts the flow, it will cause
an increase in velocity near the entrance, which in turn
lowers the pressure and creates flow separation, producing
localized eddies at these locations, as shown.

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 At the discharge end of a pipe into a large reservoir, the loss
coefficient is KL = 1.0, regardless of the shape of the
transition, see Figure d.
 Here the kinetic energy of the fluid is converted into
thermal energy as the fluid exits the pipe and eventually
comes to rest within the reservoir.

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 Care must be taken when the energy equation is applied to
a pipe system that involves a transition.
 If a large reservoir supplies fluid to an inlet, then we can
assume the fluid has zero velocity at the inlet, and it begins
to accelerate and create the loss within the pipe.
 By comparison, the loss created by a discharge pipe does not
occur within the pipe, rather it occurs within the reservoir.
See Example 10–7 for further clarification of this point.

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 Expansion and Contraction
 Connections between pipes of different diameters are subjected to
minor losses, and the loss coefficient KL for each case applies to
the velocity head (V12/2g) for the pipe having the smaller
diameter D1 < D2.
Sudden Expansion
 The minor loss for a sudden expansion, Figure a, is only slightly
affected by the stagnation that occurs within corners A and B of
the larger pipe. Mainly it is the result of the dissipation of the
fluid's kinetic energy as it enters the larger pipe.

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 As a result, the loss can be determined by applying the
continuity, energy, and momentum equations between
points upstream and downstream of the connection.
 The resulting equation for KL is shown in Figure a. It has
been shown to be in close agreement with experiment.

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Example (Minor Losses Due to Sudden Expansions)

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 Sudden Contraction
 When the fitting is a sudden
contraction, a vena contracta will
form within the smaller-diameter
pipe as shown in Figure b.
 Since this formation is not well
defined because it depends upon
the diameter ratios, then the loss
coefficient has to be determined
experimentally. A few results are
indicated by the graph in Figure b.

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 Gradual Expansion
 If the change in flow is gradual, as
in the case of a conical diffuser,
Figure c, then for rather small
angles, θ<8°, losses can be
significantly reduced.
 Higher values of θ will produce
flow separation and the formation
of eddies in addition to friction
losses along the wall.
 For this case, values of KL may
then be larger than those for a
sudden expansion. Some typical
values of KL for this fitting are
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given in Figure c.
 Gradual Contraction
 When the flow passes through a
gradual contraction, as in the case
of a nozzle, then very little loss
occurs since the flow is well
defined, with no separation and
very little eddy formation.
 A few experimental results are
shown in Figure d

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 Pipe Connections
 Consideration should also be given to the possibility of head
losses at pipe-to-pipe connections. For example, small-
diameter pipes are generally threaded, so if any burrs remain
on cut sections, then they can disturb the flow and cause
additional losses through the connection.
 Likewise, larger-diameter pipes are welded, flanged, or glued
together, and these joints can also produce further head loss
unless they are properly fabricated and connected.

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 Bends
 As the fluid passes through a bend as shown in Figure a, its
particles will be subjected to normal or radial acceleration
along their curved streamline because the velocities of the
fluid particles are changing direction.
 As a result, the centrifugal force m(V2/r) that is created
within the flow will be largest at the center of the pipe
because the velocity at the center is largest.

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 By comparison, near the walls this force is small because of
the no-slip condition. This imbalance in the forces within
the fluid will push the center portions of the fluid up
towards the upper wall, and this will cause a flow back and
around towards the lower wall.
 This swirling motion, referred to as secondary flow,
combines with the flow along the pipe and creates two spiral
motions within the flow.

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 This and the possible flow
separation from the inner wall
produces a large viscous friction
loss that eventually dissipates once
the fluid moves farther down the
straight section of pipe.
 To avoid these effects, a larger-
radius bend or “long sweep” can be
used, or guide vanes can be placed
in sharp bends of larger pipes in
order to reduce the swirl and head
loss, Figure b. See Table 10–1 for
the loss coefficients of some pipe
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 Valves
 There are many types of valves
used to control the flow of
fluids.
 In particular the gate valve
works by blocking the flow with
a “gate” or plate that is
perpendicular to the flow, as
shown in Figure a.
 Gate valves are mainly used to
either permit or prevent the
flow of liquids, and as result
they are either fully open or
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 In the open position they allow little
or no obstruction to the flow, and so
they have a very low resistance as
indicated by the loss coefficient in
Table 10–1.
 The globe valve, shown in Figure b,
is designed to regulate flow. It
consists of a stopper disk that goes
up and down from a stationary ring
seat.
 The name “globe” refers to the
spherical shape of the outer housing,
although modern designs are
generally not fully spherical.
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 Similar to the globe valve in the way it
functions, the angle valve is used when
there is a 90° transition in the flow, Figure
c.
 Two additional valves are the swing check
valve, which prevents flow reversal, Figure
d, and the butterfly valve, Figure e, which
provides a low-cost, quick shut-off means
of regulating the flow.
 For all these cases, the loss is greatly
increased when the valves are partially
opened, as shown in each figure, as opposed
to when they are fully opened.

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 Equivalent Length
 Another way to describe the minor losses of valves and fittings
is to use an equivalent-length ratio, Leq/D.
 This requires converting the friction loss within a fitting or
valve to an equivalent length of pipe, Leq, that would produce
the same “major loss” as that due to its “minor loss” coefficient
KL.
 Since the head loss through a straight pipe is determined from
the Darcy–Weisbach equation, hL=f[Leq/D](V2/2g), and the
head loss through a valve or fitting is expressed as
hL= KL(V2/2g), then by comparison,

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 Therefore, the equivalent length of pipe producing the same
loss is

 The overall head loss or pressure drop for the system is then
calculated using the total length of pipe plus the equivalent
lengths determined for each fitting.

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 Single-Pipeline Flow
 Many pipelines consist of a single-diameter pipe with bends,
valves, filters, and transitions, as in the Figure. These systems
are often used to transport water for industrial and residential
usage, and for hydroelectric power.
 They may also be used to transport crude oil or lubricants
through mechanical equipment. The following procedure can
be used to properly design such a system.

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 Procedure for Analysis
 Problems that involve flow through a single pipeline must satisfy
both the continuity equation and the energy equation, and
account for all the major and minor head losses throughout the
system. For incompressible steady flow these two equations,
referenced to points where the flow is “in” and “out,” are

and

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results in
three basic types of problems.
 Determine the Pressure Drop
The pressure drop for a pipe having a known length, diameter,
elevation, roughness, and discharge can be determined directly
using the energy equation.
Determine the Flow
When the pipe length, diameter, roughness, elevation, and
pressure drop are all known, then a trial-and-error solution is
necessary to determine the flow (or average velocity V), since
the Reynolds number, Re=VD/ν, is unknown, and therefore
the friction factor cannot be directly determined from the
Moody diagram.

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 Determine the Length or Diameter of the Pipe
 The design of a pipe generally requires specifying the length
of the pipe and its diameter.
 Either of these parameters can be found provided the other
is known, along with the flow (or average velocity) and the
allowed pressure drop or head loss.
 With the Moody diagram, the solution requires a trial-and-
error procedure because, as in the previous case, the
Reynolds number and friction factor must be obtained.
 The next examples follow the application of each of these
types of problems.

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Example 1 (Calculating Minor Losses from Unknown Object)

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Example 2 (Incorporating Minor Losses in Pipe Flow)

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