4

SHORT CIRCUIT STUDIES

4.1 INTRODUCTION

In a power system short circuits occur once in a while due to lightning, flash over
due to polluted insulation, falling of tree branches on the overhead system,
animal intrusion and erroneous operations. When the fault current magnitudes are
significant, it can cause damage to equipment and explosion if the fault is not
cleared for prolonged time. Also, electrical fires and shock hazards to people are
possible in a faulted power system. Therefore, it is important to design the power
system such that the fault is isolated quickly to minimize the equipment damage
and improve personnel safety.

Short circuit studies are performed to determine the magnitude of the current
flowing throughout the power system at various time intervals after a fault. The
magnitude of the current through the power system after a fault varies with time
until it reaches a steady state condition. During the fault, the power system is
called on to detect, interrupt and isolate these faults, The duty impressed on the
equipment is dependent on the magnitude of the current, which is a function of
the time of fault initiation. Such calculations are performed for various types of
fault such as three-phase, single line to ground fault, double line to ground fault
and at different location of the system. The calculated short circuit results are
used to select fuses, circuit breakers and protective relays. The symmetrical
component model is used in the analysis of the unsymmetrical faults with mutual
coupling.

Copyright 2002 by Marcel Dekker. All Rights Reserved.

 The power system components such as utility sources, generators, motors,
transformers and cables are represented by impedance value. The short circuit study
is performed by representing the electric network in a matrix form. The program
places a fault at a required location and performs the short circuit calculations. The
short circuit study results are performed according to the applicable industry
standards.

4.2 SOURCES OF SHORT CIRCUIT CURRENTS

The short circuit current contributions are from the utility sources, generators,
synchronous condensers and induction motors. Typical current waveforms during a
short circuit are shown in Figure 4.1 for various types of contributing sources.

Utility sources - A utility represents the large interconnection of generators,

transmission lines and load circuits. The transmission lines, distribution lines and
transformers introduce impedance between the generator source and the fault point
during a short circuit. Therefore, the source voltage remains unaffected during fault
conditions.

Generator sources - An in-plant generator contributes to a short circuit and the

current decreases exponentially. The generator is driven by a prime mover and an
exciter supplies the field; the steady state current will persist unless the circuit is
open by a circuit breaker. The generator fault current is determined by three
reactance values during various time frames:

• Xd" - Direct axis sub-transient reactance, during the first cycle

• Xd' - Direct axis transient reactance, during 1 to 2 seconds
• Xd - Direct axis reactance, during steady state

The total short circuit current (It) of a generator consists of an ac component

(lac) and a dc component (Idc). These components are given by equations 4.1
through 4.3. The ac component of the generator fault current is:

1 1 .--1-
Iac = e Td" + (4.1)
X
.X d X d xd d

The dc component of the generator currents is:

r( 1 1 JL
Idc = (V2) — e'Td (4.2)

Copyright 2002 by Marcel Dekker. All Rights Reserved.

 The total generator fault current (It) is:

c + Idc (4.3)

The reactance values are expressed in per unit in the above equations and the
calculated currents will be in per unit. An example is presented at the end of this
Chapter to show the generator short circuit currents.

Synchronous motor and synchronous condenser - The synchronous machines

supply fault current like a synchronous generator. The fault current decays rapidly
since the inertia of the motor and load acts as the prime mover with the field
excitation maintained. The fault current diminishes as the motor/condenser slows
down and the motor excitation decays.

Induction motor load - The fault current contribution from an induction motor is
due to the generator action produced by the load after the fault. The field flux of the
induction motor is produced due to the stator voltage and hence the current
contribution decays very rapidly upon fault clearing as the terminal voltage is
removed.

Total fault current as a function of time - When a short circuit occurs in a

system, the circuit impedance decreases appreciably. Therefore, the circuit current
increases significantly as shown in Figure 4.2. During an asymmetrical fault, the
total current can be treated as the sum of a dc current and a symmetrical ac
component. The direct component eventually decays to zero as the stored energy in
the system is expended in the form of I R loss. The direct current decay is inversely
proportional to the X/R ratio of the system between the source and the fault.
Therefore, it is important to analyze the short circuit current during the first cycle,
the next several cycles and in the steady state.

Copyright 2002 by Marcel Dekker. All Rights Reserved.

 UTILITY
CONTRIBUTION

GENERATOR
CONTRIBUTION

SYNCHRONOUS
MOTOR
CONTRIBUTION

INDUCTION
MOTOR
CONTRIBUTION

TOTAL
SHORT-CIRCUIT
CURRENT
WAVEFORM

Figure 4.1 Decaying Short Circuit Current Waveforms

Copyright 2002 by Marcel Dekker. All Rights Reserved.

 TOTAL
DC SHORT-CIRCUIT
COMPONENT a CURRENT

Figure 4.2 Total Fault Current Waveform

4.3 SYSTEM IMPEDANCE DATA

Each component in an electrical system is represented by a suitable impedance

value. Then the impedance values are converted to a common base. The system
impedance data related issues are presented below.

Source data - The utility source is represented by a per unit impedance which is
equivalent to the maximum short circuit MVA level available from the utility at the
point of common coupling. The minimum source impedance is used in the short
circuit current calculations for relay settings. The source impedance data is usually
provided by the system/utility.

Example 4.1 - The three-phase and one line to ground fault short circuit duties of a
230 kV, 3-phase power system is 671 MVA and 738 MVA respectively. Find the
symmetrical component impedance values on a 100 MVA base.

Solution - Use an X/R ratio of 20.

kV
_~ = 78.8 Ohm
MVA,3ph 671

X (base) on 100 MVA base = (230 x 230)/100 - 529 Ohm

Copyright 2002 by Marcel Dekker. All Rights Reserved.

 X, on 100 MVA base = 78. 8 Ohm/529 Ohm - 0.1489 P.U.

Ri on 100 MVA base = 0.1489 P.U./20 = 0.0073 P.U.

X = - =57.5 Ohm
0 MVA, slg MVA,3ph

X0 on 100 MVA base = 57.5 Ohm/529 Ohm =0.1086 P.U.

Ro on 1 00 MVA base = 0. 1 086 P.U./20 - 0.0054 P.U.

Transmission lines - The transmission lines are represented by positive and zero
sequence impedance values. The approach to calculate the transmission line
constants and typical values are presented in Chapter 2. In transmission lines it is
assumed that the positive and negative sequence impedance values are equal.

Cable data - The cable impedance values are presented by the positive and zero
sequence impedance values. The calculation procedures are discussed in Chapter 2.

Transformer impedance - The transformer impedance values are given in

percentage on the self-cooled transformer kVA rating and are converted to per unit
on the study base. Typical impedance data of two winding transformers up to 2.4
kV are presented in Table 4.1.

Table 4.1 Typical Transformer Impedance up to 2.4 kV

3-Phase % Impedance
kVA X/R Ratio Range
112.5 3.0 1.6-6.2
150.0 3.5 1.5-6.4
225.0 4.0 2.0-6.6
300.0 4.5 2.0-6.0
500.0 5.0 2.1 -6.1
750.0 6.0 3.2-6.6
1000.0 7.0 3.2-6.6
1500.0 7.0 3.5-6.8
2000.0 8.0 3.5-6.8
2500.0 9.0 3.5-6.8

The impedance values for the transformers above 2.4 kV are listed in Table 4.2.

Copyright 2002 by Marcel Dekker. All Rights Reserved.

 Table 4.2 Typical Transformer Impedance Above 2.4 kV Ratings

Primary Primary % Impedance

kV kVBIL Range
2.4 - 22.9 60-150 5.5-6.5
34.4 200.0 6.0-7.0
43.8 250.0 6.5-7.5
67.0 350.0 7.0-8.0
115.0 450.0 7.5-8.5
138.0 550.0 8.0-9.0

For the calculation of the line to ground fault short circuit currents, the zero
sequence connection diagram for certain transformers are required.

Synchronous machines - A synchronous machine is represented by the sub-

transient direct axis reactance. Typical reactance values for various synchronous
machines are presented in Table 4.3.

Table 4.3 Typical Reactance of Synchronous Machines in Percentage

Type of Generator Xd Xq Xd' Xd" X2 xo

Turbo generator, 2 -pole 95 - 145 92 - 142 12-21 7-14 9-16 1 -8
Turbo generator, 4-pole 95 - 145 97 - 142 20-28 12-17 14-19 1.5-14
Waterwheel generator, no damper 60 - 145 40-95 20-45 17-40 30-65 4-25
Waterwheel generator, with damper 60 - 145 40-95 20-45 13-25 13-35 4-25
Synchronous condenser 150-220 95 -140 30-50 20-35 20-35 2-15
Salient pole motor, high speed 65-90 40- 100 15-35 10-25 10-25 2-15
Salient pole motor, low speed 80-150 40-100 40-70 25-45 25-45 4-27

Note: Use average value as typical data and on machine MVA base.

Induction motors - The kVA rating of induction motors is approximately equal to

the hp rating. The sub-transient reactance is given by the locked rotor reactance.
Typical locked rotor reactance values of various induction motors are given by:

Over 600 V = 0.17 P.U. on machine kVA base

600 V and less = 0.25 P.U. on machine kVA base

The motor resistance can be calculated using the X/R ratio curve given in ANSI
Standard 242. Sometimes, the motors in each substation are lumped by type and
size and a single per unit impedance is determined based on the lumped kVA.

Copyright 2002 by Marcel Dekker. All Rights Reserved.

 4.4 SHORT CIRCUIT CALCULATIONS

The following short circuit calculations are generally performed.

Three-phase fault - The three-phase conductors are shorted together. The

magnitude of the fault current is given by:

If = — (4.4)
L
\

Where E is the phase voltage and Zl is the positive sequence impedance.

Phase to ground fault - Where one phase conductor is shorted to ground. The fault
current magnitude is given by:

If =
(Z + zE z )
\ 2 + 0}
(L +L
(4 5)
'

Where Zi, Zi and Zo are the positive, negative and zero sequence impedances
respectively.

Double line to ground fault - Where two phase conductors are shorted to ground.
The positive sequence current magnitude is given by:

(4 6)
zZ 0/rz
(
2
+z '

The three-phase fault currents are the highest and least for phase to ground fault.
However, the phase to ground fault current can be the highest under certain
circumstances such as:

Near solidly grounded synchronous machines.

Near the solidly connected wye of a delta/wye transformer of the three
phase core/three leg design.
• A grounded wye/delta tertiary auto-transformer.
A grounded wye grounded wye/delta, three winding transformer.

Therefore, in systems with the above type of connections, it is necessary to conduct

a phase to ground fault calculation. For resistance grounded systems, the phase to
ground fault currents will be limited. The following assumptions are made in the
short circuit calculations:

Copyright 2002 by Marcel Dekker. All Rights Reserved.

 An unloaded power system is considered.
• The impedance at the fault location is assumed to be zero.
Load characteristics are ignored.
• Motors are assumed to run at rated speed with rated terminal voltage.
• Nominal transformer taps will be considered.
• A symmetrical three-phase power system is considered.

The momentary or first cycle, the interrupting and the symmetrical short circuit
currents are calculated to meet the circuit breaker selection and relay applications.

Momentary or first cycle short circuit current calculations - The momentary or

first cycle current is used to evaluate the closing or latching of the medium or high
voltage circuit breaker. The circuit impedance of the utility sources, generators,
transmission lines and transformers are used for the momentary current calculations.
The sub-transient reactance of utility source and the generator are used. The
reactance of the synchronous motors and induction motors are modified according
to Table 4.4 from IEEE Standard 141.

Table 4.4 Multipliers for Short Circuit Current Calculations

Type of Rotating Machine LV Studies First Cycle Interrupting

Generator, hydro generators with 1.0 Xd" 1.0 Xd" 1.0 Xd"
amortisseur windings & condensers
Synchronous motors 1.0 Xd" 1.0 Xd" l.SXd"
Induction motors
Above 1000 hp at 1800 rpm or less 1.0 Xd" 1.0 Xd" 1.5Xd"
Above 250 hp at 3600 rpm 1.0 Xd" 1.0 Xd" l.SXd"
All others, 50 hp and above 1.0 Xd" 1.2Xd" 3.0Xd"
Less than 50 hp Neglect Neglect Neglect

The impedance of the equivalent network is established and is converted into per
unit at each fault point. The first cycle fault current is calculated using the pre fault
voltage and the impedance at the faulted node. The approximate calculated first
cycle fault current for comparison with the circuit breaker capability is obtained by
using a 1.6 multiplier specified in ANSI C37.010-1989. The total three phase
symmetrical fault current (Isc tot) is:

Epu L6
Isc tot Ibase (4.7)
Xpu

This current magnitude is compared with the latching current rating of a circuit
breaker and the instantaneous rating of the relay settings.

Copyright 2002 by Marcel Dekker. All Rights Reserved.

 Interrupting current calculations - The interrupting fault currents are calculated
in accordance with ANSI C37.010-1989 for symmetrical current rated circuit
breaker applications. The reactance of the rotating machines is chosen and applied
as per the multiplying factors listed in Table 4.4. For the calculation of the
interrupting currents, both the resistance and reactance of the equivalent circuit is
needed. Therefore, the equivalent R and X are calculated at the fault point and the
X/R ratio is determined. The interrupting current is calculated using the E/Z
method. A multiplying factor is calculated using the X/R ratio and the contact
parting time of the circuit breaker. The minimum contact parting times are
presented in Table 4.5 obtained from ANSI C37.010-1989.

Table 4.5 Contact Parting Time for Circuit Breakers

Rated Interrupting Time Minimum Contact Parting

Cycles at 60 Hz Time, Cycles at 60 Hz
6 4
5 3
3 2
2 1.5

The multiplying factors are plotted in ANSI C37.5-1979 for two specific
conditions.

• Fault fed predominantly from generators for three-phase faults (8, 5, 3 and 2
cycles).

• Fault fed predominantly from networks with two or more transformations for
three phase and line to ground faults (8, 5, 3 and 2 cycles).

The calculated interrupting fault current (lin) is given by:

=
Epu
lin (Multiplying Factor) ibase (4.10)
Xpu

This interrupting current is to be compared with circuit breaker interrupting

capability. It can be seen that the short circuit calculation procedures for the
momentary duty and the interrupting duty are different.

Short circuit calculations for low voltage circuit breaker applications - The
impedance diagram for evaluating the short circuit current at the faulted point
developed. The rotating machine impedance values used without multiplying
factors are shown in Table 4.4. The resistance values are also calculated using the

Copyright 2002 by Marcel Dekker. All Rights Reserved.

 procedure used in the interrupting current calculations. The fault current is given by
E/Z. The low voltage short circuit values are used for the selection of the circuit
breakers including the molded case types.

Short circuit current calculation for relay applications - For the instantaneous
relay setting, the fault current magnitude from the momentary duty is used. For
other applications with a time delay, the steady state symmetrical fault currents are
calculated and used. The impedance for the transformer, overhead line and the
cables are obtained for the steady state conditions. The motor contributions are
neglected. For synchronous machines the steady state reactance can be used. In this
case it can be seen that the dc component has almost decayed to zero and it is not
considered. The required symmetrical fault current is obtained by using the E/Z
method. In many power system and industrial set ups, the source impedance is
different for peak and off-peak conditions. Therefore, the maximum and minimum
fault currents are to be calculated and the relay settings should be verified for both
conditions.

Impedance diagram - The impedance diagram is derived from the one line
diagram by modeling the circuit elements by the respective impedance. The
impedance magnitude used for the fault calculation depends on many factors which
are discussed in the circuit breaker current rating calculations. This is important for
the reactance of the rotating machines (see Table 4.4). Once the fault location and
type of short circuit is identified, then the corresponding impedance diagram is
developed. This concept is demonstrated with the help of an example.

Per unit quantities - For a balanced three-phase system, the relation of three-phase
kVA, line to line voltage, base current and base impedance are defined as:

Base kVA
Base current = —T= (411)
V3(BasekV)
(BasekVA) 2
Base impedance = (4 12)
BaseMVA

For changing the P.U. impedance from the given base kV to new base kV:
'kV.
given
Xnew (Xgiven) (4.13)
~kV
new
When both the kVA and kV are new, then the new P.U. impedance can be
calculated using the following equation:

Copyright 2002 by Marcel Dekker. All Rights Reserved.

 f .,,.
kVA
\ f -kV .
new given
Xnew (Xgiven) (4.14)
kVA kV
^ given new

Example 4.2 - The nameplate specifications of a two winding transformer are 40

MVA, 69 kV/13.8 kV, delta/wye-grounded, 7% impedance. This transformer is to
be connected in a 13.2 kV distribution system. The system studies are performed on
a 100 MVA base. Calculate the transformer impedance on 13.2 kV and 100 MVA
base.

Solution - The new P.U. impedance can be calculated as:

f r\r\\ f i o \^
Xnew = (7.0% |—J[—J =2.7324%

4.5 COMPUTER-AIDED ANALYSIS

There are several programs available to perform the short circuit studies. These
programs can be used to perform the following data-related operations.

Convert the raw system data to a common base.

• Prepare one-line diagrams.
• Determine system impedance for the calculation of momentary,
interrupting, symmetrical and relay short circuit currents.

The input data to these programs can be entered interactively or presented in ASCII
data files or through graphic interface. The output of the short circuit study includes
the following.

• Short circuit input data used in the network analysis.

• Calculations of three-phase, single line to ground fault, line to line and
double line to ground fault currents. For the three-phase, 4 wire system
with a neutral conductor, the short circuit currents are required for the line
to neutral short circuit.
• Calculation of appropriate circuit breaker current ratings based on ANSI
or IEC standards.
• Some programs present the short circuit outputs in a one line diagram with
the calculated values.
• Summary of currents at all the buses.

The user selects the necessary short circuit results at appropriate buses and

Copyright 2002 by Marcel Dekker. All Rights Reserved.

 compares the results with the circuit breaker ratings. Also, the short circuit
currents are compared with the equipment short circuit ratings to ensure safe
performance.

Example 4.3 - An industrial power plant is shown in Figure 4.3. The 230 kV
source has a three-phase circuit current rating of 28,000 A. The step down
transformer (Tl) is 100 MVA, 230/24 kV, 0.10 P.U. reactance, delta/wye-
grounded with an X/R ratio of 20. There is a 500 MVA standby generator
connected to the 24 kV bus. The reactance of the generator is 0.2 P.U with X/R
ratio of 20. Transformer T2 is 75 MVA, 24/4.16 kV, delta/wye, 0.11 P.U.
reactance with X/R ratio of 30. There are two 2,000 hp, 0.9 power factor, Xd" =
0.2 P.U, Xd1 = 0.26 P.U. with X/R ratio of 20. The low voltage system contains a
transformer T3, 4.16 kV/600 V, 0.08 P.U reactance and X/R - 30. There is a low
voltage motor at the 600 V bus with a rating of 400 hp, Xd" = 0.3 and X/R = 30.
Perform a short circuit study using computer-aided software and determine the
short circuit currents at Fl and F2. Also, show the step-by-step calculations.
Compare the results.

Solution - The reactance of all the passive elements are listed below. A 100 MVA
base is used in the calculations.

Transformer, Tl, X = (0.10)( 100/100) = 0.1 P.U.

Transformer, T2, X = (0.11)( 100/75) =0.15 P.U.
Transformer, T3, X = (0.08)(100/0.75) = 10.67 P.U.

Sub-transient reactance of rotating machines

230 kV system short circuit MVA = (>/3 ) (230 kV) (28 kA) =11154
230 kV source impedance, X = 1.0 (100/11154) = 0.00896 P.U.
Generator Gl, X = (0.25) (100/500) = 0.05 P.U.
Induction motor Ml, X = (0.20) (100/2) = 10 P.U.
Induction motor M2, X = (0.20) (100/2) = 10 P.U.
Induction motor M3, X = (0.30) (100/0.4) = 75 P.U.

Momentary fault current calculations - For the momentary or first cycle short
circuit calculation, induction motors less than 50 hp are omitted. For the 400 hp
motor, X = 1.2 Xd" = (1.2) (75 P.U.) = 90 P.U. The reactance of the source,
generator and the induction motors are identified in the impedance diagram for the
first cycle or momentary short circuit calculations, in Figure 4.4.

Copyright 2002 by Marcel Dekker. All Rights Reserved.

 SOURCE, 23O kV

Gl

24 kV

4.16 kV

M2 Ml
M3

Figure 4.3 One-Line Diagram for Example 4.3

0.00896 P.U

Figure 4.4 Impedance Diagram for the Momentary Duty Calculation

The symmetrical first cycle or momentary short circuit current at the faulted point
Fl is calculated as:

Ibase at the 4.16 kV bus = 100 MVA/( >/3 )(4.16 kV) - 13.879 kA
1
Isym = (13.879kA) =78.3 kA
0.1772
The peak value of the momentary short circuit current is (1.6 x 78.3 kA) 125.3 kA.

Copyright 2002 by Marcel Dekker. All Rights Reserved.

 Calculation of the interrupting short circuit current - The impedance diagram is
shown in Figure 4.5. The reactance, X/R ratios and the resistances for the circuit
breaker interrupting current calculations are listed below.

Transformer Tl, X/R = 30, R = (0.10/30) = 0.003 P.U.

Transformer T2, X/R = 30, R = (0.15/30) = 0.005 P.U.
Transformer T3, X/R = 30, R = (10.67/30) -3.560 P.U.

230 kV system, X/R = 20, R - (0.00896/20) = 0.00045 P.U.

Generator Gl, X/R = 20, R = (0.05/20) = 0.0025 P.U.
Motor Ml, X = (1.5 Xd") = (1.5 x 10) = 15 P.U.
Motor Ml, X/R = 20, R = (15/20) = 0.75 P.U.
Motor M2, X/R = 20, R = (15/20) = 0.75 P.U.
Motor M3, X = (3 Xd") = 3 x 75 = 225 P.U.
Motor M3, X/R = 30, R = (225/30) = 7.5 P.U.
E/X = | (13.879kA) = 77.32kA
0.1795J

0.00896 P.U

1795 P.U

Figure 4.5 Impedance Diagram for the Interrupting Duty Calculation

Copyright 2002 by Marcel Dekker. All Rights Reserved.

 0.00045 P.U

Figure 4.6 Resistance Diagram for the Interrupting Duty Calculation

The resistance circuit for the interrupting duty calculation is presented in Figure 4.6.
Using the reduced R, the X/R ratio is calculated at the faulted point Fl.

The X/R ratio at the faulted point Fl = 0.1795/0.0054 = 33.24

The corresponding NCAD ratio is determined from C37.010. The NCAD ratio for
X/R ratio of 33.24 is 0.96.

The interrupting current = (77.32 kA) (0.96) = 74.2 kA

Short circuit calculation for low voltage circuit breaker applications - The
impedance diagram for evaluating the short circuit current at the faulted point F2
is shown in Figure 4.7. The impedance at F2 = (1.4698 + j 9.4817) P.U. =
9.5949 P.U. The base current at 600 V is 96.2278 kA. The short circuit current at
F2is 10.41 kA.

0.184 P.IM 0.0065 P.U 1.4698 P.U

9.4817 P.U
3.56 P.U

2.5 P.U

Figure 4.7 Impedance Diagram for the Low Voltage Short Circuit Current Study

Copyright 2002 by Marcel Dekker. All Rights Reserved.

 Computer-aided analysis - The data is entered interactively to the program and the
input data listings and the output summary are presented below. The software used
in the calculations was the AFAULT program from the SKM System Analysis. The
present version of the program is called Power tools for Windows with the
particular option [9]. The program performs the calculations by placing various
faults at each node for different fault duties. The equipment voltage rating,
reactance and the reactance to the 100 MVA base are displayed. The input data is
classified into various sections as discussed below.

Source data as per List 4.1. - From Bus, to Bus, Voltage, Base MVA, Xd", X/R,
X on 100 MVA Base.
List 4.1 Source Data
Xd" Zon 100 MVA Base
From Bus To Bus kV Base MVA P.U X/R P.U
Source Bus 1 230 11154 28 20 (0.00045 +J0.00895)
Generator 1 Bus 5 24 500 0.25 20 (0.0025 +j 0.05)
Motor M 1 Bus 9 4.16 2 0.2 20 (0.5 + j 10)
Motor M2 Bus 10 4.16 2 0.2 20 (0.5 + j 10)
Motor M3 Bus 11 0.6 0.4 0.3 30 (2.5+J75)

Feeder data as per List 4.2. The assumed impedance values are low and are not
used in the step-by-step calculations. From Bus, to Bus, Voltage, Length in Feet, Zl
or Z2 in P.U, ZO in P.U.

List 4.2 Feeder Data

Line Length
From Bus To Bus kV Feet Z l o r Z 2 , P.U. ZO, P.U.
Bus 1 Bus 2 230 125 (0.0 + j 0.01) (0.0 + j 0.03)
Bus 3 Bus 4 24 125 (0.0 + j 0.01) (0.0 + j 0.03)
Bus 4 Bus 5 24 125 (0.0 + j 0.00022) (0.0 + j 0.00065)
Bus 4 Bus 6 24 250 (0.0 + j 0.00043) (0.0 + j 0.001 30)
Bus? Bus 8 4.16 250 (0.0 + j 0.01445) (0.0 + j 0.04334)
Bus 8 Bus 9 4.16 130 (0.0 + j 0.00751) (0.0 + j 0.02254)
Bus 9 Bus 10 4.16 150 (0.0 + j 0.00867) (0.0 + j 0.026)

Transformer data as per List 4.3 - Primary Bus, Connection, Voltage, Secondary
Bus, Connection, Voltage, MVA Base, Z1/Z2 on 100 MVA Base, ZO on 100 MVA
Base.

Copyright 2002 by Marcel Dekker. All Rights Reserved.

 List 4.3 Transformer Data
Primary Primary Sec Sec
From Bus To Bus Conn kV Conn kV Zl orZ2, P.U. ZO, P.U.
Bus 2 Bus 3 Del 230 Wye 24 (0.03 + j 0.10) (0.0003 + j 0.10)
Bus 6 Bus? Del 24 Wye 4.16 (0.048 + j 0.1 467) (0.005+ J O . 1467)
Bus 8 Bus 11 Del 4.16 Wye 0.6 (0.36 +j 10.6667) (0.36 + j 10.6667)

The program calculates the short circuit components at each bus location for the
various fault duties along with the summary for each type of calculations. The
summary of the typical output listing is presented below.

Fault current for the low voltage circuit breaker applications as per List 4.4.
The list includes the Bus Number, Bus Name, Voltage, Fault Current for Three-
Phase, X/R Ratio, Fault Current for SLG, X/R Ratio.

List 4.4 Fault Current for the Low Voltage Circuit Breaker Applications

Voltage 3 Phase 3 Phase SLG SLG

Bus# Bus Name Volts Fit, kA X/R kA X/R
1 BUS 1 230000 29.478 20.55
2 BUS 2 230000 14.811 40.94
3 BUS 3 24000 60.47 27.6 40.181 30.53
4 BUS 4 24000 66.981 24.91 35.753 34.31
5 BUSS 24000 67.155 24.85 35.671 34.39
6 BUS 6 24000 66.194 25.21 35.375 34.68
7 BUS 7 4160 78.611 29 83.298 29.44
8 BUSS 4160 73.095 31.19 73.07 33.57
9 BUS 9 4160 70.521 32.33 68.684 35.71
10 BUS 10 4160 67.662 33.7 64.172 38.22
11 BUS 11 600 10.14 29.7 9.736 29.67

Fault current for momentary or first cycle as per List 4.5. The list includes the
Bus Number, Bus Name, Voltage, Fault Current for 3-Phase, X/R Ratio, Fault
Current for SLG, X/R Ratio. The fault current magnitude is 1.6 times the short
circuit at the fault location.

Fault current for interrupting as per List 4.6. The output contains the Bus
Number, Bus Name, Voltage, decrement ratio, Fault Current for three-Phase, X/R
Ratio, Fault Current for SLG, X/R Ratio.

Copyright 2002 by Marcel Dekker. All Rights Reserved.

 List 4.5 Fault Current for the Momentary Duty
Voltage 3 Phase 3 Phase SLG SLG
Bus# Bus Name Volts E/Z* 1.6 X/R E/Z* 1.6 X/R
1 BUS1 230000 47.165 20.55
2 BUS 2 230000 23.697 40.94
3 BUS 3 24000 96.751 27.6 64.29 30.53
4 BUS 4 24000 107.17 24.91 57.204 34.31
5 BUSS 24000 107.448 24.85 57.073 34.39
6 BUS 6 24000 105.91 25.21 56.6 34.68
7 BUS 7 4160 125.778 29 133.277 29.44
8 BUSS 4160 116.952 31.19 116.913 33.57
9 BUS 9 4160 112.834 32.33 109.895 35.71
10 BUS 10 4160 108.259 33.7 102.675 38.22

List 4.6 Fault Current for the Interrupting Duty

Voltage 3 Phase 3 Phase SLG SLG
Bus# Bus Name Volts Ratio E/ZKA X/R E/ZKA X/R
1 BUS 1 230000 0.999 29.478 20.55
2 BUS 2 230000 0.999 14.811 40.94
3 BUSS 24000 0.334 60.47 27.6 40.181 30.53
4 BUS 4 24000 0.278 66.981 24.91 35.753 34.31
5 BUSS 24000 0.277 67.155 24.85 35.671 34.39
6 BUS 6 24000 0.278 66.194 25.21 35.375 34.68
7 BUS 7 4160 0.963 78.611 29 83.298 29.44
8 BUS 8 4160 0.96 73.095 31.19 73.07 33.57
9 BUS 9 4160 0.959 70.521 32.33 68.684 35.71
10 BUS 10 4160 0.958 67.662 33.7 64. 1 72 38.22

The results from the step-by-step calculations and the computer-aided analysis are
compared at the faulted points Fl (node 8) and F2 (node 11).

Description Calculated Computer-Aided

Momentary at Fl (node 8) 125.3 kA 116.952 kA
Interrupting at F1 (node 8) 74.2 kA 73.095 kA
Low voltage short circuit at F2 (node 11) 10.41 kA 10.140 kA

In the step-by-step calculations, the cable lengths are ignored. Therefore, the
calculated short circuit currents are higher than the values from the computer-aided
analysis.

Copyright 2002 by Marcel Dekker. All Rights Reserved.

 4.6 LIMITING THE SHORT CIRCUIT CURRENTS

Using series reactors, high impedance transformers and high resistance grounding
can control the short circuit current in the power system. The series reactor can be
used in the generator circuits, bus bars, feeders and in the shunt capacitance circuits.
There are advantages and limitations to these approaches. With the application of
shunt capacitor banks for power factor correction, there is always the inrush current
issue during energization. Also, the outrush current from the capacitor banks is a
concern when a line circuit breaker closes in to a nearby fault. In order to limit both
the inrush and outrush currents series reactors are used. Three schemes of series
reactors for shunt capacitor application are discussed.

Scheme 1: Series reactor with each capacitor bank - Such a scheme is shown in
Figure 4.8. In order to satisfy the criteria (Iph . f) to less than 2.0E+7, there will be
two reactors with two capacitor banks.

Scheme 2: Series capacitors for inrush and outrush requirements - The required
scheme is shown in Figure 4.8. The reactor size for each capacitor bank will be
small to limit the inrush current. A third reactor will be used to limit the outrush
current.

Scheme 3: Reactor to limit outrush current and breaker to limit the inrush current -
The inrush current can be controlled by using circuit breaker with controlled
switching or by using closing resistor/inductor. The outrush current can be
controlled by using a series reactor. Such a scheme is shown in Figure 4.8.

Example 4.4 - In order to demonstrate the circuit breaker selection and the
application of series reactor for the current limiting a shunt capacitor bank, a case
is presented. The circuit breaker is chosen to meet this application and the short
circuit current magnitudes are calculated if the required current specifications are
met. Then a reactor is chosen in series with the circuit breaker and the procedure
is repeated. The system is a 230 kV, 60 Hz, three-phase with a short circuit rating
of 40 kA. The circuit breaker has to be selected for capacitor switching
application. The capacitor is available in two banks each of which is 60 MVAR.

Copyright 2002 by Marcel Dekker. All Rights Reserved.

 Scheme 1
L1, L2 - Series Reactors
C1, C2 - Capacitance

L3

Scheme 2
L2 L1, L2 , L3- Series Reactors
L1
C1, C2 - Capacitance

-C1

L3

Scheme 3
L2, L3 - Series Reactors
L2
C1, C2 - Capacitance

C2

Figure 4.8 Series Reactor Schemes for Current Limiting

Solution - The circuit breaker is intended to switch 120 MVAR shunt capacitor
banks and should meet the performance criteria described in ANSI C37.06 [7].
The desired performance specifications of the circuit breaker to meet the
capacitor switching application (definite purpose) of the 230 kV systems are:

Nominal voltage rating = 230 kV

Maximum voltage rating = 242 kV
Rated current = 2000 A
Three-phase short circuit rating = 40kA

Copyright 2002 by Marcel Dekker. All Rights Reserved.

 Rated capacitive current (breaking duty) = 400 A
TRY 188 kV peak - peak voltage base = 443 kV (2.4 PU)
Inrush current = 20 kA peak
Transient frequency = 4,250 Hz
Without current limiting reactor - When a system fault occurs near the
capacitor bank location, the electrical energy stored in the capacitor bank
discharges through the low fault impedance with considerable magnitude and at
high frequency. Such a system is shown in Figure 4.9. The size of the 230 kV
capacitor bank is 60 MVAR, three-phase.
Fault
System

'pk

Capacitor
Bank

Figure 4.9 Fault Outside the Circuit Breaker Without Series Reactor

The expected outrush current magnitude and frequency, for a single 60 MVAR,
230 kV capacitor bank is given by:

/-< _ MVAR 60
= 3 MFD
2 >r(60) x k V 2 2 ;r(60) x 2302

V 230 k V x • / r
Pk
TI pk --_--^=__--54.1kA
_ V/V3, 5111.A

.T _
= 15.3kHz
2 ^L f x C 2 > /36.1//Hx3//F

An inductance of 10^ H for the bank and 0.261 JU H/ft with a 100 feet cable
length is used (IEEE C37.012-1998).

Copyright 2002 by Marcel Dekker. All Rights Reserved.

 The calculated outrush current magnitude of 54.1 kA is much higher than the
allowable IEEE Standard C37.06 (Table 3A) value of 20 kA. Also, the
frequency of the outrush current is higher than the allowed value of 4,250 Hz.
The outrush current from the capacitor bank needs to be controlled using current
limiting series reactors. The minimum series reactor needed to limit the (Ipk x f)
product to less than 2.0 x 10 is given by:

Vpk
'min 7
2n x2 xlO

With current limiting reactor - The equivalent circuit with a series reactor in
the shunt capacitor circuit is shown in Figure 4.10. For the proposed 230 kV, 60
MVAR bank the minimum reactor needed is:

230 kVx
T

min ~
_
= 1.5 mH
2 ;r(2x!0 7 )

For the high outrush current to occur, a breaker must close into a fault very close
to the 230 kV substation. A series inductor of 3 mH is selected for the 230 kV
circuit and the corresponding Ipk and the frequency of oscillation are given by:

= 6kA

f = = 1.68 kHz
2 Af x C 2 ^3000 y u H x 3

This peak current and the frequency of oscillation are below the ANSI C37.06
values. Therefore, the circuit breaker is acceptable for the energization of the
230 kV, 60 MVAR shunt capacitor bank.

Copyright 2002 by Marcel Dekker. All Rights Reserved.

 Reactor

Circuit
Breaker

C1 = 60 MVAR

Figure 4. 10 Capacitor Circuit with Series Reactor

From this example, it is clear that series reactors can be useful in shunt capacitor
circuits to limit the fault current magnitudes and in the protection of circuit
breakers.

Example 4.5 - Consider a 800 MVA, 13.8 kV generator with the following
parameters:

Xd" = 0.210 P.U. TdO" =0.0348

Xd? -0.330 P.U. TdO1 =7.6280
Xd =1.820 P.U. TdO =0.330

Calculate the total fault currents at 1.5 cycles.

Solution -

(IT)
Xd" = (0.210)1 -^- | = 0.02625 P.U.
v j
X'd = (0.330) = 0.04125 P.U.
800
f 100^1
Xd = ( 1 . 8 2 0 ) =0.2275 P.U.
\800j
The ac components of the generator short circuit currents are:

Id" = = 38.10 P.U.

vx
^day

Copyright 2002 by Marcel Dekker. All Rights Reserved.

 Id' - = 24.242 P.U.

Id = = 4.3956 P.U.
V y

The time constants of the ac currents are given by:

" ^
— (TdO") = 0.02215 s = 1.3287 cycles

T'd = Xd. (TdO') = 1.3830 s = 82.98 cycles

X,

The ac component of the generator fault current is:

t t
Iac = (Id"-Id')e"Td" +(I'd-Id) e ~Td' + W

At 1.5 cycles, the ac current components are:

lac = (13.858 x 0.3233) + (19.8464 x 0.982) + 4.3956

= 28.3667 on 100 MVA base

100MVA
Ibase = 4.18kA
V3(13.8kV)
lac = (28.3667 P.U.) (4.18 kA) = 118.6814 kA

The dc component of the generator currents is:

Idc = (A/2) (38.10) e ~Td Where Td in cycles is (0.33 x 60) 19.8 cycles.

Idc at a time oft =1.5 cycles is:

Idc = 49.9428 P.U. on a 100 MVA base

= (49.9428 P.U. x 4.18 kA) = 208.95 kA

Copyright 2002 by Marcel Dekker. All Rights Reserved.

 The total generator fault current (It) is:

It = Vlac 2 + Idc2 = V118.68 2 + 208.952 = 240.3 kA

Therefore, in the generator circuit there are both ac and dc current components
present as shown.

PROBLEMS

1. The three-phase short circuit rating of a 230 kV, 60 Hz system is 670 MVA.
The single line to ground fault rating is 600 MVA. Calculate the source
impedance values on a 100 MVA base. State the assumptions made, if any.

2. The three phase short circuit rating of a 345 kV source is 20,000 MVA and
the single line to ground short circuit MVA is 15,200 MVA. Calculate the
sequence impedance of the source in P.U. on a 100 MAV base.

3. A 75 kVA, 14 kV/4.16 kV, delta/wye-grounded, 6% impedance transformer is

to be used in a 13.8 kV distribution system. The system studies are performed
on a 100 MVA base. Calculate the transformer impedance for the new bases.

4. Calculate the total fault currents due to a 3-phase fault at the open terminals of
a generator at 1.6 cycles. The name plate specifications of the generator are
500 MVA, 13.8 kV with the following parameters:

Xd" =0.200 P.U. TdO" =0.030

Xd' =0.350 P.U. TdO' =8.000
Xd =1.800 P.U. TdO =0.350

5. What are the different types of faults in a power system? What is the role of a
neutral conductor in the power system?

6. Why is it necessary to select a circuit breaker based on the short circuit current
ratings?

7. Consider an industrial power system with a 115 kV source from a substation

(Bus 1) to the next substation (Bus 2) connected through an overhead line. Bus
2 is connected to Bus 3 through an underground cable of 2,000 feet length. A
step down transformer at Bus 3 supplies an electrical motor at 13.8 kV. The
necessary system data are as follow:

Copyright 2002 by Marcel Dekker. All Rights Reserved.

 Source impedance on 100 MVA base is:
Z, =Z 2 = (0.0026 + j 0.0218) P.U.
Zo = (0.0071 +j 0.02441) P.U.

Overhead line impedance between Bus 1 and Bus 2 on 100 MVA base:
Z = (0.0120 +j 0.0820) P.U.

Cable impedance between Bus 2 and Bus 3:

Zi = (0.0118 + j 0.0980) Ohm/1000 feet
ZO = (0.0656 + j 0.5889) Ohm/1000 feet

Transformer impedance at Bus 3:

MVA = 120
Voltage ratio =115 kV/4.16 kV
Connection = Wye/Delta
Reactance = 12%

Induction motor drive:

Rating =100MW
Voltage = 13.8kV
Power factor =0.8

Draw the one-line diagram of the system and state the assumptions. Calculate
the short circuit currents at each node and select the circuit breaker ratings at
appropriate locations. Also calculate the voltage drop at various locations. If
the voltage profile is not acceptable, suggest suitable remedial actions.
Compare the calculated results with a computer program output.

8. Refer to Example 4 regarding the energization of a 60 MVAR capacitor bank.

Using the same circuit breaker, an additional 60 MVAR shunt capacitor bank
is to be connected for power factor correction purposes. This capacitor bank
is to be energized through a circuit switcher as shown in Figure 4.11. The
value of the series reactor is 20 mH. Calculate the Ipk and frequency of
oscillation without series reactor and with series reactor. Discuss the circuit
breaker suitability for the given application.

Copyright 2002 by Marcel Dekker. All Rights Reserved.

 Circuit Switcher
with Series Reactor

Reactor

Circuit
Breaker

C1 = 60 MVAR C2 = 60 MVAR

Figure 4.11 Back-to-Back Capacitor Switching with a Circuit Switcher

REFERENCES

1. ANSI/IEEE Standard: 141, IEEE Recommended Practice for Electrical

Distribution for Industrial Plants, 1996 (Red Book).

2. ANSI/IEEE Standard: 399, IEEE Recommended Practice for Power

System Analysis, 1990 (Brown Book).

3. ANSI Standard: C37.10, American National Standard Requirements for

Transformers 230,000 Volts and Below.

4. ANSI Standard 242, IEEE Recommended Practice for Protection and

Coordination of Industrial and Commercial Power Systems, 1986.

5. ANSI/IEEE Standard C37.010, IEEE Application Guide for AC High

Voltage Circuit Breakers Based on a Symmetrical Current Basis, 1989.

6. ANSI/IEEE Standard C37.13, IEEE Standard for Low Voltage AC Power

Circuit Breakers Used in Enclosures, 1981.

7. ANSI Standard C37.06, AC High Voltage Circuit Breakers Rated on a

Symmetrical Current Basis, 2000.

8. ANSI Standard C37.012, Application Guide for Capacitance Current

Switching for AC High Voltage Circuit Breaker Rated on a Symmetrical
Current Basis, 1998.

9. Power Tools for Windows, SKM System Analysis, Inc., Manhattan

Beach, California.

Copyright 2002 by Marcel Dekker. All Rights Reserved.