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Lecture Notes on Engineering Mechanics - Vector Mechanics, Equivalent Force

System, Distributed Forces and Free Body Diagram

Chapter · July 2015

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 Module-1, Unit-1.1

Content: Force and its representation, resultant of concurrent forces.

Unit Objectives: After attending the class a student should be able to
1. Represent a force in terms of different unit values associated with various co-ordinate systems.
2. Calculate the resultant of a number of concurrent forces.
Unit summary:
• Force, whose existence is proved from direct experience, can be represented mathematically as a
vector having magnitude, direction and point of application.
• In a rigid body the effect of any force is the same as long as its line of action is maintained. Its point
of application (albeit, along the same line) looses importance for a rigid body.

≈
For a deformable body the exact point of application is of utmost importance since changing the
point of application alters the static and dynamic behaviors of a deformable body. The difference is
illustrated below. If a force F is applied at the end of a spring of stiffness K then the deflection is
F/K. However, if the force is applied in the middle of the spring then the effective spring constant is
2K and the deflection is F/(2K), i.e., one half of the spring extends and the other half has no
deflection. Consequently, force F cannot be considered as a sliding vector. However, if one is
interested in only rigid body statics, e.g., to find the reactions at the support which do not change by
moving the force along the line of action, then force F can still be considered as a sliding vector.

≠
• For a rigid body force is considered to be a sliding vector but for a deformable body it is a bound
vector.
Or F = Fnˆ where n̂ is a unit vector along that direction and F is the magnitude.
• Like any vector, a force can be represented in various ways depending upon the coordinate system
used, for example
(a) Rectangular Cartesian coordinate system is represented in terms of unit basis vectors iˆ, ˆj , kˆ as

n̂ = nx iˆ + ny ˆj + nz kˆ

with nx , ny , nz as components (direction cosines) along X, Y, Z axes respectively.

rA .
A
. rAB F
F

rB
O x

Given two points A and B (see Figure) on the line of action of the force, the direction vector (unit
vector along the force) is
rB − rA ( x − x A )iˆ + ( yB − y A ) ˆj + ( z B − z A )kˆ
nˆ = = B = nx iˆ + ny ˆj + nz kˆ
rB − rA ( xB − x A ) + ( y B − y A ) + ( z B − z A )
2 2 2

where rA and rB are the position vectors, rAB = rB − rA is a displacement vector,

(x − x )
n = B A ,
x
( x − x )2 + ( y − y )2 + ( z − z )2
B A B A B A
(y − y )
n = B A ,
y 2 2 2
(x − x ) + ( y − y ) + (z − z )
B A B A B A
(z − z )
n = B A ,
z
( x − x ) + ( y − y )2 + ( z − z )2
2
B A B A B A
2 2 2
and n = 1, i.e., n + n + n = 1.
x y z

(b) Cylindrical coordinate system- n̂ is represented as

n̂ = nρlˆρ + nz kˆ

where lˆρ is the unit vector along direction of the projected line of action on x-y plane.

(c) Spherical coordinate system- n̂ becomes

nˆ = eˆr
 where eˆr = cos θ cos φ iˆ + cos θ sin φ ˆj + sin θ kˆ is the unit vector along the line of action. Note that

cos 2 θ cos 2 φ + cos 2 θ sin 2 φ + sin 2 θ = 1.

• When a number of forces Fi ( i = 1.....N ) act at same point within a rigid body or at different points

but with lines of action intersecting at a common point (see figure) then those forces are called
concurrent forces.

The effect of concurrent forces on a rigid body is the same as application of a resultant force
N
F = ∑ Fi = F1 + F2 + ⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅ + FN
1

with its line of action passing through the same point.

For the two forces F1 and F2 acting at a point, the magnitude of the resultant force is

R = F12 + F22 + 2 F1 F2 cos θ

and its makes an angle φ with F1 in the plane containing both the forces F1 and F2 where

F2 sin θ
tan φ = .
F1 + F2 cos θ

The net force is represented as the diagonal of the parallelogram drawn with F1 and F2 as its sides.

• If there are more than two concurrent forces then any two of them can be chosen and their resultant
can be determined in a plane containing the two chosen forces. Then the resultant of the first two
forces and another force can be added in the similar way and the new resultant would lie in a plane
containing the resultant of the first two forces and the third force. This process has to be repeated
until the last force is considered. This laborious process can be simplified by following a vector
summation approach, whereby each force will be represented in terms of its magnitude and unit
vector and then the net sum would be calculated.
Example: Find the resultant of the three concurrent forces (passing through origin) shown in the figure. The
100N force lies in the X-Y plane.
y

53
41
.
(0,8,6) 100N
3 O
244N
50N
4
x 74
141N
.(4,0,4)
z
Let us first represent these forces as vectors in rectangular Cartesian coordinate system as follows:
⎛⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ ⎞
F1 = 100 ⎜ ⎜
⎜
4
⎟ iˆ + ⎜
3
⎟ ( ⎟ )
ˆj + 0kˆ ⎟ = 80iˆ + 60 ˆj + 0kˆ N
⎝⎝ 4 + 3 ⎠ ⎝ 4 + 3 ⎠
2 2 2 2
⎠
⎛⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ ˆ⎞
F2 = 50 ⎜ ⎜
0
⎜ 0 2 + 82 + 6 2 ⎟ iˆ + ⎜
2
+
8
2
+ 2
⎟ ˆj + ⎜
2
+
6
2
+ 2
( )
⎟ k ⎟⎟ = 0iˆ + 40 ˆj + 30kˆ N
⎝⎝ ⎠ ⎝ 0 8 6 ⎠ ⎝ 0 8 6 ⎠ ⎠
⎛⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ ˆ⎞
F3 = 141⎜ ⎜
4
⎜ 42 + 02 + 42 ⎟ iˆ + ⎜
⎠ ⎝ 4 +0 +4 ⎠
2
0
2 2
⎟ ˆj + ⎜ 4
⎝ 4 +0 +4 ⎠ ⎠
2 2 2
( )
⎟ k ⎟⎟ = 100iˆ + 0 ˆj + 100kˆ N
⎝⎝
R = F1 + F2 + F3 = 180iˆ + 100 ˆj + 130kˆ N
⎛⎛ 180 ⎞ ⎛ 100 ⎞ ⎛ 130 ⎞ ˆ⎞
= 1802 + 1002 + 1302 ⎜ ⎜
⎜ 1802 + 1002 + 1302 ⎟ iˆ + ⎜ ⎟ ˆj + ⎜ ⎟ k ⎟ N Th
⎟
⎠ ⎝ 180 + 100 + 130 ⎠ ⎝ 180 + 100 + 130 ⎠ ⎠
2 2 2 2 2 2
⎝⎝
(
= 244 0.74iˆ + 0.41 ˆj + 0.53kˆ N )
e resultant force makes an angle of cos-1 0.74 = 42o with x-axis (in a plane containing the resultant and x-
axis), an angle of cos-1 0.41 = 66o with the y-axis (in a plane containing the resultant and y-axis) and an angle
of cos-1 0.53 = 58o with the z-axis (in a plane containing the resultant and z-axis).

Note that parallel shift of a force does not change its magnitude and unit vector, but disturbs its concurrency
with other forces. More details about parallel shift would be discussed later.

The component of a vector along an axis is given by dot product of the vector with an unit vector along the
(
axis, which results in a scalar value. The component of R = 244 0.74iˆ + 0.41 ˆj + 0.53kˆ N about x axis is )
given as R.iˆ = 244 × 0.74N=180N. About any general axis, say having an unit vector
nˆ = 0.577iˆ + 0.577 ˆj + 0.577 kˆ , the component is ( )
R. 0.577iˆ + 0.577 ˆj + 0.577 kˆ N , i.e.,
(180 × 0.577 + 100 × 0.577 + 130 × 0.577 ) N or 236.5N.
 Module-1, Unit-1.2

Content: Moment of a force about a point, about an axis, force couple and couple moment.
Unit Objectives: After attending the class the student should be able to
1. Calculate moment of any number of forces about a point.
2. Calculate moment of any number of forces about a given axis.
3. Recognize a force couple.
4. Calculate moment of a force couple.
Unit summary:
• Force acting on a rigid body not only causes translation but also causes rotation. The capacity of a
force to cause rotation about a point P is measured by a vector called moment which is defined as
M P = r × F = ( ry Fz − rz Fy ) iˆ + ( rz Fx − rx Fz ) ˆj + ( rx Fy − ry Fx ) kˆ

where r = rx iˆ + ry ˆj + rz kˆ is the position vector of any point on the line of action of the force

F = Fx iˆ + Fy ˆj + Fz kˆ measured from point P. The cross product is taken according to right hand

thumb rule (screw rule) or the anti-clockwise carousel shown in the figure. The moment acts
perpendicular to a plane containing r and F , and its direction is determined by right hand thumb
rule, i.e., how force F tries to rotate r . The SI unit for moment is Nm. The moment is shown as a
vector with two arrow heads or as two closely spaced parallel lines with an arrow head ( ⇒ ).

Moments about a point are vectors which are added just like forces, i.e., component wise or through
parallelograms. Moments due to a set of forces about a point is the sum of individual moments
about that point.
• The moment of a number of concurrent forces Fi ( i = 1.....N ) about any point is identical with the

moment of their resultant about the same point.

 Looking at figure, forces F1 , F2 and F3 are concurrent with a common point of intersection.

Moment of F1 about origin (or any other point) can be calculated by taking a position vector from
that point (origin in this case) up to any point along the line of action of the force. That any point
could be the point of intersection. The same holds true for the other two forces. Thus,
M O = r × F1 + r × F2 + r × F3 = r × ( F1 + F2 + F3 ) = r × R

where R is the resultant of the concurrent forces.

Y F1

F2

r F3

O X

Z
• The ability of a force to rotate a rigid body about a given axis is measured by moment of the force
about the axis. It is the component of the moment of the force at any point lying on that axis taken
along the axis. If r̂ is the position vector of any point on the line of action of the force F measured
from any point on the given axis then moment about that point is
MP = r × F .

The component of the moment M P along the axis is taken by usual dot product with the unit vector
along the desired axis. The result is a scalar quantity
 M n = nˆ. ( r × F ) = ( r × F ) .nˆ
= ( ry Fz − rz Fy ) nx + ( rz Fx − rx Fz ) ny + ( rx Fy − ry Fx ) nz

where n̂ = nx iˆ + ny ˆj + nz kˆ is the unit vector representing the direction of the axis.

The operation performed to calculate the moment about an axis, i.e., a cross product and then a dot
product, is called scalar triple product. This operation is equivalent to the method used to calculate
the volume of a parallelepiped. The moment about an axis is also known as torque. It is a scalar
quantity, i.e. a measure of magnitude, because the direction has been already specified by the
definition of the axis.
• A force does not cause rotation about an axis if the force is parallel to the axis or the line of action of
the force intersects the axis.

Y F4

F1

O X Mx = 0
F2

F3
Z

All the forces shown in the figure produce no moment about X-axis. F1 (Parallel to Y-axis) and

F4 (intersecting Y-axis) do not produce moment about Y-axis. Likewise, F2 and F3 do not contribute
to moment about Z-axis.
• The x-, y- and z- components of moment M P at a point P denotes the moment of the force about axes
parallel to X, Y and Z axes, respectively, and passing through point P. Note that parallel axes have
same unit vectors.
• A force couple consists of two forces F and − F that have same magnitude and directions are
opposite sense and have different lines of action, i.e., they are parallel. In the previous figure, if F3

and F4 have the same magnitude then F3 = − F4 and they are parallel with different lines of action.
Thus, they form a couple.
• Moment of a couple about any point P is given by
 C = r1 × F + r2 × ( − F ) = r1 × F − r2 × F = ( r1 − r2 ) × F = rAB × F

where r 1 and r 2 are position vectors of any two points A and B on lines of action of F and − F ,

respectively, and rAB = rA − rB . rAB × F = rAB F sin α where α is the included angle between rAB

and F . Thus, the magnitude of C is Fd where F is the magnitude of one of the forces forming the
couple and d = rAB sin α is the shortest distance between their lines of action; while the direction is

perpendicular to the plane of the forces forming the couple and its sense is defined by using the right
hand screw rule.

• Moment of a couple does not depend on any point. It is a free vector. This means that a couple
produces same moment at every point in the space (inside or outside the body). Two points P1 and P2
are shown in the figure. Couple moment of the forces F and − F about point P1 is
C1 = ( r1 − r2 ) × F = rAB × F and that about point P2 is C2 = ( r3 − r4 ) × F = rAB × F . Thus C1 = C2 . In

fact, the couple moment is same at every point; it just depends on the magnitude and orientation of
the forces and the shortest distance between them.

Y B F
r3
r1 P2
P1
rAB r4
r2
−F A

Z
Couple moment as free vector can be freely translated any parallel location.
• For a rigid body the values of force of a force couple or their separation are unimportant individually.
For a couple, its couple moment (magnitude and orientation) is the only important factor for both
static and kinetic analysis.
• A couple can be represented as a force vector. A force couple having same couple moment can be
applied anywhere within the body without changing its dynamic behavior.

Y Y
10N
1m 5N 5N 2m

=
5N
10N 10N
2m
10N 1m
O X O X
5N

Z Z

• The resultant of a number of couples can be expressed as a couple whose couple moment is
N
C = ∑ Ci .
i =1

Y Y Y
10N 5N
1m 5N 2m
5N 5N
10N 2m
2m = 5N
= 2 2m
O X O X O X
5N 5N 5N

Z Z Z

For the given example, C1 = −10 ˆj Nm and C2 = −10iˆ Nm. Graphical sum shows the magnitude of

couple is 10 2 Nm and the direction is normal to a plane inclined at 45o to X and Y axes. Vectorial
⎛ 1 ˆ 1 ˆ⎞
sum of the couples is C = −10iˆ − 10 ˆj = 10 2 ⎜ − i− j ⎟ Nm. For more than two couples,
⎝ 2 2 ⎠
vectorial sum is preferred.
 Module-1, Unit-1.3

Content: Parallel translation of a force, equivalent force system at a point.

Unit Objectives: After attending the class the student should be able to
1. Calculate the couple moment necessary due to parallel translation of a force.
2. Calculate the equivalent force and couple at any point within the rigid body subjected to arbitrary
forces and couples.
Unit summary:
A force has definite line of action which can be shifted to a parallel position without altering the
dynamic behavior of a rigid body. For this purpose, an additional couple must be introduced so that
the dynamic behavior of the body is unchanged. This can be proved through the constructions given
below. If force F passes through point A and has to be shifted to point B, then two equal and
opposite forces parallel to the line of action of F and having same magnitude can be added at point
B. The two equal and opposite forces at B with same line of action do not change the dynamic
behavior of the rigid body. The force added in opposite direction at point B forms a couple with the
original force at point A. The magnitude of this couple moment is F d where d is the shortest

distance between the lines of action, i.e., the amount of parallel shift.
Y
Y Y
F F Fd

A . . B ≡
A . . B
F
≡ B . F
d
F −F
o X X X
r Z Z Z

In other words, parallel translation of force F whose original line of action passes through point A
with position vector rA to a new line of action that passes through point B having position vector

rB , the extra couple must have couple moment

C = ( rA − rB ) × F = rBA × F and C = F d .
 The couple moment being a free vector can be shown anywhere. It acts perpendicular to the plane
formed by the line of action of the force and the final destination point.

Y C = rBA × F
F
A . r. BA
B ≡ . F
rA B
rB
X X
Z Z

• The procedure of parallel translation of a force without changing any dynamic behavior can be used
to calculate equivalent force system at appoint within a rigid body which is subjected to a number of
not necessarily coplanar or concurrent forces and couples. The equivalent force system due to n
forces Fi ( i = 1.....n ) and m couples C j ( j = 1.....m ) at appoint P consists of a force
n
R = ∑ Fi
i =1

acting at point P and a couple (free vector)

m n
C = ∑ C j + ∑ ( ri − rP ) × Fi
j =1 i =1

where ri is the position vector of any point on the line of action of force Fi from point P. This is
equivalent to shifting each force to point P, summing those forces at point P and summing all the
existing free couple moments and new couple moments created due to shifting the forces.

≡
 Module-1, Unit-1.4

Content: Simplest resultant.

Unit Objectives: After attending the class the student should be able to
1. Derive the resultant in its simplest form as a wrench.
2. Identify the two special force systems, namely parallel and coplanar forces, and find the position or
line of action of a single force as the simplest resultant.
Unit summary:
• For a rigid body acted upon by a set of forces and couple moments, a special point P can be chosen
where the equivalent force system consists of a force R and a couple with couple moment C such
that R × C = 0 , i.e., the direction of couple moment coincides with that of resultant force. This is
called the simplest resultant (or a wrench) and it can be derived for any arbitrary forcing.
Consider a rigid body in which the resultant force R acts at a selected point and a general
couple moment C acts on the body. Let us define the coordinate system in such a way such that its
x-axis is aligned with the line of action on the resultant force (see figure). Then the couple C can be
decomposed into its components C x , C y and C z .

Y
Y
Y X e
Cy
d r
R Cz
C Cx
X
R
Z
X Z
Z

If the force vector R is shifted to a parallel location along the Y-Z plane so that its line of action
passes through a point (0, d, e) then the resulting couple moment introduced due to this shift is

( )
CR = r × R = −djˆ − ekˆ × R iˆ = −e R ˆj + d R kˆ.

( ) ( )
The net couple moment is then C x + C y − e R ˆj + Cz + d R kˆ . If the distances d and e are

so adjusted that C y − e R ˆj = 0 and C z + d R kˆ = 0 , then the new equivalent force system (simplest
 resultant) is force vector R = R iˆ whose line of action passes through point (0, d , e ) lying in the

Y-Z plane and a couple moment C = Cx iˆ .

Y Y
( )
C z + − djˆ × R = 0

( )
C y + −ekˆ × R = 0
e
e
R Cy R −C x
d Cz
Cx
X d X
− djˆ × R
Z −ekˆ × R Z

When the unit vectors of the force and the couple moment match then they are said to form a

wrench. A wrench is typically shown by symbols and .

• In special cases, the wrench (force and couple in same direction), which is the most general form of
simplest resultant, may loose one or both of its constituents, i.e., the simplest resultant may become
– null (no force and couple)
– a couple moment and no force
– a force and no couple.
The later happens if the couple moment is zero or the equivalent force system at any point is such
that if the X-axis is aligned with it then C x = 0 or the couple moment lies completely in the Y-Z
plane. Then it can be altogether eliminated by parallel shift of the force. These special cases are
– the forces are concurrent (there is no couple moment at the point of concurrency).
– the forces coplanar (the resultant force lies in that plane and the couple moment is
perpendicular to it).
– the forces are parallel (the resultant force too it parallel to them and the couple moment lies in
the perpendicular plane).

Some examples of force systems for which the simplest resultant is a single force are shown in the
figure.
• Concurrent force system:

Y
Y F2
R
F1

F3
X
X Z
Z
• Coplanar force system:

Z Z Z

C
Y Y Y
R R

X X X

• Parallel force system:

Z Z
Z
R
R Cy
Y Cx Y Y
C2 C
X X X
C1
 Module-1, Unit-1.5

Content: Distributed force.

Unit Objectives: After attending the class the student should be able to
1. Calculate the resultant of continuously distributed force acting on a line.
2. Calculate the resultant of force distributed continuously over an area.
3. Calculate the resultant of forces distributed continuously over a volume.
Unit summary:
• When the force is distributed over a line (straight or curved), area or volume, its intensity at a point
is defined as
δF
f ( x, y, z ) = Lim , for load distributed over line.
δ s →0 δ s

δF
f ( x, y, z ) = Lim , for load distributed over area.
δ A→ 0 δA
δF
f ( x, y, z ) = Lim , for load distributed over volume.
δ V →0 δ V

Where δ F is the force acting over line, area or volume element δ s , δ A or δ V , respectively.
• Given the intensity or distribution f ( x, y, z ) , the total force acting over line, area or volume is

given by
F= ∫ f ( x, y, z ) ds
L

or v∫ f ( x, y, z ) dA
A

or v∫ f ( x, y, z ) dV
V

• When the planar distributed force acts perpendicular to a straight line, the resultant force is given as
b
F = ∫ f ( x ) dx nˆ
a

where n̂ is the direction of distributed force. The magnitude of a resultant force is calculated as the

area under the curve f ( x ) within interval a ≤ x ≤ b . The line of action passes through the centroid

(point G) of the aforesaid area. The moment of distributed forces about this centroid is zero. So the
simplest resultant is single force F acting at point G.
 ≡

• When a distributed force of uniform intensity, p, acts normal to a curved line, the component of the
resultant force along any direction is given as the product of the intensity and the length projected
on a line perpendicular to the given direction and lying in the plane of the distributed force.

≡ ≡

• When a distributed force of uniform intensity, p, acts normal to an area, the component of the
resultant force along any direction is given as the product of the intensity and the area projected on
a plane perpendicular to the given direction.

• When a distributed parallel force having same intensity k acts over a volume, the resultant force is
given as
F = kV nˆ
when n̂ is the direction of the force. The resultant force passes through the centre of mass of the
body defined as

∫ r dV ⎛ x dV
∫ ⎞ ⎛ y dV ⎞ ⎛ z dV ⎞
rc = V
=⎜ ⎟ iˆ + ⎜ ∫ ⎟ ˆj + ⎜ ∫ ⎟ kˆ
V ⎜ V ⎟ ⎜ V ⎟ ⎜ V ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
 ≡

• Moment of the distributed force about any point P with position vector rP = xP iˆ + yP ˆj + zP kˆ is

F = ∫ ⎡( x − xP ) iˆ + ( y − yP ) ˆj + ( z − zP ) kˆ ⎤ × f ( x, y, z ) ds
⎣ ⎦
L

or v∫ ⎡⎣( x − x ) iˆ + ( y − y ) ˆj + ( z − z ) kˆ ⎤⎦ × f ( x, y, z ) dA
A
P P P

or v∫ ⎡⎣( x − x ) iˆ + ( y − y ) ˆj + ( z − z ) kˆ ⎤⎦ × f ( x, y, z ) dV
V
P P P

for line, area or volume distributed forces, respectively.

• Calculation of centroid of line segments lying in a plane and plane surfaces can be done as follows:
The position of the centroid in the X-Y plane may be defined by the pair ( xc , yc ) .

For a line segment, xc =

My
=
∫ xdl and yc =
Mx
=
∫ ydl , where M x and M y are the first
∫ dl ∫ dl ∫ dl ∫ dl
moments of line segment about the x and y axes.

For a surface, xc =
My
=
v∫ xdA
A
and yc =
Mx
=
v∫ ydA , where
A
M x and M y are the first
v∫ A
dA v∫ dA
A v∫ A
dA v∫ dA
A

moments of area segment about the x and y axes.

Y Y

dl (xc,yc) dA (xc,yc)
x x
y y
X X
Note that the centroid may not lie on the line or inside the area, e.g. a doughnut. The first moment
of the line or the area about its centroid is zero. For example, in the case of an area
M cx = v∫ ( y − yc ) dA = v∫ ydA − yc v∫ dA = 0
A A A

M cy = v∫ ( x − xc ) dA = v∫ xdA − xc v∫ dA = 0
A A A
For lines made of line segments and areas made of composite areas, the integrations can be made
in parts. Thus, for a line composed of n segments,
 n n

∑ xci Li ∑y ci Li
xc = i =1
n
and yc = i =1
n
,
∑L i =1
i ∑L i =1
i

where xci and yci , respectively, represent the x and y coordinates of the centroid of the line segment,
whose length is Li .
Likewise, for a composite area made of elementary areas,
n n

∑ xci Ai ∑y ci Ai
xc = i =1
n
and yc = i =1
n
,
∑A
i =1
i ∑A
i =1
i

where xci and yci , respectively, represent the x and y coordinates of the centroid of the area segment,
whose area is Ai . For missing segments and areas, each missing length or the area has to be
considered as a negative quantity.
A1 A2 A3

= + -

xc3
xc1 yc3
xc2 yc1 yc2
X

• When a set of parallel forces of variable intensity p ( x, y ) act normal to an area then the center of
pressure is defined as

xp =
v∫ p ( x, y ) xdA
A
and y p =
v∫ p ( x, y ) ydA
A

v∫ p ( x, y ) dA
A v∫ p ( x, y ) dA
A

where R = v∫ p ( x, y ) dA is the net resultant force acting at the center of pressure. The moment of the
A
forces about the pressure center is zero. This follows from the definition of the pressure center itself:
M yp = v∫ p ( x, y ) ( x − x p ) dA = v∫ p ( x, y ) xdA − x p v∫ p ( x, y ) dA = 0,
A A A

M xp = v∫ p ( x, y ) ( y − y p ) dA = v∫ p ( x, y ) ydA − y p v∫ p ( x, y ) dA = 0.
A A A
 Thus the net resultant force R acting at the pressure center is the simplest resultant of the considered
distributed parallel force system.

p(x,y) Z
Y
R
Y

(xp , yp)
X X

If the intensity p ( x, y ) = p is constant everywhere then pressure centre is at the centroid:

xp =
v∫ pxdA = p v∫ xdA = x
A A
and y p =
v∫ p ( x, y ) ydA = p v∫ ydA = y .
A A

v∫ pdA p v∫ dA v∫ p ( x, y ) dA p v∫ dA
c c
A A A A

The same conclusions can be derived for a coplanar distributed force system, e.g., the friction force
acting at the interface between two flat rigid bodies and drag force due to flow over a flat plate. If the
intensity of the distributed force over the plane is v ( x, y ) then the net resultant force
R = v∫ v ( x, y ) dA acts a point called shear center whose coordinates are
A

xs =
v∫ v ( x, y ) xdA
A
and ys =
v∫ v ( x, y ) ydA .
A

v∫ v ( x, y ) dA
A v∫ v ( x, y ) dA
A

Z Z
Y Y

R
(xs , ys)
X X

The net moment perpendicular to the plane of the distributed coplanar forces about the shear center is
zero. Thus, single force R is the simplest resultant of the distributed coplanar forces.

The simplest case of distributed loading is when the distributed force system is both parallel and
coplanar. In that case, the simplest resultant passes through the centroid of the area formed by the
force distribution diagram.

• In some cases, the centroid of complicated lines and areas can be determined easily by applying
theorems of Pappus-Guldinus as explained below.

Consider a small line segment dl on a line and rotate it around the X-axis. If the line segment is at a
distance y from X-axis then the surface area of the cylinder formed in the process is dA = 2π ydl.
The area formed by rotating the whole line (called generating curve) is
 A = ∫ dA =2π ∫ ydl = 2π yc L where L = ∫ dl.
Thus, if it is easier to calculate the area (A) of the surface of revolution and the length of the
generating curve then calculating the centroid of a line is a straight-forward task yc = A ( 2π L ) .

Y Y
dl
dA

y y
X X
Axis of Axis of
revolution revolution

Likewise, if an elemental area dA is considered in a surface and rotated about an axis of revolution
(here X-axis) then it sweeps a volume dV = 2π ydA . The net volume swept by the whole surface
(generating surface) is
V = ∫ dV = 2π ∫ ydA = 2π yc A where A = ∫ dA.
Thus yc = V ( 2π A ) .

Revolving about Y-axis gives the X-coordinate of the centroid position. It must be noted here that the
generating curve or the generating surface should not intersect the axis of revolution. For composite
lines and areas made of elementary lines and areas (rectangles, triangles, circles, ...) , Pappus-
Guldinus theorems can be applied individually for each segment or on the whole composite line or
area.
 Module-1, Unit-1.6

Content: Type of forces, free body diagram.

Unit Objectives: After attending the class the student should be able to
1. Identify different types of forces acting on a rigid body or a system of rigid bodies.
2. Draw free body diagram of a rigid body.
Unit summary:
• Only external forces exerted by an agent lying outside the body have influence on its dynamic
behaviors. External forces can be broadly divided into two groups.
¾ Exogenous forces– The forces that act on an unconstrained body.
¾ Constraint forces– The forces or moments that arise due to action of constraints.
• Exogenous forces: These forces may depend on position and or velocity of a particle or a rigid
body. The forces that depend on acceleration do not appear in Newtonian mechanics. The motion is
observed from an inertial reference frame. The force that depends on position or configuration of a
system of rigid bodies can be either conservative or non conservative. A conservative force is
associated with a function known as potential energy U ( x, y, z ) such that

∂U ∂U ∂U
fx = − , fy = − , fz = −
∂x ∂y ∂z
G ⎛ ∂ ∂ ˆ ∂ ˆ⎞
or f = −∇.U = − ⎜ iˆ + j + k ⎟ .U
⎝ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎠

For example, the potential energy for a simple spring of stiffness k is U = (1 2 ) kx 2 . Thus, the force
G
is derived from the gradient ( ∇.U ) of this potential function: Fx = − ∂u ∂x = − kx . If a mass is

connected to two springs in the X-Y plane such that Fx = − k x x and Fy = − k y y then these forces can

be derived from the potential function U = (1 2 ) kx 2 + (1 2 ) ky 2 .

A conservative force thus described does not do any work if the particle after undergoing
arbitrary displacements regains its position. The work done by the forces over a closed path C can
be calculated as
W = v∫ F .dl ,
C

where dl is an elementary line segment on a closed path C. By application of Green’s theorem

G
W = v∫ F .dl = w
∫∫ ∇ × F .ds ( )
C S
 where S is the area enclosed by C and ds is an elementary area vector. For F = − k x xiˆ − k y yjˆ
G ⎛ ∂ ∂ ∂ ⎞ ⎛ ∂Fy ∂Fx ⎞ ˆ
∇ × F = ⎜ ˆi + ˆj + kˆ ⎟ × ( Fxˆi + Fy ˆj ) = ⎜ − ⎟k = 0.
⎝ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎠ ⎝ ∂x ∂y ⎠
On the contrary a force that does not enjoy the above-mentioned properties is non conservative in
nature. For example, let us consider a force field F = − ( k xx x + k xy y ) iˆ − ( − k xy x + k yy y ) ˆj . It is

obvious from the description of this force field that one cannot define a potential function U whose
gradient would give the force field. Alternatively, let us check the work done by this force over a
closed path C:
G
W = v∫ F .dl = w (
∫∫ × F .ds
∇ )
C S

G ⎛ ∂Fy ∂Fx ⎞ˆ
∇× F = ⎜ − ⎟ k = 2 K xy k .
ˆ
⎝ ∂x ∂y ⎠
Thus, if the area enclosed by path C is S then W = 2 K xy S , which is non-zero if the area enclosed by the

( ) ( )
closed path C is non-zero. Therefore, the force field F = − k xx x + k xy y iˆ − − k xy x + k yy y ˆj is non-

conservative.
A velocity dependent force (usually associated with damping) is normally non-conservative
in the sense described above. However, a special kind of force known as gyroscopic force exists in
rotating objects that does not do any work during motion. Consider a velocity dependent force field
 ˆ + ΩRxj
due to gyroscopic forces as F = −ΩRyi ˆ , where Ω is a parameter associated with rotation
about Z-axis, R is a damping like (gyroscopic) parameter and superposed dots indicate derivative
with respect to time. The work done by this force over a closed path C (which takes time T to
traverse) is
⎛ dl ⎞
( )
T T T
W = v∫ F .dl = ∫ F .⎜ dt ⎟ = ∫ ( −Ω Ryi ˆ ) . ( xi
ˆ + Ω Rxj ˆ ) dt = ∫ ( −Ω Ryx
ˆ + yj  ) dt = 0
  + Ω Rxy
C 0 ⎝ dt ⎠ 0 0

Thus, gyroscopic forces, although are velocity dependent, are conservative forces. Unlike
displacement dependent conservative forces which do no work over a closed path, gyroscopic
forces do not do any work over any infinitesimal displacement (i.e., the path may not be closed).

• Constraint forces: Motion of an unconstrained rigid body in space can be decomposed into six
different components — translations along the three coordinate axes and rotations about them.
These six components are referred to as degrees of freedom. In more accurate terms, degrees of
 freedom refer to the minimum number of independent coordinates required to completely describe
the motion of the body (or bodies). External constraints cause the rigid body to loose some of its
degrees of freedom whereas internal constraints associate its motion in some directions to other
motion of other rigid bodies.
Example: Consider two flat disks lying on a flat surface. Each disk can rotate about the vertical
axis (Z-axis) and translate along X and Y directions. Thus, each disk has three degrees of freedom
and the whole system has 6 degrees of freedom.

Now consider that a spring connects the centers of these two disks. The ends of the spring are
free to rotate about the centers of the disks so that the spring is always aligned along the line
connecting the centers of the disks. Because the spring can deform, there is no direct relationship
between the translational and rotational motions of the two disks. Keeping all motion of the first
disk fixed, the other disk can be moved in three ways. The same holds true when the second disk is
held fixed and the first disk is moved. Thus, the system still has 6 degrees of freedom.
Finally, consider that the spring is replaced by a rigid rod (not a flexible rod which is
equivalent to a spring). If the first disk is held fixed then the second disk can still be rotated freely
about the Z-axis. However, if the second disk has to be moved along X-direction, it has to move in
Y-direction aw well (over a circular path whose radius is the length of the rigid rod). This
introduces a constraint between the linear motions. The degrees of freedom of the system reduce by
one for each such constraint. The system now has 5 degrees of freedom. The minimum number of
coordinates required to describe the motion of the system may be X and Y positions of the first disk,
angles turned by the first and the second disks and the orientation of the rigid rod with respect to the
X-axis. Other ways of description can be similarly worked out. It is left to the student to find the
degrees of freedom of the system when the rigid rod is welded to the centers of the two disks.
• Some of the usual constraints are discussed below
¾ Contact between rigid bodies
– A flat body on a flat surface (surface contact): It has three degrees of freedom. Three
restrained motions (constraints) are rotations about the two axes on the plane and the
motion perpendicular to the plane. The reactions develop to maintain the constraints.
 To restrain motion normal to the plane, a reaction acts normal to the plane. The force
is distributed on the contact surface. The net resultant force acts at the center of
pressure. The shift in the location of the center of pressure generates moments which
restrain the rotations about two orthogonal axes lying in the plane.

P P P P P P

Force N=2P
distribution

P 2P P 2P P 2P

Force N=3P
distribution

P P
M M

Force
distributions
– A rigid cylinder on a flat surface (line contact): It has four degrees of freedom;
motion perpendicular to the flat surface and rotations about an axis perpendicular to
the cylinder axis and lying on the flat surface are restrained. The reaction force
normal to the surface is distributed along the line of contact. The net resultant
reaction acts at the center of the force along this line and it shifts along the line of
contact to restrain motion about the axis normal to the cylinder axis.

R R
 – A rigid sphere on a flat surface (point contact): It has five degrees of freedom; only
the motion perpendicular to the flat surface is restrained. The reaction force is
concentrated and it acts normal to the plane at the point of contact, i.e., towards the
center of the sphere.
– Contact between two cylinders is a line contact where the normal reaction acts
somewhere along the line of contact and is oriented towards the centerline of the
cylinder. Likewise, for point contact of a sphere with any surface (e.g., another
sphere), the normal reaction is oriented towards the center of the sphere.
¾ Hinge and roller joints: A hinge has one degree of freedom; rotation about the axis of the
hinge is allowed. All three translations and remaining two rotations are restrained. If planar
loading case is considered where loads lie in a plane perpendicular to the hinge axis then one
considers the constraints on the translational motions in that plane. In this case, the
constraint force or the reaction force acts along the plane of loading (has two components)
and there is no constraint torque (moment) on rotation about the hinge axis.

Rx
+ + = = R Ry

=
R

A roller joint is a special type of hinge joint where translational motion of the hinge is
allowed in one direction in a plane perpendicular to the hinge axis. Thus it has two degrees
of freedom. If planar loading is considered then there is no constraint force in the direction
where translation is allowed and also no moment about the hinge axis. The remaining
constraint on the planar motion is zero displacement along a direction perpendicular to the
direction along which translation is allowed. Thus the reaction is a single force which lies in
the plane of loading and acts perpendicular to the direction along which joint translation is
allowed.
 ¾ Built-in or fixed end: All motions are restrained at a fixed or built-in joint, e.g., welded
joints, cast joint, glued joint ... This joint has zero degrees of freedom. Thus, in the general
case, there are six reactions: three reaction forces restraining translation and three reaction
moments restraining rotations. For the co-planar loading, where one has to consider only the
forces in X-Y plane and moment in along Z-axis, the reactions are a general force in the X-
Y plane (having two components in X and Y directions) and a reaction moment about the Z-
axis.

Mz
Rx

Ry

¾ Ball and socket joint: Such a joint

allows free rotations about three axes,
but no translation along any direction, Rx
e.g., a pen stand, caster wheel ... This
joint has three degrees of freedom. The Rz
Ry
reactions develop to constrain
translational motions. The reaction forces act along X, Y and Z axes. There are no reaction
moments.

¾ Slotted joint: This joint allows Mz

translational motion only along Rx
the direction of the slot. All other
translations and rotations are constrained. Thus, the joint has single degree of freedom. The
five constraints give rise to two reaction forces along orthogonal coordinates in a plane
perpendicular to the slot direction (the other axis is oriented along the slot) and three
reaction moments about those three axes. In the planar case, a reaction force in the
considered plane acts perpendicular to the slot and a moment acts perpendicular to the plane.
A slot is equivalent to a built in end with one of the translational constraints relaxed.

• Free body diagram: In mechanics, a portion of a system of rigid bodies is often delineated from its
surroundings by replacing their effects with appropriate forces and moments. A diagrammatic
representation of this portion, known as a free body, where all the external forces and moments
(both due to sources external to the system and to rest of the system not considered as free body) are
shown is called a free body diagram (FBD). Because of its importance in subsequent analysis both
in statics and kinetics, it is extremely important that a student should learn how to draw a correct
free body diagram. In drawing this diagram a student should consider the following points:
1. What part of the system he/she is considering as a free body?
2. What are the exogenous forces?
3. What are the forces acted upon the particle or rigid body he/she has not considered as free body?
(These are the constraint forces and moments at the supports.)
Module 1 Problems
1. Find the moment of the force shown in the figure along the line A-B. All distances are in meters.
Solution: y
Let 500 N force be represented by F . Unit vector along F is 10
4
10iˆ + 4 ˆj − 5kˆ
uˆ = = 0.842iˆ + 0.337 ˆj − 0.421kˆ.
102 + 42 + 52 500N
5
So, F = 421iˆ + 168.4 ˆj − 210.5kˆ N . Unit vector along line AB is
( 7 − 2 ) iˆ + ( −1 − 0 ) ˆj + ( 5 − 2 ) kˆ = 0.845iˆ − 0.169 ˆj + 0.507kˆ.
.
A (2, 0, 2)
x

nˆ =
52 + 12 + 32
z
B .(7, -1, 5)

Since F passes through origin, the moment of the force about point
A (alternatively, point B can be chosen) is

( ) ( )
M A = AO × F = −2iˆ − 2kˆ × 421iˆ + 168.4 ˆj − 210.5kˆ Nm=338.6iˆ − 1263 ˆj − 338.6kˆ Nm .

( )(
M AB = M A .nˆ = 338.6iˆ − 1263 ˆj − 338.6kˆ . 0.845iˆ − 0.169 ˆj + 0.507 kˆ Nm )
= ( 338.6 × 0.845 + 1263 × 0.169 − 338.6 × 0.507 ) Nm = 327.9Nm.

If one takes moment about point B, then

( ) ( )
M B = BO × F = −7iˆ + ˆj − 5kˆ × 421iˆ + 168.4 ˆj − 210.5kˆ Nm=631.5iˆ − 3578.5 ˆj − 1599.8kˆ Nm .

M AB = M B .nˆ = ( 631.5 × 0.845 + 3578.5 × 0.169 − 1599.8 × 0.507 ) Nm = 327.3Nm.

2. Find the moment of the forces acting on the corrugated sheet about the axis A-A.

Solution:
The moment about an axis is independent of the choice of coordinate system. It is a scalar quantity. The
coordinate system may be fixed at left edge of the joint as shown in the figure.
 Y

Then moment of the forces about origin is given as

( ( ) ( ) ( ) )
M O = 1iˆ × 500 ˆj + 1iˆ − 1 ˆj + 1kˆ ×150kˆ − 2iˆ − 1 ˆj + 1kˆ ×100 ˆj + 2iˆ − 1 ˆj × 200iˆ Nm

( )
= −50iˆ − 150 ˆj + 500kˆ Nm.

Moment about axis AA (unit vector k̂ ) is M AA = M O .kˆ = 500Nm.

3. At a given point of time, a space shuttle is acted upon by a set of external forces as shown in the figure.
The thruster forces lie in the X-Y plane and the equivalent drag and lift forces act at the tip of the shuttle in
the Y-Z plane making an angle of 45 degrees with the Y-axis. Find the equivalent force system at the
centroid (origin) of the shuttle. Find the simplest resultant of the externally applied forces.

Z Y

4kN

5m
10kN

2m
2m 20kN
5kN X

Solution:
The net resultant force acting at the origin (centroid of the shuttle) is
( )
R = 10 ˆj + 5 ˆj − 20kˆ − 4 × 0.707 ˆj + 4 × 0.707 kˆ = 12.172 ˆj − 17.172kˆ kN .
The net resultant moment acting about the origin is
( )
C = −10 × 2kˆ + 5 × 2kˆ + 4 × 0.707 × 5iˆ = 14.14iˆ − 10kˆ kNm .
The resultant force lies in the Y-Z plane. Thus, if the force is moved to an appropriate parallel location, it
can cancel out the component of the couple moment about the X-axis. Let the new line of action of the force
be such that it crosses positive Y-axis at distance d. The couple moment of the new equivalent force system
is
(( ) ( )) (
C = 14.14iˆ − 10kˆ + djˆ × 12.172 ˆj − 17.172kˆ kNm= 14.14iˆ − 17.172diˆ − 10kˆ kNm.
n )
If 17.172d = 14.14m or d = 0.823m then Cn = −10kˆ kNm.
Thus the equivalent force system in which the resultant and the couple moment lie in the same plane is a
( )
force R = 12.172 ˆj − 17.172kˆ kN passing through point (0, d, 0) and a couple moment Cn = −10kˆ kNm.

This is still not the simplest resultant. To find the wrench, first of all we find the component of the couple
moment about the line of action of the force. The unit vector along the force is
⎛ 12.172 ˆj − 17.172kˆ ⎞
uˆ = ⎜ = 0.5783 ˆj − 0.8158kˆ.
⎜ 12.1722 + 17.1722 ⎟⎟
⎝ ⎠
Component of C along û is
( ) ( )( )
C = 14.14iˆ − 10kˆ .uˆ kNm = 14.14iˆ − 10kˆ . 0.5783 ˆj − 0.8158kˆ kNm = 8.158kNm.
u

The remaining component of C lies in a plane normal to R or û . It is given by

( ) ( ) (
Cr = C − Cu uˆ = 14.14iˆ − 10kˆ − 8.158 × 0.5783 ˆj − 0.8158kˆ kNm = 14.14iˆ − 4.718 ˆj − 3.345kˆ kNm. )
Let a point P defined by coordinates (a, b, c) lie on the plane normal to R and the origin is also contained in
that plane. Then the additional couple due to the equivalent force system at that point is
( ) ( )
Ca = −aiˆ − bjˆ − ckˆ × 12.172 ˆj − 17.172kˆ kNm = (12.172c + 17.172b ) iˆ − 17.172ajˆ − 12.172akˆ kNm.
Letting Ca + Cr = 0 , one finds
a = −4.718 17.172 = −3.345 12.172 = −0.275m and 12.172c + 17.172b = −14.14 .
( )(
Imposing the condition that point (a, b, c) lies in a plane normal to û : aiˆ + bjˆ + ckˆ . 0.5783 ˆj − 0.8158kˆ = 0 )
or 0.5783b − 0.8158c = 0 . On solving, one obtains b = −0.54805m and c = −0.3885m.
( )
So the simplest resultant is a wrench formed by a force R = 21.05 0.5783 ˆj − 0.8158kˆ kN passing through

(
point (-0.275m, -0.548m, -0.3885m) and a couple moment C = 8.158 0.5783 ˆj − 0.8158kˆ kNm . )
We can test the results by computing the equivalent force system at point P. The resultant couple at point P

( ) ( ) (
CP = 0.275iˆ + 0.548 ˆj + 0.3385kˆ × 12.172 ˆj − 17.172kˆ + 14.14iˆ − 10kˆ kNm )
= ( −14.14 + 14.14 ) iˆ + 4.7223 ˆj + ( 3.3473 − 10 ) kˆ kNm = ( 4.7223 ˆj − 6.6527 kˆ ) kNm
= Cu uˆ (only the component along the force).

Note that there are infinite numbers of points on the line of action of the wrench. Students should be asked to
find the intersection of this line of the action with different planes, such as Y-Z and X-Z planes.
4. Find the equivalent force due to
20m
self weight and water pressure acting 50m
on the 500m long dam whose cross-
section taken perpendicular to the
length axis is shown in the picture 80m
50m
(not to scale). The density of water is
1000kg/m3. The density of concrete
structure is 2400 kg/m3.
3m 3m
1m

Solution:
The distributed forces due to water pressure can Y

be represented by equivalent forces as shown in

F1
the figure.
F2
The maximum intensity in the triangular
W
loadings is ρ gh where ρ , g and h are the X

density, gravity and depth, respectively.

3m 3m
1m
Thus, the magnitudes are
1 1
2
( ) 2
( )
F1 = × 103.10.80 × 80 × 500 = 1.6 × 1010 N , F2 = × 103.10.50 × 50 × 500 = 6.25 × 109 N and

W = 4.8 × 109 N .
The resultant of distributed force act at the centroid of the triangular area. Each inclined triangular load can
be broken into two components as shown in the figure. Alternatively, projections of the inclined line can be
used.

F2Y

= + F2x
50/3m X

1.5m

Thus, the resultant force is

R = ( F2 − F1 ) cos α iˆ − ( ( F2 + F1 ) sin α + W ) ˆj where α = tan −1 3 100 = 1.718o .

The couple moment about the origin is

( ) ( ) ( ) (
C = 1.5iˆ + 80 3 ˆj × − F1 cos α iˆ − F1 sin α ˆj + −1.5iˆ + 50 3 ˆj × F2 cos α iˆ − F2 sin α ˆj . )
( )
Putting numerical values, R = −9.745 × 109 iˆ − 5.47 × 109 ˆj N and C = 3.22 × 1011 kˆ Nm .

Because it is a coplanar force system, the simplest resultant is a single force. Its line of action may be
specified in terms of intersection with either of the axes. Let the simplest resultant intersect the X-axis at
point (d,0). Then
− diˆ × R + C = 0 ⇒ 5.47 × 109 d = −3.22 ×1011 or d = −58.9m.
The intersection with Y-axis may be like wise found: −ejˆ × R + C = 0 ⇒ −9.745 ×109 e = −3.22 ×1011 or
e = 33m. Y
R
Thus the simplest resultant is a force
33m X
( )
R = −9.745 × 109 iˆ − 5.47 × 109 ˆj N whose line of action passes

through points (-58.9,0) and (0,33). 58.9m

5. For the given spring-mass-damper system, draw the free body diagram of the left mass. Show all the
exogenous and constraint forces.

x1 x2
k2
k1
m1 m2
r2

Solution:

m1 g
k1 x1 k2 ( x2 − x1 )

r2 ( x2 − x1 )
N1 N2
 6. Draw the free body diagram of the beam under given
loading. The beam has a self weight of w kN/m acting W N/m
downwards. Show all constraint forces in the FBD.
45o
L/2 L/2

Solution:

wL N WL/4 N
M1z
R1x

L/2 R2
L/6
R1y

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