Sync Swict Gear Lebw7543-03 PDF

APPLICATION AND INSTALLATION GUIDE
GENERATOR PARALLELING
SWITCHGEAR
Contents
1 SWITCHGEAR ...........................................................................1
1.1 Codes, Standards, and Terms .................................................. 1
1.1.1 IEEE1547 .................................................................... 1
2 VOLTAGE CLASSIFICATIONS .....................................................2
3 SWITCHGEAR TYPES.................................................................2
3.1 Metal-Enclosed ...................................................................... 2
3.2 Metal-Clad ............................................................................ 3
3.3 Arc Resistant ........................................................................ 4
3.4 Enclosure Ratings .................................................................. 4
3.4.1 Non-Hazardous Locations .............................................. 5
3.4.2 Hazardous Locations..................................................... 8
3.4.3 NEMA Enclosure Type Numbers vs. IEC Enclosure
Classification Designations ..................................................... 9
4 POWER ASSEMBLY ................................................................. 10
4.1 Switchgear vs. Switchboard.................................................... 10
4.2 Switchgear Standards .......................................................... 11
4.3 Switchgear Dimensions......................................................... 12
4.3.1 Metal-Enclosed........................................................... 12
4.3.2 Metal-Clad................................................................. 13
4.4 Switchgear Layout ............................................................... 13
4.5 Busbar................................................................................ 14
4.5.1 Skin Effect ................................................................ 14
4.5.2 Metal Selection .......................................................... 15
4.6 Wiring ................................................................................ 15
4.7 Transformers....................................................................... 15
4.7.1 Current Transformers.................................................. 15
4.7.2 Voltage/Potential Transformers .................................... 16
4.7.3 Control Power Transformers ........................................ 17
5 CIRCUIT BREAKERS ................................................................. 18
5.1 80% vs. 100% Rating .......................................................... 20
5.1.1 NEC Requirements...................................................... 20
5.2 Types of Circuit Breakers ...................................................... 20
5.2.1 Low Voltage Circuit Breakers ....................................... 20
5.2.1.1 Low Voltage Molded Case .................................... 21
5.2.1.2 Low Voltage Insulated Case.................................. 22
5.2.2 Low Voltage Power Breakers ....................................... 22
5.2.3 Medium Voltage Circuit Breakers.................................. 23
5.2.3.1 Vacuum Circuit Breakers ...................................... 23
5.2.3.2 SF6 Circuit Breakers ............................................. 24
5.3 Trip Units............................................................................ 25
5.3.1 Solid State Circuitry.................................................... 26
5.3.2 Long Delay (L) ........................................................... 26
5.3.3 Short Delay (S) .......................................................... 26
5.3.4 Ground Fault (G) ........................................................ 27
5.3.5 Anti-Pump ................................................................. 27
5.4 Components........................................................................ 28
5.4.1 Shunt Trip ................................................................. 28
5.4.2 Under-Voltage Device ................................................. 28
5.4.3 Auxiliary Contacts ...................................................... 28
5.4.4 Motor Operator .......................................................... 28
5.4.5 Medium Voltage Circuit Breaker Components................. 29
5.5 Sizing Circuit Breakers .......................................................... 30
5.6 Overload Protection.............................................................. 30
5.7 Short Circuit Protection ........................................................ 31
5.8 Control Power ..................................................................... 32
5.8.1 Batteries ................................................................... 32
5.8.2 Battery Chargers ........................................................ 32
6 CONTROLS ............................................................................. 33
6.1 Components........................................................................ 33
6.1.1 Control Relay ............................................................. 33
6.1.2 Programmable Logic Controller..................................... 33
6.1.3 Transducer ................................................................ 33
6.1.4 Operator Interface ...................................................... 34
6.2 Communications .................................................................. 34
6.2.1 Modbus..................................................................... 34
6.2.2 Ethernet .................................................................... 34
6.2.3 Remote Monitoring and Control.................................... 34
6.2.3.1 Building Management/ Automation System ............. 34
6.2.3.2 SCADA .............................................................. 35
6.2.4 Human Machine Interface............................................ 35
6.2.5 Reporting and Trending ............................................... 35
6.3 Master Controls ................................................................... 35
6.3.1 Load Sense/Demand ................................................... 35
6.3.2 Load Prioritization....................................................... 36
6.3.3 Load Shed/Add .......................................................... 36
6.3.4 Dead Bus Arbitration................................................... 37
6.3.5 System Level Testing.................................................. 37
6.3.6 System Level Protective Relaying and Metering.............. 37
6.4 Generator Controls ............................................................... 37
6.4.1 Voltage Control .......................................................... 37
6.4.1.1 Voltage Regulators .............................................. 37
6.4.2 Speed Control ............................................................ 38
6.4.3 Communication .......................................................... 38
6.5 Protective Devices ............................................................... 38
6.5.1 Utility Intertie Protective Relays ................................... 42
6.5.1.1 Generator Protective Relays .................................. 43
6.5.2 Test Blocks................................................................ 43
6.5.3 Surge Protection ........................................................ 44
6.5.3.1 Transient Low Voltage Surge Suppressor ............... 44
6.5.3.2 Surge Arrestors and Surge Capacitors .................... 44
7 METERING .............................................................................. 45
7.1 Discrete Analog vs. Virtual Metering....................................... 45
7.2 Phase Selector Switch .......................................................... 45
7.3 Ammeter ............................................................................ 45
7.4 Voltmeter ........................................................................... 46
7.5 Frequency Meter.................................................................. 46
7.6 Wattmeter .......................................................................... 46
7.7 Kilowatt-Hour Meter ............................................................. 46
7.8 Power Factor Meter.............................................................. 46
7.9 Elapsed Time Meter.............................................................. 46
7.9.1 Discrete Analog vs. Virtual Metering: ............................ 46
8 ANNUNCIATION ...................................................................... 47
8.1 NFPA 99............................................................................. 47
8.2 NFPA 110........................................................................... 48
8.3 Site Specific Components ..................................................... 48
9 PARALLEL OPERATION ............................................................ 48
9.1 Isochronous ........................................................................ 49
9.2 Droop................................................................................. 49
9.3 Synchronizing...................................................................... 49
9.3.1 Rotation of Phases ..................................................... 50
9.3.2 Voltage Match ........................................................... 50
9.3.3 Frequency Match ....................................................... 51
9.3.4 Phase Angle Match..................................................... 51
9.4 Methods of Paralleling .......................................................... 52
9.4.1 Manual Paralleling....................................................... 52
9.4.2 Permissive Paralleling .................................................. 54
9.4.3 Semiautomatic Paralleling ............................................ 54
9.4.4 Automatic Paralleling .................................................. 54
9.5 Paralleling Components......................................................... 55
9.5.1 Synchroscope ............................................................ 55
9.5.2 Sync Check Relay ...................................................... 55
9.5.3 Automatic Synchronizer .............................................. 55
9.5.4 Load Sharing Modules................................................. 55
9.6 Island Mode Operation.......................................................... 56
9.6.1 Real (kW) Load Sharing ............................................... 56
9.6.2 Circulating Currents in Paralleled Generators .................. 57
9.6.2.1 Cross-current Compensation ................................. 58
9.7 Utility Paralleled Operation .................................................... 60
9.7.1 Infinite Utility Bus....................................................... 60
9.7.2 VAR/Power Factor Regulation ...................................... 61
10 APPLICATIONS...................................................................... 63
10.1 Standby............................................................................ 63
10.1.1 Automatic Transfer Switch Integration ........................ 63
10.1.2 Uninterruptible Power Supply Integration ..................... 64
10.2 Parallel with Utility ............................................................. 64
10.2.1 Base Load................................................................ 65
10.2.2 Zero Import/Zero Export ............................................ 65
10.2.3 Peak Shaving ........................................................... 65
10.2.4 Zero Power Transfer ................................................. 66
10.3 Prime ............................................................................... 66
11 MISCELLANEOUS .................................................................. 66
11.1 Distributed Generation ........................................................ 66
11.2 Site Conditions .................................................................. 66
11.2.1 Altitude Correction ................................................... 66
11.2.2 Temperature Compensation ....................................... 66
11.2.3 Humidity ................................................................. 67
12 MAINTAINING SWITCHGEAR .................................................. 67
12.1 Planned Maintenance.......................................................... 67
12.2 Spare Parts ....................................................................... 68
12.3 Safety .............................................................................. 68
12.3.1 NFPA 70E ............................................................... 68
13 GLOSSARY OF TERMS ........................................................... 70
14 APPENDICES ......................................................................... 73
14.1 Appendix A ....................................................................... 73
14.2 Bibliography ...................................................................... 75
Foreword
This section of the Application and Installation Guide generally describes wide-
ranging requirements and options for Switchgear with a focus on Generator
Paralleling Switchgear. Additional engine and generator systems, components, and
dynamics are covered in other sections of this Guide.
Systems and components described in this guide may not be available or
applicable for all Switchgear. While much of the content of this guide is applicable
to all switchgear the primary focus of this guide is on the North American
generator paralleling switchgear market.
Information contained in this publication may be considered confidential. Discretion is

recommended when distributing. Materials and specifications are subject to change
without notice.
CAT, CATERPILLAR, their respective logos, "Caterpillar Yellow," the "Power Edge" trade
dress as well as corporate and product identity used herein, are trademarks of Caterpillar
and may not be used without permission.
Generator Paralleling Switchgear Application and Installation Guide
1 SWITCHGEAR • National Electrical Manufacturers

Association (NEMA).
Electric Power Generation systems
• American Bureau of Shipping
provide primary and backup electrical
(ABS).
power in installations around the world.
Generator Paralleling Switchgear is an Switchgear installations in countries
integral component in many of these other than the US are typically subject
installations to ensure optimal power to requirements of the International
generation and electrical distribution Electro-Technical Commission (IEC)
system performance. or Underwriters Laboratory (UL) as
well as the national agencies of the
The term switchgear refers to the country involved.
combination of electrical disconnects,
fuses, and/or circuit breakers used Marine installations in the US
to isolate electric equipment and are subject to and generally require
distribute electrical power. The approval of various marine regulatory
primary functions of Generator bodies such as the United States
Paralleling Switchgear are: Coast Guard and the American
Bureau of Shipping (ABS).
• Switching power source
to the load. Marine applications often require
switchboard and complete shipboard
• Protecting the generator set.
electrical systems to be furnished and
• Metering output. installed according to IEEE Standard
• Providing paralleling and load 45 (IEEE Recommended Practice for
sharing capability. Electric Installations on Shipboard).
• Operating the generator set. International marine applications
must comply with other regulatory
1.1 Codes, Standards, bodies such as Lloyd’s, Bureau of
and Terms Veritas, Det Nork Veritas, and coast
guard requirements of other countries.
Within the United States, several
organizations are responsible for 1.1.1 IEEE1547
creating codes and standards IEEE1547 is a standard that estab-
regarding switchgear construction. lishes criteria and requirements for
The main organizations are interconnection of distributed resources
• American National Standards with electric power systems (EPS).
Institute (ANSI). This document provides a uniform
• Institute of Electrical and standard for interconnection of
Electronic Engineers (IEEE). distributed resources with EPS.
It provides requirements relevant
• Underwriters Laboratory (UL).
to the performance, operation,
• National Fire Protection testing, safety considerations, and
Association (NFPA) – also maintenance of the interconnection.
sponsors the National Electrical
Code (NEC).
©2012 Caterpillar
All rights reserved. Page 1
Application and Installation Guide Generator Paralleling Switchgear
2 VOLTAGE 3 SWITCHGEAR TYPES

CLASSIFICATIONS Three types of switchgear are
available: metal-enclosed, metal-clad,
Switchgear systems are generally
and arc resistant. Metal-enclosed
classified by voltage. Typical ranges
switchgear is primarily used for low
of paralleling switchgear voltages are
voltage applications while metal-clad
from 480V to 15kV and match the
and arc resistant switchgear are most
voltage ranges of the generators.
often used for medium voltage
Assemblies are also rated at specific
switchgear.
voltages (i.e. 5kV, 15kV, 27kV,
38kV, etc.). While uncommon in North America,
it is possible to find requirements for
Figure 1 illustrates the most
medium voltage metal-enclosed
common voltage ranges for
switchgear.
switchgear.
Caterpillar Inc. denotes 15kV 3.1 Metal-Enclosed
generators as high voltage. The focus Metal-enclosed switchgear is
of this documentation will be on the commonly used in low voltage
low and medium voltage ranges. applications.
Voltage Nominal System Voltage
Class 3-Wire 4-Wire Rated Maximum Impulse
240/120 208Y/120 Voltage (V rms) W ithstand (kV)
Low
240 240/120
Voltage 254 2.2
480 480Y/277
(LV) 508 2.2
600 -
2400 4160Y/2400 635 2.2
4160 8320Y/4800 Figure 2 – LV AC Metal-Enclosed Switchgear
Medium 4800 12000Y/6930 Voltage and Insulation Levels
(IEE C37.20.1 –2002)
Voltage 6900 12470Y/7200
(MV) 13200 13200Y/7620 Metal-enclosed switchgear typically
13800 13800Y/7970 includes:
14400 • Low voltage molded case or
Figure 1 – Standard Nominal System power circuit breakers (fused
Voltages and Voltage Ranges or unfused) in accordance
(IEEE Standard 141-1993)
with ANSI/IEEE C37.13.
• Bare bus bars and connections.
• Instrument, control voltage,
and current transformers.
• Instruments and meters.
• Relays, digital automation
processors, and other logic
devices.
©2012 Caterpillar
Page 2 All rights reserved.
• Control wiring, fuses, and 3.2 Metal-Clad

terminal blocks.
Metal–clad switchgear is most
• Speed and voltage control commonly used in medium voltage
components for the specific applications. Figure 3 shows the
generator set. values for rated maximum voltage
• Feeder circuit breakers and power and impulse withstand for metal-clad
cable connections. switchgear.
• Speed control components. Rated Maximum Impulse
• Voltage control components. Voltage (kV rms) W ithstand (kV)
Low voltage molded case or power
circuit breakers are contained in metal 4.76 60
compartments. These circuit breakers 8.25 95
can be manually operated or electrically 15.0 95
operated by local or remote system Figure 3 – MV AC Metal-Clad Switchgear
controls. The circuit breakers may be Voltage and Insulation Levels
(ANSI/IEEE C37.20.2-1999)
stationary or removable, plug-in for
molded case type, and draw-out for Medium voltage metal-clad
power type circuit breakers. switchgear construction differs from
metal-enclosed switchgear in several
Indoor Switchgear: ways. The features that characterize
Metal-enclosed switchgear is metal-clad switchgear are summarized
enclosed on all sides, including the in the following paragraphs.
top, with sheet metal. Ventilating
• The main switching and
openings and inspection windows are
interrupting device is of the
not covered. The enclosure contains
removable (draw-out) type
the power switching or interrupting
arranged with a mechanism for
devices with buses and connections,
moving it physically between
controls, instrumentation, metering,
connected and disconnected
and other auxiliary devices. Doors
positions. It is also equipped with
and/or removable covers provide
self-aligning and self-coupling
access to the interior of the
primary disconnecting devices and
enclosure.
control wiring connections capable
Outdoor Switchgear: of being disconnected.
Outdoor metal-enclosed switchgear • Major parts of the primary circuit,
is similar to indoor switchgear except such as the circuit switching or
it is also weatherproof. A walk-in interrupting devices, buses,
outdoor enclosed switchgear voltage transformers, and control
assembly with an aisle in front of power transformers, are
the circuit breaker and instrument completely enclosed by grounded
sections to protect workers and metal barriers that have no
equipment from weather during intentional openings between
maintenance and system operation compartments. Specifically
can be provided. included is a metal barrier in
©2012 Caterpillar
front of or a part of the circuit of moisture, abnormal service

interrupting device to insure that, conditions, etc. could quickly develop
when in connected position, no into a 3-phase fault. High arc energy
primary circuit components are faults cause rapid temperature
exposed by the opening of a door. increases of the surrounding air
• All live parts are enclosed within and rapid increases of pressure
grounded metal compartments. inside the enclosure.
• Automatic shutters cover primary Arc resistant switchgear is designed
circuit elements when the to provide protection against internal
removable element is in the arcing faults. The following safety
disconnected, test, or removed benefits can be gained by using arc
position. resistant switchgear:
• Primary bus conductors and • Each compartment door and barrier
connections are covered with plate is designed to withstand
insulating material throughout. pressure surges due to internal
arcing.
• Mechanical or electrical interlocks
are provided for proper operating • Hot gases and molten particles
sequence under normal operating escape through a specially
conditions. designed pressure relieve vent
located on the roof of the
• With the exception of short enclosure away from operating
lengths of wire such as at personnel.
instrument transformer terminals,
instruments, meters, relays, • Closed door racking of circuit
secondary control devices, and breaker provides added safety.
their wiring are isolated from all • Viewing windows allow personnel
primary circuit elements by to observe the status of the circuit
grounded metal barriers. breaker without opening the door.
• The door through which the • The low voltage compartment is
circuit-interrupting device is completely segregated to avoid
inserted into the housing may pressure buildup.
serve as an instrument or relay • Arc resistant switchgear design
panel and may also provide should contain the damage within
access to a secondary or control the faulty compartment, reducing
compartment within the housing. down time.
3.3 Arc Resistant 3.4 Enclosure Ratings
Conventional medium voltage metal- The National Electric Manufacturers
clad switchgear is not designed to Association (NEMA) provides
withstand high arc energy faults. standards for enclosures to ensure
Faults due to defective insulating safe operation under various
materials, improper bus joints, poor conditions. Two major categories
maintenance, incorrect protective or of classification are for switchgear
safety devices, human error, ingress
©2012 Caterpillar
in non-hazardous locations and those effects on the equipment due to the

in hazardous locations. ingress of water (rain, sleet, snow);
and to remain undamaged by the
3.4.1 Non-Hazardous Locations external formation of ice on the
In non-hazardous locations the enclosure.
specific enclosure types, their
applications, and the environmental Type 3R Identical to Type 3
conditions they are designed to except Type 3R does not protect
protect against, when completely against ingress of solid foreign objects
and properly installed, are as follows and may be ventilated.
(see Figure 4 and Figure 5): Type 3S Identical to Type 3 with
Type 1 Enclosures constructed additional protection against sleet,
for indoor use to provide a degree of ensuring the external mechanism(s)
protection to personnel against access remain operable when ice laden.
to hazardous parts and to provide a Type 3X Identical to Type 3
degree of protection to the equipment with an additional level of protection
inside the enclosure against ingress of against corrosion and against the
solid foreign objects (falling dirt). external formation of ice on the
Type 1A is similar to Type 1, but enclosure.
also includes gasketing material. Type Type 3RX Identical to Type 3
1A is not officially recognized but is except Type 3RX does not protect
often included in specifications. against ingress of solid foreign
Type 2 Enclosures constructed objects, may be ventilated, and
for indoor use to provide a degree of provides an additional level of
protection to personnel against access protection against corrosion and
to hazardous parts; to provide a against the external formation of
degree of protection to the equipment ice on the enclosure.
inside the enclosure against ingress Type 3SX Identical to Type 3 but
of solid foreign objects (falling dirt); also provides additional protection
and to provide a degree of protection against corrosion and sleet, ensuring
with respect to harmful effects on the the external mechanism(s) remain
equipment due to the ingress of water operable when ice laden.
(dripping and light splashing).
Type 4 Enclosures constructed
Type 3 Enclosures constructed for either indoor or outdoor use to
for either indoor or outdoor use to provide a degree of protection to
provide a degree of protection to personnel against access to hazardous
personnel against access to hazardous parts; to provide a degree of
parts; to provide a degree of protection to the equipment inside
protection to the equipment inside the enclosure against ingress of solid
the enclosure against ingress of foreign objects (falling dirt and
solid foreign objects (falling dirt and windblown dust); to provide a degree
windblown dust); to provide a degree of protection with respect to harmful
of protection with respect to harmful effects on the equipment due to the
©2012 Caterpillar
ingress of water (rain, sleet, snow, Type 6P Identical to Type 6 but

splashing water, and hose directed also provides an additional level of
water); and to remain undamaged by protection against corrosion, ingress
the external formation of ice on the of water (occasional prolonged
enclosure. submersion), and protection against
Type 4X Identical to Type 4 but the external formation of ice on the
also provides an additional level of enclosure.
protection against corrosion (usually Type 12 Enclosures constructed
by incorporating stainless steel or without knockouts for indoor use to
nonmetallic composites) and against provide a degree of protection to
the external formation of ice on the personnel against access to hazardous
enclosure. parts; to provide a degree of
Type 5 Enclosures constructed protection to the equipment inside
for indoor use to provide a degree of the enclosure against ingress of solid
protection to personnel against access foreign objects (falling dirt and
to hazardous parts; to provide a circulating dust, lint, fibers, and
degree of protection to the equipment flyings); and to provide a degree of
inside the enclosure against ingress of protection with respect to harmful
solid foreign objects (falling dirt and effects on the equipment due to the
settling airborne dust, lint, fibers, and ingress of water (dripping and light
flyings); and to provide a degree of splashing).
protection with respect to harmful Type 12K Identical to Type 12 but
effects on the equipment due to the with the addition of being constructed
ingress of water (dripping and light with knockouts.
splashing).
Type 6 Enclosures constructed for indoor use to provide a degree of
for either indoor or outdoor use to protection to personnel against access
provide a degree of protection to to hazardous parts; to provide a
personnel against access to hazardous degree of protection to the equipment
parts; to provide a degree of protect- inside the enclosure against ingress of
tion to the equipment inside the solid foreign objects (falling dirt and
enclosure against ingress of solid circulating dust, lint, fibers, and
foreign objects (falling dirt); to provide flyings); to provide a degree of
a degree of protection with respect to protection with respect to harmful
harmful effects on the equipment due effects on the equipment due to the
to the ingress of water (hose-directed ingress of water (dripping and light
water and the entry of water during splashing); and to provide a degree
occasional temporary submersion of protection against the spraying,
at a limited depth); and to remain splashing, and seepage of oil and
undamaged by the external formation non-corrosive coolants.
of ice on the enclosure.
©2012 Caterpillar
Figure 4 – Comparison of Specific Applications of Enclosures for Indoor Non-Hazardous Locations

(NEMA 250-2003)
©2012 Caterpillar
Figure 5 – Comparison of Specific Applications of Enclosures for Outdoor Non-Hazardous

Locations (NEMA 250-2003)
3.4.2 Hazardous Locations Type 8 Enclosures constructed for

Manufacturers who specialize in either indoor or outdoor use in
hazardous location equipment should hazardous (classified) locations that is
be used for consultation when classified as Class I, Division 1, Groups
selecting equipment for hazardous A, B, C, and D as defined in NFPA 70.
locations. Type 9 Enclosures constructed
In hazardous locations, when for indoor use in hazardous (classified)
completely and properly installed and locations classified as Class II,
maintained, Type 7 and 10 enclosures Division 1, Groups E, F, or G as defined
are designed to contain an internal in NFPA 70.
explosion without causing an external Type 10 Enclosures constructed
hazard. Type 8 enclosures are designed to meet the requirements of the Mine
to prevent combustion through the use Safety and Health Administration,
of oil-immersed equipment. Type 9 30 CFR, Part 18.
enclosures are designed to prevent the
ignition of combustible dust. Figure 6 summarizes the requirements
for enclosures in hazardous locations.
for indoor use in hazardous (classified) If the enclosure in a hazardous
locations classified as Class I, Division location is to be outdoors or additional
1, Groups A, B, C, or D as defined in protection is needed from Figure 4 or
NFPA 70. Figure 5, a combination-type
enclosure is needed.
©2012 Caterpillar
Figure 6 – Comparison of Specific Applications of Enclosures for Indoor Hazardous Locations (NEMA
250-2003)
3.4.3 NEMA Enclosure Type Numbers cannot be exactly equated with the
vs. IEC Enclosure Classification enclosure Type numbers in this
Designations standard.
IEC Publication 60529, “Classification The IEC designation consists of the
of Degrees of Protection Provided by letters IP followed by two numerals.
Enclosures,” provides a system for The first numeral indicates the degree
specifying the enclosures of electrical of protection provided by the enclosure
equipment on the basis of the degree of with respect to persons and solid
protection provided by the enclosure. foreign objects entering the enclosure.
IEC 60529 does not specify degrees The second numeral indicates the
of protection against mechanical degree of protection provided by the
damage of equipment, risk of enclosure with respect to the harmful
explosions, or conditions such as ingress of water.
moisture, corrosive vapors, fungus, or Figure 7 provides an equivalent
vermin. The NEMA Standard for conversion from the enclosure Type
Enclosures for Electrical Equipment numbers in this standard to the IEC
does test for environmental conditions enclosure classification designations.
such as corrosion, rust, icing, oil, and The enclosure type numbers meet or
coolants. For this reason and because exceed the test requirements for the
the test and evaluations for other associated IEC Classification; for this
characteristics are not identical, the IEC reason Figure 7 cannot be used to
enclosure classification designations convert from IEC classifications to
enclosure Type numbers.
©2012 Caterpillar
Figure 7 – IEC Enclosure Classification

A shaded block in the “A” column indicates that the NEMA enclosure type
exceeds the requirements for the respective IEC 60529 IP first character
designation. The IP first character designation is the protection against access
to hazardous parts and solid foreign objects.
A shaded block in the “B” column indicates that the NEMA enclosure type
exceeds the requirements for the respective IEC 60529 IP second character
designation. The IP second character designation is the protection against the
ingress of water.
4 POWER ASSEMBLY Molded case circuit breakers are

the most common, used in all types
4.1 Switchgear vs. of low voltage switchboards and
panel boards. The ratings for these
Switchboard breakers range from 15A to 3,000A.
The terms switchgear and switch-
Insulated case breakers typically
board are often used interchangeably
range from 400A to 5,000A. These
when referring to low voltage circuit
breakers are available as options for
breaker distribution equipment. How-
switchboards and can be designed
ever, there are significant differences in
as fixed or drawout systems.
components, standards, applications,
configurations, selection criteria, and Power circuit breakers typically
reliability between these two types of range from 800A to 5,000A. They are
power distribution equipment. connected to the bus in a drawout.
The major differences between Switchgear is larger than switch-
switchgear and switchboard are the boards and requires front and rear
types of circuit breakers used. A more access. Drawout breakers in switchgear
detailed discussion of circuit breakers will require more clearance in the front.
can be found in Section 5.
©2012 Caterpillar
Front accessible switchboards have the Further details about circuit breakers,
smallest space requirements. switchboard, and switchgear standards
can be found in Figure 9.
Switchgear Switchboard
Figure 8 – Switchgear and Switchboard
4.2 Switchgear Standards

The two main standards for low standards is shown in Figure 9
voltage switchgear are UL 1558 and photos of the switchboard and
and UL 891; a comparison of the switchgear are shown in Figure 8.
©2012 Caterpillar
Category UL 1558 UL891

Name Switchgear Switchboards
Metal-Enclosed Low-Voltage Power
ANSI Reference No ANSI Standard Reference
Circuit Breaker Switchgear
Front Access or Front and Rear
Access Front and Rear Access
Access
Application Standards NEMA SG3, SG5, ANSI C37.20.1 NEMA PB2
Molded Case or Insulated Case
Circuit Breakers Power Circuit Breakers
Circuit Breakers
Fixed Mounted (Some Mains May
Usually Draw-Out Mounted
be Draw-Out)
Mounting Group Mounted (can be
Individually Mounted Individually Mounted in some
cases)
Ambient Air Temperatures and
Service Conditions Service conditions not addressed
Altitude Specified
Determined by testing at 635V for 4 Determined by testing at 600V for
Short Circuit Ratings
cycles at 60 Hz 3 cycles at 60 Hz
Phase to neutral only required
Requires phase to neutral and
Short Circuit Bus Testing under certain conditions and
phase to ground
phase to ground not required
Requires indoor finish to pass 24
Requires finish to pass 200 hour
Enclosure Finish hour salt spray test. Outdoor
salt spray test
finish must pass 600 hour test
Requires barriers between breakers
Barriers Does not require internal barriers
and bus and between breakers
Requires barriers isolating service
requires barriers for "Line of
Service Entrance entrance bus from serviceable load
Sight" contact
connections
Requires Mechanical means to trip Does not require mechanical
Means of Trip
E.O. Breakers tripping of E.O. breakers
Production Tests Requires 7 production tests Requires 3 Production tests
Figure 9 – UL 1558 and UL 891 Comparisons
can typically be stacked four units high.

4.3 Switchgear Dimensions
Usually only two 3200A breakers are
4.3.1 Metal-Enclosed permissible in a unit, although in some
For switchgear located indoors, the cases three may be furnished. Also
room should be designed to allow with one 3200A breaker, two or three
ample space for the switchgear and smaller breakers may be supplied in the
provide adequate ventilation. To vertical section.
estimate space requirements, Breakers with frame sizes of 4000 or
manufacturer catalogs usually provide 6000A require units 36 to 44 inches
information used to plan the layout. wide, depending on the manufacturer.
Breakers up to 3200A frame size will Usually, only one of these breakers can
be in units of 18 or 22 inches wide and be furnished with a unit.
©2012 Caterpillar
Fused breakers in 225, 600, and Aisless units may be used. For aisled
1600A frame sizes are supplied in units an unobstructed work space
units of the same width as unused (aisle) is required on the breaker
breakers of the same frame size. drawout side wide enough to permit
When fuses are used in series with removal of the breaker and may be
3000A and above breakers, they from 28 to 50 inches wide, an aisle
are occasionally in a separate is also required on the rear of the
compartment directly above or directly switchgear for use in maintenance;
below the breaker. However, at least a 36 inch wide aisle is usually
one manufacturer can offer 3000 and recommended. NEC working
4000A breakers with integrally clearance dictates width.
mounted fuses and no increase in
Auxiliary units are commonly the
space requirements.
same size as breaker units except in
Depth of indoor switchgear ranges special situations, such as power
from 54 to 90 inches, depending on company metering units. When such
the manufacturer. However, this cubicles are required, they should be
depth may not allow enough space constructed to the power company’s
for outgoing cables, so it may be specifications and drawings of the
necessary in some cases to add a units should be approved by the
section on the rear of one or more power company before manufacture.
units to provide sufficient space. If
Outdoor switchgear units are the
overhead breaker lifting devices and
same width as the indoor units of the
ventilation is excluded, the height of
same rating and they will be
the indoor switchgear will be
somewhat taller, since a sloping roof
approximately 90 inches.
is usually supplied. The depth of the
Depth of outdoor switchgear is outdoor unit will depend on the width
approximately 72 to 94 inches; the of the sheltered aisle (if any) and
height of outdoor gear is 112 inches. whether standard aisle or common
All dimensions given here are to be aisle type of construction is used.
used for preliminary estimates only. Aisle spaces usually range from
70 to 110 inches wide.
4.3.2 Metal-Clad
In medium voltage metal-clad 4.4 Switchgear Layout
switchgear, breakers are not stacked
as they are in low voltage switchgear. The size of a switchgear group will
Each breaker unit will contain only vary slightly with the manufacturer.
one or two breakers. When outdoor switchgear is used,
space is not often the most critical
Indoor 5kV metal-clad switchgear consideration, so the product of any
units for 1200 to 2000A breakers are manufacturer can be used. However,
26 to 36 inches wide with height the pad should not be poured until
varying from 72 to 95 inches, certified drawings have been received
depending on supplier; depth varies from the manufacturer to be sure that
from 56 to 96 inches. Aisled or it will be the proper size and shape.
©2012 Caterpillar
4.5 Busbar development of bus faults which would

result if foreign objects momentarily
When several control panels are
contacted the bare bus. Further
located adjacent to one another in
information on busbar insulation can be
a floor-standing assembly, a set of
found in ANSI Standard Z244.1.
common conductors is used on the
load side of the circuit breaker. These Busbars may be connected to each
conductors consolidate the output other and to electrical apparatus by
of all the operating generators and bolted or clamped connections. Often
conduct the total output to the joints between high-current bus
distribution system. The bus may be sections have matching silver-plated
cables joining the respective terminal surfaces to reduce the contact
lugs or it may be rigid, bare bars of resistance; a conductive joint
aluminum or copper suitably insulated compound may also be used to
from the structure of the switchboard. increase conductivity and reduce
thermal stress at the joint.
The size of the busbar is important
in determining the maximum amount Low voltage switchgear is not
of current that can be safely carried. typically required to have insulated
Busbars are typically either flat strips busbars. If insulation is required,
or hollow tubes as these shapes allow additional cost will be incurred.
heat to dissipate more efficiently due Splice plates allow for field inter-
to a high surface area to cross- connection of the main bus of two
sectional area ratio. The skin effect adjacent floor-standing panels. In low
(see section 4.5.1) makes alternating voltage applications these are typically
electric current (AC) busbars more used when additional structures are
than ½” thick inefficient, so hollow added to an existing switchgear lineup
or flat shapes are prevalent in high or to limit main bus sections to a
current applications. A hollow section practical length to accommodate
is stiffer than a solid rod which allows shipping splits. Metal-clad medium
for a greater span between busbar voltage switchgear structures are
supports. manufactured with modular main bus
A busbar may either be supported sections and normally require splice
on insulators or insulation may plates between each adjacent section.
completely surround it. Busbars are
4.5.1 Skin Effect
protected from accidental contact by
Skin effect is the tendency of an
a metal enclosure or by elevation out
alternating electric current (AC) to
of normal reach. Phase busbars may
distribute itself within a conductor so
be insulated while ground busbars are
the current density at the surface of the
typically bolted directly onto a metal
conductor is greater than at its core.
chassis of the enclosure.
Thus, the electric current tends to flow
Busbar insulation is a requirement of along the “skin” of the conductor.
metal-clad switchgear and is provided
Silver plating on buswork is used to
to minimize the possibility of
mitigate skin effects and provide more
communicating faults and to prevent
even conductivity.
©2012 Caterpillar
4.5.2 Metal Selection diagram can identify when trouble-

Copper is preferred over aluminum, shooting or making changes
except where corrosive atmospheres to wiring.
may have an adverse affect on Secondary wiring in metal-clad
the copper. Copper has a higher switchgear must be enclosed in metal
conductivity than aluminum, it is channels or in conduit to isolate it
more easily plated, and bolted joints from the primary circuits. The wire
are made more easily. The melting should not be smaller than 16 AWG
point of copper is higher than if stranded wire is used. Flexible wire
aluminum so less damage is done must be used for wiring across a
to copper busses in case of an hinge to a panel.
arcing fault.
The insulation on the wire must
In most cases, copper is a more meet the requirements for Type TA,
expensive metal. If aluminum is used, TBS, or SIS as described in the
joints may be welded, making field National Electrical Code.
changes difficult. Copper joints must
be silver-plated; aluminum bolted 4.7 Transformers
joints may be silver-plated or tin-
plated. Where bolted joints are A transformer is a device that
necessary, as at shipping splits, transfers electrical energy from one
aluminum may be welded to copper. circuit to another through a shared
Bolted joints should be made to magnetic field. A changing current in
minimize the tendency to cold flow the primary circuit creates a changing
(permanently deform due to constant magnetic field, which induces a
stress) and to maintain a tight clamp voltage in the secondary circuit.
in the case of some cold flow or The secondary circuit mimics the
stretching of the bolt over a period primary circuit but with different
of time. current and voltage.
4.7.1 Current Transformers
4.6 Wiring Current transformers (CTs) are
When determining wiring, applicable designed to provide a current in its
standards must be used to determine secondary conductor proportional to
the following: the current flowing in its primary
• Size of wire. conductor. Current transformers can
safely isolate measurement and
• Insulation material. control circuitry from high voltages
• Terminal types. and currents present in the circuit
while giving an accurate measurement
• Terminal insulation. of the primary current. Figure 10
A detailed wiring diagram is required shows a picture of current
to show the relative location of transformers.
terminals on various devices and
terminal blocks. Referring to this
©2012 Caterpillar
Voltage transformers are designed

to present negligible load to the
supply being measured and to have
a precise voltage ratio to accurately
step down high voltages so metering
and protective relay equipment can
Figure 10 – Current Transformers
be operated at a lower potential.
The current transformer ratio is
generally selected so the maximum Selection of the ratio for the voltage
load current will read about 70% full transformer is seldom a question since
scale on a standard 5A coil ammeter. the primary rating should be equal to
Therefore, the current transformer or higher than the system line-to-line
primary rating should be 140-150% voltage. The type of system and the
of the maximum load current. relaying determines the number of
potential transformers per set and the
4.7.2 Voltage/Potential Transformers connection and metering required.
Voltage transformers (VT’s) or
A 3-phase, 3-wire system with 2
potential transformers (PTs) are used
element watt-hour meters requires a
between the phase voltage of the
set of two line-to-line voltage trans-
generator and the various instruments
formers. If line-to-ground potential is
and apparatus to reduce the voltage
also required for a directional ground
to standard 120V instrument voltage.
relay, a set of three line-to-ground
A picture of a voltage transformer is
voltage transformers can be used to
shown in Figure 11.
provide both line-to-line potential for
the 2 element watt-hour meter and
line-to-ground potential for the
ground relay.
A 3-phase, 4-wire solidly grounded
system usually requires three line-to-
ground voltage transformers for 2-1/2
or 3 element metering
Where synchronizing of generators
or systems is necessary, it is
recommended that only line-to-line
potential be used.
Figure 11 – Medium Voltage Switchgear

Voltage Transformer
©2012 Caterpillar
4.7.3 Control Power Transformers

Control power transformers (CPTs)
are used for auxiliary power to space
heaters, lights, and receptacles and
control of electrically operated
breakers when external auxiliary
power sources are unavailable.
CPTs, when used for control of
electrically operated breakers, should
be connected on the source side of
the main breaker so the control power
is available to close the main breaker.
Some of the main features of CPTs
are listed below:
• Step the primary voltage down to
120/240VAC.
• Provide 120/240VAC power
for heaters, lights, and breaker
control.
• Mounted in a drawout auxiliary
Figure 12 – Open Delta Voltage drawer up to 15kVA.
Transformer Diagram • Fix mounted in the rear of the
structure and provided with a
drawout primary fuse drawer
above 15kVA.
Figure 14 – Medium Voltage CPT
Figure 13 – Wye Voltage Transformer

Connection
©2012 Caterpillar
5 CIRCUIT BREAKERS • Contacts and operating

mechanisms.
The circuit breaker is an integral
• Trip units.
component in switchgear, opening
and closing a circuit by non-automatic • Arc extinguishing methods.
means and opening the circuit • Mounting methods.
automatically on a predetermined
• For low voltage CBs.
over-current level without damage.
application/circuit specific
Circuit breakers are located between standards must meet the
the power source and the load and
requirements of UL 1066 (used in
play a crucial role in two of the main
UL 1558 switchgear) or UL 489
functions of switchgear:
(used in UL 891 switch-gear). For
• Switching the load to and from a comparison of UL 1066 and UL
the generator. 489 see.
• Protecting the generator from • For medium voltage CBs,
short circuits and overloads. compliance to application/circuit
All circuit breakers have the specific standards does not
following common design and apply. Medium voltage CBs can
functional characteristics: be rated using the ANSI C37.06
rating structure.
• Frame.
©2012 Caterpillar
Required Ratings UL 1066 UL 489

Typically used with LV Typically used for LV
Name
Switchgear Switchboards
Rated (Maximum) 254V, 508V, 635V or 600V for integrally 120, 120/240, 240, 277, 347, 480Y/277,
Voltage fused CB’s 480 600Y/347 or 600 Vac
Rated Frequency dc, 60 Hz/ 50 Hz. dc, 50 or 60 Hz or 400 Hz
Frame sizes: 800-6000A, other ratings

Rated Continuous Frame sizes: 15-6000A
are available from combinations of
Current sensors and trip units
Rated Short - Time Carry for (2) 0.5 sec. periods (1 second Not specified
Current withstand)
Short-Circuit O -15 sec. - CO
O - (2 to 60 min.) - CO
Operating Duty
e.g. 4000A frame – 1,500 open/close
500 Drawout Operations
operations
Mechanical e.g. 800A Frame – 12,500 open/close
800A frame – 3,500 open/close
Endurance operations with maintenance every
operations
1,750 operations
No maintenance possible
4000A frame 400 open/close operations 4000A frame – 400 open/close

under load operations under load
Electrical Endurance 800A frame 2,800 open/close 800A frame 500 open/close operations
operations under load under load
Continuous - Current
UL 1066 UL 489
Test Requirements
Enclosure Required Optional
100% of continuous current in air. 80%

Must carry 100% of continuous current
Current Level within enclosure (100% rated)
of continuous current in enclosure.
(Optionally can be 100% rated)
Allowable
Temp. Rise Total Temp Temp. Rise Total Temp
Temperature Limits
Internal Circuit
85ºC 125ºC Limit = Insulating Materials Capability
Breaker Contacts
Connections 85ºC 125ºC Limit = Insulating Materials Capability
At Terminal
55ºC 95ºC 50ºC 90ºC
Connection
Insulating Materials C37.13, Table 2 Table 7.1.4.1.1
Figure 15 – Low Voltage Circuit Breaker Standards Comparison
©2012 Caterpillar
5.1 80% vs. 100% Rating 5.1.1 NEC Requirements

With regards to the issue of over-
All circuit breakers are tested
current protection, Section 210.20
to carry their full current rating
of the NEC states:
indefinitely. However, the NEC
requires that circuit breakers and “Branch-circuit conductors and
circuit conductors be sized at 125% equipment shall be protected by
of their applied, continuous loads. The over-current protective devices
purpose of this requirement is to build that have a rating or setting that
a “safety factor” into installations. complies with 210.20(A) through (D).
(A) Continuous [loads lasting longer
Standard (80%) rated circuit breakers
than 3 hours] and Non-continuous
are tested in open air at 40°C ambient
Loads. Where a branch circuit supplies
and required to carry their rated current
continuous loads, or any combination
without tripping within specific
of continuous and non-continuous
operating temperature guidelines.
loads, the rating of the over-current
However, in actual installations, circuit
device shall not be less than the non-
breakers are often installed in
continuous load plus 125 percent of
equipment with little or no ventilation.
the continuous load. Exception:
If the breaker carries its full current
Where the assembly, including the
rating, the temperature inside the
over-current devices protecting the
equipment (at the breaker, and on the
branch circuit(s), is listed for operation
conductors) could be higher than rated
at
limits. By restricting the amount of
100% of its rating, the ampere rating
current flowing in each device, the NEC
of the over-current device shall be
limits the heat to safe levels.
permitted to be not less than the sum
Both the NEC and UL489 (Molded of the continuous load plus the non-
Case Circuit Breaker Test Standard) continuous load.”
allow for testing and usage at 100%
It is important to note that installing
current rating if the breaker, conductors
a 100% rated breaker in an assembly
and enclosure are tested and certified
does not necessarily mean that the
to make sure that the temperature
entire assembly is 100% rated. An
inside the enclosure will not exceed
assembly may only be listed for 100%
limits. The test is conducted with the
operation after it has successfully
Circuit breaker installed in the smallest
passed separate testing by UL, as
enclosure they could be used in and the
an assembly, per UL requirements.
breaker must carry 100% rated current
until maximum temperatures are 5.2 Types of Circuit Breakers
reached. The circuit breaker cannot trip
and the temperature rise at the 5.2.1 Low Voltage Circuit Breakers
customer connection cannot exceed Low voltage circuit breakers are
60° C above ambient. If the available in molded-case, insulated
temperature rise exceeds 50°C, the case, and power type. When
breaker must be labeled with special specifying circuit breakers, the
wiring and installation. required frame size and desired trip
©2012 Caterpillar
rating must be determined. The choice low voltage circuit breaker types are
must be made between draw-out and shown below:
stationary, and manually operated or
electrically operated. A comparison of
Power Circuit Insulated Case Molded Case Circuit
Breaker Circuit Breaker Breaker
Fully Replaceable: Arc chutes may be
No internal maintenance
- arc chutes replaceable
Maintainability Circuit breakers are
- contacts depending on the
sealed
- springs manufacturer
ANSI C37.16 UL 489
Certification UL 489
UL1066 (or UL1066)
Mounting Drawout Drawout or Fixed Fixed
Two-Step Stored Two-Step Stored
Energy Energy Toggle
Operation Electrically Operated Electrically Operated Typically Mechanically
or Mechanically or Mechanically Operated Only
Operated Operated
Thermal Magnetic or
Trip Unit Type Electronic Electronic
Electronic
Typicallly 80% rated
100% Rated Yes Yes 100% optional with
electronic trip unit
Instantaneous Yes Yes
Optional
Override Trip ~ 13 times rating ~ 10 times rating
Yes Yes
30-Cycle Withstand Up to Full Interrupt Less than Full No
Rating Interrupt Rating
Figure 16 – Low Voltage Circuit Breaker Comparison
5.2.1.1 Low Voltage Molded Case • Contacts – carry current.

Molded case circuit breakers are a • Arc extinguishers – confine and
fixed mount, completely sealed design, extinguish the arc which will be
primarily intended for wire protection. drawn between contacts each
Molded case circuit breakers can be time they interrupt current.
bolt-on or plug-in mounted. • Trip elements – monitor current
Molded case circuit breakers and trip the operating mechanism
typically have a maximum voltage and open the contacts in the
limit of 600V and feature the event of a fault condition.
following main components: • Terminal connectors - connect
• Molded case - a housing the circuit breakers to the power
of insulating materials. source and the load.
• Operating mechanism - opens Short time current ratings on molded

and closes the breaker. case circuit breakers are much lower
©2012 Caterpillar
than their interrupting ratings.

Selective tripping is available over a
small range well below kAIC ratings.
They are typically operated via a
mechanical over-center toggle; add-on
motor operators are available. Low
voltage molded case circuit breakers
exhibit the following characteristics:
• Must be certified to the UL 489
standard. Figure 18 – Insulated Case Circuit Breaker
• No internal maintenance required 5.2.2 Low Voltage Power Breakers
due to circuit breaker being Power circuit breakers are designed to
sealed. be connected to busbars in switchgear.
• Can be thermal-magnetically They may be manually operated or
tripped or electronically tripped. electrically operated. They have fully
• 10X instantaneous override trip. replaceable (field maintainable) arc-
chutes, contacts, and springs. Low
• Voltage limit of 600V.
voltage power breakers exhibit the
following characteristics:
• Must be certified to UL 1066
standards.
• Must be drawout mounted.
• Electronically tripped.
• 30-cycle withstand up to full
interrupt rating.
• Perform fast re-closure to
Figure 17 – Molded Case Circuit Breakers
maintain high continuity of
service.
5.2.1.2 Low Voltage Insulated Case
• Trip unit is integrally mounted
Insulated case circuit breakers
on the circuit breaker.
exhibit the following characteristics:
Some of the advantages of power
• Must be certified to the UL 489
circuit breakers are
standard.
• High interrupting ratings.
• Can be fixed-mounted or
drawout-mounted. • High short time ratings.
• Electronically tripped. • Speed of operations:
• 13X Instantaneous override trip. Remote open/close
operation.
• 30-cycle withstand less than full
interrupt rating. Fast re-closing.
©2012 Caterpillar
Transfer loads while 5.2.3 Medium Voltage Circuit

maintaining continuity Breakers
of service: Two types of medium voltage circuit
o Used for paralleling breakers are typically used: vacuum
switch gear. circuit breakers and SF6 circuit
breakers. In North America vacuum
o Used in main-tie-main
circuit breakers are typically used;
transfer schemes.
internationally SF6 circuit breakers
• Coordination/selectivity. are commonly found.
• Maintainability. 5.2.3.1 Vacuum Circuit Breakers
The vacuum interrupter (Figure 20)
is a pair of separable contacts
enclosed in a vacuum-tight envelope.
The envelope itself is a ceramic
material with a metal end plate brazed
to each end. The metal plates seal the
ends and provide support for the parts
inside.
Figure 19 – Power Circuit Breakers
Vacuum
Interrupter
Primary
Disconnects
Figure 20 – Vacuum Breaker Rear View
Of the two contacts inside, one is Various shields inside the envelope
fixed and the other is movable provide different types of protection
through a bellows type connection. to interrupter parts.
©2012 Caterpillar
When the circuit breaker is closed, AC current sine wave where the value
the contacts within the interrupter is zero.
touch, allowing current to flow. The vacuum in the envelope is
When a fault occurs and interruption considered a dielectric. The dielectric
is required, the contacts are quickly strength is the maximum voltage the
separated and an arc forms. An arc dielectric can withstand without
is formed because the voltage tries to breaking down. The transient recovery
keep the current moving. voltage is the most severe wave form
the interrupter will have to withstand.
This is why the speed of the dielectric
recovery and the strength of the
dielectric inside the interrupter are
critical issues for successful circuit
interruption. If the dielectric does not
reach sufficient strength fast enough,
the arc will re-ignite.
Vacuum interrupters for circuit
breaker duty must be capable of
interrupting currents of 12-50kA
and up at voltages up to 38kV.
Figure 21 – Interrupter Cut Away View

The arc burns in the metal vapor
evaporated from hot spots on the
contact surfaces. This metal vapor
continuously leaves the contact region
Figure 22 – Vacuum Circuit Breaker
and re-condenses on the contact
surfaces and surrounding metal shield 5.2.3.2 SF6 Circuit Breakers
which protects the ceramic envelope. Popular outside of the United States
At current zero the arc extinguishes, is SF6 technology. It is specifically
contact vapor production stops, and associated with European
the original vacuum condition is manufacturers of medium and
restored. Current zero is a point in the higher voltage circuit breakers.
©2012 Caterpillar
In an SF6 circuit breaker the main it. The coil’s magnetic field, produced
contacts are enclosed in a chamber by the load current, causes the arc to
of SF6 gas, a good dielectric. The arc rotate rapidly. The arc is cooled by
interruption technology results in arc moving through the SF6 gas.
energy being used and absorbed while The SF6 gas is normally at rest inside
the arc is simultaneously cooled. the interrupter. The arc’s movement
There are several types of SF6 acts like a mixer, mixing hotter and
interrupter designs; the two most cooler gas to help cool the arc.
common types are: Contact erosion is also reduced
• Puffer. due to the rapid arc movement.
• Rotary arc. At current zero, the arc is cooled
and extinguished.
Puffer:
The puffer-type interrupter is more 5.3 Trip Units
complicated than the rotary arc-type. Trip units are most commonly found
During current interruption a piston on low voltage applications. The trip
compresses the SF6 gas in a cylinder, units serve as the logic control for the
all of which is contained in an epoxy- breaker. There are two types of trip
type enclosure. After the main units:
current-carrying contacts separate
the current transfers to the arcing • Thermal magnetic.
contacts. Once the arcing contacts • Electronic.
separate the SF6 gas in the Thermal magnetic units offer a
compression chamber blasts the arc delay in the event of overload while
through the nozzle. The heat created responding quickly to excessive
by the arc breaks the SF6 molecules current. Magnetic-only units are
into fluorine and sulfur. Arc energy mainly used to protect motors and
is absorbed and the arc is cooled. fire pumps in a high-heat application.
As current zero is approached the
Electronic trip units provide more
heat energy subsides as more SF6
sophisticated protection and monitor-
gas flows through the nozzle and
ing by measuring and comparing
extinguishes the arc.
actual current with a reference table
Rotary Arc: of values to determine the appropriate
The rotary arc technology is less response. A variety of settings make
complicated than the puffer type; it possible to adapt the breaker to the
however, it is not effective over as precise characteristics of the
wide a range of short circuit currents protected circuit.
and voltages as the SF6 puffer or In addition, electronic trip units offer
vacuum CBs. communication and monitoring
As the contacts separate the arc capabilities. Current demand and
transfers from the main contacts to ground fault current can be monitored
an annular contact; this causes the as well as breaker status, settings of
current to switch into the coil behind protection functions, and trip history.
©2012 Caterpillar
Residual current devices that provide of a time delay in the

earth leakage protection are also instantaneous or short circuit trip.
available, as well as a broad range
of accessories. 5.3.2 Long Delay (L)
Long delay pickup determines the
Four trip unit protective functions continuous ampere rating of the
exist: breaker. It also determines the amount
1. Long Delay (L). of time the breaker will carry a low
level overload before tripping.
2. Short Delay (S).
There are two types of responses
3. Instantaneous (I). in long delay pickup:
4. Ground Fault (G). 1. l2t response
In applications, the trip functions a. l2t in: for coordination with
afforded by the trip unit of the breaker other circuit breakers with
are abbreviated in the form of L, S, I, electronic trip devices and
and G. i.e. a trip unit with long delay, for coordination with
short delay, and instantaneous func- thermal magnetic circuit
tions would be abbreviated as LSI. breakers.
5.3.1 Solid State Circuitry 2. l4t response
Conventional breakers are available a. l4t out: for coordination
with either fixed or interchangeable with fuses and upstream
electromechanical trip units depending transformer damage curves.
on the breaker and frame size.
Although trip units can be changed, 5.3.3 Short Delay (S)
failure to correctly tighten the Short delay pickups determine or set
electrical connections is a frequent the level of fault current at which the
cause of circuit breaker problems short time trip delay countdown is
in the field. actuated. Short delay sets the amount
of time the breaker will carry both low
Most manufacturers offer molded level and high fault currents before
case breakers with current tripping.
transformers and solid-state circuitry
in place of the conventional thermal There are two types of short delay
magnetic trip units. This offers responses:
advantages including: 1. Flat response
• Quickly modified overload a. l2t out: for coordination with
protection rating by changing other circuit breakers with
a rating plug (versus changing electronic trip devices.
the entire trip unit). 2. l2t response
• Adjustable instantaneous or short a. l2t in: for coordination with
circuit trip rating capability to fuses and thermal magnetic
selectively trip other breakers in breakers.
the system through incorporation
©2012 Caterpillar
5.3.4 Ground Fault (G) or three single cores of a three phase

Ground fault is defined as an system pass through the inner
unintentional electric path between diameter of the CT. When the system
a source of current and a grounded is fault free, no current flows in the
surface. Ground faults occur when secondary of the zero-sequence CT.
current is leaking and electricity When there is a fault, the residual
is escaping into the ground. current of the system flows through
Ground faults may be divided into the secondary of the zero-sequence
three classes: CT which operates the relay.
1. A bolted fault. The minimum number of current

transformers for circuit relaying and
2. Faults resulting from insulation
instruments is three current trans-
depreciation starting as what may
formers, one for each phase
be considered a leakage from
or 2-phase connected current
10 to 250mA. Such a breakdown
transformers and one zero-sequence
may be observed in equipment
current transformer. Separate sets of
such as motors and transformers.
current transformers are required
3. Faults resulting from immediate for differential relays.
insulation breakdown producing
an arc. The minimum pickup of a ground
relay in the residual of 3-phase
The NEC creates specific standards connected current transformers is
for ground fault protection which primarily determined by the current
should be used when designing a transformer ratio. Adding one residual
system. connected auxiliary current trans-
The rating of the service disconnect former can reduce the relay pickup.
is considered to be the rating of the This connection is desirable on main
largest fuse that can be installed or incoming and tie circuits of low
the highest continuous current trip resistance grounded circuits.
setting for which the actual over-
5.3.5 Anti-Pump
current device installed in a circuit
An anti-pump is a device that
breaker is rated or can be adjusted.
prevents a circuit breaker from
Ground fault trip units can be pre- repeatedly opening and closing with
selected to either trip the main both open and closed signals applied
contacts or to leave the main contacts simultaneously.
closed and annunciate the ground
Without the anti-pump the breaker
fault condition.
would be destroyed; as soon as the
The zero-sequence current breaker trips the motor operator re-
transformer (CT) is used for sensitive closes the breaker, the breaker
ground fault relaying or self-balancing immediately trips again, and the cycle
primary current type machine of tripping and re-closing continues.
differential protection. In a zero-
sequence CT, the three-core cable
©2012 Caterpillar
5.4 Components
5.4.1 Shunt Trip
A shunt trip is a solenoid device
used to trip a breaker from a remote
location.
Figure 25 - Aux Contact
5.4.4 Motor Operator

A motor operator allows remote
opening and closing of the breaker.
It consists of an actuating motor with
an operating arm and attaches to the
Figure 23– Shunt Trip breaker operating mechanism. When
the motor operator is energized from
5.4.2 Under-Voltage Device a remote location, the operating arm
An under-voltage device will trip moves the breaker handle to the on
the breaker when the voltage falls or off position as required.
below a predetermined level. Usually
mounted in place of the shunt trip, It is not recommended that motor
these units include a spring and operators be used for paralleling
solenoid. operations. Electrically operated
breakers with closing speeds of
approximately 5 cycles or less are
preferred for paralleling operations.
Figure 24 – Under-Voltage Device
5.4.3 Auxiliary Contacts

An auxiliary switch controls normally Figure 26 – Motor Operator
open and/or normally closed contacts Functions of the motor operator are:
which open and close with the • Switching the load to and from
breaker. It can be used with indicating the generator.
lights to show breaker status.
• Protecting the generator from
short circuits and overloads.
©2012 Caterpillar
5.4.5 Medium Voltage Circuit Breaker Used to rack the breaker

Components in and out.
The primary components of a • Mechanism Operated Cell
medium voltage breaker pan (MOC) Switch.
assembly (Figure 27) are: Auxiliary contacts that
• Code Plates operate when the breaker
Prevent insertion of a lower opens or closes.
rated breaker into a higher • Truck Operated Cell (TOC)
rated cell. Switch.
• Ground Bar Auxiliary contacts that
Keeps the breaker grounded operate when the breaker is
at all times. levered into or out of the cell.
• Levering Mechanism
MOC & TOC
Code Plates
Levering Mechanism
Ground Bar
Figure 27 – Medium Voltage Breaker Pan Assembly
©2012 Caterpillar
be quite long for slight overloads but

5.5 Sizing Circuit Breakers Ohm’s Law states that the heating
A circuit breaker is required to effect varies with the square of the
connect or disconnect the electrical current, so the delay must be reduced
load to and from the generator. To rapidly as the overload increases.
size the circuit breaker and switchgear
the following formula should be used:
Breaker Size (in amperes)
Where:
kW = net rating of the generator set
Volts = system voltage, phase-to-
phase or line-to-line
pf = power factor of the system Figure 28 – Overload Trip Curve
load Using a bimetal element heated by
Constants: the load current provides overload or
1000 – to convert kW to watts thermal protection. A bimetal element
is made of two strips of metal (each
1.732 – for three-phase system
with a different rate of thermal
0.9 – temperature compensation expansion) banded together. Heat due
and overload margin for the to excessive current will cause the
circuit breaker bimetal to bend or deflect; the amount
of deflection is dependent on the
This formula can be simplified to read: amount of heat, which is a function of
Breaker Size (in amperes) current and time.
5.6 Overload Protection

Though circuit breakers are designed
to protect against overloads, they
should not trip open instantaneously
when current limits are exceeded;
this would result in nuisance tripping.
Breakers should trip before the cable
Figure 29 – Thermal Magnetic Breaker
insulation is damaged.
On sustained overload, the deflected
In an overload condition, heating in a bimetal element will cause the
cable is a function of the current level operating mechanism to trip.
and time. Time delay on tripping should
©2012 Caterpillar
and other components in a short

period of time.
In a short circuit condition, the system
cannot wait for an element to heat up
before the breaker opens; the breaker
must open as quickly as possible. This is
achieved by using an electromagnet in
series with the load current.
Figure 30 – Overload Protection/ Tripped

A 100A breaker might trip in 30
minutes when carrying 135% of its
rated current, but might trip in ten
seconds when carrying 500% of its
rating. Using these values, a thermal
trip curve can be constructed as shown
in Figure 31.
Figure 32 – Short Circuit Protection/Closed

Breaker
When a short circuit occurs, the fault
current passing through the circuit
energizes the electromagnet and causes
the trip to open the breaker. The only
delay in this action is time required for
the breaker contacts to open and
extinguish the arc, which takes place in
less than one cycle (0.016 seconds for
60Hz, 0.02 seconds for 50Hz).
Figure 31– Thermal Trip Curve
5.7 Short Circuit Protection

A short circuit is an accidental or
unplanned connection of low resis-
tance between two points that are
normally separated by a high resis-
tance. It results in an immediate flow
of current at abnormally high levels.
The heat generated by this condition
can cause severe damage to wiring Figure 33 – Short Circuit Protection / Open
Breaker
©2012 Caterpillar
This instantaneous tripping is dangerous, but will trip on heavy

illustrated in a typical magnetic trip short circuit current.
curve, shown in Figure 34.
5.8 Control Power
5.8.1 Batteries
Circuit breaker control power may
be derived from a combination of a
station battery and engine cranking
batteries (24 VDC) connected
together through a best battery diode
circuit. AC power derived from utility
and/or generator source may also be
used for circuit breaker control power.
The best battery diode circuit is
necessary to avoid connecting starting
batteries directly in parallel and
Figure 34 – Magnetic Trip Curve prevents cranking the engines with
The breaker will trip as soon as the the station battery.
fault current exceeds value A. The
When designing a best battery
magnetic trip element is often adjust-
diode circuit:
able to allow for varying the fault
current level at which the breakers will • Size diodes to allow proper
trip instantaneously; this allows for forward current and to
varying motor starting inrush current prevent reverse current.
levels. • Peak inverse voltage must be
Combining the features of the considered.
thermal overload protection and the
magnetic short circuit protection, a
typical thermal magnetic circuit
breaker can be constructed. The
thermal and magnetic trip curves can
then be combined.
In this typical example, if there were
an overload of 250% of the rated
current, the breaker will trip in
60 seconds due to thermal action. Figure 35 – Best Battery Diode Circuit
If instead of the overload there
5.8.2 Battery Chargers
were a short circuit of 40 times the
Utility power is typically used to
breaker rating, the breaker would trip
recharge the batteries using battery
in approximately one cycle. So the
chargers. Input power to the battery
thermal magnetic trip will not trip
charger is typically 120 VAC single
immediately if the overload is not
phase.
©2012 Caterpillar
6 CONTROLS
6.1 Components
6.1.1 Control Relay
A control relay is an
electromechanical device consisting of
a coil and sets of contacts used for a
number of functions including:
Figure 36 – PLC/Control Relay
• Closing or tripping circuit
breakers. 6.1.2 Programmable Logic Controller
A programmable logic controller
• Discrete status of devices
(PLC) is a microprocessor-based
• Turning on or off other control electronic device used for automation.
devices. Unlike general-purpose computers, the
Control relays have only two possible PLC is designed for multiple inputs
operating states: on and off. A control and output arrangements, extended
relay is essentially a switch; control temperature ranges, immunity to
relays use one or more pairs of electrical noise, and resistance to
contacts to make or break circuits. vibration and impact. Programs to
Multiple control relays can be grouped control machine operation are
together in a ladder logic configuration typically stored in battery-backed or
to accomplish more complex functions. non-volatile memory system. A PLC is
an example of a real time system
Programmable logic controllers and
since output results must be produced
digital automation processors have for
in response to input conditions within
the most part replaced control relays
a bounded time, otherwise unintended
in more complex circuitry due to
operation will result.
improvements on space savings,
flexibility, and speed. 6.1.3 Transducer
Control relays are still a necessary A transducer is a device that
device due to higher current ratings of converts one form of energy to
their contacts. In these instances, the another. Transducers typically convert:
control relay will be acting as a pilot • Voltage.
relay to switch higher voltage and/or
• Current.
current to a particular device. See
Figure 36. • Power.
• Frequency.
• Fuel Levels.
• Temperature.
• Pressure.
Transducers will convert these
parameters into signal level
©2012 Caterpillar
information which can be used by a distinguish between the various slaves

PLC or other control device for on the network. It also allows the
processing. master device to send a query
command to the addressed slave.
6.1.4 Operator Interface When the addressed slave receives
The operator interface allows the this command it will send back an
operator of a machine to monitor and appropriate response to the master.
control devices in the system. The
operator can view and adjust the 6.2.2 Ethernet
following system parameters: Ethernet is a large, diverse family
of frame-based computer networking
• Electrical metering.
technologies that operates at many
• Engine metering. speeds for local area networks
• Protective relay settings. (LANs). For switchgear it provides
• Annunciators. a way for individuals to remotely
monitor and/or control the switchgear
• Synchronize and parallel. with a computer.
• Set modes of operations.
6.2.3 Remote Monitoring and Control
• Voltage and frequency
The system/group monitoring
adjustments.
systems most commonly used are the
Building Management System (BMS),
6.2 Communications
Building Automation System (BAS),
6.2.1 Modbus and Supervisory Control and Data
Modbus is a serial communications Acquisition (SCADA).
protocol published by Modicon for use Implementing monitoring systems
with its programmable logic controllers. with devices that are equipped with
This protocol allows for communication Ethernet or Modbus communication
between multiple devices connected to abilities enables integration of the
the same network and is often used to electric power system controls with
connect a supervisory computer with a the building equipment controls for a
remote terminal unit (RTU) in single application to control all
supervisory control and data acquisition systems within a building.
(SCADA) systems.
6.2.3.1 Building Management/
Versions of the Modbus protocol Automation System
exist for serial port (e.g. Modbus RTU) A Building Management System
and Ethernet (e.g. Modbus TCP). (BMS) or Building Automation System
Every Modbus network consists of (BAS) is a computer software program
one master device and at least one used to control, monitor, and manage
slave device. All devices on the all the equipment installed in the
network are daisy-chained using a building. Customers frequently integrate
twisted pair cable, with each slave the monitoring and control of the
device assigned a factory default emergency power system components
unique address for each Modbus card; with the BMS/BAS. The BMS can also
this address enables the master to be used to incorporate electrical,
©2012 Caterpillar
HVAC, fire safety, elevator/escalator, Switchgear controls may contain

etc. into one system. functions which will allow reporting
and trending of data such as:
To accomplish this integration, a
means by which to communicate • Frequency.
electric power systems (EPS) • Voltage.
parameters to their system is required.
Typically a dedicated PLC on the • Current.
switchgear master controls is used • Temperatures.
for integrating with the BMS. • Fuel Consumption.
6.2.3.2 SCADA • Pressures.
Supervisory Control and Data • Typically, engine and generator
Acquisition (SCADA) systems are set information communicated to
typically used to perform data the switchgear can be trended
collection and control at the with reported time and a date
supervisory level. The supervisory data
control system is a system that is
placed on top of a real time control 6.3 Master Controls
system to control a process external
Master controls contain system level
to the SCADA system.
functionality not specific to any
The SCADA system can utilize individual generator set. Typically,
either the Modbus connection or the integration with other building systems
Ethernet connection to monitor and will occur at the master controls.
control the switchgear and automatic
They could contain additional
transfer switch.
controls for paralleling with utility grid
6.2.4 Human Machine Interface or other systems across a point of
Human machine interface (HMI) common coupling (PCC). Examples
refers to a touch-screen used by the of master controls functionality are:
operator for interfacing with the • Load sense/demand.
paralleling generator system. The
system provides the user a means of: • Load shed/add.
• Dead bus arbitration.
• Input: Allowing the users to
manipulate the system. • Integration with BMS.
• Output: Allowing the system to • System level testing.
display the effects of the users’ • Reporting, trending, and alarming.
manipulation.
• System level metering and
6.2.5 Reporting and Trending protective relaying.
Trending is the capability of
6.3.1 Load Sense/Demand
reporting a set of given data over
Load sense/demand, also referred
a period of time.
to as “generator demand priority
control,” “bus optimization,” “generator
load based sequencing,” or “load
©2012 Caterpillar
demand sensing” is a feature whereby center might prioritize lifesaving

the optimum number of generators is equipment as the number one need.
paralleled, serving facility loads to
That equipment (or special outlets
maintain peak fuel efficiency with
for that equipment) is the first
adequate reserve available.
supplied with electricity from the first
Load sense/demand typically will available generator set. Lights may
have user selected set points to be identified as the second most
set the level for spinning reserve. important need and handled by the
Spinning reserve is the amount of second load step.
total additional generator unused When starting generator sets
capacity available on the load bus. without a preferred load order it is
Upon entrance into a load suggested that the largest loads are
sense/demand mode of operation started first.
all generators will be started and The largest transient will occur
paralleled to the bus. After a given before the system is heavily loaded.
time delay generators are removed These large loads will have the least
from the bus as a function of a effect on the rest of the system.
generator loading percentage set
point. Generators should be removed 6.3.3 Load Shed/Add
from the bus in descending priority. When speaking of load shedding/
adding this document is referring to
Should the generator loading local loads served by the switchgear
percentage increase to a pre-selected and generator power system. The
generator add limit, the next priority utility industry uses the term load
generator will be started, shedding to mean disconnecting their
synchronized, and paralleled to the service to users as a means to
bus. Generators should be added to manage capacity.
the bus in ascending priority order.
Power systems are designed and
6.3.2 Load Prioritization operated so that for any normal system
Prioritization is the process by which condition, including a defined set of
the customer identifies what electrical contingency conditions, there are
loads are needed and in what priority. adequate generating and transmission
The highest priority loads are capacities to meet load requirements.
powered first; the first generator set However, there are economic limits on
ready to accept the load takes the first the excess capacity designed into a
priority loads. As capacity becomes system and the contingency outages
available, the next highest prioritized under which a system may be designed
load is powered. This process repeats to operate satisfactorily.
until all loads are applied. For those conditions where the
Smaller load steps equate to smaller systems capability is exceeded,
transients, which result in smoother processes must be in place to
transitions. For example, a medical automatically monitor power systems
loading levels and reduce loading when
©2012 Caterpillar
required. A load-shed system one that is selected is typically the

automatically senses overload first generator to reach rated speed
conditions and sheds enough load to and voltage.
relieve the overloaded generator sets
before there is loss of generation, line 6.3.5 System Level Testing
tripping, equipment damage, or a Certain emergency power systems
chaotic random shutdown of the are required to be tested periodically.
system. It may be necessary to perform these
tests automatically. The master
For example, in a factory all welding control may be configured with an
equipment and other machines may automatic or manual test switch to
be operated at capacity at the same initiate various system level function
time between 10 am and 12 noon and tests with or without load. In addition
then again between 1 pm and 3 pm. to an overall system level test, the
During these times the load to lights generator sets may be exercised
in the lunchroom and parking lot periodically to maintain proper fluid
would be shed because they are less circulation.
of a priority.
6.3.6 System Level Protective
Conversely, load-add circuits
Relaying and Metering
serve to bring loads online based
Protective relaying is a system of
on available capacity of the power
relays used to protect service from
system. Prioritization will dictate
interruption or to prevent or limit
the order the loads come online.
damage to apparatus.
6.3.4 Dead Bus Arbitration System level metering may include:
When multiple generators are
• Totalized kW metering from
simultaneously started, their outputs
the load bus.
are not synchronized when they reach
rated speed and voltage. If more • kW-hr metering for purposes
than one generator is allowed to of revenue metering.
simultaneously close to the de- • Utility grade metering.
energized (dead) bus, an out of phase
paralleling situation occurs. Therefore, 6.4 Generator Controls
one generator must be selected to
close to the dead bus prior to the 6.4.1 Voltage Control
other generators initiating 6.4.1.1 Voltage Regulators
synchronization. A voltage regulator is an electrical
Failure of the control system regulator designed to automatically
to allow only one generator to maintain a constant voltage level.
exclusively close to the dead bus The voltage regulator may use an
could result in extensive damage electromechanical mechanism or
to the generator sets. passive/active electronic components;
it may be used to regulate one or
Automatic circuit breaker closure is more AC or DC voltages.
inhibited to all units except one. The
©2012 Caterpillar
Voltage regulators (with the the impact of loss of service needs to be

exception of shunt regulators) operate considered. The extent of the protection
by comparing actual output voltage system design will depend on the size
to an internal fixed reference voltage. and relative value of the generating unit.
Any difference between the voltages There is no standard solution based on
is amplified and used to control the the generator set power rating, however
regulation element. large critical units tend to have
extensive protection systems with
6.4.2 Speed Control redundancy while smaller less critical
Speed is controlled to adjust the units may have a subset of the primary
frequency and load level of the protection provided for the larger unit
generator set. Speed must also be with little if any backup protection. It is
controlled for proper synchronization. the responsibility of the customer to
Speed is controlled by adjusting fuel understand the site and application and
throttle position. For additional to provide the appropriate amount of
information on speed control, see the protection. This will require an
Governor Section of Engine A&I Guide. evaluation of the potential risks, and a
6.4.3 Communication commercial evaluation of the cost for
Communication is the means by protection devices versus the cost of
which switchgear communicates with failed equipment.
the engine generation set. This could There are a number of faults, which
include discrete outputs from the could have serious impacts on service
generator set indicating common reliability. To detect and reduce/
alarm, common shutdown, etc. It also eliminate the impacts of these faults,
could include data from the engine a variety of relay configurations and
generator set such as engine protective devices can be used. This
temperatures, pressures, fuel section provides detailed descriptions
consumption, etc. of important protective devices. Also,
possible faults are shown under the
6.5 Protective Devices IEEE Device Numbering system in
The application of switchgear and/or Appendix A.
synchronous generators into any Reference Material
installation requires at least a minimum
amount of protection to protect the The following information is
generator and prime mover against provided as additional reference to
faults and abnormal operating subjects discussed in this section.
conditions. The customer needs to You can also reference the
balance the expense of applying a bibliography at the end of this guide.
particular protective device (relay, IEEE Std 142 - IEEE Recommended
surge arrestor, etc...) against the Practice for Grounding of Industrial
consequences of losing a generator or and Commercial Power Systems
prime mover. When considering what
protective devices to use, the potential IEEE C62.92 - IEEE guide for the
loss of a generator or prime as well as application of neutral grounding in
electrical utility systems. Part II -
©2012 Caterpillar
grounding of synchronous generator of under-voltage. This device protects

systems equipment that would otherwise be
IEEE C62.92.1 - IEEE guide for the damaged from operating at voltages
application of neutral grounding in less than what is specified. The
electrical utility systems - Part 1: device also protects the generator
introduction from operating at low voltage output
which by Ohm’s Law would require
IEEE C62.92.2 - IEEE Guide for the a higher current output for the same
Application of Neutral Grounding in power (kW) output.
Electrical Utility Systems, Part II-
Grounding of Synchronous Generator 32 - The Reverse (or Directional)
Systems Power Relay is a relay that functions
on a desired value of power flow in a
IEEE C62.92.3 - IEEE guide for the given direction. The Reverse Power
neutral grounding in electrical utility Relay is used to prevent power flow in
systems, Part III-Generator Auxiliary the reverse direction; this function
Systems protects the generator from becoming
IEEE C62.92.4 - IEEE guide for the motorized and damaging the prime
application of neutral grounding in mover.
electrical utility systems, part IV - 32RV - The Reverse Power
distribution (reactive/kVAR) Relay is a relay
IEEE C62.92.5 - Active - IEEE guide that functions on a desired value
for the application of neutral of reactive power flow in a given
grounding in electrical utility systems, direction. 32RV is used to prevent
part V - transmission systems and reactive power flow in the reverse
subtransmission systems direction. This prevents reverse
reactive power flow to the generator
IEEE C37.101 - IEEE Guide for that would cause excessive heat build
Generator Ground Protection up and damage the machine.
IEEE C37.102 - IEEE guide for AC 38 - A Bearing Protective Device is
generator protection a device that functions on excessive
25 - The Synch Check (Synchronizing bearing temperature or other abnormal
or Synchronism Check) Relay is a relay mechanical conditions associated with
that functions when two AC circuits the bearing, such as undue wear
are within the desired limits of which may eventually result in
frequency, phase angle and voltage, to excessive bearing temperature or
permit or to cause the paralleling of failure. Thermocouple or resistive
these two circuits. The Synch Check temperature device sensors are used
Relay is used to prevent out of phase to detect this condition. When a pre-
closure when paralleling generators to programmed temperature limit is
each other or when paralleling reached, the relay energizes its
generators to another source. output accordingly.
27 - The Under-Voltage Relay is a A resistive temperature device
device that functions on a given value (RTD) supplies a constant current
©2012 Caterpillar
to a resistive element located on polyphase currents are unbalanced

the bearing housing and senses the or contain negative phase-sequence
temperature of the bearing by components above a given amount.
measuring the voltage across the The 46 responds to the negative
resistive element. phase sequence current which flows
A thermocouple is a device in which during unbalance faults or loads on a
the temperature difference between power system; this will protect
the ends of a pair of dissimilar metal machines against excessive heating
wires is deduced from a measurement damage due to prolonged current
of the difference in the thermoelectric unbalance.
potentials developed along the wires. 47 - The Phase Sequence Voltage
40 - The Loss of Field Relay is a Relay functions upon a predetermined
relay that functions on a given or value of three-phase voltage in the
abnormally low value or failure of desired phase sequence. This relay
machine field current, or on an is used to detect under-voltage
excessive value of the reactive conditions and/or incorrect phase
component of armature current in an sequence of the incoming utility.
ac machine indicating abnormally low When this relay operates it starts
field excitation. Loss of Field is used the process of causing the system
to prevent reverse reactive power to enter Emergency Mode.
flow to the generator that would 49 - A Machine (Generator) or
cause excessive heat build up and Transformer Thermal Relay is a relay
damage the alternator windings. that functions when the temperature
A Loss of Field Relay that utilizes of a machine armature winding
the mho function is recommended for (stator) or other load-carrying winding
paralleling applications to provide or element of a machine exceeds a
superior fast acting protection, predetermined value. Thermocouple or
without nuisance tripping. In addition RTD sensors function as described in
to protecting the generator from Type 38.
reverse reactive power, the Loss of 50 - The Instantaneous Over-Current
Field Relay is utilized to prevent a Relay functions instantaneously on an
generator from operating at a leading excessive value of current or on an
power factor, whereas there is a excessive rate of current rise, thus
weakening of magnetic coupling indicating a fault in the circuit or
resulting in rotor pole slipping or apparatus being protected.
generator falling out of synchronism
due to the inability of the voltage 51 - The Timed Over-Current Relay
regulator to effectively control the is a relay with either a definite or
generator. inverse time characteristic that
functions when the current in a circuit
46 - Reverse Phase or Phase
exceeds a predetermined value.
Balance Current Relay functions when
the polyphase currents are of the This relay functions the same as the
reverse phase sequence, or when the long time trip in a breaker trip unit.
©2012 Caterpillar
This relay is commonly used in 67 - An AC Directional Over-Current

conjunction with a neutral grounding Relay functions on a desired value of
impedance to detect excessive ground AC over-current flowing in a pre-
current. In such cases it is referred to determined direction. This is commonly
as device function 51G. used across the point of common
The type (resistive or inductive) and coupling (PCC) such that no real
sizing (low or high) of neutral current will be exported to the
grounding impedance is dependent on grid/utility.
application. The impedance is 81 - The Under/Over-Frequency
commonly sized to keep a neutral to Relay responds to the frequency of
ground fault current below the full an electrical quantity, operating when
load current rating of the generator. the frequency or rate of change of
The 51G and 87G protective relay frequency exceeds or is less than a
functions, when set-up appropriately, predetermined value.
are effective at minimizing damage to 86 - The Lockout Relay is an
generator stator windings that could electrically operated, hand or
occur due to migration of shorted electrically reset, relay that functions
turns in a stator slot evolving to a to shutdown and holds equipment out
catastrophic ground fault slot fail that of service on the occurrence of
could damage the stator iron. abnormal conditions.
52 - An AC Circuit Breaker is a 87 - The Differential Relays have
device used to close and interrupt many applications in power systems.
an AC power circuit under normal The basic principle is that the current
conditions or to interrupt this circuit flowing into the relay must equal the
under fault or emergency conditions. current flowing out of the relay. The
Further details can be found in three types of differential relays are
Section 5. described below.
59 - The Over-Voltage Relay is a relay 87B - The Differential Bus Relay
that functions on a given value of over- operates on the same principle as the
voltage. This protects equipment from Generator Differential Relay. The sum
being damaged by long-term high of all currents entering and leaving the
voltage conditions and protects the bus must be equal to zero under
generator windings and field from normal conditions or if the fault is
overheating and over excitation. outside the protected zone. If there is
64S - 100% Stator Ground a fault on the bus there will be a net
Protection by Low Frequency flow of current to the bus and the
Signal Injection, used in conjunction differential relay will operate.
with a neutral grounding transformer 87T - The 87T is a Transformer
to provide superior protection Differential Relay designed as primary
in identifying stator insulation protection for power transformers
weakening, whether the generator against internal faults. This relay
is on line or off line. compares the currents entering and
leaving the protected transformer.
©2012 Caterpillar
If any imbalance is detected that is difference between the input and

not attributable to other factors the output currents. External faults have
relay provides a contract closure to relatively little effect on the balance,
isolate the power transformer and because the current in still equals the
limit damage. current out of the protected zone.
Therefore, by comparing the currents
on both sides of the protected element
or zone and detecting when these
currents are not equal, a differential
relay acts to isolate the element or zone
from the system.
The 87G typically trips a lockout
relay (Device number 86) which in
turn trips the generator breaker. For
the protective scheme in Figure 38,
6 current transformers are required.
3 CTs must be mounted on the
generator leads in the generator
housing and 3 CTs must be mounted
on the load side of the switchgear
generator circuit breaker. It is
necessary for these CTs to be sized
identically and recommended that
they be sourced from the same
manufacturer.
Figure 37 – 87T Protective Relay Scheme
87G - The 87G is a Variable
Percentage Differential Relay designed
to provide selective, high speed,
differential protection for generators.
Differential relaying is the most
selective form of fault protection
that may be applied to the individual
elements, or zones, of AC power
systems. The selectivity of differential
Figure 38 –Typical 87G Protective Relay
relaying is based on the ability of the
Scheme
relay to distinguish between an internal
fault (within the protected zone) and an 6.5.1 Utility Intertie Protective Relays
external fault. Under normal operating Utility Intertie Protective Relays are
conditions the current into the intended to protect the utility from
protected zone equals the current out having generators operating in an
of the protected zone with a net unintentional island mode while still
operating current equal to zero. Internal connected to the utility grid at the
faults upset this balance and result in a PCC. This protection is accomplished
©2012 Caterpillar
by monitoring the intertie (PCC) to the • Voltage restrained time over

utility for abnormal voltage, abnormal current (51V).
frequency, and excessive power
• Under-frequency (81U).
import/export, which can indicate a
loss of the utility supply. • Over-frequency (81O).
The relay should also provide An example of a Generator
detection of phase and ground faults Protective Relay scheme is shown
as well as current and voltage in Figure 40.
imbalance of the utility system.
A sync check function may also be
applied to supervise the closure of
the intertie breaker.
See a typical example of a Utility
Intertie Protective Relay scheme in
Figure 39.
Either the utility or the authority
having jurisdiction (AHJ) will specify
the exact site requirements.
Figure 40 – Generator Protective Relay

Scheme
Figure 39 – Utility Intertie Protective Relay

6.5.2 Test Blocks
Scheme Test blocks are intended to simulate
a fault condition so it can test the
6.5.1.1 Generator Protective Relays
protective relay and its ability to
Generator protective relaying
operate. Test blocks are mounted
schemes typically contain the
on switchboard panels for use in
following features:
conjunction with proper test
• Over-voltage (59). equipment to facilitate testing of
AC instruments, meters, and relays.
• Under-voltage (27).
• Reverse power (32).
©2012 Caterpillar
6.5.3 Surge Protection over-voltages heavily depends upon the

6.5.3.1 Transient Low Voltage Surge system and application.
Suppressor A surge arrestor is used to prevent
A Transient Voltage Surge large surges (power inconsistencies,
Suppressor (TVSS) is a device that lightning, etc.) from reaching system
attenuates (reduces in magnitude) components such generators,
random, high energy, short duration transformers, etc and ensure the
electrical power anomalies caused by safety of individuals nearby. Surge
utilities, atmospheric phenomena, or arrestors are devices that dissipate
inductive loads. Such anomalies occur excess voltage by providing a short
in the form of voltage and current circuit to the ground only when over-
spikes with durations of less than half voltage conditions exist. Surge
an AC cycle. These high-energy arrestors use spark gaps or non-
power spikes can damage sensitive conductive materials to prevent
electronic equipment such as regular electric flow from being
computers, instrumentation, and grounded. If a surge occurs, the over-
process controllers. voltage is safely shunted to the
Surge suppressors are designed to ground and the electrical equipment
divert high-energy power away from a downstream is protected.
load by providing a lower impedance Surge arrestors should be chosen
path to common point ground. Surge with care. The three classes of surge
suppressors used most often for arrestors that can be utilized are
panel-board protection have metal Distribution Class, Intermediate Class,
oxide varistors (MOVs) connected in and Station Class. There are multiple
parallel. things that need to be considered
6.5.3.2 Surge Arrestors and Surge when selecting what classification of
Capacitors arrestors to use and where they need
For medium voltage applications to be located within the system (ie.
surge arrestors and capacitors are used cost, application, grounding method).
for protection against system stresses Furthermore, the level of protection
that can be caused by conditions such provided depends upon sizing,
as lightning surges, circuit breaker placement and the particular
switching transients, arcing faults, devices/equipment within the system.
inductive and/or capacitive load Surge arrestors function best when
switching. Surge arrestors are used to located close to generator output leads.
limit the amplitude of the voltage rise
Surge Capacitors can also be used
(surge) and the surge capacitor is used
for protection. Resistor-Capacitor pairs
to reduce the rate of rise of the voltage.
can be applied to limit the rate of rise
With proper system design, the
of surge voltages in addition to
probability of these surges and their
limiting their magnitude. Surge
effects can be minimized or virtually
capacitors are less effective against
eliminated. The method of reducing the
sheer voltage magnitude, but are more
risk of damage caused by transient
effective in slowing the rate of rise. In
©2012 Caterpillar
addition cable length can be extended

to limit reflected waves. In choosing
7 METERING
capacitors, it is important to realize It is essential that critical values be
that every circuit has a resonant measured and displayed for reference
frequency and adding capacitance will and control purposes. For switchgear
change this frequency. typical metering parameters are:
• Utility metering.
• Trip unit metering.
• Generator/generator set metering.
• System metering.
• Revenue metering.
7.1 Discrete Analog vs. Virtual

Metering
Virtual metering has primarily taken
the place of discrete analog metering.
Instead of having numerous analog
meters an operator can use the HMI to
view a variety of meters on one
interface.
• Analog metering devices are
typically either + 2% or + 1%,
while digital metering accuracies
are +1/2% or +1/4%
7.2 Phase Selector Switch

The phase selector switch allows one
meter to monitor all three phases of
generator output. The phase selector
switch can be set to voltmeter,
ammeter, or a combination of the two.
7.3 Ammeter
The ammeter indicates the electrical
current flowing through the phases
where the CTs are located. With AC
generators the ammeter usually has a
5A movement and must be used with
a current transformer.
©2012 Caterpillar
7.4 Voltmeter 7.9.1 Discrete Analog vs. Virtual

Used to measure voltage, the Metering:
voltmeter is often designed for 120V Virtual metering has primarily taken
full-scale deflection and must be used the place of discrete analog metering.
with potential transformers (PTs). The Instead of having numerous analog
voltmeter designed for wall-mounted meters, an operator can use the HMI
switchgear can take the full voltage of to view a variety of meters on one
the system up to and including 600V. interface.
On floor-standing switchgear, the Analog metering devices are
voltmeter works on full voltage of typically either + 2% or + 1% while
208V maximum. For voltage beyond digital metering accuracies are
208V, PTs are used. +1/2% or +1/4%.
7.5 Frequency Meter

This monitors the frequency of the
AC sine wave of the source or bus.
7.6 Wattmeter
The wattmeter indicates
instantaneously the kilowatt load
of the source, bus, or load.
7.7 Kilowatt-Hour Meter

Similar to the unit used by utility
companies, this component maintains a
running total of the power produced or
consumed by the source or the load.
7.8 Power Factor Meter

This indicates the instantaneous
ratio between true power in kilowatts
(kW) to apparent power in kilovolt
amperes (kVA).
7.9 Elapsed Time Meter

This is used to total the hours of
equipment operation.
©2012 Caterpillar
8 ANNUNCIATION Health care electrical systems

usually consist of two parts:
Annunciation is the means by which
a system notifies the user/operator of 1. Non-essential or normal electrical
critical system operations and alarms systems.
when conditions are approached 2. Essential electrical systems.
which could result in system failure. All electrical power in a health care
In addition to audible alarming a facility is important though some
variety of techniques are used for loads are not critical to the safe
annunciation including the following: operation of the facility. Non-essential
• LED annunciation. loads such as general lighting, general
lab equipment, non-critical service
• Remote alarm annunciation. equipment, etc. are not required to
• Lamp display annunciation. be fed from an alternate source of
Several standards exist that require power.
annunciation to identify specified NFPA 99 breaks health care facilities
system conditions; the most into three types:
commonly used are NFPA 99 and
NFPA 110. • Type 1 - essential electrical
systems.
8.1 NFPA 99 • Type 2 and type 3 - type 1
NFPA 99 is the standard for heath requirements meet or exceed
care facilities. Health care facilities are the requirements for type 2 and
defined as “buildings or portions of type 3 facilities.
buildings in which medical, dental, Description Definition EES Type
psychiatric, nursing, obstetrical, or
Hospitals NFPA 99 Chap. 13 Type 1
surgical care are provided.” Due to
Nursing Homes NFPA 99 Chap. 17 Type 2
the critical nature of the care being
Limited Care
provided at these facilities and their Facilities NFPA 99 Chap. 18 Type 2
increasing dependence on electrical
equipment for preservation of life, Ambulatory
NFPA 99 Chap. 14 Type 3 1
Surgical Facilities
health care facilities have special
Other Health
requirements for the design of their Care Facilities
NFPA 99 Chap. 14 Type 3 1
electrical distribution systems. These
1) If electrical life support or critical care areas are
requirements are much more stringent
present, then facility is classified as type 1.
than commercial or industrial facilities.
Figure 41 – NFPA 99 Health Care Facility
Types
The NFPA 99 standard should be
consulted for the most up to date
requirements for system annunciation.
©2012 Caterpillar
8.2 NFPA 110 9 PARALLEL OPERATION

NFPA 110 is the standard for Many situations can be optimally
emergency and standby power handled by operating two or more
systems. This standard controls generators sets in parallel on a
the assembly, installation, and common bus instead of dispersed
performance of electrical power multiple single units or a central,
systems used to supply critical and larger, single unit. An existing
essential needs during outages of distribution system itself may not
the primary power source. lend itself to being split into several
sections and handled by separate non-
The NFPA 110 standard should be
parallel units. Also, when loads are
consulted for the most up to date
expected to increase substantially,
requirements for system annunciation.
provisions can be made to add more
8.3 Site Specific Components generator sets in parallel as the loads
increase. The cost of switchgear for
In addition to the standard parallel operation of multiple
requirements there are number of generators is greater per generator
other components the customer may than for single generators; however,
want to annunciate. This could a common master section that will
include parameters of a fuel tank, accommodate additional parallel-
generator temperature metering, operated generators can help keep
remote circuit breaker positions, fire the cost down for adding generators
detection systems, and security if they are initially planned.
systems.
The most important reason for
paralleling in a standby system is
increased reliability. When a part of
the emergency load is deemed critical
it may be desirable to have more
than one generator capable of being
connected to that load. When
there is a normal source outage all
generators in the system are started.
The probability of having a generator
set start and achieve nominal voltage
and frequency is increased in
proportion to the number of sets
available. The first set ready to handle
the essential load does so. As
additional generators are running and
connected to the bus, the remaining
loads are connected in declining order
of priority.
©2012 Caterpillar
9.1 Isochronous Why Is Droop Necessary?

Isochronous means having an In a system without droop, a load
equal time difference or occurring increase will cause the engine to
simultaneously. For electric power slow down.
generation isochronous is considered The governor will respond by
flat frequency or 0% generator droop. increasing the fuel until the engine
speed has returned to the original
9.2 Droop speed.
Droop has many uses and
Due to the combined properties
applications in the control of engines.
of inertia and power lag, the engine
In non-isochronous speed control
speed will continue to increase
systems, engine-speed control would
beyond the original speed setting,
be unstable without some form of
causing an overshoot in speed.
droop.
The governor again will respond to
Droop is defined as a decrease in decrease speed to correct for the
speed setting as the load increases. overshoot. It will over-correct the
Droop is expressed as a percentage speed in the other direction causing
of the original speed setting from undershoot. This overcorrection of
no load to full load. The normal speed in both directions (instability)
recommended percent of droop is 3% will amplify until the engine shuts
to 5%; a minimum of 2.5% is down on over-speed.
required to maintain stability in a It is impossible to have stable
speed-droop governor. Droop is parallel operation if two or more units
calculated with the following formula: are set for isochronous (zero speed
No _ Load _ Speed − Full _ Load _ Rated droop) operation, except with an
% Droop = X 100
Full _ Load _ Rated _ Speed electric load-proportioning governor
If, instead of a decrease in speed (see 9.5.4).
setting an increase takes place, the
governor shows negative droop. 9.3 Synchronizing
Negative droop will cause instability Synchronization, as applied to the
in a governor. electric power generation, is the
Simple hydro-mechanical governors matching of the output voltage
have the droop function built in and waveform of one alternating current
always operate in droop. More electrical generator with the voltage
complex governors include temporary waveform of another alternating
droop which returns the speed setting current electrical system. For two
to its original speed setting after the systems to be synchronized, five
engine has recovered from a change conditions must be matched:
in speed or load. The temporary droop • The direction of rotation of these
is known as “compensation.” phases.
• The voltage amplitudes of the
two systems.
©2012 Caterpillar
• The frequencies of the two phase matching, must be accounted

systems. for each time the tie-breaker is closed,
• The phase angle of the voltage of paralleling the generator sets or
the two systems. systems.
The first two conditions are 9.3.1 Rotation of Phases
determined when the equipment is Each generator set or system being
specified, installed, and wired. A paralleled must be connected so all
voltage regulator usually controls phases rotate in the same direction.
the output voltage of a generator If the phase rotation is not the same,
automatically. The last two no more than one phase can be
conditions, frequency matching and synchronized (see Figure 42).
GENERATOR A 120
120 120
C
0° 120° 200°
A C B
A 120 B
120 120
Figure 42 – Phase Rotation
9.3.2 Voltage Match reactive currents and lowered system

The voltages generated by generator efficiency (see Figure 43).
sets or systems being paralleled must A) Generator
be within a small percentage of the Resulting
same value, usually 1% to 5%.
Changing the excitation voltage can B) Generator
control the output voltage of a

synchronous generator (normally done
by the voltage regulator.)
If two synchronous generators of
unequal voltage are paralleled, the
combined voltage will have a value
different from the voltage generated
Figure 43 – Voltage Difference in Generator
by either of the generators. The
to Generator
difference in voltages results in
©2012 Caterpillar
If, on the other hand, a synchronous

generator is paralleled to a larger system Generator
such as a utility, a difference in voltages Bu
before paralleling will not change the
voltage of the bus (see Figure 44).
In this instance, the power factor of
the generator will be changed. If the
generator voltage is much lower than
the bus voltage, the generator could
be under excited causing generator
stator heating. An induction generator
needs no voltage regulator because its Figure 45 – Frequency Difference
output voltage will automatically
match the voltage of the system If the oncoming generator is a
supplying its field voltage. synchronous type, this match is
normally accomplished by controlling
Resulting Voltage the speed of the prime mover driving
and Bus Voltage the oncoming generator.
Generator Voltage
If the oncoming unit is an induction
generator, frequency is determined
automatically by the generator field
voltage. Field voltage is supplied by
the system to which the generator set
is being paralleled; however, the field
Figure 44 – Voltage Difference in Generator
voltage is not applied to the generator
to Bus until the generator breaker is closed.
The generator must be kept close to
9.3.3 Frequency Match synchronous speed prior to breaker
The frequency of the oncoming closure. A speed below synchronous
generator must be nearly identical will cause the oncoming generator to
to that of the system it is being act as a motor and a speed over 1.5%
paralleled with, usually within 0.2% above synchronous will cause the
(see Figure 45). induction machine to generate at full
capacity.
9.3.4 Phase Angle Match
The phase relationship between the
voltages of the systems to be paralleled
must be very close prior to paralleling.
This match usually is within plus or
minus 10 degrees. If the oncoming
generator is a synchronous type, phase
matching, like frequency matching, is
accomplished by controlling the speed
of the oncoming generator’s prime
©2012 Caterpillar
mover. If the machine to be paralleled mechanical or electrical stress will

with the system is an induction result when the paralleling breaker is
generator, the phase match will be closed. Under the worst conditions, the
automatic, since the system is voltages between the two systems can
supplying the generator field voltage be twice the peak operating voltage of
one of the systems, or one system can
Bus place a dead short on the other.
Extremely high currents can result from
this, which put stress on both systems.
These stresses can result in bent
drive shafts or broken couplings. Under
some conditions, power surges can be
started which will build on each other
until both generating systems are
Generator disabled; these conditions are extreme.
Stress and damage can occur in varying
Figure 46 – Phase Angle Match degrees. The degrading effects depend
For the synchronous generator, on the type of generator, the type of
voltage, speed/frequency, and phase driver, the electrical load, and how
must be matched each time before the poorly the systems are synchronized
paralleling breakers are closed. when the breakers are closed.
If the oncoming generator is an Modern systems often supply power
induction-type with the armature to sophisticated and sensitive
rotating at synchronous speed, no electronic equipment. Accurate
difficulties will occur when the synchronization is necessary to
paralleling breakers are closed. prevent expensive down time and
Currently, most installations use replacement costs.
synchronous generators. The
advantage of synchronous over 9.4 Methods of Paralleling
induction generators is that Where two generator sets are in
synchronous systems allow parallel, they must have the same
independent operation without a utility voltage, phase sequence frequencies,
or other AC power source. Induction and their output voltages must be in
generators cannot operate without an phase. When paralleling is required
external AC source. and current will exceed 1200A, the
Why Is Synchronization Important? floor-standing control panel is the
proper switchgear choice. Four
When two or more electrical methods of paralleling are available for
generating sets or systems are the floor-standing panel, ranging from
paralleled to the same power completely manual to automatic.
distribution system, the power sources
must be synchronized properly. Without 9.4.1 Manual Paralleling
proper synchronization of the oncoming This system consists of a governor
unit or system, power surges and speed toggle switch (on units
©2012 Caterpillar
equipped with synchronizing motors), met. If there is a difference between

two synchronizing lamps, an on/off the frequencies or voltages of the
toggle switch, and reverse power generators being paralleled there will be
relay. an undesirable line voltage disturbance
As stated in the synchronization when the incoming generator circuit
section for proper paralleling: breaker is closed. Extensive damage
may result if generators are paralleled
1. Phase sequence must be the same. while the voltages are out of phase. In
2. Frequencies must be the same. order to manually parallel generator
3. Voltages must be the same. sets, it is necessary to use one of two
methods: (1) synchronizing lamps or (2)
Engine governors must have speed a synchroscope.
droop of which one can be
isochronous. The exception to this is Example – Synchronizing Lamps:
electronic load sharing governors. The dark lamp method is most
4. Generators must have voltage droop commonly used as the indicator of
or cross-current compensation. when to close the incoming circuit
breaker. This method lights the
The condition of the units being synchronizing lamps when there is a
correctly phased or operating with potential between the phases of the
voltages in phase means that the incoming and the online generators.
individual sine waves appear in This means that when all the lamps
sequence. Voltages must be capable of are dark the generators are
being superimposed so instantaneous synchronized. Steps for synchronizing
voltage differences do not exist in the an offline unit with an online
same phase of units being paralleled. generator are shown below.
To meet the second and fourth
conditions the engine governors must
be adjusted to give similar frequency
under conditions of proportionate load
sharing. If one set is trying to operate
at a lower frequency than the others
the active or kW load will not be
proportionately shared and motoring
current will flow to the lower
frequency machine to make it
run at synchronous speed.
There are many manual-paralleling
methods in use; a common method of Figure 47 – Synchronizing Lights
manual paralleling is through the use 1. The online circuit breaker should
of synchronizing lamps. be closed and the offline
To parallel a generator set with one or (incoming) circuit breaker should
more generator sets already on the line, be open.
the first three conditions must first be
©2012 Caterpillar
2. With the incoming unit governor The operator then places the
control lever in the full-governed synchronizing switch in its on
speed position, turn on the position, energizing the synchronizing
synchronizing lamps switch relay and the synchronizing lamps.
and observe the lamps for the The synchronizing relay compares
frequency at which they flash. voltage, frequency, and the phase
By means of the governor control angle of the incoming generator set
vary the incoming engine speed with the live bus. It also provides a
until the synchronizing lamps signal to illuminate the ready-to-close
come on and fade out about six lamp and energize the circuit breaker
to ten times a minute. Always under-voltage device to prevent the
have the incoming generator circuit breaker from tripping open.
initially slightly higher in
frequency; doing this will assure 9.4.3 Semiautomatic Paralleling
that the incoming generator set This group includes all the
will absorb a small amount of equipment found in the manual
load instead of consuming power paralleling option plus a synchronizing
when initially connected to the check relay, circuit breaker position
bus. indicating lamps, electric motor
operator on the molded case circuit
3. To put the generator set online breaker (with power provided from
and in-sync with the online the generator potential), and circuit
source wait until the lamps are breaker open/close toggle.
dark and then very quickly, while
the lamps are still dark, close the The semiautomatic paralleling
circuit breaker. The incoming functions are essentially the same as
generator is now in parallel with permissive paralleling. With electric
the bus and online generator. motor operated breakers the operator
places the circuit breaker control
9.4.2 Permissive Paralleling switch in its closed position. When
This option includes manual conditions for paralleling are verified
paralleling, a synchronizing check the synchronizing check relay provides
relay, an under-voltage trip on the a signal causing the circuit breaker to
breaker (instead of a shunt trip), automatically close.
and a ready-to-close indicating lamp.
9.4.4 Automatic Paralleling
This attachment allows Automatic paralleling combines the
inexperienced operators to parallel functions described in sections 9.4.1,
generator sets only when the 9.4.2, and 9.4.3 and accomplishes
incoming generator and the live bus them without operator intervention.
are within predetermined limits. The This is accomplished through the use
incoming generator set is started by of automatic synchronizing devices.
an operator and brought up to
operating frequency and voltage as
determined by the panel meters.
©2012 Caterpillar
9.5 Paralleling Components Rotation of the indicator in the slow

(counterclockwise) direction indicates
9.5.1 Synchroscope the oncoming generator set is at a
A synchroscope (shown in Figure 48) lower frequency than the online
is an instrument used for indicating supply. If the indicator is rotating
whether two AC generators or other in the fast (clockwise) direction it
AC voltage sources are synchronized in indicates the oncoming (paralleling)
time phase with each other. The generator set is at a higher frequency
indicator is typically a rotating pointer than the online supply.
device on a 360 degree scale. The
direction the pointer rotates indicates 9.5.2 Sync Check Relay
whether the frequency of the incoming A sync check relay monitors voltage
generator is slower or faster than the on both sides of a circuit breaker and
frequency of the online generator. determines that proper phase angle
Similarly, the frequency at which the and voltage exist prior to closing
pointer rotates indicates the magnitude the circuit breaker.
of difference in speed between the Sync check relays will only allow
generator sets. For paralleling, engine circuit breakers to close once
speed is changed until the specified phase angle conditions have
synchroscope pointer rotates very been satisfied for a set period of time.
slowly (less than 10 rpm), again
keeping the incoming generator set 9.5.3 Automatic Synchronizer
faster than the online generator set. An automatic synchronizer closes
When the pointer is at the 0 position, the generator breaker at the point of
the circuit breaker can be closed (the synchronism. It initiates the close
units are synchronized). command in advance of phase
coincidence using breaker closing
time and slip frequency.
9.5.4 Load Sharing Modules
The function of a load-sharing
module is to proportionally share real
load between two or more generator
sets while the system frequency is
held constant. The load-sharing
module provides isochronous and
droop load-sharing capability for
engines in a generator set application.
Figure 48 – Synchroscope
©2012 Caterpillar
Figure 49 – Typical System Using a Load Sharing Module
reactive (kVAR) load sharing control

9.6 Island Mode Operation
system must be used.
When multiple generators are
paralleled on a common bus and 9.6.1 Real (kW) Load Sharing
isolated from the utility, the individual The control system receives input
engine governors are tasked with from current transformers (CTs) and
maintaining system frequency while potential transformers (PTs) to
the individual generator voltage calculate real (kW) power output from
regulators are tasked with maintaining the generator.
system voltage. As load is applied to the generator
This is different from the scenario alternating current flows through the
where the generators are paralleled to generator cables and induces current
an infinite bus (see Section 9.7.1) in into the CTs. The current in the CTs
which the utility grid sets system increases proportionally with the load
frequency and voltage. on the generator (see Figure 50). The
generator voltage regulator maintains
In a system with multiple paralleled constant voltage throughout the load
generators the independent controls range.
for speed and voltage would
counteract each other and decrease
system stability so a real (kW) and
©2012 Caterpillar
5 Amps An example to illustrate the effect of

the voltage regulator on the generator
system can be seen using two
generators and a load. If the open
Current circuit voltage is exactly the same on
From both generators they will divide the
CTS load equally when they are paralleled
(Figure 51). Differences between open
circuit generator voltages will, upon
paralleling, result in circulating
currents (Figure 52).
0 Load on Generator 100%
IL = 100A
Figure 50 – Current Sensing I1 = 50A I2 = 50A
The control system generates an

Generator Generator
output which biases the speed G1 G2
Load
1 MW
control. The bias signal is fed into the 480 Volts 480 Volts
closed loop governor speed control to

balance real power proportionally
among all paralleled generators.
9.6.2 Circulating Currents in Paralleled Figure 51 – Paralleled Generators –
Balanced Voltage
Generators
Circulating currents exist in I3 = 100A
paralleled generators when multiple I1 = 50A I2 = 150A
generators are attempting to operate

at different voltages although they are Generator
G1
Generator
G2
Load
connected through the common bus. 479 Volts 481 Volts
1 MW
This current will exist when the

internal excitation voltage produced
by each generator is slightly different
but the terminal or bus voltage is the Figure 52 – Paralleled Generators –
same. These circulating currents Unbalanced Voltage
reduce the effective excitation of one In practice the manual, precise
or more generators and increase the matching of voltages is not possible.
effective excitation of others. Some means must be provided to
Generator voltage is directly related make load sharing between paralleled
to exciter output; hence an attempted generators simple to control.
generator voltage difference is the
Because circulating current or load
result of different exciter output.
unbalance is the result of voltage
The voltage regulator controls exciter
mismatch, the voltage regulator will
output. Control of circulating currents
act as the control system using
is accomplished by biasing the voltage
paralleling compensation circuits
regulator.
called reactive droop compensation or
reactive cross-current compensation.
©2012 Caterpillar
The principle of operation of the To parallel two generators voltage

reactive droop circuit can be described should be matched prior to closing the
by the curve in Figure 53. breaker to minimize the current surge
at breaker closing.
IL = 100A
I1 = 50A I2 = 50A
Generator Generator
Load
G1 G2
100 A
480 Volts 480 Volts
Figure 53 – Reactive Droop Curves

Using a regulator designed to Figure 54 – Paralleled Generators –
maintain precise voltage regulation a Balanced Voltage
circuit is added that accepts a current
With voltages balanced (Figure 54)
signal derived from the generator’s
and 100A load, each generator will
output. This current signal is
supply its share of the load. If G2
combined with the generator’s
voltage is increased its output current
sensing voltage signal to develop a
will try to increase. This increase
vector-summed voltage proportional
will cause a voltage droop which
to reactive load.
counteracts the voltage increase.
For example, if voltage decreases G1 will see its output current
from 480V to 458V from no load decrease resulting in a droop circuit
to rated reactive (kVAR) load, the action to increase voltage. The result
voltage droop is –4.3% droop. If two is a load balance control action that
generators are operated in parallel works to hold loading balanced when
with their droop curves set the same two or more generators are operating
and their voltage set points adjusted in parallel.
to proportionally share the reactive
9.6.2.1 Cross-current Compensation
load, any unbalance that would
Cross-current compensation is a
increase the load on one machine and
method of controlling the reactive
decrease the load on the other would
power supplied by AC generators in a
cause the droop circuits to change the
paralleling system so they share
voltage set points in a direction to
equally the total reactive load on the
bring the load back into balance.
bus without significant voltage droop.
With droop compensation, the bus
voltage will droop with changing For droop operation, the droop
reactive load. adjustment is used so each generator
droops similar amounts at its rated
By building this characteristic into
load; then the generators can be
the regulator of each generator
paralleled and each generator can be
operating in parallel, sharing of the
adjusted to carry its proportional share
load is controllable.
of the reactive load.
©2012 Caterpillar
For generators paralleled with should be adjusted for a smaller

reactive differential compensation, resistance so more current can flow
equal currents are needed to cancel through the resistor. The burden
opposite currents so that no droop in resistor should only be adjusted for
the generating system is present. a small amount.
The unequal currents presented by Decreasing the burden resistance
the current transformers will force the causes the response of the generator
cross-current loop to operate at an to be less sensitive to imbalances in
imbalance and maintain circulating the loop due to reactive loading.
currents. To decrease the imbalance The burden resistor should only be
of current through the cross-current adjusted a small amount so as to
loop, all burden resistors should be set maintain proper control of circulating
at maximum resistance; the burden currents and also to decrease the
resistor across the current transformer current imbalance of the loop due
with the smallest secondary current to the current transformers.
©2012 Caterpillar
Figure 55 – Cross-Current Compensation
the utility voltage and frequency are

9.7 Utility Paralleled Operation
not changed when real and reactive
9.7.1 Infinite Utility Bus currents change at the PCC.
One way to simplify the analysis of An example is a generator connected
utility parallel operation is to adopt the to a utility grid with a generator size of
concept of an “infinite bus” for the 100kW and the connection point being
utility grid. This assumption can be an industrial plant served by a 10MVA
used if the capacity of the utility grid transformer. With the transformer being
at a point of interconnection is at fed from a line having a capacity of
least 10 times greater than the 150MVA any changes in load flow
capacity of equipment connected at caused by fuel or excitation changes at
PCC. The concept holds true when the 100kW generator will have no
©2012 Caterpillar
measurable effect on the voltage and bus voltage. Further decreases in

frequency of the transformer bus voltage would overload the
secondary. This is also referred to as generator.
the stiffness of the grid. 2. An increase in bus voltage can
cause leading power factor
9.7.2 VAR/Power Factor Regulation conditions with the associated
When synchronous generators are danger of the machine pulling out
tied to a utility bus conditions may of synchronization.
occur where the transmission or To minimize the possibility of either
distribution voltage may be sensitive to scenario occurring, the voltage
local load fluctuations. The bus voltage regulator is often adjusted for
may be normal in the early morning but operation in a “safe” region rather
then drops progressively through the than a region that utilizing the
day as system loading increases. In generator's full kVA capability.
other cases high reactance in the
transmission and distribution line can VAR/power factor (PF) controllers
cause undesirable voltage drops with regulate VAR flow or power factor
increased system loading. This reduces when operating in parallel with
the available voltage at the load forcing another power system. The excitation
local area generators to supply more is adjusted automatically to
VARs into the utility bus to meet the compensate for bus voltage changes.
demands of the system. Depending The VAR/PF controller senses
upon the impedance of the generator output voltage and current
transmission or distribution line at the and provides an output signal that is
area of the local generating station and electronically injected into the voltage
the voltage regulation of the system regulator.
bus, a smaller generator tied into the The VAR/PF controller has two
utility bus can become severely modes of operation:
overloaded or under excited. The • VAR mode.
severity depends upon the magnitude • Power Factor mode.
and direction of the system voltage When VARs are controlled the
change. voltage regulator changes its output
The regulator’s ability to until the programmed reactive load
compensate for large changes in current is attained. When the power
bus voltage can be exceeded. factor is controlled, the regulator
Two examples serve to illustrate changes the excitation until the
typical problem areas: selected power factor is obtained.
A sample generator capability
1. A generator equipped with a
(reactive capability) curve showing
voltage regulator adjusted for 4%
the engine limits with relation to
droop can have a variation in VAR
VAR and PF is shown in Figure 56.
(volt amperes reactive) load from
0 to 100% with a 4% decrease in
©2012 Caterpillar
Figure 56 – Generator Capability Curve
©2012 Caterpillar
10 APPLICATIONS of a power outage, the standby

switchgear effectively switches from
10.1 Standby utility power to generator power.
Standby generators are typically
Standby switchgear is used for operated isochronously.
backup power generation. In the event
Figure 57 – Typical Emergency Power System with ATS & UPS
10.1.1 Automatic Transfer Switch include a contact used to start the

Integration engine when the emergency power
The automatic transfer switch (ATS) source is an engine generator. When
is a device that transfers electrical the generator reaches the rated voltage
loads between two independent and frequency the ATS switches its
sources of power by using either main contacts from the normal source
automatic or manual controls. to the emergency source. When the
normal source is restored the ATS re-
The ATS includes sensing circuits to transfers the load circuits back to the
detect when a failure of the normal normal source.
power source occurs. The ATS controls
©2012 Caterpillar
An ATS may include discrete or data UPSs can also be used to perform
communications to the switchgear for an orderly engine shutdown to
annunciation of status and integration minimize restart damage.
of control including:
Static UPS systems use static
• Timer settings. components to provide quality power
• Pickup/dropout settings. to critical equipment independent of
the quality or availability of the normal
• Testing functions. power source. The simplest systems
• Alarm functions. consist of a rectifier (converter), a DC
• Transfer-inhibit control. storage battery bank, and an inverter.
10.1.2 Uninterruptible Power Supply The rectifier, sometimes called a

Integration converter, is a device that converts
An uninterruptible power supply AC current to DC current.
(UPS) system is an assembly of The inverter uses solid state
equipment used with electrical loads technology to convert DC to a
sensitive to power source disturbances waveform that is then filtered so it is
or that require absolute continuity of suitable for powering the critical load.
power. The UPS can store energy for a
A bank of storage batteries “floats”
period of time during power outages.
online to provide seamless DC power
The UPS continually conditions power
to the inverter in the event of power
and if the normal power source is not
source loss to the rectifier. The
available the UPS provides power to the
batteries get their restoring charge
critical load until the standby power
and standby float charge from the
generation can come online. The
rectifier’s DC output.
generator set should be sized to the
UPS rating, not the load. The DC output of the rectifier
provides two functions during the
Continuity and isolation from power
time when an AC power source is
source disturbances can be assured
available at its terminals:
by using either a rotary or a static
UPS system. • It provides regulated DC to
the inverter for powering the
Rotary systems use a motor-generator
critical load.
set to isolate the critical load combined
with kinetic inertia storage technique or • It maintains the “state of
batteries to carry the critical load while charge” on the bank of DC
cranking a diesel engine. batteries, including recharging
if the state of charge has
Static systems isolate critical load
been depleted by a recent
through solid-state devices which use
normal power outage.
batteries to bridge power interruptions
until a generator set is available to 10.2 Parallel with Utility
power the system.
Paralleling generators with the grid
is typically done for economic
©2012 Caterpillar
reasons. Paralleled generators can control” or “import tracking”. Refer

also be used as standby. to Figure 59 for an illustration of this
control. If the power requirements
Common applications/modes of
fluctuate widely a series of generator
operation include:
sets can be used and brought online
• Base load. as required. Since the customer
• Import/export. remains paralleled to the utility the
demands made on the engines for
• Peak shaving.
this type are similar to base loading.
• Zero power transfer.
Reliability is the chief concern for
10.2.1 Base Load these customers; utilities will often
The least demanding power manage- invoke demand charge penalties each
ment type on an engine is base time they are called upon to supply
loading. The generator operates at a power.
constant load and the utility imports
power when the load exceeds the
generator output. The user can also
export power to the utility if the load
is below the output of the generator.
Figure 58 shows a base loading
system and indicates when power
would be imported or exported.
Since overloads are handled by the
utility and the generator set is Figure 59 – Zero Import/Zero Export Control
operating at a constant load, size and
10.2.3 Peak Shaving
engine response time are not as
Figure 60 shows how a utility
crucial as in peak shaving.
customer can qualify for a discounted
rate by not allowing the power
demand to be above 500kW. Any
power generated over 500kW is
supplied by the customer’s generator.
Thus, the customer “shaves” the
peaks from the utilities’ responsibility.
Peak shaving can be very demanding
on an engine; it must be able to start
quickly and automatically parallel to
Figure 58 – Base Loading the utility. The response time of the
engine is crucial because of the load
10.2.2 Zero Import/Zero Export
fluctuations.
The load management type (in
which the customer supplies all the
electrical needs to the facility), while
still paralleling with the utility, is
called “zero import/zero export
©2012 Caterpillar
11 MISCELLANEOUS
11.1 Distributed Generation
Distributed generation produces
electricity from many small energy
sources. It has also been called onsite
generation, dispersed generation,
embedded generation, decentralized
generation, decentralized energy, or
distributed energy.
Figure 60 – Peak Shaving
Distributed generation reduces the
10.2.4 Zero Power Transfer amount of energy lost in transmitting
Zero power transfer is the action of electricity because the electricity is
opening the point of common coupling generated very near where it is used,
with no power flow going through it. perhaps even in the same building.
The entire load is transferred from one Typical distributed power sources
power source to the other: standby to have low maintenance, low pollution
normal or normal to standby. and high efficiencies.
10.3 Prime 11.2 Site Conditions
In a prime power application where
there is no other source of power 11.2.1 Altitude Correction
available, the generator sets are the Above 3000 feet both insulation and
only source of power. Generators are current carrying capacity are affected.
operated isochronously. For such applications, the published
ratings of circuit breakers are
modified by using factors found
in manufacturers’ technical
specifications or in NEMA standards.
11.2.2 Temperature Compensation
Temperature affects the point at
which the thermal-type circuit breaker
trips on overload’ the higher the
ambient temperature the lower the
current at which the breaker trips.
Extremely high temperatures can
also damage the control panels.
Various manufacturers market
insulating sprays to prevent corrosion
and other sprays to remove moisture
and terminals.
©2012 Caterpillar
11.2.3 Humidity
High humidity has a deteriorating
12 MAINTAINING
effect on instruments, apparatus, and SWITCHGEAR
insulation in generator control panels. To ensure trouble free and reliable
As mentioned above, insulating sprays operation, switchgear should be given
are available from the factory to care, and a regular maintenance
remove moisture and protect program should be established per
switchgear equipment. manufacturers' maintenance
In addition to insulating sprays, schedules and procedures.
space heaters are often used to
reduce moisture inside generators, 12.1 Planned Maintenance
switchgear, and control panels. Frequency of maintenance operations
These space heaters commonly will depend on the location and the
use thermostats or humidistats to frequency of operation of the circuit
automatically reduce moisture and breakers. In extremely dirty atmos-
are typically connected to the pheres it may be advisable to clean and
normal AC power source. inspect the equipment every one to two
months. Under normal conditions a
semi-annual inspection of the equip-
ment is satisfactory although if the
circuit breakers are operated frequently
it may be advisable to inspect and
service them more frequently.
Routine maintenance of the
switchgear should involve cleaning
of the structure and especially the
insulating supports for the bus.
• All electrical connections should
be checked to make sure that bolts
and terminal screws are tight.
• Relays should be tested in
accordance with the
manufacturer’s instructions.
• Megohmeter tests may be made to
check the insulation of both the
primary circuits and the control
circuits. Records of these readings
should be kept; a low megohmeter
reading may not indicate trouble
but a reading which has been
falling steadily over a period of
time indicates that trouble is
©2012 Caterpillar
developing and corrective action 12.3 Safety

should be taken.
Safety is one of the most important
Care of the circuit breakers involves considerations with switchgear
periodic inspection, cleaning, and planning and maintenance. It requires
lubrication. Frequency of servicing a periodic review of all equipment
will depend on conditions of the and operations by a qualified, safety-
atmosphere and frequency of minded, and trained team. The team
operation. Breakers, which are must know and be familiar with all of
operated several times daily, should the equipment they operate.
be serviced more frequently.
Whether high-voltage lines or feeders
However, breakers which are not
should be grounded after being de-
required to be operated for long
energized so that men can safely work
periods of time should be opened and
on them depends upon the qualifica-
closed several times every two or
tions of the men doing the grounding,
three weeks to burnish the contacts
since it is necessary for the line to be
and make sure that all moving parts
dead before it is grounded. The hazards
operate freely. When servicing, make
are great and the consequences are
sure all bolts are tight.
very serious if energized.
When possible, check the over-
current trip devices to be sure they 12.3.1 NFPA 70E
are operating properly. With static trip NFPA 70E is the Standard for
devices, a function test of the over- Electrical Safety Requirements for
current trip device can be made with Employee Workplaces. This standard
very little equipment. Devices are gives guidelines, which should be
available from manufacturers which used to protect work personnel from
can also be used to check calibration shock and arc flash/blast.
and timing; these devices are Shock:
relatively inexpensive. Equipment for Shock can cause immediate:
testing magnetically operated trip
devices is much more expensive. For • Muscle contraction.
this reason, testing of these magnetic • Tingling.
trip devices often is not practical; • Pain.
however, they should be inspected
• Difficulty in breathing.
to see that parts move freely.
• Dizziness.
Where dashpots are used for timing,
they should be inspected to be sure • Surface burns.
that the oil is clean and it flows freely • Internal tissue burns.
through the orifice. Shock can also cause long term:
12.2 Spare Parts • Memory loss.
Depending on the criticality of the • Nervous disorders.
application, ample supply of spare • Chemical imbalances.
parts may be recommended. • Damage to vital organs.
©2012 Caterpillar
Surface burns are caused by NFPA 70E defines boundaries around

entrance and exit of electrical currents equipment with personnel restrictions
through the body resulting in 1st to 3rd for each level of boundaries. The
degree burns. Internal tissue burns are boundaries defined are:
3rd degree burns caused by current, in 1. Limited approach boundary.
excess of 1.5 amps, flowing through
a. Entered only by qualified
organs of the body. This affects the
persons or unqualified
internal organs and is typically fatal.
persons that have been
The primary means NFPA 70E uses advised and are escorted by
to prevent shock is: a qualified person
1. Placing circuits in electrically 2. Restricted approach boundary.
safe working conditions by
a. Entered only by qualified
locking out and tagging out
persons required to use
all sources
shock protection techniques
2. Verifying that no electrical and personnel protective
energy is present in the circuits. equipment (PPE).
Arc Flash/Blast: 3. Prohibited approach boundary.
Arc flash/blast occurs when a. Entered only by qualified
insulation or isolation between persons requiring same
electrical conductors is breached and protection as if direct
can no longer withstand the applied contact with live part.
voltage. As personnel work on or near
4. Flash protection boundary.
energized conductors or circuits,
movement near, or contact with a. Linear distance to prevent
the equipment, or a failure of the any more than 2nd degree
equipment may cause a phase-to- burns from a potential
ground and/or a phase-to-phase fault. arc-flash.
Arc temperatures can reach up to For compliance with NFPA 70E,
35,000F. Affects of arc flash on flash hazard analysis must be
personnel can be: conducted on the system. The
• Radiation burns. analysis shall determine operating
voltage, personnel protective
• Arc eye.
equipment, and the shock protection
• Hearing/brain function damage. boundaries by using tables within the
• Shrapnel injuries. standard.
NFPA 70E is designed to protect Other important standards outlined
personnel when equipment is under in NFPA 70E are:
normal conditions: 1. Labeling equipment.
1. Panel covers are in place. 2. Equipment de-energization.
2. Equipment plugged in normally. 3. Personnel protection
3. Designed protection in place. safeguards.
©2012 Caterpillar
13 GLOSSARY sources being in parallel is typically less

than 100 milliseconds.
OF TERMS DGPS (Distributed Generation
Alternator: Power System):
A device for converting mechanical Typically a local engine generator
energy into alternating current set and automation connected to the
electrical energy; it may also be called utility system to peak shave or export
an AC or synchronous generator. power.
Arc Extinguishers: EPS (Emergency Power System):
Confine and extinguish the arc which Provides emergency power sources
will be drawn between contacts each and emergency distribution to down-
time they interrupt current. stream loads.
ATS (Automatic Transfer Switch) Emergency Standby Power
A switch designed to sense the loss Application:
of one power source and
Typical usage is 50 hours per year
automatically transfer the load
with a maximum of 200 hours per
to another source of power.
year. Generators can be applied at
Bias Control: their standby rating with a typical
Bias is direct current (DC) signal variable load factor of 70%.
applied between two points for the Feeder Breaker Controls:
purpose of controlling engine speed Automation controls to allow control
or generator voltage. of the distribution feeder devices for
Circuit Breaker: load shed/load add control and
A mechanical switching device monitoring.
capable of making, carrying, and Generator:
breaking currents under normal circuit A machine for converting
conditions. It is also capable of mechanical energy into electrical
making and carrying for a specified energy. The electrical energy may
time and breaking currents under be direct current (DC) or alternating
specified abnormal circuit conditions current (AC).
such as those of a short circuit.
Generator Demand Priority:
Closed-Transition Transfer (Make- These controls automatically match
Before-Break): the online engine generator capacity
A transfer between sources that to the load to avoid unnecessary
provides momentary paralleling of both engine generator set operation when
power sources during a transfer in loads are low. This is alternatively
either direction. This results in no called Load Sense Load Demand.
interruption of power to the loads Governor:
during the transfer. The closed
A device that regulates prime mover
transition transfer is only possible when
speed by adjusting the fuel input to
the sources are properly synchronized
maintain constant speed.
and interfaced. The duration of the two
©2012 Caterpillar
HMI Human Machine Interface: critical and essential needs during

Typically a touch-screen used by outages of the primary power source.
the operator for interfacing with
NPS (Normal Power System):
the paralleling generator system.
Normal power system. The utility
Impulse Withstand: service entrance equipment and
An impulse-withstand voltage distribution circuits to downstream
assigned by the manufacturer to the loads.
equipment, or to a part of it, character- Operating Mechanism:
izing the specified withstand capability Opens and closes the breaker.
of its insulation against over-voltages.
Over-currents:
Interrupting Capacity: Any current in excess of the rated
The maximum short circuit current current of the equipment or the amp
that the breaker can safely interrupt. capacity of a conductor.
Load Shed/Load Add: Paralleling:
Automated controls for distribution The procedure of connecting two
devices when only partial emergency or more generators or other power
engine generator sets are available for sources of the same phase, voltage,
duty. The task is typically accomplished and frequency characteristics that
by assigning priority levels to each supply the same load.
controlled distribution device. Peak Shaving:
Master Controls: Process by which the utility
All processors, HMI, and customer minimizes utility charges
programming to implement the by either a) generating power and
desired modes of operation of eliminating excessive demand
engine generator sets in a paralleling charges or b) by shedding load.
switchgear system.
Point of Common Coupling (PCC):
Molded Case:
Used to refer to the point where the
A housing of insulating materials electrical facilities or conductors of
NFPA 70: the wire owner are connected to the
power producer’s facilities or
A US standard for the safe installation
conductors, and where any transfer
of electrical wiring and equipment.
of electric power between the power
NFPA 99: producer and the wire owner takes
Requirements for emergency systems place.
in health care facilities. Prime Power Application:
NFPA 110: Unlimited hours of usage. Requires
generators to be applied at their prime
Standard for the assembly,
power rating with a typical load factor
installation, and performance of
of 70%.
electrical power systems to supply
©2012 Caterpillar
Processor: Terminal Connectors:

A specially configured logic Used to connect the circuit breaker
controller with appropriate input- to the power source and the load.
output capability and programming. Tie Breaker:
Shore Power: A breaker that is used to connect or
separate/isolate between two different
Typically used to reference utility
power. generation systems.
Short-time Rating (aka Withstand Trip Elements:

Rating): Monitor current, trip the operating
Defines the ability of the breaker mechanism, and open the contacts in
to remain closed when a high fault event of a fault connection
current exists. Utility Protection:
Station Battery: A collection of protective relays or
A power supply utilized for control a multi-function relay required by the
of switchgear. utility to detect abnormal conditions
Synchronizer: and open the utility breaker.
A device which will synchronize an VARs:

oncoming electric generator set with The combination of volts and amps
the bus or another electric generator acting in a reactive circuit; that is, one
set and allows multiple power sources that is either inductive, as in the case
in be connected in parallel. of a motor load, or capacitive, as in the
case of some forms of electronic loads.
Synchroscope:
VARs are like kilowatts but since the
This instrument provides a visual
volts and amps are out of phase, the
indication of proper closing time for
product of the two is not the same as if
the breaker when manually
they were acting on a non reactive
synchronizing generators to connect
circuit.
them in parallel with another source.
©2012 Caterpillar
14 APPENDICES 21 DISTANCE RELAY is a relay

that functions when the circuit
14.1 Appendix A admittance, impedance, or
reactance increases or decreases
Device Number Function and beyond pre-determined limits.
Description
25 SYNCHRONIZING OR
1 MASTER ELEMENT is the initiating SYNCHRONIZM-CHECK DEVICE is
device, such as a control switch, a device that operates when two
voltage relay, float switch, etc. AC circuits are within the desired
which serves either directly or limits of frequency, phase angle, or
through such permissive devices as voltage to permit or to cause the
protective and time-delay relays to paralleling of these two circuits.
place a piece of equipment in or out
27 UNDER-VOLTAGE RELAY is a
of operation.
device that functions on a given
2 TIME-DELAY STARTING OR value of under-voltage.
CLOSING RELAY is a device
32 DIRECTIONAL POWER RELAY is a
which functions to give a desired
device that functions on a desired
amount of time delay before or
value of power flow in a given
after any point of operation in a
direction or upon reverse power.
switching sequence or protective
relay system, except as 38 BEARING PROTECTIVE DEVICE
specifically provided by device is a device that functions on
functions 48, 62, and 79. excessive bearing temperature
Also known as a Timer. or on other abnormal mechanical
conditions associated with the
12 OVER-SPEED DEVICE is usually
bearing such as undue wear, which
a direct-connected speed switch
may eventually result in excessive
which functions on machine over-
bearing temperature or failure.
speed. Generally covered within the
protective scheme of the generator 39 MECHANICAL CONDITION
controller or engine controller MONITOR is a device that
device. functions upon the occurrence of
an abnormal mechanical condition
15 SPEED OR FREQUENCY
(except those associated with
MATCHING DEVICE is a device
bearings as covered under device
that functions to match and hold
function 38) such as excessive
the speed or frequency of a
vibration, eccentricity, expansion,
machine or of a system equal to, or
shock, tilting or seal failure.
approximate to, that of another
machine source or system. Also 40 FIELD RELAY is a relay that func-
known as a Synchronizer. tions on a given or abnormally low
value or failure of machine field
current, or on an excessive value
of the reactive component of the
armature current in an AC
©2012 Caterpillar
machine indicating abnormally low 51 AC TIME OVER-CURRENT RELAY

field excitation. is a relay with either a definite or
41 FIELD CIRCUIT BREAKER is a inverse time characteristic that
device that functions to apply functions when the current in an
or remove the field excitation AC circuit exceeds a
of a machine. predetermined value.
43 MANUAL TRANSFER OR 52 AC CIRCUIT BREAKER is a device
SELECTOR DEVICE is a manually that is used to close and interrupt
operated device that transfers the an AC power circuit under normal
control circuits in order to modify conditions or to interrupt this circuit
the plan of operation of switching under fault or emergency conditions.
equipment or of some of the 59 OVER-VOLTAGE RELAY is a relay
devices. that functions on a given value of
46 REVERSE-PHASE OR PHASE- over-voltage.
BALANCE CURRENT RELAY is 60 VOLTAGE OR CURRENT
a relay that functions when the BALANCE RELAY is a relay that
polyphase currents are of the operates on a given difference in
reverse phase sequence, or when voltage, or current input or
the polyphase currents are output, of two circuits.
unbalanced or contain negative 62 TIME-DELAY STOPPING OR
phase-sequence components OPENING RELAY is a time-delay
above a given amount. relay that serves in conjunction
47 PHASE-SEQUENCE VOLTAGE with the device that initiates the
RELAY is a relay that functions shutdown, stopping or opening
upon a predetermined value of operation in an automatic sequence
polyphase voltage in the desired or protective relay system.
sequence. 64 GROUND PROTECTIVE RELAY is
49 MACHINE OR TRANSFORMER a relay that functions on failure of
THERMAL RELAY is a relay that the insulation of a machine,
functions when the temperature transformer, or other apparatus
of a machine armature winding or to ground, or on flashover of a
other load-carrying winding or DC machine to ground.
element of a machine or power Note: This function is assigned only to
transformer exceeds a a relay that detects the flow of
predetermined value. current from the frame of a
50 INSTANTANEOUS OVER- machine or enclosing case or
CURRENT OR RATE-OF-RISE structure of a piece of apparatus to
RELAY is a relay that functions ground, or detects a ground on a
instantaneously on an excessive normally un-grounded winding or
value of current or when an circuit. It is not applied to a device
excessive rate of current in an AC connected in the secondary circuit
circuit exceeds a predetermined of a current transformer, or in the
value. secondary neutral of current
©2012 Caterpillar
transformers, connected in the tacts of these devices or certain

power circuit of a normally distinguishing features, character-
grounded system. istics, or conditions which describe
65 GOVERNOR is the assembly of the use of the device or its
fluid, electrical, or mechanical contacts in the equipment.
control equipment used for regulat- Letter suffixes should, however, be
ing the flow of water, steam, or used only when they accomplish a use-
other medium to the prime mover ful purpose. For example, when all of
for such purposes as starting, the devices in equipment are associated
holding speed or load, or stopping. with only one kind of apparatus, such
67 AC DIRECTIONAL OVER- as a feeder or motor or generator, it is
CURRENT RELAY is a relay that common practice, in order to retain
functions on a desired value of maximum simplicity in device function
AC over-current flowing in a identification, not to add the respective
predetermined direction. suffix letter F or M or G to any of the
device function numbers.
79 AC RE-CLOSING RELAY is a relay
that controls the automatic re- Some commonly utilized suffix
closing and locking out of an AC designations are the following:
circuit interrupter. A AUTOMATIC
81 FREQUENCY RELAY is a relay that M MANUAL
operates on a predetermined value
27R VOLTAGE RESTRAINT
of frequency (either under or over
or on normal system frequency) or 27C VOLTAGE CONTROLLED
rate of change of frequency. R REVERSE
86 LOCKING-OUT RELAY is an RV REVERSE VARS
electrically operated hand, reset G GENERATOR OR GROUND
relay or device that functions to T TRANSFORMER
shutdown or hold equipment out
of service (or both), when 14.2 Bibliography
abnormal conditions occur. 1. On-Site Power Generation: A
87 DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTIVE Reference Book, Electrical
RELAY is protective relay that Generating Systems Association,
functions on a percentage or 1990.
phase angle or other quantitative 2. Smeaton, Robert W., Switchgear
difference of two currents or of and Control Handbook, McGraw
some other electrical quantities. Hill Book, First Edition.
SUFFIX LETTERS permit a manifold 3. 2006 Consulting Application
multiplication of available function Guide, Cutler-Hammer, June 2006.
designations for the large number
and variety of devices used in the 4. American National Standard for
many types of equipment. They Switchgear – Medium Voltage
may also serve to denote individual Metal-Clad Assemblies –
or specific parts or auxiliary con-
©2012 Caterpillar
Conformance Test Procedures, 13. Standard for Metal-Clad

ANSI C37.55-2002. Switchgear, The Institute of
5. Recommended Practice for Electrical and Electronics Engineers,
Protection and Coordination of Inc., IEEE C37.20.2-1999.
Industrial and Commercial Power 14. Standard for Health Care
Systems, IEEE Buff Book, Facilities, National Fire Protection
Standard 242-1975. Association, NFPA 99, 2005.
6. Recommended Practice for 15. Standard for Emergency and
Emergency and Standby Power Standby Power Systems,
Systems for Industrial and National Fire Protection
Commercial Applications, Association NFPA 110, 2005.
IEEE Orange Book, ANSI/IEEE 16. American National Standard
Standard 446-1980. for Personnel Protection –
7. Recommended Practice for Lockout/tagout of Energy Sources
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LEBW7543-03 ©2012 Caterpillar Printed in U.S.A.

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APPLICATION AND INSTALLATION GUIDE

Information contained in this publication may be considered confidential. Discretion is

1 SWITCHGEAR • National Electrical Manufacturers

2 VOLTAGE 3 SWITCHGEAR TYPES

• Control wiring, fuses, and 3.2 Metal-Clad

front of or a part of the circuit of moisture, abnormal service

in non-hazardous locations and those effects on the equipment due to the

ingress of water (rain, sleet, snow, Type 6P Identical to Type 6 but

Figure 4 – Comparison of Specific Applications of Enclosures for Indoor Non-Hazardous Locations

Figure 5 – Comparison of Specific Applications of Enclosures for Outdoor Non-Hazardous

3.4.2 Hazardous Locations Type 8 Enclosures constructed for

Figure 7 – IEC Enclosure Classification

4 POWER ASSEMBLY Molded case circuit breakers are

4.2 Switchgear Standards

Category UL 1558 UL891

can typically be stacked four units high.

4.5 Busbar development of bus faults which would

4.5.2 Metal Selection diagram can identify when trouble-

Voltage transformers are designed

Figure 11 – Medium Voltage Switchgear

4.7.3 Control Power Transformers

Figure 14 – Medium Voltage CPT

Figure 13 – Wye Voltage Transformer

5 CIRCUIT BREAKERS • Contacts and operating

Required Ratings UL 1066 UL 489

Rated Frequency dc, 60 Hz/ 50 Hz. dc, 50 or 60 Hz or 400 Hz

Frame sizes: 800-6000A, other ratings

4000A frame 400 open/close operations 4000A frame – 400 open/close

100% of continuous current in air. 80%

5.1 80% vs. 100% Rating 5.1.1 NEC Requirements

5.2.1.1 Low Voltage Molded Case • Contacts – carry current.

• Operating mechanism - opens Short time current ratings on molded

than their interrupting ratings.

 Transfer loads while 5.2.3 Medium Voltage Circuit

Figure 19 – Power Circuit Breakers

Figure 20 – Vacuum Breaker Rear View

Figure 21 – Interrupter Cut Away View

Residual current devices that provide of a time delay in the

5.3.4 Ground Fault (G) or three single cores of a three phase

1. A bolted fault. The minimum number of current

Figure 25 - Aux Contact

5.4.4 Motor Operator

Figure 24 – Under-Voltage Device

5.4.3 Auxiliary Contacts

5.4.5 Medium Voltage Circuit Breaker  Used to rack the breaker

be quite long for slight overloads but

5.6 Overload Protection

and other components in a short

Figure 30 – Overload Protection/ Tripped

Figure 32 – Short Circuit Protection/Closed

Figure 31– Thermal Trip Curve

5.7 Short Circuit Protection

This instantaneous tripping is dangerous, but will trip on heavy

information which can be used by a distinguish between the various slaves

HVAC, fire safety, elevator/escalator, Switchgear controls may contain

demand sensing” is a feature whereby center might prioritize lifesaving

required. A load-shed system one that is selected is typically the

Voltage regulators (with the the impact of loss of service needs to be

grounding of synchronous generator of under-voltage. This device protects

to a resistive element located on polyphase currents are unbalanced

This relay is commonly used in 67 - An AC Directional Over-Current

If any imbalance is detected that is difference between the input and

by monitoring the intertie (PCC) to the • Voltage restrained time over

Transfer loads while 5.2.3 Medium Voltage Circuit

5.4.5 Medium Voltage Circuit Breaker Used to rack the breaker