Int. J. Renewable Energy Technology, Vol. 1, No.

1, 2009 81

Combustion, performance and emission

characteristics of a DI CI engine using biodiesel with
varied fatty acid composition

Sukumar Puhan*, A. Gopinath and

G. Nagarajan
ICE Division, Mechanical Engineering Department,
Anna University Chennai,
Chennai-25, Tamilnadu, India
E-mail: sp_anna2006@yahoo.co.in
E-mail: gopinathmeice@yahoo.co.in
E-mail: nagarajan@annauiv.edu
*Corresponding author

Abstract: Five Biodiesel produced from different vegetable oils were tested
on a diesel engine to study the effect of biodiesel fatty acid composition
specifically unsaturated composition on the engine combustion. The results
from fuel analysis show that biodiesel (93% unsaturated fatty acid ester
composition) with 55% linolenic ester has a higher density of 0.89 kg/m3, lower
viscosity of 3.8 cSt, heating value of 39 MJ/kg and cetane number of 49. The
engine combustion results exhibits a longer premixed and shorter diffusion
burning phase with higher peak pressure of 72 bars and higher cumulative heat
release compared to other fatty ester composition. The performance and
emission results show that emits more oxides of nitrogen of 16.83 g/kWh and
exhibits higher thermal efficiency of 29.76% compared to diesel of
12.83 g/kWh and 28.41% respectively. Biodiesel with 45% saturated ester and
55% unsaturated ester composition shows a NOX neutral fuel with a penalty of
1.75% in thermal efficiency. No significant differences in unburnt hydrocarbon
(UBHC), carbon monoxide (CO) and smoke emissions among the biodiesel
fuels were noticed except linseed oil methyl ester.
Keywords: biodiesel; fatty acid composition; combustion.
Reference to this paper should be made as follows: Puhan, S., Gopinath, A.
and Nagarajan, G. (2009) ‘Combustion, performance and emission
characteristics of a DI CI engine using biodiesel with varied fatty acid
composition’, Int. J. Renewable Energy Technology, Vol. 1, No. 1,
pp.81–100.
Biographical notes: G. Nagrajan is currently working as a Professor in
Mechanical Engineering Department in Anna University Chennai. His research
areas includes alternative fuel (biodiesel, hydrogen, LPG, alcohol), emission
reduction technology (in-cylinder and exhaust gas treatment) and engine
electronics management.
Sukumar Puhan is a Senior Research Fellow in Mechanical Engineering
Department in Anna University Chennai and do research under the Guidance of
Dr. G. Nagarajan in biodiesel fuel.
A. Gopinath was a Master student in Mechanical Engineering Department in
Anna University Chennai but now working as a Deputy Manger in Ashok
Leyland, Chennai.

Copyright © 2009 Inderscience Enterprises Ltd.

82 S. Puhan et al.

1 Introduction

The earlier work (Vellguth, 1983; Murayama et al., 1984) reported that high viscosity and
low volatility of pure vegetable oil reduces fuel atomisation and increases fuel spray
penetration. Higher spray penetration and polymerisation of unsaturated fatty acids at
higher temperatures are partly responsible for the difficulties experienced with engine
deposits and thickening of the lubricating oil.
Several approaches were made to improve the physical properties of vegetable oil but
it was found that these techniques are not suitable for the long run. Therefore, it was
realised later (Kruger and Durnholzm, 1995), that the derivatives of vegetable oils in the
form of alkyl esters and blends with diesel were more attractive as fuels.
A number of studies (Wagner et al., 1984; Spataru and Romig, 1995; Ziejewski and
Kaufman, 1983; Staat and Gateau, 1995; Desantes et al., 1999; Hansen and Jensen, 1997;
de Almeida et al., 2002; Yu and Ameen, 2002) have been carried out on the preparation
of biodiesel from soybean, canola, sunflower, rape, palm and waste cooking oil. The fatty
acid composition of biodiesel derived from different vegetable oils is not the same.
Hence, the properties of biodiesel such as density, viscosity, cetane number, cold flow
properties and heating value are not the same.
Researchers (Connemann and Fischer, 2001; Kropp, 2001) have shown that biodiesel
fuel exhibits chemical and thermodynamic properties that are quite similar to those of
diesel fuel. Although thermodynamically similar, differences in the physical properties of
density, viscosity and isothermal compressibility exist between biodiesel and diesel fuel.
These properties strongly affect injection pressure, injection rate and spray characteristics
(Yamane et al., 2001). An increase in fuel viscosity will generally result in an increase in
the penetration rate and a corresponding decrease in the cone angle (Ryan et al., 1984).
Increase in viscosity was observed with high unsaturated biodiesel due to more oxidation
(Canakci et al., 1999). The high unsaturated biodiesel fuels are more prone for oxidation
and can cause fuel filter plugging through polymerisation of the peroxides (Monyem et
al., 2000).
As unsaturated composition in biodiesel increases, the cetane number, heating value
and melting point decreases (Knothe, 2004). Introduction of double bond in the structure
increases the unsaturation in biodiesel. A carbon-carbon double bond introduces a kink
and thereby distorts the linearity of carbon-carbon single bonds. This kinked
configuration fosters intra or inters molecular interactions in the fuel that reduces
compressibility, leading to earlier fuel injection (Szybist et al., 2005). The fuel injection
timing was mainly influenced by the fuel properties, such as its density and bulk
modulus. As unsaturated composition in biodiesel increases, the density and bulk
modulus also increases which in turn advance the injection timing (Tat and Van Gerpen,
2003).
Several engine test results (Rantanen et al., 1993; Canakci and Van Gerpen, 2003)
showed that biodiesel exhibits higher NOX and lower thermal efficiency due to lower
heating value compared to diesel fuel. But biodiesel containing higher methyl oleic ester
produced significantly lower NOX (Yamane et al., 2001). Blends of Jatropha oil and
diesel, produces higher thermal efficiency without affecting NOX emissions much
(Kalligeros et al., 2003). An increase in the ignition delay period and combustion
duration with both Jatropha oil and its esters with lower heat release rates were noticed
compared to diesel fuel (Forson, 2004).
 Combustion, performance and emission characteristics of a DI CI engine 83

From the literatures, it was observed that biodiesel unsaturated composition affects its
properties to be used as a fuel. Some biodiesel composition even affects the performance
of a compression ignition engine to a greater extent. Therefore, there is a need to do
research to understand the effect of unsaturated composition of biodiesel on engine
combustion characteristics.
Hence, the objective of the present work was focused to study the effect of
unsaturated composition in biodiesel on fuel properties and combustion characteristics of
a compression ignition engine.

2 Experimental methods

2.1 Fuel Preparation

Transesterification is a process by which all type of vegetable oils and fats can be
converted to alkyl ester or biodiesel. In this process, one mole of triglyceride converted to
three moles of esters with a glycerol molecule. The transesterification reaction
mechanism is shown below.
A good quality (≤ 1% free fatty acid and ≤ 0.5% moisture content) oil of five litres
was taken in a glass reactor fitted with a stirrer, an external heater and a condenser for
transesterification process. The oil was heated to 50°C in the glass reactor and NaOH
dissolved in methanol was added. The contents were heated to the required temperature
of 60°C which is the boiling point of methanol. Reflux condenser condenses the
evaporated alcohol back into the reactor. Stirring helps to achieve uniformity of reactants
and helps the reaction to take place faster. Methanol (20 vol. % of oil) was taken for the
study. Reaction duration was fixed as two hours under reflux condition. After two hours,
the heater was switched off and the product was allowed to settle down for some time and
two layers were formed. The upper layer consisted of ester and methanol and was
separated from the bottom layer that contained glycerin. The upper layer was distilled to
remove and recover excess methanol and the esters were washed with warm water to
remove traces of glycerin and alkali. Finally, the product was dried for one hour in a hot
air oven at 105°C. The product was analysed for fuel properties as per the ASTM
standard test methods and subsequently used for engine tests.
Catalyst
1 ⎯⎯⎯⎯
Triglyceride (TG) + R’OH ←⎯⎯⎯ ⎯→ Diglyceride (DG) + R’COOR1

Catalyst
2 ⎯⎯⎯⎯
Diglyceride (DG) + R’OH ←⎯⎯⎯ ⎯→ Monoglyceride (MG) + R’COOR2

Catalyst
3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯
Monoglyceride (MG) + R’OH ←⎯⎯⎯ ⎯→ Glycerol (GL) + R’COOR3.

2.2 Fuel properties

Saturated fatty acids (SFAs) have all the hydrogen that the carbon atoms can hold and
therefore, have no double bonds between the carbons. Monounsaturated fatty acids
(MUFAs) have only one double bond. Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) have more
than one double bond. Double bonds bind carbon atoms tightly and prevent rotation of
the carbon atoms along the bond axis. The saturated and unsaturated fatty acid
84 S. Puhan et al.

composition of all the biodiesels are given in Table 1. The fatty acid composition of the
biodiesel fuels was determined with a gas chromatograph (GC). Fatty acids are
represented by a notation such as C18:2 which indicate that the fatty acid consists of 18
carbon chain and two double bonds. Hence, biodiesel having more number of double
bonds are prone to have lower cetane number and heating value. Biodiesel with more
unsaturated ester shows higher density of 0.89 kg/m3 like linseed oil methyl ester
(LOME) and shows lower density of 0.86 kg/m3 for more saturated ester like coconut oil
methyl ester (COME). Heating value, cetane number and oxygen content of COME is
41 MJ/kg, 59% and 16% respectively, the highest among all the biodiesels. The iodine
number of LOME is highest (212) and lowest for COME (10). For blended fuels, all the
properties are calculated from the parent biodiesel. The properties of biodiesels are
shown in Table 2.
Table 1 Saturated and unsaturated fatty acids presented in biodiesels

Unsaturated (% wt.)
Esters Saturated (% wt.)
18:1 18:2 18:3
LOME 7 23 15 55
SFOME 9 17 74 -
JOME 26 42 30 -
MOME 45 36 15 -
COME 87 8 2 -

Table 2 Important fuel properties of biodiesels

Properties LOME SFOME JOME MOME COME Diesel

Density (kg/m3) 0.89 0.88 0.88 0.87 0.86 0.83
Viscosity at 40°C (cSt) 3.8 3.9 4.2 4.5 4.8 2.6
Heating value (MJ/Kg) 39 39 39 39 41 45
Cetane number 49 51 52 55 59 48
Flash point (°C) 192 185 180 176 172 65
Iodine number 212 130 105 70 10 76
95% distillation temperature (°C) 365 362 360 354 344 315
C (%) 77.7 77.1 76.5 76 72 85
H (%) 10.7 11.4 12 12 12 15
O (%) 11.6 11.4 11.3 12 16 0
Stoichiometric air-fuel ratio 12.6 12.7 12.9 12.9 12.8 14.9
Water (% wt) 0.05 0.04 0.6 0.05 0.04 -

2.3 Engine test procedure

Figures 1 and 2 shows the schematic diagram and photographic view of the experimental
setup. The test engine used was a single cylinder, four-stroke, air-cooled diesel engine
developing 4.4 kW at 1,500 rpm. The technical specifications of the engine are given in
Table 3. An electrical dynamometer coupled to the engine was used as a loading device.
The load can be increased or decreased on the dynamometer and there by on the engine,
 Combustion, performance and emission characteristics of a DI CI engine 85

by switching on or off the load resistances. Fuel consumption was measured with the help
of a digital stopwatch and burette.
A K-type thermocouple in conjunction with a digital temperature indicator was used
to measure the exhaust gas temperature. The thermocouple was inserted in the exhaust
pipe nearer to the engine exhaust manifold. An orifice meter connected to a surge tank
was used to measure the air consumption with the help of a U tube manometer. The surge
tank fixed on the inlet side of an engine maintains a constant airflow through the orifice
meter. Exhaust emissions from the engine were measured with a QROTECH, QEO-402
gas analyser. A Bosch smoke meter was used to measure the smoke intensity. A filter
paper of diameter 50 mm was used to collect smoke samples from the engine, through
smoke sampling pump for measuring Bosch smoke number. A water-cooled piezoelectric
transducer of range zero to 250 bars was used for in cylinder pressure measurement. A
crank angle encoder with top dead centre (TDC) marker was used to sense the position of
TDC. Output from crank angle encoder and pressure transducer was connected to a
charge amplifier. From the charge amplifier the output signal was transferred to a
computer through an analogue to digital converter (ADC). In this system, the analogue
signal was converted into digital impulses at fixed crank angles. The digital signal was
then transmitted to the computer where it was stored. It was immediately processed as
soon as all the data for one or any number of cycles have been completed. The processing
may be in the form of a pressure crank angle diagram or a pressure volume diagram or a
heat release crank angle diagram.
All the experiments were carried out after thorough inspection and calibration of the
engine and measuring instruments. At each load, all readings were taken five times for
repeatability and the average of these readings was taken for final analysis.
Table 3 Engine specifications

Parameter Specifications
Model Kirloskar TAF – 1
Type Single cylinder, four stroke, direct injection, bowl-in-piston
Capacity 661 cm3
Bore and stroke 87.5 mm × 110 mm
Compression ratio 17.5:1
Speed (constant) 1,500 rpm
Rated powder 4.4 kW
Cooling system Forced air cooling by flywheel fan
Injection timing 23° bTDC
Injection pressure 200 bar
86 S. Puhan et al.

Figure 1 Schematic of the experimental setup

5
8 9

10
12
11
7

1
2

Notes: 1 = Test engine; 2 = dynamometer; 3 = biodiesel tank; 4 = burette; 5 = fuel filter;

6 = air surge tank; 7 = TDC pickup; 8 = pressure transducer; 9 = charge amplifier;
10 = analogue to digital converter card; 11 = computer; and 12 = exhaust gas
analyser.

Figure 2 Photographic view of engine set up (see online version for colours)
 Combustion, performance and emission characteristics of a DI CI engine 87

2.4 Test fuel selection

For the experimental work, five biodiesels were selected based on the unsaturated fatty
acid ester composition. The fatty acid ester composition for the biodiesel fuel is given in
Table 1. The unsaturated fatty acid ester is high in the case of LOME followed by
SFOME, JOME, MOME and COME. The experimental design for the test is shown in
Table 4. The uncertainties analysis done on the measured parameters is shown in Table 5.
Table 4 Experimental design for engine test

SL. no. Fuel Speed Load (% of rated output)

1 LOME 25 50 75 100
2 SFOME 25 50 75 100
3 JOME 25 50 75 100
1,500 rpm
4 MOME 25 50 75 100
5 COME 25 50 75 100
6 Diesel 25 50 75 100
Table 5 Uncertainties of measured parameters

Parameters % of uncertainties
NOX 1.1
Hydrocarbon 0.01
CO 0.08
CO2 1.2
Smoke 2
Pressure 1.1

3 Results and discussion

3.1 Performance analysis

Efficient combustion requires that the fuel is injected at appropriate timing and rate and
the injection pressure must be sufficiently high for adequate atomisation and penetration.
This involves not only the mechanical characteristics of the pump, discharge tubing and
nozzle of the conventional fuel pump system, but also the compressibility and dynamics
of the fuel column between the pump and nozzle.
Since fuel is compressible, there is a time lag between the beginning of delivery by
the pump and the beginning of discharge from the nozzle and the rate of delivery from
the pump is not identical with the rate of discharge from the nozzle. The compressibility
of a liquid is the reciprocal of the modulus of elasticity or bulk modulus, as it is also
known. If a fuel is less compressible, the pressure will build more quickly and the fuel
will be injected into the combustion chamber earlier in the compression cycle. Whereas if
the fuel is more compressible more time will be required to reach the nozzle opening
pressure and the fuel will be injected into the combustion chamber later. Figure 3 shows
the variation of BSEC with brake power for biodiesel and diesel fuels.
88 S. Puhan et al.

Figure 3 Variation of brake specific energy consumption with brake power (see online version
for colours)

30 Diesel
SFOME
COME
25
JOME
MOME
Brake Specific Energy

20 LOME
Consumption
(MJ/kWh)

15

10

0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Brake Power (kW)

It can be observed that as load increases the specific energy consumption gradually
reduces. This is due to the fact that at lower loads mixture is leaner compared to full load;
hence, combustion is poor, resulting in higher energy consumption. It can also be
observed that the specific energy consumption at all loads is higher in the case of
biodiesel than diesel fuel except LOME and JOME. At part loads, the specific energy
consumption for all the biodiesel lies between 20 MJ/kWh to 25 MJ/kWh where as at full
load it is between 12 MJ/kWh to 15 MJ/kWh only. This may be attributed to the
combined effect of lower heating value and higher density of biodiesel fuels. In the case
of LOME and JOME, the density is higher and heating value is lower, hence the specific
energy consumption is comparatively lower than that of diesel fuel. It may hold good for
other biodiesels also.
From Figure 11 it can be seen that the premixed burning of LOME is more compared
to other biodiesels and diesel fuel. This implies that high density and low viscosity
LOME fuel is injected at higher pressures in to the combustion chamber. As a result, the
spray cone angle increases, which in turn enhances the mixture formation. Hence, better
premixed combustion can be achieved compared to other biodiesels.
 Combustion, performance and emission characteristics of a DI CI engine 89

Again, earlier fuel injection in the case of high density fuel may allow more air to mix
with fuel for better combustion. All these factors may enhance the combustion efficiency
during premixed phase. As a result, premixed burn fraction and premixed heat release
peak is more. This implies that more energy is liberated during premixed combustion
period in the case of LOME. Hence, the energy consumption in the case of LOME is less.
The sequence of specific energy consumption is LOME < JOME < Diesel < MOME
< COME < SFOME. This can be well correlated with the biodiesel unsaturated ester
composition. Higher the unsaturation, lower the specific energy consumption. Biodiesel
with more oleic, linoleic and linolenic ester will have higher density, lower heating value
and lower cetane number, hence, lower energy consumption compared to highly saturated
biodiesel like COME.
Figure 4 shows the variation of brake thermal efficiency of various biodiesel fuels
with brake power. Lower thermal efficiency at part load can be well correlated with heat
release rate and shape of the heat release curve. At lower loads as the mixture is leaner
the fuel burn angle is expected to be longer, hence lower thermal efficiency for a
particular type of fuel.
Again even for different fuels with the same fuel burn angle, high volatility fuel may
have higher premixed fraction peak, therefore higher thermal efficiency. So, the thermal
efficiency can be well correlated with the shape of premixed combustion and diffusion
combustion heat release rather than fuel burn angle, which can correlate with biodiesel
unsaturated ester composition. Higher the unsaturated ester composition, longer the
ignition delay, more the premixed combustion, higher the premixed peak and hence
higher thermal efficiency. Comparing all the biodiesels, LOME shows the highest
thermal efficiency. This is again due to the lower viscosity and higher injection pressure
of LOME, which reduces the droplet diameter, increases the spray cone angle and
approaches to form homogenous mixture during premixed combustion. Biodiesel with
more unsaturated ester shows higher thermal efficiency compared to more saturated one.
From Figure 10, it can be observed that area under premixed combustion is higher in
the case of LOME and lower in the case of COME. Hence the work done and efficiency
is more in the case of LOME only. However, at lower loads the variation of fuel
consumption is comparatively less than at higher loads. This is due to the fact that at
lower operating temperatures, the effective utilisation of fuel air mixture is comparatively
low. Hence, lower heat release rate and therefore lower thermal efficiency. As load
increases, the efficiency increases. At higher loads, mixture is rich, hence the fuel
consumption is higher and heat release rate is higher, therefore the variation in efficiency
is higher. This can be observed in the case of LOME. At lower loads the efficiency
approaches diesel, but at higher loads it is higher than diesel.
90 S. Puhan et al.

Figure 4 Variation of brake thermal efficiency with brake power (see online version for colours)

35

30
Brake Thermal Efficiency (%)

25

20 Diesel
SFOM E
15
COM E
10 JOM E
M OM E
5
LOM E
0
0 1 2 3 4 5

Brake Power (kW)

Again this is due to the different physical and chemical properties of the fuel, which are
more sensitive at higher operating temperatures at high loads. At higher loads the
combustion duration may vary depending on the fuel type, hence efficiency curves are
divergent. Biodiesel having more unsaturated ester diverge more compared to biodiesel
having more saturated esters.
Figure 5 shows the exhaust gas temperature of various biodiesel fuels with brake
power. From the brake thermal efficiency graph it is observed that LOME exhibit higher
thermal efficiency compared to all other biodiesels and diesel fuel. In this case, the heat
energy released during combustion is utilised effectively and the combustion products
coming out from the engine should have lower heat energy and subsequently lower
enthalpy, which should show a lower exhaust gas temperature. But the actual result
deviates from the theory. The probable reason may be explained as follows. The linolenic
esters have a tendency to polymerise at higher temperatures, as a result, long chain
hydrocarbon may form, which may not necessarily oxidise during the diffusion
combustion phase unless the environment favours for oxidation reaction. This can be
seen from the heat release and cumulative heat release curve (Figure 10 and Figure 11).
 Combustion, performance and emission characteristics of a DI CI engine 91

Figure 5 Variation of exhaust gas temperature with brake power (see online version for colours)

500
Exhaust Gas Temperature (°C)

450
400
350
300 DIESEL

SFOM E
250
COM E
200
JOM E
150
M OM E
100
LOM E
50
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Brake Power (kW)

From Figure 10, it is observed that in the case of LOME the area under diffusion
combustion phase is lower compared to other biodiesels and diesel fuel, which may be
one of the reasons for high HC and CO in the case of LOME. When the diffusion
combustion is poor, this implies that the carbon particles don’t oxidise which is supposed
to oxidise during the phase. As a result, these carbon particles come out from the engine
with high energy content, which leads to higher exhaust gas temperature.
Again this can be explained from the cumulative heat release curve shown in
Figure 11. It can be observed the total heat released is lower compared to diesel. This
shows that diffusion combustion is poor in the case of LOME. This may happen only in
the case of LOME due to more tri-unsaturated fatty acid ester. But when the thermal
efficiency is high, the exhaust gas temperature should be lower. This may not be true for
all the fuels like LOME. In the case of JOME, the thermal efficiency (28.48%) is closer
to LOME (29.76%) but the exhaust gas temperature is only 329°C, when compared with
457°C for LOME. Similarly for MOME, the exhaust gas temperature is 348°C but the
thermal efficiency is 27.85%. Hence the exhaust gas temperature can not be correlated
with efficiency for all the fuels.

3.2 Emission analysis

Figure 6 compares the carbon monoxide (CO) emission of biodiesel fuels with diesel at
various powers. This is one of the compounds formed during the intermediate
combustion stages of hydrocarbon fuels. As combustion proceeds to completion,
oxidation of CO to CO2 occurs through recombination reactions between CO and
oxidants. If these recombination reactions are incomplete due to lack of oxidants or due
to low gas temperatures, CO will be left without conversion into CO2. LOME shows
92 S. Puhan et al.

higher CO emission compared to other biodiesel but lesser than diesel. This may be due
to insufficient oxygen available for reacting with CO to support the reaction; else the
energy needed for the reaction is not sufficient. An increase in load, or the fuel-air ratio,
results in lower CO emissions because of the increased gas temperature. In the case of
LOME, higher density increases the spray cone angle and decrease spray penetration. As
a result the fuel-air mixture becomes rich at the centre of the spray. Hence combustion of
the fuel-air mixture at the centre of the spray is poor, which leads to higher CO and HC
emissions compared to other biodiesels.

Figure 6 Variation of CO emission with brake power (see online version for colours)

DIESEL
0.07 SFOM E
COM E
0.06 JOM E
M OM E
Brake Specific Carbon

LOM E
monoxide Emission

0.05
(g/kWh)

0.04

0.03

0.02

0.01

0
0 1 2 3 4 5

Brake Power (kW)

Another reason for higher CO and HC in the case of LOME is that the
tri-unsaturation (three double bond) fatty ester has poor oxidation stability, which may
polymerise at higher temperatures and as a result, heavier molecules are formed with long
hydrocarbon chains. It is believed that tri-unsaturated fatty esters have higher premixed
combustion due to higher ignition delay but lower diffusion combustion due to poor
oxidation of heavy molecules.
Another reason may be explained as follows, increase in spray cone angle due to
higher injection pressure, may result in spray impingement on the walls of the
combustion chamber, which may not take part in combustion process and as a result more
CO and HC may be formed. CO and HC emissions can be correlated with ester
composition as follows; higher unsaturated, higher injection pressure, wider spray or
more spray cone angle and wall wetting result in higher CO and HC emissions.
 Combustion, performance and emission characteristics of a DI CI engine 93

Another way to correlate with ester composition is higher unsaturation, earlier

injection, longer ignition delay, better mixture formation, higher premixed peak, higher
premixed duration and lower diffusion, hence, CO and HC emissions are higher.
Figure 7 compares the HC emission of various biodiesel fuels at various outputs. The
unburned hydrocarbons in the diesel exhaust consist of either original or decomposed fuel
molecules or recombined intermediate compounds. A small portion of these
hydrocarbons originates from the lubricating oil.

Figure 7 Variation of HC with brake power (see online version for colours)

1.8 DIESEL
SFOM E
1.6
Brake Specific Hydrocarbon

COM E
1.4
JOM E
Emission (g/kWh)

1.2
M OM E
1.0 LOM E
0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Brake Power (kW)

In diesel engines, if the changes in volumetric efficiency are neglected the mass of air per
cycle is almost constant. The change in load is accomplished by controlling the amount
of fuel injected. This produces variation in fuel distribution in the spray, amount of fuel
deposited on the walls, cylinder gas pressure and temperature and injection duration. An
increase in fuel-air ratio affects the oxidation reactions in many ways. It results in longer
periods of injection; and if injection timing and rate are kept constant, more fuel is
injected later in the cycle. In general, this results in a shorter reaction time for the last part
of the injected fuel.
From Figure 7, it can be observed that at low loads HC emissions are higher for all
the fuels. HC emissions can be correlated with biodiesel ester composition as explained
earlier.
Injection timing advance increases the unburned hydrocarbon emissions. Apparently,
the longer ignition delay allows more fuel vapour and smaller droplets to be carried away
with the swirling air.
Another factor is the increase in fuel impingement on the walls. As already discussed,
the high unsaturated fatty esters like LOME and SFOME have higher density compared
94 S. Puhan et al.

to other biodiesel fuels, hence due to higher bulk modulus of elasticity the injection of
fuel starts little earlier in terms of crank angle (approximately 1–2 deg. crank angle)
compared to other saturated biodiesel fuels like COME and MOME. This advance in
injection timing allows fuel vapour to mix properly with air and as a result longer
premixed combustion. At the same time, the diffusion combustion is poor in the case of
LOME for several reasons as explained earlier which may be one of the reasons for
higher HC emission. In the case of COME, the area under diffusion combustion is higher;
hence CO and HC emissions are lower compared to diesel and other biodiesel fuels.
Biodiesel with more saturation will have lower premixed period and wider diffusion
combustion period which leads to lower NOX, CO, HC and smoke emission with lesser
efficiency.
Figure 8 shows the variation of NOX emission of various biodiesel fuels with brake
power. The NO formation in the spray is related to the local oxygen atom concentration
of the oxygen molecule and the local temperature and pressure. It can be observed from
Figure 8 that NOX emission is higher in the case of LOME compared to other biodiesels.

Figure 8 Variation of NOX with brake power (see online version for colours)

18
16
Brake Specific NOx emission

14
12
(g/kWh)

10 DIESEL
8 SFOM E

6 COM E
JOM E
4
M OM E
2 LOM E
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Brake Power (kW)

From Figure 10 and Figure 12, it is again clear that premixed burning and peak pressure
are higher in the case of LOME only. This is a good agreement with NOX emissions. As
load increases NOX emission increases up to 75% of the load then it drops for all the
biodiesels except LOME. At full load since the mixture is rich, premixed peak reduces,
which may reduce NOX emission. This may not hold good for LOME due to several
reasons. Biodiesel with more unsaturated fatty ester composition emits more NOX and
more saturated ester composition emits less NOX. The combustion theory says that when
NOX increases, HC, CO and smoke should decrease but for COME NOX, CO, HC and
smoke were lower than that of diesel and other biodiesel fuels. This may be due to the
particular ester composition of the biodiesel fuel. NOX emission may correlate as follows,
 Combustion, performance and emission characteristics of a DI CI engine 95

higher unsaturated, higher premixed peak and higher peak pressure may result in higher
NOX.
Figure 9 shows the variation of Bosch smoke number with brake power for all the
biodiesel fuels. The black smoke emission consists of irregularly shaped, agglomerated
fine carbon particles. According to current theories, these carbon particles can be formed
from the hydrocarbon fuels in the presence or absence of oxygen.
In the absence of oxygen, pyrolysis of the fuel molecules may take place to form
carbon. Carbon formation takes place during the early stage of combustion. However,
these carbon particles are completely burned due to the presence of oxygen.
In the spray core, especially under heavy loads, the oxygen concentration is low and
the gas temperature is high. These are easier to decompose than the lighter compounds.
Pyrolysis of the molecules may take place and lead to the formation of acetylene and
hydrogen. The simultaneous condensation and dehydrogenation of acetylene may result
in solid carbon. Due to the presence of oxygen, partial oxidation reactions may take place
and result in a higher concentration of CO. Carbon may form if the ratio of CO to CO2
exceeds equilibrium constant.
Advancing the start of injection in a DI engines with all other parameters kept
constant results in longer ignition delay periods, more fuel injected before ignition, higher
temperature in the cycle and earlier termination of the combustion process. The residence
time is therefore increased. All these factors have been found to reduce smoke intensity
in the exhaust. However, earlier injection results in more combustion noise, higher
mechanical and thermal stress and higher NO concentration.

Figure 9 Variation of smoke intensity with brake power (see online version for colours)

1.0 DIESEL
SFOM E
0.9
COM E
0.8
JOM E
0.7 M OM E
Smoke (BSU)

0.6 LOM E

0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
-0.1 0 1 2 3 4 5
Brake Power (kW)
96 S. Puhan et al.

From Figure 9 it is noticed that smoke increases with load irrespective of the fuel. The
lowest smoke was observed in the case of COME due to longer diffusion combustion
period. The probable reason may be due to the presence of more saturated fatty ester
composition. The highest smoke is observed in the case of LOME but lesser than diesel
which may be due to higher unsaturated ester composition.

3.3 Combustion analysis

The results of the experiments are presented at full load. From Figures 10 and 11, it is
clear that heat release rate and cumulative heat release rate for all the biodiesel fuels are
almost similar. The heat release rate is the product of pressure work and the change of
internal energy of the working fluid. What is apparent from Figure 10 is that
highly-unsaturated biodiesel like LOME has a longer ignition delay, higher maximum
burn rate and a slightly longer premixed burn fraction. The greater initial burn rate and
increased premixed burn fraction are due to longer ignition delay. The NOX appears to be
affected by the unsaturated fatty acid composition, density, ignition delay and premixed
burn. LOME has a lower cetane number compared to other biodiesel fuels. Hence the
energy required to start the reaction, i.e., the activation energy is very high. So it may be
one of the reasons for longer ignition delay as the percentage of unsaturated fatty acid
composition increases.

Figure 10 Variation heat release rate with brake power

Diesel
80
LOME
SFOME
70 JOME
MOME
60
Heat Release Rate (J/ deg.)

COME

50

40

30

20

10

0
-9 -4 8 16 21 26 31 36
-10
Crank Angle (deg.)
 Combustion, performance and emission characteristics of a DI CI engine 97

Another reason for the longer ignition delay may be due to the higher specific heat of
highly unsaturated LOME fuel. The high specific heat fuel needs more heat energy to
evaporate inside the cylinder by absorbing heat from the combustion chamber.
Another reason for higher premixed combustion in the case of LOME can be
explained as LOME contains more tri-unsaturated fatty acid ester, which has more
affinity to oxidise even at room temperature. As a result, a thick layer is used to form at
the periphery, which increases the viscosity of the fuel. During the compression stroke,
LOME utilises the maximum oxygen available in the combustion chamber through
oxidation. And later in the diffusion combustion phase, the presence of oxygen may be
very less to support oxidation reaction. Hence area under diffusion combustion is lower
in the case of LOME compared to other biodiesel fuels. In contrast, COME fuel has more
SFA and higher cetane number compared to LOME, hence lower activation energy and
shorter ignition delay and lower premixed combustion and more diffusion combustion
compared to LOME.
From Figure 11, it can be observed that the cumulative heat release in the case of
LOME is high compared to COME. This is in agreement with the higher exhaust gas
temperature. From Figure 12 it is observed that the maximum gas pressure in the case of
LOME is higher than that of other biodiesel fuels. This indicates that higher NOX will be
formed only in the case of LOME.
From Figure 11, it can be seen that the cumulative heat release is high at early stage
of combustion for LOME and later it is lower than that of diesel but higher than other
biodiesels. The lowest cumulative heat release is observed in the case of COME and this
is also one of the factors for low thermal efficiency and low NOX.

Figure 11 Variation of cumulative heat release with brake power (see online version for colours)

1400
Cummalative Heat Release.(J)

1200

1000

800 Diesel
LOME
600
SFOME
400 JOME
MOME
200 COME

0
330 350 370 390 410 430
-200
Crank Angle (deg.)
98 S. Puhan et al.

Figure 12 Variation of peak pressure with brake power (see online version for colours)

80

70
Peak Pressure (bar)

60

50
DIESEL
40
SFOME
30 COME
20 JOME
MOME
10
LOME
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Brake Power (kW)

Figure 12 shows the variation of maximum gas pressure with brake power. It can be
observed that the maximum gas pressure is 72 bars in the case of LOME and the lowest
of 65 bars can be observed in the case of diesel at full load. As load increases the gas
pressure also increases. If unsaturation in a biodiesel increases, premixed fraction
increases, which tend to increase the maximum gas pressure.

4 Conclusions

An experimental investigation was conducted to evaluate and compare the combustion,

performance and exhaust emission levels of different biodiesel fuels in a fully
instrumented, single cylinder, direct injection diesel engine.
A series of tests were conducted using different biodiesel fuels, at an engine speed of
1.500 rpm. The following conclusions are drawn from the experimental study:
• A biodiesel fuel with 93% unsaturated fatty ester composition (LOME) has higher
density of 0.89 kg/m3 but less viscosity of 3.8 cSt compared to biodiesel with 10%
un saturated ester (COME) of 0.86 kg/m3 and 4.8 cSt.
• Biodiesel with 55% linolenic ester like LOME has lower cetane number and heating
value of 49 MJ/kg and 39 MJ/kg respectively.
• High saturated (90%) biodiesel fuel like COME has higher cetane number and
heating value of 59 MJ/kg and 41 MJ/kg respectively.
 Combustion, performance and emission characteristics of a DI CI engine 99

• Biodiesel with high unsaturated fatty acid composition like LOME shows higher
thermal efficiency of 29.76% compared to high SFA composition like COME of
27.85%.
• High linolenic biodiesel fuels like LOME emits higher HC, CO and smoke emissions
compared to highly saturated biodiesel fuel like COME.
• More NOX was observed in the case of high linolenic biodiesel, 16.83 g/kWh
compared to COME of 13.09 g/kWh. The efficiency and NOX emission observed in
the case of MOME was 27.91% and 12.34 g/kWh, which is a NOX neutral fuel with
penalty of 1.75% efficiency compared to diesel fuel.
• Heat release rate and cumulative heat release rate is higher in the case of high
linolenic biodiesel fuel like LOME.
A general conclusion is that all the tested biodiesel fuels can be used safely and
advantageously in the present engine. The only exception is that LOME cannot be used
as a sole fuel due to higher NOX formation and poor oxidation stability. All the biodiesel
fuels tested can be used in the form of blends to compromise the NOX emissions and
thermal efficiency. JT80/20 blend seems to be a good blend for better thermal efficiency
and lower NOX emission. On the whole biodiesel with 49/51 (vol. %) saturated and
unsaturated ester composition like MOME can be used as a NOX neutral fuel for DI
diesel engine and the biodiesel with high linolenic ester composition can be treated as a
high NOX production fuel for diesel engine.

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