B Properties of Areas In §4.3 we found that the coordinates Z, 7 of the centroid of a plane area A can be determined from equations (4.28, 4.29) — i.e. AE [faa say Ihe whilst the second moments of area about the general set of axes O'x’y’ are defined by the integrals L [ [yaa ps [ [aa Lys | [vaa (B2) In many practical cases, the area can be decomposed into simpler shapes for which the appropriate quantities are tabulated and the required results can then be obtained by superposition, as demonstrated in §4.3. Otherwise, the first and second moments must be obtained directly from the definitions by performing the integra- tions. ‘The biggest challenge in this procedure is to establish the appropriate limits on the double integral. Once this has been done, the double integral operator can be applied to each of the quantities in equations (B.1,B.2) and the resulting integrals are generally straightforward, One of the two integrations can often be performed by inspection, For example, if we wish to determine /{ for the section of Figure B.1(a), we can reduce it immediately to a single integral by dividing the section into strips parallel to the x’-axis as shown. Thus, (B.1) u J[foraa [ wove. (B3) where w(y’) is the width of the section (the length of the strip) as a function of y’. In effect, all we have done here is to perform the integration with respect to x’ in our heads, since the integrand (y/) does not depend on 2,600 B Properties of Areas, (a) (b) Figure B.1: Determining the second moment of area by integration However, if we have to calculate all the first and second moments, it is safer to make both stages of integration explicit. For example, in rectangular coordinates the element of area dA is dx’dy’ and if we perform the x’ integration first, we have J fas~ [fer atay 4) In this expression, notice how the limits c,d on the inner integral are functions of the outer variable y’, whereas the limits a,b on the outer integral are constants. This is illustrated in Figure B.1(b). The inner integral is performed over the strip CD and its limits depend on which strip (which value of y’) is being considered, whereas the outer integral sums the contributions of the separate strips. Usually we require the centroidal second moments, but the coordinates of the centroid may not be known initially. We therefore choose any convenient origin for the integration and then use the parallel axis theorem of §4.3.2 to deduce the cen- troidal values, Example B.1 Determine the location of the centroid and the centroidal second moments Iesly, ley ‘for the quarter circle of radius a shown in Figure B.2. The equation of the circular boundary is x? 4y?B Properties of Areas 601 and hence the right-hand boundary of the area at height y’ is v= Va—y? A suitable realization of the double integral is therefore fat—y? Jfea-[f axdy . o" Figure B.2 Using this expression, we have a 2 =f Va yray =, lo a pyad-y? a=[f dxldy : which of course we could have written down as the area of a quarter circle of radius a. Applying the same operator to the definition of Ag, we have a pyat-y?2 a /qe—y ar ff vaaq [°[ vasay = ["( jar Is lo Jo hr Jes and hence Aza /aa 4a A 3/4 38 A similar procedure could be used to determine the coordinate , but the symmetry of the section shows that this must also be 4a 3a Since we now know the location of the centroid, it would be possible to transfer the origin there and calculate the centroidal second moments of area directly. How- ever, It is more efficient to calculate the second moments about the axes through O! and then use the parallel axis theorem to transfer the values to the centroidal axes.602 —_B Properties of Areas We have a py? 0 ‘ =/[ raa=["[ ytavay'= [°y?Ve2-yray = *4 lA 0 Jo 0 16 ‘The centroidal value J, can then be deduced from the parallel axis theorem (4.33) as mat ma? (4a\?_ (m4) 4 4 16 4 (3) (Teen) 8.054881 ‘The same results are obtained for I and Jy, by symmetry. For the product inertia, we have ly [ if da L wv ° vaday [ (" "vas “ and the parallel axis theorem (4.35) then gives k a’ , i ma (4a\?_ (1 4) 4 4 Kapa ot (3) =(5 on) = 0.01647aCc Stress Concentration Factors These figures are plotted from the approximate expressions given by W.D. Pilkey (1994), Formulas for Stress, Strain and Structural Matrices, John Wiley, New York and RJ. Roark and W.C. Young (1975), Formulas for Stress and Strain, MeGraw- Hill, New York, Sth edn. A wider range of charts for stress intensity factors can be found in RE. Peterson (1974), Stress Concentration Factors, John Wiley, New York and in numerous books on mechanical design. The reader should be warmed that these various sources often disagree signficantly as to numerical values, particularly at small values of the fillet radius in Figures C.3 - C.7. 3 r/ t F <| — 28 t 26 K, 2a . boo —| 2 05° 06 07 08 =|ak Figure C.1: Rectangular bar with a transverse hole in tension or compression; Grom =F /A, where A=(w—d)h is the reduced cross-sectional area at the hole and hhis the plate thickness.604 Stress Concentration Factors 25 Figure C.2: Rectangular bar with a hole in transverse bending; Syom=Mh/21, where (w—d)h? /12 is based on the reduced cross section at the hole and h is the plate thickness. a Fadius 7 BE D a fe | {| ~ +4 o 005 on 04 £ a oz 025 os Figure C.3: Rectangular bar with a change in section through a fillet radius r, loaded in tension or compression; Oyom =F {dh, where h is the plate thickness.CC Stress Concentration Factors. 605 radius 7 D 2 |.) o 0.5 oa 04 £ a 02 025 os Figure C4: Rectangular bar with a change in section through a fillet radius r, loaded in bending; Gnom = 6M /hd”, where h is the plate thickness. 3 iy fadius 26) 22 18 14 oo 1 0208s © d Figure CS: Cylindrical bar with a change in section through a fillet radius r, loaded in tension or compression; Onom=4F | md.606 Stress Concentration Factors 3 ge fadius 7 26. 22 18 18 1 02 02s 03 5 a Figure C6: Cylindrical bar with a change in section through a fillet radius r, loaded in bending; Gyom = 32M /nd°. 3 radius 26) 22 as 14 02 02s 03 als Figure C.7: Cylindrical bar with a change in section through a fillet radius r, loaded 6T jd’. in torsion; 6D Answers to Even Numbered Problems Chapter 2 2.10: 2.12: 2.14: 2.16: 2.18: 2.20: 2.24: 2.26: 2.28: 2.30: 2.34: 2.36: 2.38: 2.40: 2.42: 2.44: 2.46: 2.48: 2.50; 2.52: 2.54: 2.56: 2.58: 2.60: Tax = 20.06 ksi, 8, = 2.15° clockwise. 0; = 114 MPa, 6; = —14 MPa, 0; = 19.3° clockwise. 45 MPa, }03 MPa, 0 = —8 MPa, 03 {I,m.n} = {-0.692,0.715,0.09: 6) =3 ksi, 0, = —6 ksi, 0; = 3 ksi, {I,m,n} = {1/-V3,1/V3,1/ v3}. Up = [62 + 0202 — 2v(o16 + 0205 + 0301))/2E. Ox + Oy + zz <0, Ox Oyy + Ore + Oz: Gx ~ 03, ~ OF Gey Fez — Tux F2, ~ Gy T2, — FzzF3, + yy GyzG © = 330.4 MPa, 62 = 89.6 MPa, Tmax = 130.2 MPa. 6 = 338 MPa, &) = 71 MPa, 0; = 96 MPa, Tinax = 133.5 MPa. ‘1 = 193 MPa (Tresca) and 223 MPa (Von Mises). te = [OR + 0}, +02, ~ Guxdyy ~ FO ~ FeO + 363, + 30%, + 303)/3 SF=131. ‘My = 5 kNm (Tresca) and 4.33 kNm (Von Mises). 451°. 35 KN. F =xD*S, /8L. S=S.|sin(26) — « — wcos(26))/2, maximum when @ = } tan~!(—1/11) 17.7 mm. w= 042, 525 ~ 675 MPa. 0.53. b= 33, Sp = 405 MPa Gnax = 137 MPa. SAF = 1.29. A machined shaft is sufficient. SF. =20, Probability of failure = 0.2 percent at AC. SF=31608, D Answers to Even Numbered Problems Chapter 3 3.38: 3.40: 3.42: 3.44: 3.46: 3.48: 3.50: 3.52 3.54: 3.56: 3.58: 167?L/nd'G. / (ka +a). G3, + 02 — 2V( Ge Oyy + Oyy ze + FexFux)] /2E. F(4-+3cos(2a) + V3sin(2a”)}/, tnax/tain = 7. u=2.517FL/Ect, 108FL/EA @ = Ois stable if W < 2kL. F = 2ha(1—2sino)cos0 /'sino (1+ cos ) Veta? sin? @ u(L) = FL /84B1. G.= 2A wo(—1) a ET. u(L/4) 6 x 10-4FL /EI. Umax = MoL? /9V3EI. O.SFR3/nEL. 1.18 above, lug = Mo/KL. The block rises by 4VFs/xDE. ott 1330 ee as afte re Kak 0-2 5-3! ° e k 4 4 ob : 0 0-3 7 Proud hihi 44630 N/mm 11656 N/mm 875N K 11656 N/mm 11670 N/mm 3350N 875N 3350N 1408246 N mm. 1 gg) ae sen ey [CRE Boyt wep oe ete 0 fe M, ti 0 (gee ape) | L® a nth = 22.5° or ~67.5°. Wanax = 4.4 Ib. uy = TFIS/2E1, App = 0.1366F R°/EI. ic = Mol? /2E1. R=3F /2,u=0.0169FL /EL. u _ FR. FR (30 2 ®™ 4E1” GK \ 4 0.11° (horizontal) and 0.04° (vertical). 0.37 x 10-6 radians.D Answers to Even Numbered Problems 609 Chapter 4 Omax = 154 MPa. Inside a diamond shaped region with comers at (0,+b/6), (+a/6,0). @ = —47.5°, Omax = 58.3 MPa. Ginax = 70 MPa, 4.10: 1? = ~3.98 mm, w= 4.11 mm, 412: uy = 0.739 in 4.14; 1; = 560,000 mm*, fy = 290,000 mm, fy = 300,000 mm, 4.16: 1, = 22.6 x 10° mm‘, f, = 3.84 x 106 mm*, fy = —5.14 x 106 mm*. 4.18: 1, = 54.04", Ixy = 1.014, 4.20; 1, = 171,000 mm‘, J, = 180,271 mm*, Jy = —65,250 mm*. 4.22: Ip = 2301/16, by = 370°t/48, yy = Ta t/16. 4.24; 1, =315 x 10° mm*, = 101 x 106 mm*, ; = 58.3° clockwise from x. 4.26: 1, = 754,000 mm’, J, = 96,000 mm*, 6; = 32.9° clockwise from x. 4.28; 1 = 35,04a°t, Ip = 4.30a°t, 0, = 32.8° anticlockwise from x. 4.30: 76.2 MPa, -67.8 MPa. 4,32; 0.6Mo/a?t 4.42: K/h <115 Chapter 5 0.1980 bh". 5.30: 5.32; 5.34: 5.36: 5.38: My = 15mSya¥/8, Mp = 28Sya°/3, f = 1.584, M =9.86 kNm, R= 15m M = 398 Nm. Mp = 934.Nm. 0.828Sya’r, Mp = 10.6 kNm, M = 9.7 kNm for second plastic zone, M = 0.934 KNm. Mp = 1.66 kNm, 0 = 0.0466°. =(1—4cot @)/2(1+4cota) For —4 < tana <4, tana = —cot@ + veot? @ +48, Mp = \/6400 — (2300/9) tan? a + (25/9) tant ar G., = Sy(sgn(y) — 8y/3a), Ry = 1573 in. Gz, = ~200- 4.883y ; —73.71b dy) i -bL gp 2BE+L)—f(Be-D)} 52> 7.16: M(z) = wofs(|Bzl)/8B°. 78: Mmsax = 0.1400/B? at B'z = —0.699, where B is calculated for the segment z>Oand B' forz <0. 7.20: Yes. 7.22; 647 Nm at the center, 1303 Nm at the supports, 0.166 mm central deflection. 7.24: u(0) = —0.0103wo/k, M(L/2) = 0.0833wo/B*. Chapter 8 8.2: A selection of answers: CC, Ry = 300 mm, R2 = 1025 mm, 6) = 51 MPa, 6) = —72 MPa. DD, Ry =~, Ry = 924 mm, 6; = 46 MPa, 6) = 92 MPa. 84: Snax = 20.4 ksi. 8.6: 2 4 psk 2 3 a= —cos? 9 +eos* 6 1 Srsin?o ( ° ) _ per? (50 2 3 = 5 intg (27 +3c0s +cos$ —2cos*o} . 88: on ) pa(db—asing. pa O or(b—asing) > > 26 8.10: oP = —poa/2t, oF = —ppa/t, \o1 — O2|max = poa/t 8.12: tin = 244 mm. 8.14: a =, PRLS 30089) | ~~ (4 ~3c086)(1 + cos) — peace pga(S —3coso) = —PRACIO + 9/4 3.0564)(1 + e089) 8.16: Include only internal pressure. Gimax = 425 kPa. 8.18: u, = —p.gh®tanal((2— v) tan? o— v]/2E. 8.20: u, = 0.405 mm at A and 0.468 mm at Ap. 8.22: At the equator, uy = pQ7a?/E.612 —_D Answers to Even Numbered Problems Chapter 9 9.2: 19.6 ksi imax = 215 MPa > Foy/3(1— v2) (a fEr’. 9.8: R=0.288a/ y/(1 — v) (independent of p,to). 9.10: M.(0) = p/16B°b. 9.12: Fy = poatan a/2, A = (18t/) — (10artan or (2 — v)). 9.14: Mp = EOIy/a’. 9.16; Oinax = 22.86 MPa. Chapter 10 10.2; 632 MPa. 10.4: —1875 psi; 0.86 x 10°? in. 106: S.F.=79. 108: py = (5—8v)Sy/4(1 —2v) 10.12: p = E8(n? — 1)/2n?a, Omax = E8(n? + 1)/2n7 a. 10.14: 9900 psi. 10.16: 0.0905y. 10.18: py =2Sy(\/(b/a)—1); Or = 10.20: 11,543 rpm. 10.22: cag, = 3.66 in. 10.24: p(r) = po +p.Q?(rP? —a?/2). 28y(V/(b/r)— 1); G99 =Sy(2— V/(b/7))- 10.26: Syh > n(n a Orr =Srintr/a)+ (- a) Syl ? ovo = —Syin(rfa)+ MO) (148) Mmax = 2.218 Chapter 11 11.2: 229 Nm. 114: 19.4 ksi. 11.8: 6.35 ksi. 11.10: 36.1 MPa (compressive), 27.0 MPa (tensile). 11.12: gnx —M_ (1~nin(1+1/n)) 98 a (m+ 4) in(1+1/n) — 1] grax _ M(exp(nin(1 + 1/n)—1]~1) a [(n+})In(1 + 1/n) — W114: 10.7 ksi.D Answers to Even Numbered Problems 613 Chapter 12 122; AL=3.44. 12.4: kL} /3. 12.6: Mimax = 0.428WwoL?. 12.8: | Mmax = (F /2)tanh(AL). 12.10: 20.21/12. 1242: k=3.382E1/L. Py = 6.48 x 10°N, fp = 3.58 m, P= 165 Ibs, lp = 0.17 in, 438 rpm. 753 rpm. 66 rpm. ‘The approximation is almost indistinguishable from the exact result _ 3B. 3kL oP 4 12.28: 5.93 m. 12.30: Ec rap 12.32; Py = kL/2, 12.34: 4x°E1/L? 12.36: EI /L?. 12.38: EI /L?. APPENDIX A \ _f.1 52 {C102 o={ naa} A4: C= 0.91941, Cp = 2.49937. A6: 2.592 mm. AB: —pol/3. ALLO: Py = 16.47E1/L*. A2: uy = —FL/3EI, & FL? /2E1, Ald: F(A—a)*(A—2a) Fa?(3A — 2a) Ris- “3 Fe Fa(A—a)? F(A-aja. F2(27L 102) Mi ae et a MO grey AMG: up = —wol /128ET. ALB: Swol/4.Index Alternating stress, 79 Anisotropy, 36 Anticlastic curvature, 396 Antiplane shear, 52 Approximation, 560 piecewise approximation, 563 ASME pressure vessel code, 439 Axial loading, 254, 567 in the plastic range, 254 of curved beams, 494 Auxiliary problem, 140 Banded matrix, 142, 570, 588 Barber's exception, 6 Beam-columns, $21 Bending of beams, 17, 185 et seq. in the plastic range, 241 et seq. curved beams, 488. ‘on elastic foundations, 353 Bending of shells, 419 er seq. Boiler, 401, 437 Bolts, 299 Brake disc, 6, 458 Brittle fracture, 25, 51 Buckling, 322, 511 et seq. force, 516, 526, 530, 545 initial perturbations, 517 lateral loads, 521 ‘mode suppression, $26 of shells, 532 Bulk modulus, 485 Castigliano’s first theorem, 131 Castigliano’s second theorem, 146 et seq. Centroid, 190, 199 er seq., 599-602 Circumferential stress, 391, 472, 489 Circumferential strain, 403, 421, 422 Closed section, 305, 313, torsion of, 318 Coefficient of thermal expansion, 7, 16, 439, 458 Column, 512 Collocation, 560 Collocation points, 561 Compatibility, 450, 451 Compatibility equation, 452 Complementary energy, 148 Complementary shear stress, 12, 291 Compliance matrix, 136 Composite cylinders, 464 et seq. Constitutive law, 450, 452 Constraints, 123 Contact pressure, 465 Coordinate transformation, 26-36, 146, 207, 393 Crack opening displacement, 53 Critical force, 515 Critical speed, 534 Cubic spline, 581 Cyclic loading, 63 et seq., 268 Curved beams, 487 et seq. Decay length, 361, 425 Degrees of freedom, 111, 113, 116, 120, 143, 560, 562, 582, 587 Design, 1, 74, 83, 123, 215, 269, 298, 401, 459, 535 against torsion, 322 use of finite element method, 590616 Index optimization, 3 Deviatorie strain energy, 45 Deviatoric stress, 44 Diametral interference, 466 Dilatation, 41, 45 Dirac delta function, 363 Direction cosines, 31 Discontinuities, 368, 404 Dislocations, 40 Distortion, 45 Displacement, 13, 451 Double integrals, 599 Ductile, 25, 39 Dummy loads, 151 Economies, 2 Eigenfunction, 517 series, 520 igenvalues, 32, 517 Elastic behaviour, 100 Elastic foundation, 353 modulus of, 354 Elastic instability, 511 et seq. Elastic-plastic behaviour, 237 Elastic-perfectly plastic, 240, 472 in acylinder, 472 Embedded elastic beam, 246, 247 Endurance limit, 66 Energy methods, 99 er seg., 538 Engineering shear strain, 14 Equation of motion, 451 Equilibrium, 112, 288, 355, 363, 387, 390, 392, 423, 450, 451, 462, 578 Equivalent tensile stress, 47 Equivalent determinate problem, 18, 195, 159 Failure envelope, 38, 39, 48, 49, 60-62 Failure theories, 36 et seq. Failure surface, 37 Fatigue, 25, 63 et seq. low cycle, 67 Fatigue limit, 66 Flexible axis, 209 Fillet radius, 74 Finite element method, 125, 559 et seg. for beam problems, 579 First yield moment, 242 Flexural rigidity, 102, 106, 211, 354, 358, 518, 581 Floating beams, 374 Foundation modulus, 354 Fourier series, 124 Fourier transform, 366 Fracture, brittle, 25, Fracture mechanics, $2 Fracture toughness, 52, 54 Fally-plastic moment, 242, 249, 251 Generalized coordinates, 148 Goodman diagram, 80 Gradient factor, 71 Griffith criterion, 52, 53, Heat exchanger, 437, 439 Homogencous equation, 514 Homogeneous solution, 356, 514, 518 Hoooke's law, 15, 403, 421, 422, 437, 450, 452 Hoop stress, 391 Hydrostatic stress, 42 Hysteresis, 100 Indeterminacy, 155, 270, 525 Influence coefficients, 136 Initial imperfections, $17, 5 Initial perturbations, 517 Instability, 111, 113, 511 et seg. Interference, 465, 466 Invariants, 32, 34 Inverse problems, 10 Isotropic hardening, 239 Isotropy, 15, 36 Laplace transform, 366 Least squares fit, 120, 215, 561, $77 imit analysis, 269 Limits and fits, 468 Lincar elastic systems, 135 er seq Longitudinal stress, 387 Manufacturing errors, 21, 468, 517, 520, 536, 545 Material failure, 25 et seq. Mathematical shear strain, 14 Maxwel’s reciprocal theorem, 138 ef seq, 323 Melan's theorem, 268 Metal forming, 235, 273, 283 ‘Membrane displacement, 425 Median line, 252 Meridional stress, 386 Misalignment, 219, 517 Mode suppression, 526 Modified Mohr criterion, 61 5Modulus, bulk, 485 of a foundation, 354 of rigidity, 16 shear, 16 Young’s, 15 ‘Mobr'’s circle, 28, 35 of second moments, 208 Mobr'’s failure theory, 61 ‘Multiply-connected section, 305 Neutral axis, 193, 216, 241, 489 ‘Neutral plane, 188 Neutrally stable, 514, 515 ‘Newton's second law, 449, 451 Nodes, 141, 142, 563 Nodal displacements, 568, 579 ‘Nodal forces, 570, 584 ‘Nodal values, 563 Nominal stress, 74 Non-linearity, 118 ‘Non-local displacement, 353, 362 Notch sensitivity, 76 Octahedral normal stress, 46 Octahedral plane, 45 Octahedral shear stress, 45, 46 Open section, 305, Orthogonality, 32, 125, 521 Parallel axis theorem, 200, 201 Particular solution, 365, 518 Periodic loading, 63 et seq., 268 Perturbations, S17 Plane sections remain plane, 186, 235, 236 Plane stress, 37, 453 Plane strain, 453, 461 Plastic hinge, 242, 269 Plastic moment, 242, 249, 251 Plates, 385 Poisson’s ratio, 15 strains, 422, 427, 493, 462 Potential energy, 110, 115 Pressure vessels, 460 plastic deformation, 468 Pressure vessel code, 439 Procedures, 8-10 Principal axes, 13, 29, 31, 209 Principal coordinates, 213 Principal second moments, 209 Principal stress, 29, 30 Process zone, 54 Index 617 Product second moment (product inertia), 190, 199 Radial clearance, 466 Radial interference, 465 Radial stress, 472, 499 Rayleigh-Ritz method, 120 et seq., 540, 560, 571 Reciprocal theorem, 138 er seq, 323 Redundant reactions, 17, 195, 525 Reinforcing ringes, 436, Reliability, 68, 70 Residual stress, 263, 476 Residual curvature, 264 Rotation, 451, 456, 473, 534 SN curve, 65 Safety factor, 47, 57, 63, 64, 78, 80, 84, 87 Saint Venant’s principle, 236 Second moments of area, 199, 599-602 Series, 124, 520, 560 eigenfunction, $20 Fourier, 124 Shakedown, 268 Shape factor, 249 Shape functions, 560, 564, 580 Shear centre, 308 et seq. for angle sections, 312 for closed sections, 323 et seq. Shear flow, 291, 294 Shear force, 287 et seq. (wist due to, 324, 331 Shear modulus, 16 Shells, 385 er seg. displacements, 403 bending stresses in, 419 et seq. ‘membrane stresses in, 386 et seq. radii, 393, self weight, 398 transitions, 430 Shrink fit, 482 Simply connected section, 305 Size effect, 68, 71 Springback, 264, 273, 283 Stability, 111, 113, 511 et seg Statically indeterminate, 155, 270, 525 Stationary potential energy, 113 Stiff axis, 209 Stiffness, 101 ofa shell, 422618 Index Stiffness matrix, 141 et seq, 559, 566 assembly, 146, 559, 569, 582 ‘element stiffness matrix, 569 global stiffness matrix, 569 Strain, 11 circumferential, 403, 421, 422 normal, 13 shear, 14, 42 Strain energy, 43, 101 et seq., 492 in axial loading, 108 in bending, 102, 106 ina spring, 101 in torsion, 108, 319 Strain energy density, 44, 109 Strain energy release rate, 58 Stress, 11 alternating, 79 circumferential, 391, 472, 489 ‘complementary shear, 12, 291 ‘coordinate transformation, 26-36 deviatoric, 44 equivalent tensile, 47 hydrostati, 42 invariants, 32, 34 longitudinal, 386 meridional, 386 nominal, 74 normal, 12 octahedral shear, 45 principal, 29, 30 radial, 472, 499 residual, 263, 476 shear, 12, 291 Stress concentration factor, 74, 603 Stress intensity factor, 51 et seg Surface energy, 52 Surface factor, 72 Surface finish, 71 coefficient of, 16 Taylor, series, 386, 419 ‘Thermal conductivity, 437 ‘Thermal expansion, 16 ‘Thermal stress, 437, 458 ‘Thin-walled sections, 204, 287 et seq., SII Tolerances, 468 ‘Toroidal transition, 431 et seg. Torque wrench, 133 Torsion, 18, 108 of closed thin-walled sections, 318 design considerations, 322 multicell sections, 327 of open thin-walled sections, 328 Torsional stiffness, 319 Transformation of coordinates, 26-36, 146, 207, 393 ‘Twist, 319, 324 Tresea’s theory, 43, 48, 469 Ultimate strength, 67, 80, 81 Unilateral support, 360 Uniqueness, 11 Unit load method, 154 Unloading, 238, 263, 476 Unsymmetrical bending, 185 et seq. plastic, 258 shear stresses, 311 ‘Variational methods, 99 et seq. Volume change, 41, 45 ‘von Mises theory, 43, 48 Weibull distribution, 68 ‘Weight functions, 561 Welds, 299 Whirling of shafts, 533 Whirling speed, 534 Winkler foundation, 354 Work done, 100, 319 Work hardening, 167, 238 Yielding, 25, 39 Young's modulus, 15