Water Treatment

OBJECTIVES
1. Reverse osmosis can be used to either purify water
2. To concentrate and recover dissolved solids in the feed water (known as
"dewatering")
APPARATUS
 Reverse Osmosis Water Treatment System
 Feed water

THEORY:
WHAT IS REVERSE OSMOSIS?
Reverse osmosis (RO) is a special type of filtration that uses a semi-permeable, thin
membrane with pores small enough to pass pure water by pressure through while rejecting
larger molecules such as dissolved salts (ions) and other impurities such as bacteria.

A few impurities found in tap water that can be removed with Reverse Osmosis filtration
technology:
 Fluoride
 Lead
 Chlorine & Chlormamine
 Pesticides
 Detergents & more
 Nitrates & Sulfates
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS/FACTORS FFECTING RO
Operating conditions affect the performance of an RO system. These conditions include:

 Total dissolved solids

 Temperature
 Pressure
 Feed water flow
 Concentrate flow
 Recovery
 PH

MEMBRANE:
“Membrane is thin interphase that restricts the passage of different components in a specific
mode and over a wide range of particle sizes and molecular weights, from ions to
macromolecules.”
The efficiency of a membrane is determined by two parameters:
1. Permeability (the rate at which a given component is transported through the
membrane)
2. Selectivity (the ability to separate in specific way a given component from others)
Reverse osmosis membranes are characterized by a high degree of semi-permeability, high
water flux, mechanical strength, chemical stability and economically acceptable cost.

MEMBRANE CLASSIFICATIONS:
A reverse osmosis system is built around its individual membranes.  Each membrane is a
spiral wound sheet of semi-permeable material. Membranes are available in 2-inch, 4-inch,
and 8-inch diameter with the 4- and 8-inch diameter sizes most commonly used in industry.
The industry has accepted a 40-inch length as a standard size so that membranes from
different manufacturers are interchangeable in equipment systems.
MODULES
Membrane can have two different configurations:
1. Tubular
2. Flat sheet

GENERALLY USED MEMBRANES

1. CELLULOSE ACETATE MEMBRANES
 Lower Cost than Thin Film Membranes.
 Typical salt rejection of 96%.
 Typical operating pressures of 400 PSI.
 Optimum pH operating range of 4.8to 6.5.
 Good Chlorine Tolerance.
2. THIN FILM COMPOSITE MEMBRANES
 More expensive than cellulose acetate membranes
 Typical salt rejection of 97 to 99%
 Typical operating pressures of 200 PSI
 Wide pH operating range of 2 -10
 Very Low Chlorine Tolerance
 Less susceptible to compaction due to lower PSI

REVERSE OSMOSIS WORKING:

In an RO system, pressure (usually from a pump) is used to overcome natural osmotic
pressure, forcing feed water with its load of dissolved salts and other impurities through a
highly sophisticated semipermeable membrane that removes a high percentage of the
impurities. The product of this process is highly purified water.

An RO system uses cross-filtration, where the solution crosses the filter with two outlets: the
filtered water goes one way and the contaminated water goes another way. To avoid build-up
of contaminants, cross-flow filtration allows water to sweep away contaminant build up and
enough turbulence to keep the membrane surface clean.
The complete RO system comprises of the following:
1. Feed Pump
A feed pump consists of M.S to maintain pressure at least 50 Psi.
2. 5 MICRON FILTER
Consists of one – 10inch slim housing with polypropylene cartridge. It will remove the
residual and suspended particles finally down to 5 micron. After passing through water gives
sprinkling look.
3. Water softener
A vessel of size, 54-inch length with 10-inch diameter and one brine tank. The water softener
is used remove hardness (temporary and permanent) from water replacing these with sodium
ions.
4. Regeneration:
When the ion-exchange medium has been saturated with calcium salt it must be regenerated.
For this NaCl solution must passed through the ion-exchange media (Lewatit S 80)
5. Ion exchange polisher
Two vessels one is cation exchange removes all cations from water and anion exchanger
removes all anions. So this is the main advantage of demineralization at the end no solid
contamination remains in treated water.
6. Product water storage tank
A PP tank for capacity 150 litre for product water storage.
7. Piping
Complete piping for RO system using high pressure PVC food-grade

A complete RO system will also include a pre-treatment cartridge filtration, a pressuring

pump, and a controls system. In a small RO system, the controls may be as simple as valves
and rotameters. A larger system will contain flow, temperature, and pressure transmitters, as
well as control valves operated from a HMI (human machine interface) or PLC
(programmable logic controller). Larger systems also incorporate VFD (variable frequency
drives) for the pressurizing pump and sometimes energy recovery devices.
PROCEDURE:
1) Collect the sample of different types of water like distilled water, tap water and
filtered water in different sample bottles.
2) Switch on the reverse osmosis plant to collect the sample of reverse osmosis water.
3) Insert pH meter, conductivity meter and TDS meter to determine pH, conductivity and
TDS in different samples of water.
4) Keep on running the RO plant and also keep on taking different samples after a
specific interval of time and check its properties.
5) Collect out product water from tank storage and find out its properties.
6) Note down all the readings in the table and compare what is the difference.
7) Also note what the effect of time on RO water properties
DIAGRAM:

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS:

Room temperature = 25 ᵒC
Comparison of Properties of Various Types of Water

Properties Tap Water Demineralized Product Water

Water

PH 6.3 6.01 4.54

Conductivity (mg) 3.63 3.83 0.13
TDS (g/l) 0.675 0.49 0.54
3
Density (g/cm ) 1.0224 1 0.996
Density of water 0.998 0.998 0.998
Specific gravity 1.024 1.002 0.9987

RESULTS:

Tap water fed to the RO apparatus resulted in the decrease in the values of its prescribed
parameters as expected from the RO system suggest that the conductivity of the water
decreases along with the TDS removal through RO membrane since it is a function of TDS.
Moreover, the pH value of the RO water has been lowered from the feed PH. The reason is
the increase acidic nature of the permeate water due to the presence of CO2.

ADVANTAGES:
 Improves Taste
RO filtration improves taste, odour and appearance of water by removing contaminants that
cause taste and odour problems.
 Saves Money
With an RO system, you can cancel your water delivery service and stop purchasing cases of
bottled water. Reverse Osmosis filtration provides “better-than-bottled water” quality water
for just pennies per gallon.
 Simple Maintenance
RO systems have very few moving or replaceable parts make RO systems easy to clean and
service.
 Removes Impurities
RO systems remove pollutants from water including nitrates, pesticides, sulfates, fluoride,
bacteria, pharmaceuticals, arsenic and much more. An RO systems’ carbon filter will also
remove chlorine and chloramines.

Advantages of Using RO Benefits of Industrial RO Systems

Simple to operate Modular design for ease of installation 

 Does not require hazardous Reduces water and sewer use costs
chemicals

Energy efficient, especially Can be integrated with an existing

when used instead of distillation to membrane filtration system or ion exchange system
produce high purity water to achieve up to 80% rinse water recycle

RO APPLICATIONS FOR INDUSTRY

RO is used to produce highly purified water for drinking water systems, industrial boilers,
food and beverage processing, cosmetics, pharmaceutical production, seawater desalination,
and many other applications

  

 Desalination of seawater and brackish water for potable use.

 Generation of ultrapure water for the microelectronics industry.
 Generation of high-purity water for pharmaceuticals.
 Generation of process water for beverages (fruit juices, beer, bottle water).
 Processing of dairy products.
 Concentration of corn sweeteners.
 Waste treatment for the recovery of process materials such as metals for the metal
finishing industries, and dyes used in the manufacture of textiles.
 To purify water for use as boiler makeup to low- to medium-pressure boilers, as the
product quality from an RO can directly meet the boiler make-up requirements for
these pressures.

COOLING TOWER
Cooling Tower
A cooling tower is a heat rejection device that rejects waste heat to the atmosphere through
the cooling of a water stream to a lower temperature.
A cooling tower is one of the larger items of equipment, in terms of ground area, that must be
located on a site plan. Factors affecting the location of cooling towers, other than
convenience to water supply and return, are the prevailing wind, noise, and access roads.
In general, a minimum distance of 15–20 m of clear area should be allocated for air
movement about the tower.
Industrial cooling towers:
A large volume of air is constantly moving along the fill courtesy of large fans in the
tower. As evaporation takes place, the water loses heat. It eventually enters the tower sump at
the bottom. The cool water then goes back to cool the initial heat source and the cycle
repeats. For the sake of system dilution, of portion of the system water goes to the drain
through a bleed-off valve. The makeup line feeds the cooling tower with fresh water for
replenishment.
Types of Cooling Towers:

 Mechanical draft cooling tower

 Atmospheric cooling tower
 Hybrid draft cooling tower
 Air flow-characterized cooling tower
 Construction-characterized cooling tower
Air flow generations:

 Natural draft
 Mechanical draft
 Fan assisted natural draft
Air to water flow:

 Cross-flow
 Counter-flow
 Cross and counter flow with natural or mechanical draft
Applications:
The prime use of the cooling tower is to block out the heat absorbed in the moving cooling
water system. The application of cooling tower is as follows,

 Natural gas processing plants

 Power plants
 Food processing plants
 Petrochemical plants
 Semiconductor plants
 Petroleum refineries

Objective:
To determine temperature range, approach and effectiveness for cooling tower

Theory:
Range is the difference between the cooling tower water inlet and outlet temperature.
Approach is the difference between the cooling tower outlet cold water temperature and
ambient wet bulb temperature.
Cooling tower effectiveness (in percentage) is the ratio of range, to the ideal range, i.e.,
difference between cooling water inlet temperature and ambient wet bulb temperature, or in
other words it is = Range / (Range + Approach).

Apparatus:
 Cooling tower apparatus
 water

Working principle:
Dry cooling towers operate by heat the transfer through a surface that separate the working
fluid from ambient air, such as in a tube to air heat exchanges utilizing convective heat
transfer. They do not use evaporation

Wet cooling towers operate on the principle of evaporation cooling.

Procedure:
Check the temperature of air and the whole apparatus.
Heating up the water used for the cooling tower to cool.
By on the pump took the flow rate 0f water.
On the fan and measure the temperature and humidity.
Took the values at different interval.
Note the all readings

Observations and Calculations:

Air Calculations:
 Inlet T=22 ºC
Outlet: T=43 ºC
Water Calculations:
Inlet T=45 ºC
Outlet: T=41 ºC

Temperature Range = T1-T2= 45-41 = 4 ºC

Dry Bulb Temperature = 16 ºC

Temperature Approach
= 41-16 = 25 ºC

Effectiveness = Range / (Range + Approach)

= 4/ (4+25) x 100
= 13.7%

Result:
Range of cooling tower is 4oC
Approach of cooling tower is 25 ºC
Effectiveness of cooling tower is 13.7%

Conclusion:
Performance of cooling tower is not so good because its effectiveness’s is very low so this is not best
to cool the utility streams. Effectiveness is also decreases with fan speed. Effectiveness is also lees
due to probe of temperature measuring and some equipment errors.

Objective:
To calculate mass transfer coefficient of cooling tower.
Theory:
In engineering, the mass transfer coefficient is a diffusion rate constant that relates the mass
transfer rate, mass transfer area, and concentration change as driving force.
This can be used to quantify the mass transfer between phases, immiscible and
partially miscible fluid mixtures or between a fluid and a porous solid. Quantifying mass
transfer allows for design and manufacture of separation process equipment that can meet
specified requirements, estimate what will happen in real life situations (chemical spill), etc.
Mass transfer coefficients can be estimated from many different
theoretical equations, correlations, and analogies that are functions of material
properties, intensive properties and flow regime (laminar or turbulent flow). Selection of the
most applicable model is dependent on the materials and the system, or environment, being
studied.

Apparatus:
 Cooling tower apparatus
 water

Working principle:
Dry cooling towers operate by heat the transfer through a surface that separate the working
fluid from ambient air, such as in a tube to air heat exchanges utilizing convective heat
transfer. They do not use evaporation

Wet cooling towers operate on the principle of evaporation cooling.

Procedure:
Check the temperature of air and the whole apparatus.
Heating up the water used for the cooling tower to cool.
By on the pump took the flow rate 0f water.
On the fan and measure the temperature and humidity.
Took the values at different interval.
Note the all readings

Observations and calculations:

Air inlet temperature=22oC

Air outlet Temperature=43oC

 Water inlet Temperature=45oC

Water outlet temperature=42oC

Manometer reading=0.073

% of humidity at inlet=56

% of humidity at outlet=77

Hot water flow rate=7.67 LPM

Humidity of air at inlet=H1=0.0096Kg of water/Kg of dry air

Humidity of air at outlet=H2=0.0414Kg of water/Kg of air

Volume of air inlet to tower= ((2.8+4.56)*10-3)22*5.27

Volume of air inlet to tower=VH1=0.847m3/Kg of dry Air

Mass flow rate of air=Q*(VH1/H1)1/2

G=0.0137(0.847/0.0096) 1/2

G=0.127Kg of dry air/sec.

Enthalpy of air at inlet

Hy1= (1.005+1.88H1) T1+2501H1

Hy1= (1.005+1.88*o.oo95)22+2501*0.0095

Hy1=46.26KJ/Kg of dry air.

At outlet

Hy2= (1.005+1.88H2) T2+2501H2

Hy2=156KJ/Kg of dry

Heat transfer

Q=G*(Hy2- Hy1)

Q=0.127(156-42.26)

Q=0.0139KJ/sec

Humidity of air at saturation

 At inlet

H1, =0.0165 kg of water/kg of air

Enthalpy of air at saturation

At inlet

Hy1,= (1.005+1.88H1,) T1+2501H1,

Hy1,= (1.005+1.88*0.0165) 22+2501.4*0.0165

Hy1,=62.81Kj/kg of dry air

At outlet

Hy2, = (1.005+1.88H2,) T2+2501H2,

Hy2, =187KJ/kg of dry air

Temperature(oC) Enthalpy at saturation (KJ/Kg)

20 57.5

22 62.81

25 76

30 100

35 129

40 167

43 187

45 214

47 259
 H1=130KJ/kg

H2=56 KJ/kg

Hm=95 KJ/kg

f=0.95

Number of transfer units=NOG= H2- H1/(fHm)

NOG=1.23

Z=0.772m

HOG=z/ NOG

HOG=0.624m

G
KGA=
m× P × H OG

0.127
KGA=
28.84 ×101325 ×0.624

KGA=6.90×10-8 Kgmol /m2sec.pa

Result:
Mass transfer coefficient of cooling tower is 6.90×10-8 Kgmol /m2sec.pa