UNIT 1 THE ESSAY

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From Paragraph to Essay

Egyptian hieroglyphs

An Essay is a piece of writing several paragraphs long. It is about one topic, just
as a paragraph is. However, because the topic of an essay is too complex to discuss in
one paragraph, you need to divide it into several paragraphs, one for each major point.
Then you need to tie the paragraphs together by adding an introduction and a
conclusion.

Writing an essay is NO more difficult than writing a paragraph except that an

essay is longer. The principles of organization are the same for both, so if you can write
a good paragraph, you can write a good essay.

The Three Parts of an Essay

An essay has three main parts: an introduction (introductory paragraph), a body
(at least one, but usually two or more paragraphs), and a conclusion (concluding
paragraph).

The following chart shows you how the parts of a paragraph correspond to the
parts of an essay.

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 Essay

I. Introduction

General Statements
…………………………………………………
Thesis Statement

II. Body

A. Topic sentence
Paragraph
1. Support
2. Support
Topic sentence
3. Support
A. Support (Concluding sentence)
B. Support
C. Support B. Topic sentence
Concluding sentence 4. Support
5. Support
6. Support
(Concluding sentence)

C. Topic sentence
7. Support
8. Support
9. Support
(Concluding sentence)

III. Conclusion

Restatement or summary of the

main points; final comment

An essay introduction consists of two

parts: a few general statements to attract your reader’s attention and a thesis statement to state the
main idea of the essay. A thesis statement for an essay is like a topic sentence for a paragraph: It
names the specific topic and gives the reader a general idea of the contents of the essay. The body
consists of one or more paragraphs. Each paragraph develops a subdivision of the topic, so the
number of paragraphs in the body will vary with the number of the subdivisions or subtopics. The
conclusion, like the concluding sentence in a paragraph, is a summary or review of the main points

An essay has unity and coherence, just as a paragraph does. Transition signals and the repetition
of key nouns link to cohesive whole.

Study the essay about the influence of Native Americans 1 on modern U.S. culture and notice its
structure.
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Native Americans: American Indians

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MODEL ESSAY STRUCTURE
Native American Influences on Modern U.S. Culture
INTRODUCTORY
When the first Europeans came to the North American continent, they
PARAGRAPH
encountered the completely new cultures of the Native American peoples of North
America. Native Americans, who had highly developed cultures in many respects, must
have been as curious about the strange European manners and customs as the
Europeans were curious about them. As always happens when two or more cultures
come into contact, there was a cultural exchange. Native Americans adopted some of
the Europeans’ ways, and the European adopted some of their ways. As a result, Native
THESIS STATEMENT Americans have made many valuable contributions to modern U.S. culture, particularly
in the areas of language, art, food, and government.

First of all, Native Americans left a permanent mark on the English language.
BODY PARAGRAPH 1 The early English-speaking settlers borrowed from several different Native American
languages words for places in this new land. All across the country are cities, towns,
rivers, and states with Native American names. For example, the states of Delaware,
Iowa, Illinois, and Alabama are named after Native American tribes, as are the cities of
Chicago, Miami, and Spokane. In addition to place names, English adopted from various
Native American languages the words for animals and plants found in the Americas.
Chipmunk, moose, raccoon, skunk, tobacco, and squash are just a few examples.

BODY PARAGRAPH 2 Although the vocabulary of English is the area that shows the most Native
American influence, it is not the only area of U.S. culture that has been shaped by
contact with Native Americans. Art is another area of Native American contributions.
Wool rugs woven by women of the Navajo tribe in Arizona and New Mexico are highly
valued works of art in the United States. Native American jewelry made from silver and
turquoise is also very popular and very expensive. Especially in the western and
southwestern regions of the United States, native crafts such as pottery, leather
products, and beadwork can be found in many homes. Indeed, native art and
handicrafts are a treasured part of U.S. culture.

In addition to language and art, agriculture is another area in which Native

BODY PARAGRAPH 3
Americans had a great and lasting influence on the peoples who arrived here from
Europe, Africa, and Asia. Being skilled farmers, the Native Americans of North America
taught the newcomers many things about farming techniques and crops. Every U.S.
schoolchild has heard the story of how Native Americans taught the first settlers to
place a dead fish in a planting hole to provide fertilizer for the growing plant.
Furthermore, they taught the settlers irrigation methods and crop rotation. Many of
the foods in the United States eat today were introduced to the Europeans by Native
Americans. For example, corn and chocolate were unknown in Europe. Now they are
staples in the U.S. diet.

BODY PARAGRAPH 4 Finally, it may surprise some people to learn that citizens of the United States
are also indebted to the native people for our form of government. Iroquois, who were
an extremely large tribe with many branches called “nations,” had developed a highly
sophisticated system of government to settle disputes that arose between the various
branches. Five of the nations had joined together in a confederation called “The league
of the Iroquois.” Under the league, each nation was autonomous in running its own

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 internal affairs, but the nations acted as a unit when dealing with outsiders. The league
kept the Iroquois from fighting among themselves and was also valuable in diplomatic
relations with other tribes. When the thirteen colonies were considering what kind of
government to establish after they had won their independence from Britain, someone
suggested that they use a system similar to that of the League of Iroquois. Under this
system, each colony or future state would be autonomous in managing its own affairs
but would join forces with the other states to deal with matters that concerned them
all. This is exactly what happened. As a result, the present form government of the
United States can be traced directly back to a Native American model.
CONCLUDING
PARAGRAPH In conclusion, we can easily see from these few examples the extent of Native
American influence on our language, our art forms, our eating habits, and our
government. The people of the United States are deeply indebted to Native Americans
for their contributions to U.S. culture.

Writing Technique Questions

1. How many paragraphs does this essay contain? How many paragraphs are in the
body?
2. Underline the topic sentence of each body paragraph, and double underline the
topic. (Note: the topic sentence is not necessarily the first sentence in every
paragraph.)
3. Notice which phrase appears four times in the introduction. Circle each repetition of
this key noun in the other paragraphs of the essay.

WRITING AN ESSAY
Thesis Statements

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PRACTICE 1
A. Study these thesis statements from two different essays on the topic of the status of
women in Xanadu, an imaginary country. One of the essays uses a comparison/contrast
pattern, the other a time sequence (chronological order) pattern. Which statement
indicates which pattern?

1. Beginning in World War II and continuing through the period of economic boom,
the status of women in Xanadu has changed remarkably.
Pattern of organization: _________________________________________

2. Although the status of women in Xanadu has improved remarkably in recent years,
it is still very low when compared to the status of women in the countries of the industrial
world.
Pattern of organization: _________________________________________

B. In each of the following two thesis statements, both the method of organization and the
number of subdivisions of the topic are indicated. Each subdivision will itself become the
topic of a separate paragraph in the body of the essay. Underline the topics of each
paragraph. How many body paragraphs will the body of each essay probably contain?
1. The status of women in Xanadu has changed remarkably in recent years due to
increased educational opportunities and changes in the country’s laws.
Probable number of body paragraphs: ______________________________

2. The status of women in Xanadu has improved remarkably in recent years in the
areas of economic independence, political rights, educational opportunities, and social
status.
Probable number of body paragraphs: ______________________________

Body paragraphs

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 The body paragraphs in an essay are like the supporting sentences in a paragraph.
They are the place to develop your topic and prove your points. You should organize body
paragraphs according to some sort of pattern, such as chronological order or
comparison/contrast. Sometimes, depending on your topic, you will need to use a
combination of patterns.

Logical division of ideas

A basic pattern for essays is logical division of ideas. In this pattern, you divide your
topic into subtopics and then discuss each subtopic in a separate paragraph. Logical division
is an appropriate pattern for explaining causes, reasons, types, kinds, qualities, methods,
advantages, and disadvantages, as these typical college exam questions ask you to do.

Examine the following:

ECONOMICS Explain the three causes of inflation.

AGRICULTURE/LANDSCAPE Describe the basic types of soils and what additives are needed
DESIGN to prepare each type for planting.

U.S. HISTORY Discuss the causes of the civil war

BUSINESS Explain the three main forms of business organization.
HEALTH SCIENCES Describe the various classes of drugs used to treat depression.

THREE KEYS
Here are three keys to organizing a logical division essay.
1. Divide your topic into subtopics, and then discuss each subtopic in a separate
paragraph.
2. Write a thesis statement that indicates logical division.
3. Use transitions between paragraphs to guide your reader from one subtopic to the
next.

Thesis Statements for Logical Division of Ideas

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The thesis statement of a logical division essay often indicates the number of subtopics:
Native Americans have made valuable contributions to modern U.S. culture in four
main areas.
Inflation has three causes.
The thesis statement may even name the specific subtopics:
a. Native Americans have made many valuable contributions to modern U.S. culture in
the areas of language, art, food, and government.
b. Inflation has three causes: excessive government spending, unrestrained consumer
borrowing, and an increase in the supply of paper money.
Paired conjunctions (both ... an, not only .... but also) are an especially effective way to list
two subtopics:
c. Young people in my culture have less freedom than young people in the Unites States
not only in their choice of lifestyle but also in their choice of careers.
d. Puppies, like children, need both love and discipline to become responsible members
of society.
A colon (:) is often useful before lists of two, three, or more subtopics in a thesis statement:
e. Young people in my culture have less freedom than young people in the Unites States
in three areas: where they live, whom they marry, and what their job is.
f. The Father of Psychoanalysis, Sigmund Freud, believed that the human mind had
three separate parts: the id, the ego, and the superego.

Notice that subtopics are in parallel form, which means that they have the
same grammatical form: In examples a, d, and f, all are nouns; in example b,
all are adjective + noun phrases; in example e, all are dependent noun clauses.

PRACTICE 2
A. Check (√) the thesis statements that suggest logical division as a method of
organization.
_____ 1. Teenagers demonstrate their independence in several ways.
_____ 2. My eighteenth birthday was the most memorable day in my life so far.
_____ 3. On their eighteenth birthdays, U.S. citizens receive two important
rights/responsibilities: They can vote, and they can sign legal contracts.

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_____ 4. In most occupations, women are still unequal to men in three areas: salary,
power, and status.
_____ 5. Living in a dormitory offers several advantages to first-year students.
_____ 6. Photosynthesis is the process by which plants manufacture their own food.
_____ 7. A college degree in international business requires (1) a knowledge of business
procedures and (2) a knowledge of cultural differences.
_____ 8. A computer is both faster and more accurate than a human.
_____ 9. Giving a surprise birthday party requires careful planning.
_____ 10. Being an only child has both advantages and disadvantages.

B. Analyze the following thesis statements.

Step 1: Locate the main topic and the subtopics in each of the following thesis
statements.
Step 2: Draw a box around the topic.
Step 3: Underline the subtopics.
Step 4: Draw a circle around the words or punctuation marks that introduce the
subtopics.
The first one has been done for you as an example.
1. Capital punishment should be abolished not only because it deprives another

person of life but also because it does not stop crime.

2. Women generally live longer than men for two main reasons: They tend to take better

care of their health and they have better resistance to stress.

3. Teenagers declare their separateness from their parents by the way they dress and by

the way they talk.

4. In choosing a major, a student has to consider various factors, such as personal

interest, job opportunities, and the availability of training institutions.

5. An architect should be both an artist and an engineer.

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 C. Complete the following thesis statements by adding subtopics to them. Be sure to

check your sentences for parallel form.

1. A computer is necessary for college students for three reasons: ___________________

________________________________________________________________________.

2. Students have a difficult time taking notes in class due to ________________________

________________________________________________________________________.

3. Successful politicians have the following qualities: _____________________________

________________________________________________________________________.

4. A generation gap12 exists in my home because of ______________________________

_______________________________________________________________________.

5. Living in a large city has certain advantages over living in a small town: _____________

_______________________________________________________________________.

Thesis Statement Pitfalls

A thesis is the most important sentence in your essay, so

write it with special thought and care. Avoid these common
problems:

Problem 1: The thesis is too general

TOO GENERAL A college education is a good investment.

IMPROVED A college education is a good investment for four reasons.

TOO GENERAL Lasers are very useful.

IMPROVED Lasers have several applications in industry and medicine.

Problem 2: The thesis makes a simple announcement.

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generation gap: difference in attitudes and values between generations, especially between
parents and children

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ANNOUNCEMENT I am going to write about sports injuries.
IMPROVED Avoid sports injuries by taking a few simple precautions.

Problem 3: The thesis states an obvious fact.

OBVIOUS FACT The Internet is a communication superhighway.

IMPROVED The explosion of the Internet has had both positive and negative
consequences.

MEDICINE and ETHICS3

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ethics: the study of right and wrong

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 Recent advances in the fields of medicine and biotechnology have brought about
situations that could scarcely be imagined only a generation ago. Battery-operated plastic
hearts can be implanted into 4people. Exact duplicates of animals can be made. While such
scientific achievements may ultimately benefit humankind, they also have created complex
ethical issues.
The first issue involves doctors’ ability to intervene in human reproduction. A well-
known example is the case of Baby M. A man paid a woman to bear a child for him and his
wife, who could not have children. They signed a contract, but after the baby was born, the
woman wanted to keep the baby. The father said the baby was his, but the woman said it
was hers. It took courts many months to decide who was right.
Another ethical dilemma5 has risen because doctors are now able to keep people
who are in comas6 alive for years by attaching their bodies to machines. This gives great
power and great responsibility to the people who control the machines. As a result of this
power, society has had to develop a new definition of death. How does a person decide
whether another person whose heart cannot beat on its own and whose lungs are pumped
by a machine is still alive or not? Not only medical staff, but also the families of people who
are in coma have to fight a battle at the bedside of their loved ones because it’s
technologically possible to keep them alive. The case of Terri Schiavo, who was kept alive by
machines for fifteen years in a vegetative state after suffering a cardiac arrest in 1990, is an
example of the dilemma of whether to keep such people alive or not. Her husband insisted
that her machines removed, yet U.S. laws were against it. Consequently, she died soon after
her feeding tubes were removed in 2005. Nevertheless, Terri’s case still remains an ethical
question.
Finally, the ability of biotechnologists to produce new forms of life in their
laboratories is another area with profound 7 ethical questions. Isn’t a scientist who creates,
for example, a new bacterium “playing God”? Furthermore, is it even safe to introduce new
life forms into Earth’s atmosphere? Is there a risk that such life forms could get out of
control? Some people fear so. Furthermore, scientists are now able to duplicate living
organisms, cell by cell, through a process called cloning. The general public first became
familiar with cloning with the widely publicized cloning of Dolly, the sheep. Dolly was cloned
in 1996 and lived until 2003 to the age of 6,5. Recently, the world was stunned by the
successful cloning of a human embryo. Should biotechnologists be allowed to clone people?
Who should control human cloning?

4
implanted into: put into
5
dilemma: difficult problem
6
comas: states of unconcsciousness (being unable to see, hear, or speak)
7
profound: important; serious

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 In conclusion, technological revolutions cause upheaval 8 and force people to change
their moral values. Our new ability to create and prolong life is raising questions and forcing
changes in our very concept of life. Therefore, these issues involve not only legal but also
profound moral considerations.

ÇANKAYA UNIVERSITY
ENG 221 ACADEMIC WRITING
OUTLINING A DOCUMENTED EXPOSITORY ESSAY

A formal outline has a system of numbers and letters such as the following:
 Roman numerals I, II, and III number the major sections of an essay: Introduction, Body,
and Conclusion.
 Capital letters; A, B, C, D an d so on label the body paragraphs.
- After these capital letters, you write the topic sentence of the related paragraph.
 Arabic numerals 1, 2, 3, 4 and so on number the subtopics in each paragraph.
 Small letters; a, b, c, d and so on label the specific supporting details.

ATTENTION!!!
 Full sentence structures are strictly required for the thesis statement, topic
sentences, and the concluding sentence.
 Major and minor supports can be written as phrases or sentences; preferably as
phrases.

*The following sample is the outline of the expository essay in your study pack pages _____.
Examine the essay and fill in the missing parts by checking the essay.

MEDICINE and ETHICS

OUTLINE

I) INTRODUCTION

Thesis Statement:

___________________________________________________________________

II) BODY

A) Topic sentence 1:

___________________________________________________________________

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upheaval: social disturbance

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 1) Major Support 1: The case of Baby M.

a) Minor support 1: The couple paying money to a woman to bear their child

b) Minor support 2: The woman wanting to keep the baby

c) Minor support 3: The case taking months for the court to decide who was right

B) Topic sentence 2: Another ethical dilemma has risen because doctors are now able to

keep people who are in commas alive for years by attaching their bodies to machines.

1) Major Support 1: __________________________________________________

a) Minor support 1: This power developing a new definition of death

b) Minor support 2: The difficulty of deciding on a person’s life whose body

cannot function on its own

2) Major support 2: Families battle at the bedside of their loved ones who are in

comma

a) Minor support 1: The case of Terri Schiavo, who was kept alive for fifteen

years in vegetative state

b) Minor support 2: Her husband’s insistence on removing the machines, but

U.S. laws’ being against euthanasia

c) Minor support 3:

___________________________________________________

d) Minor support 4: This case remaining an ethical question

C) Topic sentence 3: Finally, the ability of biotechnologists to produce new forms of life in

their laboratories is another area with profound ethical consequences.

1) Major Support 1: Scientists playing God

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 a) Minor support 1: Safety concerns regarding introducing new life forms into

the Earth’s atmosphere

b) Minor support 2: Concerns about whether such life forms could get out of

control

2) Major support 2: __________________________________________________

a) Minor support 1: Dolly the cloned sheep

3) Major support 3: __________________________________________________

a) Minor support 1: The concerns about cloning people

b) Minor support 2: The question of who should control human cloning

III) CONCLUSION

______________________________________________________________

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Organization
In this chapter, you will learn how to organize a paragraph using the logical division of ideas
pattern. In the model paragraph, the writer discusses three reasons she does not own a
credit card. As you read the paragraph, notice the word or phrase that signals each reason.

Why I Don’t Have a Credit Card

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There are three reasons I don’t have a credit card. 2The first reason is that using a
piece of plastic instead of cash makes it too easy for me to buy things I can’t afford. 3For
instance, last week I saw a $75.00 pair of pink sandals in my favourite shoe store. 4Of course,
I don’t need pink sandals, nor can I afford them. 5With a credit card, however, I would now
own those sandals and be worrying about how to pay for them. 6The second reason I don’t
have a credit card is that I would end up in debt 1 like my friend Sara the Shopaholic.2 7Sara
got a credit card last year, and she already owes $4,000. 8She buys things that she doesn’t
really need, such as jewelry designer sunglasses. 9Sara makes only minimum payments each
10
month. Her monthly interests are more than her payments, so her balance 3 never
decreases. 11She will be in debt for years. 12The third reason I don’t have a credit card is the
difficulty in understanding the fine print in the credit card contract. 13If I don’t read the fine
print4, I can be surprised. 14For example, some credit card companies will raise my interest
rate if I make a payment even one day late. 15To sum up, credit cards may be a convenience
for some people, but for me, they are a plastic ticket to financial disaster.

Questions on the Model:

1. How many reasons does the writer give for not having credit card? Which sentence
tells you the number?
2. Circle the words and phrases that signal each new reason.
3. How does the writer support each reason?

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end up in debt: find myself in the situation of owing a lot of money
2
shopaholic: person who shops too often and buys too much
3
balance: total amount owed
4
the fine print: important details in a legal document that are often printed in smaller letters
than the rest of the document and are therefore more difficult to read

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Logical division of ideas is a pattern of organization in which you divide a topic into points and
discuss each point separately. The model paragraph uses this pattern. You can use logical division to
organize many kinds of topics, not just reasons.
Sample topics
- Reasons for owning an iPod / cell phone / PDA / small automobile, for exercising / not
exercising, for learning English, for IMing instead of making a phone call, for being a
vegetarian...
- Kinds of teachers / shoppers / drivers / friends / students / teachers / bosses / foods...
- Types of books / movies / music / TV programs I like / I don’t like...
- Advantages of living in a small town/big city/college dormitory, of being an only/the
youngest/the oldest child/a twin...
- Disadvantages of living in a small town / big city / college dormitory, of being an only / the
youngest / the oldest child / a twin...
- Qualities of a good boss / good employee / good friend / teacher / parent / nurse /
paramedic / sales person...

Begin a logical division paragraph with a topic sentence similar to the following.
A good boss has three qualities.
Living in a college dormitory has several advantages.
There are four main styles of Chinese food.

In the supporting sentences, discuss each point one after the other. Introduce each new point with
a signal word or phrase such as The first reason..., The second type..., The final advantage..., In
addition, Furthermore, Also, and Moreover.
The first reason I am vegetarian is that vegetarians are healthier than meat-eaters.
Another quality of a good boss is fairness.
In addition, sharing clothing with a twin saves money.

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Support each point with a convincing detail such as an example or a statistic (numbers – costs,
amounts, percentages, and so on).
For example, they want to touch and feel fabrics and visualize themselves in clothes.
She buys things that she doesn’t really need, such as jewelry and designer sunglasses.
In 2005, there were thirteen major hurricanes in the North Atlantic.
A Big Mac contains 560 calories and 30 grams of fat.

End a logical division paragraph with a concluding sentence similar to one of these.
For all these reasons, living at home is the best choice for me at this time in my life.
To sum up, a champion has to be motivated, disciplined, and talented.
In brief, an effective ad grabs your attention and appeals to your emotions.

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UNIT 2 UNITY AND COHERENCE

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UNITY AND COHERENCE
Unity
An important element of a good paragraph is unity. Unity means that a paragraph discusses one
and only one main idea from beginning to end. For example, if your paragraph is about the
advantages of owning a compact car, discuss only that. Do not discuss the disadvantages.
Furthermore, discuss only one advantage, such as gas economy, in each paragraph. If you begin to
discuss another advantage, start a new paragraph. Sometimes it is possible to discuss more than
one aspect of the same idea in one paragraph if they are closely related to each other. For example,
you could discuss gas economy and low maintenance costs in the same paragraph because they are
not closely related.
The second part of unity is that every supporting sentence must directly explain or prove the main
idea. For example, in a paragraph about the high cost of prescription drugs in the United States, you
could mention buying drugs from pharmacies outside the United States as an alternative, but if you
write several sentences about buying drugs outside the United States, you are getting off the topic,
and your paragraph will not have a unity.

Unity within a Paragraph

The paragraph below contains sentences that do not support the topic and controlling idea
expressed in the topic sentence. These irrelevant sentences have been crossed out in order to
preserve unity.

Jay Gatsby was my favorite character in the novel The Great Gatsby by F.
Scott Fitzgerald. This is a classic American novel. One of the qualities I valued
most about him was his generosity and loyalty to his friends and neighbors. For
example, he gave many extravagant parties and never thought about the cost. He
invited anyone he knew and liked regardless of their social status. His large home
was situated on the water on Long Island. İn fact, he befriended a struggling young
man and offered to help him earn more money. This book-is required reading in
many college courses because ıt reveals the lifestyles of the 1920s. Although this
young man remained faithful to Gatsby, others took advantage of his good nature.

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Exercise 1. The two paragraphs that follow discuss the same topic. Only one of them shows unity.
First read the paragraphs. Then answer these questions.
1. Which paragraph has unity?
2. Which paragraph does not have unity because it has sentences that are not related to the
main topic?

Paragraph 1
Effects of Color
Colors create biological reactions in our bodies which, in turn, can change our behavior. In one
study, prisoners were put in a pink room, and they underwent a drastic and measurable decrease in
muscle strength and hostility within 2.7 seconds. In another study, athletes needing short bursts of
energy were exposed to red light. Their muscle strengths increased by 13.5 percent, and electrical
activity in their arm muscles increased by 5.8 percent. Athletes needing more endurance for longer
performances responded best when exposed to blue light. Other studies have shown that the color
green is calming. Green was a sacred color to the Egyptians, representing the hope and joy of
spring. It is also a sacred color to Moslems. Many mosques and religious temples throughout the
world use green (the color of renewal and growth) and blue (the color of heaven) to balance
heavenly peace with spiritual growth. To sum up, color influences us in many ways (Daniels 10). 9

Paragraph 2

Effects of Color
Colors create biological reactions in our bodies which, in turn, can change our behavior. In one
study, prisoners were put in a pink room, and they underwent a drastic and measurable decrease in
muscle strength and hostility within 2.7 seconds. . In another study, athletes needing short bursts of
energy were exposed to red light. Their muscle strengths increased by 13.5 percent, and electrical
activity in their arm muscles increased by 5.8 percent. Athletes needing more endurance for longer
performances responded best when exposed to blue light. Other studies have shown that the color
green is calming. After London’s Blackfriars Bridge was painted green, the number of suicides
decreased by 34 percent. These other studies clearly demonstrate that color affects not only our
moods but our behavior as well (Daniels 10).

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Daniels, Amanda. “Curing with Color.” From House to Home Feb./Mar. 2004: 8-10 Published by the Marin Independant
Journal, Novato, California.
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Exercise 2 Editing for Unity
Read the two paragraphs of an essay with the following thesis statement:
My wedding was the most thrilling day of my life.
Draw a line through the sentences that are irrelevant. The first one is done for you. There are six
more.

Having my friends and family together at my wedding was an amazing

experience. I had not seen some of my uncles, cousins, and aunts for many years.
My cousin Tom lives in London where he works as an engineer. Both my mother
and father were born in different countries, so my relatives are scattered all over
the world. I really like traveling and have been to Europe and Asia. Although we
try to get together for important occasions, this was the first time everyone could
attend. Most importantly, my good friends had never met my relatives.
Developing good friendships takes a lot of work. Watching them all dancing,
laughing, and having a wonderful time will stay in my memory forever.

The band we hired played music that the guests loved and we danced for hours.
My original guest list had over 200 people, but 1 had to cut it down to 150. It was
difficult fınding a group that could play all the diverse styles that I wanted at the
wedding. Most bands specialize in one or two different kinds of music. However,
these musicians really know all types of music—from 1940s jazz and swing, to
salsa, merengue, and even hip-hop. My brother was once in a rock and roll band.

In short, there was music to suit everyone’s tastes. I loved the singer’s dress. It
was incredible. Even my grandparents danced all night.

Unity within an Essay

An essay has unity where all the body paragraphs contain a topic sentence and supporting
sentences that reinforce the thesis of the essay. Without unity, the essay loses focus and
goes off the topic.
In the example below, topic sentences 1 and 2 both support the thesis statement. However,
notice how topic sentence 3 goes off the topic.

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Exercise 3 Recognizing unity within an essay
Read the following thesis statements. Put a check (  ) next to each topic sentence that supports
the thesis statement.
1. Thesis: After two years of job hunting, I have finally found the perfect job for me.
Topic sentences:
____ a. I am enthusiastic about the challenges that I confront at work every day.
____ b. Last year I almost got a good job.
____ c. I am making more money than I have ever made, and have so many benefits.
____ d. My boss is very' supportive and is helping me to succeed.
____ e. I did not like the job I had before.

2. Thesis: Skiing is a great sport, but it is not for everyone.

Topic sentences:
_____ a. Not everyone has the ability to ski well.
_____ b. Becoming a good skier means taking certain risks that some people are afraid to take.
_____ c. Skiing is more difficult than ice skating.
_____ d. A day on the slopes is not always affordable for everyone.
_____ e. Skiing down the highest slope can be dangerous.

22
Ordering Ideas for Coherence

One way to achieve coherence in an essay is to arrange ideas in a logical order, such as chronological
order or order of importance.

 When arranging ideas in chronological order, use language such as in the beginning, next, then,
first, second, or finally.
First, I went to the bank. Next, I visited my mother in the hospital.

 When arranging ideas in order of importance, you order items from the most important to the
least important or vice versa. Use language such as the most/least important thing, the next
priority/most important thing, or the third/final priority/goal.

The most important thing for me was to understand the assigned topic before
attempting my first draft.
Exercise 4 Ordering ideas in a paragraph
a. Use the list of ideas to write a short paragraph. Arrange your ideas in chronological order. Use
language from the Rhetorical Focus box above. The first sentence has been done for you.

 boil water
 add rice
 cook for about twenty minutes

If you want to make rice, first boil some water._____________________________

_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

b. Use the list of ideas to write a short paragraph. Arrange your ideas in order of importance. Use
language from the “Ordering Ideas for Coherence” box above.

 practice speaking Spanish with friends

 take a class in Spanish
 visit a Spanish-speaking country
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

23
Using Pronoun Reference for Coherence
A pronoun is a word that can replace a noun. I, you, he, it, this, that, those, and these are some
examples of pronouns. Pronouns can be used to create coherence in an essay.
What is revision and why is it necessary?
***Pronouns can also replace whole phrases or ideas.
I left mv expensive dictionary in the library. I do not know how I did that.

! Pronouns must agree in number and gender with the noun they refer to.
I have a younger brother. He is a lawyer.
I have a younger brother. She is a lawyer. (incorrect)

Exercise 5- Identifying pronoun reference

a. Read the paragraph. Choose the correct pronoun to complete each sentence.

24
 b. Read the paragraph. Find the incorrect pronouns replace them with the correct ones.

Olympic athletes must be strong both physically and mentally. First of all, if you hope to
compete in an Olympic sport, you must be physically strong. Furthermore, aspiring Olympians
Using Parallel Forms for Coherence
must train rigorously for many years. For the most demanding sports, they train several hours
a day, five strategy
Another or six days a week,coherence
to achieve for ten or ismore years.
by using In addition
parallel forms.toThis
being physically
means that allstrong,
items in a
athletes
list havemust
the also
samebe mentally tough.
grammatical form. This means that you have to be totally dedicated to
your sport, often giving up a normal school, family, or social life. Being mentally strong also
I like playing tennis, swimming, and dancing.
means that he or she must be able to withstand the intense pressure of international
I like playing tennis, swimming, and to dance. (incorrect)
competition with its accompanying media coverage. Finally, not everyone can win a medal, so
She cooked
Olympians mustdinner, setthe
possess theinner
table,strength
and arranged
to live the
withflowers.
defeat.
She cooked dinner, set the table, and the flowers were arranged. (incorrect)

Exercise 6 Practicing with parallel forms

Rewrite the following sentences to correct the non-parallel forms.
1. At the age of twenty, I started to write plays, taking acting lessons, and produce shows.
At the age of twenty. I started to write plays, take acting lessons, and produce shows.

2. As a teenager, I reported on school events, editing articles for the high school newspaper, and
published some of my stories.
_____________________________________________________________________________
3. Some of the rewards of being an author are learn about historical events, researching the lives
of famous people, and discovering facts about yourself.
_____________________________________________________________________________
4. Attending workshops on writing have taught me how to receive criticism, became a more
focused writer, and take more risks.
_______________________________________________________________________________

CLAUSES – Main and Dependent Clauses

Every clause in English must have a subject and a verb. There are two types of clauses: main clauses
and dependent clauses.
Main Clauses
A main clause contains a complete idea and can stand alone as a sentence.
I read my speech at graduation.

25
Dependent Clauses
A dependent clause does not contain a complete idea and cannot stand alone as a complete
sentence. A dependent clause often starts with a subordinating conjunction such as after, before,
although, because, since, when, or while. A dependent clause can be attached to a main clause in
order to form a complex sentence. A dependent clause can come before or after the main clause,
but the punctuation is different.

Exercise 7 Identifying main and dependent clauses

Underline the dependent clause and circle the main clause in each sentence. Add punctuation if
necessary.
1. When I came into the auditorium, the room was empty.
2. I felt very confident because I had spent a long time practicing.
3. Since it was my graduation, I bought a beautiful new outfit.
4. Although the ceremony was very long, nobody was bored.
5. We went out for a fancy meal after the ceremony ended.
6. My family took a lot of photographs which I still enjoy looking at.

TRANSITION SIGNALS
Transition signals are expressions such as first, finally, and however, or phrases such as in
conclusion, on the other hand, and as a result. Other kinds of words such as subordinators when,
although), coordinators (and, but), adjectives (another, additional), and prepositions (because of, in
spite of) can serve as transition signals.
26
 Transition signals are like traffic signs, they tell your reader when to go forward, turn
around, slow down, and stop. In other words, they tell your reader when you are giving a similar
idea (similarly, and, in addition), and opposite idea (on the other hand, but, in contrast), an example
(for example), a result (therefore, hence, thus, as a result), or a conclusion (in a nutshell, in
conclusion).

Transition signals give a paragraph coherence because they guide your reader from one
idea to the next.

Exercise 1 Compare paragraphs 1 and 2 that follow. Which paragraph contains transition signals
and is more coherent? Circle all the transition signals you can identify.

Paragraph 1

One difference among the world’s seas and oceans is that the salinity 10 varies in different
climate zones. The Baltic Sea in northern Europe is only one-fourth as salty as the Red Sea in the
Middle East. There are reasons for this. In warm climates, water evaporates 11 rapidly. The
concentration12 of salt is greater. The surrounding land is dry and does not contribute much
freshwater to dilute13 the salty seawater. In cold climate zones, water evaporates slowly. The runoff
created by melting snow adds a considerable amount of freshwater to dilute the saline seawater.

Paragraph 2

Another difference among the world's seas and oceans is that the salinity varies in different
climate zones. For example, the Baltic Sea in northern Europe is only one quarter as saline as the
Red Sea in the Middle East. There are two reasons for this. First of all, in warm climates, water
evaporates rapidly; therefore, the concentration of salt is greater than that in cold climate zones,
where water evaporates slowly. Secondly, in hot areas the surrounding land is dry and consequently

10
salinity: salt content; how salty something is
11
evaporates: dries up
12
concentration: percentage (of salt)
13
dilute: reduce the concentration
27
 does not contribute much fresh water to dilute the salty seawater. In contrast, the runoff created by
melting snow in cold areas adds a considerable amount of fresh water to dilute the saline seawater.

*** Paragraph 2 is more coherent because it contains transition signals. Each transition signal has a
special meaning: each shows how the following sentence relates to the preceding one.

For example tells you that an example of the preceding idea is coming.

Two tells you to look for two different reasons.

First of all tells you that this is the first reason.

Second and Furthermore indicate that additional ideas are coming.

Therefore and consequently indicate that the second statement is a result of the first statement.

28
29
30
 Exercise 2: Complete the 2 paragraphs below with the correct transition words given in the boxes.

Another Therefore First of all such as In conclusion For example

Paragraph 1

Gold, a precious metal, is prized for two important characteristics. (1) _________________,
gold has lustruous beauty that is resistant to corrosion. (2) _______________, it’s suitable for

31
jewelry, coins and ornamental purposes. Gold never needs to be polished and will remain beautiful
forever. (3) ________, a Macedonian coin will remain spotless today as the day it was made 25
centuries ago. (4) __________ important characteristic of gold is its usefulness to industry and
science. For many years, it has been used in hundreds of industrial applications, (5) _____________
photography and dentistry. The most recent use of gold is in astronauts’ suits. Astronauts wear
gold-plated heat shields for protection when they go outside spaceships in space. (6) ___________,
gold is treasured not only for its beauty but also for its utility.

Paragraph 2

Furthermore in fact however For example also

Dolphins are interesting because they display almost human behaviour at times. (1)
_______________, they display the human emotions of joy and sadness. During training, when they
do something correctly, they squeal excitedly and race toward their trainer. When they make a
mistake, (2) _____________, they droop noticeably and mope around their pool. (3)
__________________, they help each other when they are in trouble. If one is sick, it sends out a
message, and others in their area swim to help it. They push it to the surface of the water so that it
can breathe, they stay with it for days or weeks-until it recovers or dies. They have (4) ___________
helped trapped or lost whales navigate their way safely out to the open sea. They are so intelligent
and helpful, (5) ______________, that the U.S. navy is training them to become underwater bomb
disposal experts.

Paragraph 3

For example In fact Similarly also

Indeed third second final and most convincing

One stereotype about North Americans says that they are obsessed with time. It
sometimes seems true that for North Americans, time seems as valuable as money. (1) __________
32
they even say, “Time is money.” (2) ________________, have you noticed how money verbs can be
followed by both time and money? (3) __________________, you can spend time, save time, lose
time, find time, make time, waste time, and run out of time. (4) ___________________ you can
spend, save, lose, find, make, waste and run out of money. (5) __________________ North
Americans seem to regard time as a “thing” that one can own. You can have time, buy time, and
take time. (one wonders how much it costs and where it is taken.) A (6) __________________ piece
of evidence that North Americans are obsessed with time is their fanaticism about always being on
time. (7) ________________, people who are habitually late risk punishment ranging from frowning
disapproval to losing their jobs. The (8) ___________________ proof is that these poor people
sometime take courses in time management! That is really overdoing it, don’t you agree?

Exercise 3: Choosing transition signals

a. Choose the transition signal from the given choices in parentheses that best shows the
relationship between the sentences in each group. Write the signal in the space.
1. A recent article in Era magazine suggested ways to reduce inflation. The article suggested
that the president reduce the federal budget; _ furthermore __ , it suggested that the
government reduce federal, state, and local taxes. (however, in contrast, furthermore)
2. The same article said that the causes of inflation were easy to find; __________________,
the cure for inflation was not easy to prescribe. (however, for example, therefore)
3. Era also suggested that rising wages were one of the primary causes of inflation; _________,
the government should take action to control wages. (however, for example, therefore)
4. In Physics, the weight of an object is the gravitational force with which the Earth attracts it;
__________________ if a man weighs 150 pounds, this means that the Earth pulls him down
with a force of 150 pounds. (moreover, therefore, for example)
5. The farther away from the Earth a person is, the less the gravitational force of the Earth.
__________________, a man weighs less when he is 50,000 miles away from the Earth than
he is when he is only 5,000 miles away. (In conclusion, Therefore, However)
6. A Tsunami is a tidal wave produced by an earthquake on the ocean floor. The waves are very
long and low in open water, but when they get close to land, they encounter friction

33
 because the water is shallow; __________________, the waves increase in height and can
cause considerable damage when they finally reach land. (on the other hand, as a result, for
example)

Exercise 1 Examining an introduction

Read this introduction to an essay then answer the questions below. Compare your answers
with a partner.
Agressive Drivers
The number of vehicles on freeways and streets is growing at an alarming rate. This
increase of motor vehicles is creating hazardous conditions. Moreover, drivers are in such a
rush to get to their destinations that many become angry or impatient with other motorists
who are in their way. Aggressive drivers react foolishly toward others in several dangerous
ways.
1. Circle and label the hook.

34
 2. Underline the background information.
3. Underline the thesis statement.
4. Write the topic of the thesis statement___________________________________
5. Write the controlling idea of the thesis statement.__________________________
Writing the body paragraphs

The body part is the place where the writer usually develop the main argument. In academic paper,
there should be more than one (at least three) body paragraphs.
 The body paragraphs of an essay contain the supporting details of the essay.
 The topic sentence clearly states the content of each paragraph.
 It supports and expands on an aspect of the topic and controlling idea of the thesis statement.
The topic sentence is often one of the first sentences of a body paragraph.
 Each body paragraph must develop a point presented in the topic statement.
 All the supporting details in a body paragraph must clearly relate to each other. They can be
description, definitions, examples, anecdotes, statistics, or quotations. Quotations may come
from a published work or from a personal interview.
 The concluding sentence may bring the idea of the paragraph to a close, suggest the content of
the next paragraph, or it is a restatement of the topic sentence of that paragraph.

Writing the conclusion

A conclusion, first of all, summarizes the main points of your essay. These are what you want
your reader to remember most! You may use specific language to signal your conclusion, such as To
sum up or In conclusion, although it isn’t necessary. Since your conclusion is always your final
paragraph, your reader will know what it is.

A conclusion does not introduce new arguments or important information. These belong in the
body of your essay. However, you may logically extend the arguments you made in the body of your
essay by making a recommendation or prediction. An academic essay is not a novel; there are no
surprise endings. A reader would feel very surprised if you wrote three or four paragraphs about the
dangers that aggressive drivers cause and then concluded by saying, However, life is short, so be
understanding to fast drivers who are trying to get to their destination as soon as possible!
For a memorable conclusion, there are some techniques that you can use in the
conclusion:
a. Make a prediction

35
 b. Suggest results or consequences
c. Suggest a solution, make a recommendation, or call for action
d. Quote an authority on the topic

Exercise 2 Examining the conclusion

Analyze the conclusion in the sample essay named Medicine and Ethics (pp.11-12), and answer
the questions below.
1. Did it summarize the main points? If not, which points did it miss?
2. Did it add any new main points or support? If so, what?
3. Did it make a recommendation or prediction? If so, what?

36
 OUTLINE
I. Introduction

A. Hook: _____________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
B. Background information:
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
C. Thesis Statement:
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

II. First Main Idea:

_________________________________________________________________________________

A. Major Support:
______________________________________________________________________________
 Minor Details:
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________

B. Major Support: ____________________________________________________________

 Minor Details:
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________

III. Second Main Idea: ______________________________________________________________

A. Major Support: ____________________________________________________________

 Minor Details:
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________

B. Major Support: ____________________________________________________________

 Minor Details:

37
 Form 2 Writing the Essay

………….............................................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................................................

………….............................................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................................................

………….............................................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................................................

………….............................................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................................................

………….............................................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................................................

………….............................................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................................................

………….............................................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................................................

………….............................................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................................................

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........................................................................................................................................................

38
UNIT 3 AVOIDING PLAGIARISM

39
UNIT 3 AVOIDING PLAGIARISM
Exercise 1 Plagiarism
Work with a group. First read the definition of plagiarism from the Macmillan English Dictionary.
Then discuss which of the following might be considered plagiarism.

 Copying the painting of the Mona Lisa as accurately as you can, as an exercise. You don’t
show the exercise to anyone.
 Copying the painting of the Mona Lisa as accurately as you can, as an exercise. -You write
"Copy of the Mona Lisa, by Leonardo da Vinci," on the back of the exercise.
 Painting a picture that looks very similar, but not identical, to the Mona Lisa. If asked, you
say you thought of the idea yourself.
 Translating a novel into your own language and publishing it with your name as author.
 Using the results of a study in your paper, and expressing who has carried out the project.

Academic consequences of plagiarism

Universities (as well as many h.gh schools) in English-speaking counties have set definitions of and
consequences for academic plagiarism. Usually these can be found by checking the institution’s
website.

40
Exercise 2 Outcomes of Plagiarizing

Work with a partner. Look at the following possible punishments for academic plagiarism. Discuss
which of these you think 1) are used somewhere, and 2) should be used in universities. Can you
think of other appropriate punishments for student plagiarism?

*A warning from the professor *Need to write the paper again

*A formal apology *Failure of the paper

*Failure of the course *Failure of the degree

*A monetary fine *Suspension from the university

*Expulsion from the university *Limited career opportunities

*A lawsuit *Prison

DEFINING PLAGIARISM

Even after you study a definition from a dictionary, it can be difficult to define and judge plagiarism.
Certainly buying a research paper online and putting your name on it and pretending you wrote it is
not honest. However, what if you read a well-known idea from a noted expert but had thought of
the same idea yourself, before you read it? Would it be plagiarism to not mention the expert? Is it
plagiarism to use one paragraph from a newspaper or online article? One sentence? A few words?
You can see that plagiarism is not easy to define precisely, even after you have read a dictionary
definition. Furthermore, different cultures have different definitions of what constitutes plagiarism
in an academic setting.
You are allowed to use the words and ideas of others in your research paper as long as you give
credit to the original source by saying who the author was and where you found the information,
and use quotation marks around phrases and sentences that you have not changed from the
original.

41
If you are writing in English, it is important to give credit in these cases:
• When you quote someone directly, even if it is just a special phrase. This gives
appropriate credit to the person who originally created those expressions. Like painting or
music, writing is considered an art form, and you shouldn't "steal" another person's words
any more than you should someone's song. For direct quotes, you must always use
quotation marks.
• When you use an idea that you did not know before you did your research,
especially if it is one that an average person would not have known without doing research.
Figures and statistics are common types of facts to cite.
• When you want to offer support for surprising information. Showing that your
information came from a respected source helps your readers believe that what you are
saying is true, or at least possible.
You do not need to give credit:
• When you have expressed your own idea in your own way, in your own words.
• For information that is considered "common knowledge," even if you learned it while
researching. Common knowledge is any information that the average, educated reader
would accept as reliable without having to look it up. This includes:
I. General information that most people know (e.g. World War I took place between the
years 1914-1918.)
II. Information shared by a cultural group (e.g. Ataturk was born in Salonika in 1881.)
III. Knowledge shared by the members of a certain field (e.g. The Leader-Member-Exchange
Theory in political science describes how leaders, over time, develop different exchange
relationships with their various followers.

Imagine that you are writing a paper on the problem of water shortages in the Middle East.
You might not have known before you started your research that the capital of Yemen is
Sana’a. The capitals of countries are considered common knowledge, though, and you would
not need to cite that fact in a research paper. However; if you wanted to include the
prediction that the city of Sana'a will probably run out of water by the year 2020, you would
have to say where you found that information. Clearly, you did not discover that fact by
yourself, so you would have to give credit to the people or organizations that did. In addition,
naming your sources lets your readers see who did make that claim, so they can judge
whether your sources were reliable (another good reason for critically evaluating every source
you use!).

42
Remember: It is not easy, even for professional writers and professors, to always know what should
be cited. If you are not sure, check with your own instructor. It is better to ask 20 questions about 20
sentences than to make one mistake!

What is NOT common knowledge?

• All statistics, data, figures
• References to studies done by others
• References to specific facts the average reader would not know about unless s/he has done
research

Exercise 3 Common knowledge or not

Work with a partner. Read these sentences taken from the first drafts of university research
papers written by students. Discuss which ones you think:
1. are common knowledge, expressed in the student’s own words (and therefore are not
plagiarized)
2. are written in the student’s own words, but contain uncredited ideas or information from
another source (and therefore are plagiarized)
3. are direct quotes from another source (and therefore are plagiarized)

Note: It’s OK to say “It depends”—but then you must explain what it depends
on! (For example, a student’s background, or his or her nationality)

a. Once upon a time, the United States and Russia were competing with the number of nuclear
weapons and it increased till 69,480 in 1986.
___________________________________________________________________________
b. A UFO is defined as an “Unidentified Flying Object.”
___________________________________________________________________________

c. To make matters worse, animals will surely eat genetically modified crops.
___________________________________________________________________________
d. 76% of the American men sent to Vietnam were from lower-middle, working class backgrounds.
___________________________________________________________________________
e. On September 30, 1999, a radiation leak at the Tokaimura fuel reprocessing plant killed two
workers and injured many others.
___________________________________________________________________________

43
f. For example, women have the right to run for governmental elections in Qatar.
___________________________________________________________________________
g. (The topic is school uniforms) In regard to young children, it is absolutely nonsense to impose a
designer's suit and leather shoes on young children, because they do more physical exercise
than adults and sweat a lot.
___________________________________________________________________________
h. That Singaporean children don't get enough exposure to sunlight may sound unbelievable, but
in fact the hot and sticky climate makes children more inclined to spend time in air-conditioned
environments indoors, and just like in many East Asian countries with more agreeable climates
there is also a relative lack of parks and open spaces.
___________________________________________________________________________

44
 CITATION

What is citation?

Citation (n.) 1. A quotation from or reference to a book, paper, or author, esp. in a scholarly work.

Broadly, a citation is a reference to a published or unpublished source (not always the original
source).

A "citation" is the way you tell your readers that certain material in your work came from another
source. It also gives your readers the information necessary to find that source again, including:

• information about the author

• the title of the work

• the name and location of the company that published your copy of the source

• the date your copy was published

• the page numbers of the material you are borrowing

Why should I cite sources?

• Giving credit to the original author by citing sources is the only way to use other people's
work without plagiarizing. However, there are a number of other reasons to cite sources:

• Citations are extremely helpful to anyone who wants to find out more about your ideas and
where they came from.

Why should I cite sources?

• Citing sources shows the amount of research you've done.

• Citing sources strengthens your work by lending outside support to your ideas.

Shortly; how do we cite references?

• In-text reference or In-text citation

• End-text reference or End-text citation

45
What are the most common styles of citation?

• APA (American Psychological Association)

• MLA (Modern Language Association)

• CMS (Chicago Manual of style)

REMEMBER:

While you integrate sources into your essay, it should be kept in mind to give both in-text and end-
text references whenever you use others’ ideas and/or research. Not citing the borrowed ideas is
academic dishonesty, which is called PLAGIARISM.

What information should be cited?

• All direct quotations

• All paraphrases

• All summaries

• All facts and statistics that are not common knowledge

• All translations

REMEMBER!

• Even if a piece of information is common knowledge, you need to cite source if you use the
exact sentence or a paraphrase of it!

46
 BORROWING IDEAS

When you need to borrow ideas from a source, you should paraphrase or quote directly from that
source. Also, you should not forget to give credit to the original source by giving citation if the
information you have borrowed is not common knowledge.

Both paraphrasing and quoting take skill, and you become better as you practice. All writers,
regardless of their age, experience level, or ability in English, work hard to quote and paraphrase
effectively.

Brief Guidelines for giving in-text reference

While you are doing research for your paper among sources, you need to decide on the
sources that you will use in your paper and note down the author of the book/article,
the publication year, and the relevant page numbers. This data will be used in your
paper in order to indicate the original source. There are three different ways of in-text
citation:

47
 1. Gawrych (1988) refers to an incident during the Dardanelles Campaign. He
narrates that Mustafa Kemal, when commanding the 19th Infantry Division, taking
the initiative moved his division to Conkbayırı without awaiting approval from higher
headquarters, in anticipation of the main attack occurring in that area (p. 322).
2. In Leadership: Enhancing the Lessons of Experience, it is argued that leaders can
be distinguished by their vision and values (Hughes, Ginnett, & Curphy, 2006, p.
290).
Note: Bold characters are only for emphasis.

Exercise 1: Match the words related to citation and their definitions below.

1. Author a. The punctuation that surrounds the quoted text

2. Citation b. A quotation from or reference to a book, paper, or
author that includes such information as the author or
3. Quoted text organization’s name, the year of publication, and page
4. Source numbers.
c. A phrase, sentence, or a word (verb) introducing some
5. Quotation marks context for the quotation
6. Signal phrase d. The actual words taken directly from another source
(also called “quotation,” or “quote.”
e. Any published or unpublished work where you find the
information, such as a website, newspaper, book,
podcast, interview etc.
f. The organization or person who communicated the
original sentence or information.

Exercise 2 In-text reference

A-Match each term to the appropriate part of the following passage.

48
B-Match each term to the appropriate part of the following passage. As the following text is not a
quoted text but a paragraphrased text, there are no quotation marks.

author citation signal phrase source

Exercise 3 In-text reference

Give in-text citation for the given direct quotations below. Provide different versions for each.
1. For the architects of the Early Republican period, Mimar was not only an agent of
communication but also a medium of professional unification to discuss and address common
problems. (İlker Özdel, page 520, year 2010)
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
2. Several rivers aside from the Thames once intersected London, although those rivers have since
been covered over by development. (Anthony Clayton, year 2000, pages 28-35)
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
3. Although there were numerous firms that operate in health software sector, number of companies
that invest on research and development facilities is less. (Erol Sayın and Nuri İlke Kozak, page 488,
year 2010)
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

49
How do you cite a source that you found in another source?
- What is “as cited in”?
Use secondary sources sparingly, for instance, when the original work is out of print, unavailable
through usual sources, or not available in English. Give the secondary source in the reference list; in
text, name the original work and give a citation for the secondary source.

For example, if Allport's work is cited in Nicholson and you did not read Allport's work, list the
Nicholson reference in the reference list. In the text, use the following citation:

Allport's diary (as cited in Nicholson, 2003).

EXAMPLES:

Martin represents the Anglican Church and Martin Luther, who was considered to be the “Father of
the Reformation” by Jonathan Swift (Lawlor, as cited in Debaun, 2010, para. 5).

In the references page, we can see Debaun’s work with the necessary information about the source;
not Lawlor’s:

Debaun, E. (2010). Jonathan swift’s satire of hypocrisy in a tale of a tub. The Darthmouth Apologia.
Retrieved December 9, 2013 from http://www.dartmouthapologia.org/articles/show/136

***Lawlor’s work must be cited in Debaun’s original work, and you can find the details about his
work like the name of the article or book, the year of publication, etc. in Debaun’s work’s references
page. This will be studied later in our course.

Exercise: Use “as cited in” to give in-text reference to the following quote.
Example:
Our marriage gift customs fit with the value our culture places on the privacy of the marital
relationship: It is a personal matter between the husband and wife, and their relatives should
keep their noses out (Bailey, 2003, p.177)
- Note that the quotation above is cited by Ann Witherspoon in her article named “Marriage,
Family, and Residence” in 2006, on page 12, from Bailey’s original work.

50
 a. Bailey asserts that “[o]ur marriage gift customs fit with the value our culture places on the
privacy of the marital relationship: It is a personal matter between the husband and wife,
and their relatives should keep their noses out” (as cited in Witherspoon, 2006, p.12).
b. “Our marriage gift customs fit with the value our culture places on the privacy of the marital
relationship: It is a personal matter between the husband and wife, and their relatives
should keep their noses out” (Bailey, as cited in Witherspoon, 2006, p.12).
Now it is your turn:

The sentence you will use from a source is below:

Dowry is a relatively rare form of marital exchange, occurring in only 5% of the societies
recorded by anthropology (Edmonds, 2002, p.177)

- Note that the sentence above is paraphrased and cited by Ann Witherspoon in her article
named “Marriage, Family, and Residence” in 2006, on page 13, from Edmonds’ original work.

a. Edmonds says that _____________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________
(____________________________________________).

b. “_________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________” (_______________________).

OTHER RULES of IN-TEXT REFERENCING

 The examples above are the basics of giving in-text reference. However, there may be
different cases you can encounter. Below are examples of such cases:
 When you refer to a source with two writers, if the writer’s names are in parantheses, put an
ampersand (&) between the two. However, if the writers’ names are outside the parantheses,
use “and” in between.
Example 1: Programs for helping leaders and would-be leaders to become more emotionally
intelligent have mushroomed in recent years (Herman & Mellers, 2000, p.32).
Example 2: Herman and Mellers (2000) state that programs for helping leaders and would-be
leaders to become more emotionally intelligent have mushroomed in recent years (p. 32).

51
 When you refer to a source with three or more writers, you do not need to list all the surnames
each time you cite the source. The first time you cite the source, list all the surnames putting and
ampersand (&) before the last one. From then onwards, write only the surname of the first writer
and “et al.” which means “the others” in Latin.
The first time it mentioned:
In Leadersship: Enhancing the Lessons of Experience, it is argued that leaders can be distinguished
by their vision and values (Hughes, Ginnett, & Curphy, 2006, p.34).

From the second time onwards:

Once a leader displays a particular full range leadership behaviour, followers react in a way that
either motivates or demotivates them (Hughes et al., 2006, p.34).

Hughes et al. (2006) once a leader displays a particular full range leadership behaviour, followers
react in a way that either motivates or demotivates them (p.34).

 If the source you use has no author but is the work of an organization, you can give the name of
the organization instead of the writer’s surname.
(UNESCO, 1999, para. 4)

 If the source you use has no author, give the title in quotation marks.
(“An Effective Leader,” 2000, para. 7)

 If there is no date of publication, put “n.d.” in the place of year of publication.

(Jackson, n.d., para. 5)

 If the information is on a single page, put “p.” before the page number.
Example: Lewis (1967) points out that following his victory in the Turkish War of Independence,
there were many distractions, which at that time might have dissuaded Mustafa Kemal, a war hero
(p. 254).

52
 If the information is on more than a single page, put “pp.” before and “-“ between the page
numbers.
Example: Kinross (1965) points out that knowing the patriotic fighting spirit of the Turks, Mustafa
Kemal knew how to arouse Turks’ blood. This is how Mustafa Kemal and the Turkish soldiers saved
the Gallipoli Peninsula (pp. 94-95).

 If there is no page number, indicate the paragraph number either with the abbreviation “para.”
Or with the symbol “¶”.
Example:
In his article “Atatürk in His Life Time and Today”, Mango (2000) explains, as one of the Turkish
biographers put it, the basic ideas, the new ideas came from Atatürk, their implementation he left
to others (para. 3).
OR
In his article “Atatürk in His Life Time and Today”, Mango (2000) explains, as one of the Turkish
biographers put it, the basic ideas, the new ideas came from Atatürk, their implementation he left
to others (¶ 3).

53
 GIVING END-TEXT REFERENCE
WHAT IS END-TEXT REFERENCE?

The second component of giving references is end-text reference, which provides a more detailed
account of the sources that have been used in the essay.

What is the aim of giving end-text reference?

To provide the reader with all the necessary information in case they want to make use of
the same source.

CAUTION!!!

• Make sure that any source cited in the text with paranthetical reference must also appear in
the end-text reference.

• Where do we place end-text reference in the essay?

• As you can understand from the name, end-text reference is listed under the title
“References” at the end of your essay.

• The list of works should be arranged alphabetically by the author’s surnames.

• The entries should be double-spaced. The first line should be flushed with the left margin,
and all subsequent lines be indented five spaces from the left margin.

The below given reference list taken from the text “Mustafa Kemal Atatürk – A Commander and an
Effective Leader” is an example reference page.

54
 THINK
What kind of sources are listed in this list? Put a tick next to the sources the writer has
used. Explain how you distinguish the different types of sources.
□ Book by one author
□ Journal article
□ Book by more than one author
□ Internet article
□ Newspaper article

ANALYZE THE FOLLOWING SOURCES WHICH ARE DOCUMENTED BOTH IN IN-TEXT and END-TEXT
FORMATS.

55
As in-text reference:

(Ayling, 1966, p.56)

 The entries should be double-spaced. The first line should be flushed with the left margin,
and all subsequent lines should be indented five spaces from the left margin.

EXAMPLE:

Cox, K., & Hill, D. (2004). EAP now! English for Academic Purposes: Teacher’s Book. New South Wales, NSW:

Pearson and Longman.

BOOK WITH TWO WRITERS

As end-text reference:

Oshima, A., & Hogue, A. (1983). Writing academic english. Massachutes: Addison-Wesley

Publishing Company.

As end-text reference

(Oshima & Hogue, 1983, p. 85)

BOOK WITH THREE or MORE WRITERS

List by last names and initials; commas separate author names, while the last author name is
preceded again by ampersand.

As end-text reference

Hughes, R. L., Ginnett, R.C., & Curphy, G. J. (2006). Leadership: Enhancing the lessons of experience

(5th ed.). Singapore: Mc-Graw-Hill.

As in-text reference:
56
The first time it is mentioned?

(Hughes, Ginnett, & Curphy, 2006, p. 34)

From the second time onwards?

(Hughes et al., 2006, p.34)

BOOK – CHAPTER IN EDITED BOOK

*** The author and chapter title come first, followed by the editors and book title. The page
numbers of the chapter are also required.

As end-text reference:

Helber, L. E., (1995). Redeveloping mature resorts for new markets. In M. V. Conlin & T. Baum (Eds.),

Island tourism: Management principles and practice (pp. 105-113). Chichester, England: John

Wiley.

As in-text reference:

(Helber, 1995, p. 234)

BOOK WITH EDITOR(S)

As end-text reference:

Samovar, L. A., & Porter, R. E. (Eds.). (1997). Intercultural communication: A reader (8th ed.).

Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

57
 As in-text reference:

(Samovar&Porter, 1997, p. 42)

CHAPTER OR ARTICLE IN A BOOK

Book’s year Name of the Names of the

of publication article book’s
editors

King, M. L. (2007). Three ways of meeting oppression. In S. Bachmann, & M. Barth (Eds.),
Between worlds: A reader, rhetoric and handbook (5th ed.). (pp. 237-240). New York:
Pearson – Longman.

Name of the How many times the Page numbers

book book has been edited of the article

As in-text reference:

(King, 2007, pp. 237-238)

ARTICLE IN A JOURNAL

As end-text reference:

58
INTERNET ARTICLE

As end-text reference:

59
INTERNET ARTICLE WITH NO DATE

As end-text reference:

McGrath, T. (n. d.). Is war inevitable?. Retrieved May 23, 2008 from

http://www.phillymag.com/articles/is_war_inevitable/page3

As in-text reference:

(McGrath, n. d., para. 5)

*** You are not expected to memorize the conventions of end-text referencing; when you need
to prepare a reference list, refer to:

1. The explanations above for the basics

2. The Publication Manual of the APA
3. www.apa.org

Items that need to be CAPITALIZED:

• First letter of the first word in book titles and subtitles (other words are not capitalized)
• First letters of the words in journal titles
• First letter of the first word in the article title in a journal (other words are not capitalized)
•

Items that need to be italicized:

60
 • Names of the books

• Names of the journals

• Volume number of journals

Exercise 7: Look at the end-text reference below and identify the marked components.

a. b.

1. Handel, M. (1996). Masters of war: Classical strategic thought. London: Frank Cass.

c.

2. Hughes, R., Ginnett, R., & Curphy, G., (2006). Leadership: Enhancing the lessons of
experience (5th ed.). Singapore: Irwin McGrawhill.

d. e.

3. Kinross, L. (1965). Atatürk: The rebirth of a nation. London: Morison and Gibb Limited

61
 NECESSARY BIBLIOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION for APA
While researching, make a habit of noting the necessary information. This will help you while
writing the end-text reference of your essay. You may want to fill in the charts below to record the
reference information needed.
For a Book
Name of the Author / Editor
Name of Translator
Title and Subtitle
Publisher’s name
Date of Publication
Call Number
Edition

For an Article
Name of the Author
Name of Editor
Name of Translator
Title and Subtitle of Article
Title of Periodical (Journal)

62
Date of Issue
Page Numbers of Article
Issue and Volume Number
For Electronic Sources
Name of the Author / Organization
Title
Publication Date for e-books and e-articles
Date of Release, Online Posting, or Latest Revision
Date of Retrieval
URL, Electronic Address

Exercise 6: Examine the given documented expository essay named Mustafa Kemal Atatürk – A
commander and An Effective Leader in terms of in-text and end-text citation rules.

NOTE: In some of the sources cited in APA style, you can see in-text citation like the following:

Robinson (1963, p. 245) explains that during the battle of Anafarta Ridge, Mustafa Kemal was
constantly at the extreme front, helping to wheel guns into position, getting up on the skyline among
the bullets, and sending his men into attacks in which they had very little hope of survival.

*However, giving the page number just after the author’s name (if the author’s name is out of
parentheses) is not a preferable way. Most scholars today prefer to give the page number after the
quoted or paraphrased text is fully finished.

63
64
65
66
67
 DIRECT QUOTATION

• Direct quotations are commonly used when another writer’s language is particularly
memorable and will add interest and liveliness to your paper.

• Quoting a source directly is also useful when the writer’s language is so clear and economical
than your paraphrased version which sounds ineffective when compared to the writer’s
original language.

REMEMBER!

• Quotations are not used when you just have difficulty in paraphrasing or just to spend less
time and effort.

• Quoting authority opinions increases the credibility of your own writing to some extent, but
remember that essays you write should be your own – for the most part:

- Your own language

- Your own argument

- Your own inferences

- Your own conclusions.

GUIDELINES for DIRECT QUOTATION

1) Limit the use of direct quotations. Be well aware of the fact that you can summarize and
paraphrase information in many instances.

68
- Avoid using direct quotations when you can accurately restate the information in a documented
paraphrase.

2) Link the direct quotations into your essay. Quotations should not appear as isolated statements.
Integrate a quotation into your text with a signal and an assertion.

- A signal refers to the author’s name and/or a reference to the work.

- An assertion is a smooth connection (usually verbs) that indicates the relationship of the quotation
to your text.

Notice the signal and the assertion in the following excerpt:

In his “The Atatürk I knew”, John F. Kennedy (1963) explains his personal opinion of the great
Turkish leader and gives detailed account of Atatürk’s rationality and value of others’ opinion. The
leader’s “primary concern was not to tell us what he was thinking but to learn what we thought,
to hear the country’s various voices” (p. 286). He maintains that after hours of conversation,
Atatürk would arrange what had been said, and produce a clear and logical synthesis.

In his “The Atatürk I knew”, John F. Kennedy (1963): ....................................

explains: .............................. gives detailed account of: ..............................

maintains: ..............................

REPORTING VERBS

Below you can find some of the verbs which you can make use of while smoothly integrating the
information you have borrowed:

acknowledge claim criticize highlight reason

add comment declare illustrate refute

admit compare demonstrate imply reject

affirm confirm deny indicate respond

agree contend dispute insist show

69
 argue criticize emphasize note state

assert declare endorse observe support

believe demonstrate explain point out underline

*Note that these verbs are not synonymous, so use them carefully and appropriately by consulting a
dictionary.

Exercise 1: Match the following reporting verbs with their definitions; some are already given.

a. __3_ state 1. to refuse to accept an offer, suggestion, or request

b. ____ illustrate 2. to state that something is true, even though it has not been
proved
c. ____ assert 3. to formally give a piece of information or your opinion
d. ____ highlight 4. to tell someone something that they did not already know or had
not thought about
e. __7_ comment 5. to express formal support or approval for someone or something
f. ____ imply 6. to state an opinion strongly
g. __4_ point out 7. to look at something and make a point which reflects an opinion,
viewpoint or criticism
h. ____ criticize 8. to describe or examine similarities
i. ____ insist 9. to look at something and make a point which reflects an opinion,
viewpoint or criticism
j. __5_ endorse 10. to say that something is not correct or true
k. ____ claim 11. to suggest that something is true, without saying this directly
l. ____ compare 12. to make the meaning of something clearer by giving examples
m. _10_ dispute 13. to say firmly and often that something is true
n. ____ reject 14. to attract attention to or emphasize

Deciding when to quote and when to paraphrase

Sometimes writers prefer to use a lot of direct quotations because it is faster and easier to quote
someone directly than to paraphrase the information. However, a good research paper is composed
mostly of your own writing (including paraphrases). Quotations can and should be used, but
remember that they support your writing; your writing does not support someone else's quotations.

Exercise 2 Types of quotations

Work with a partner. Discuss whether you would quote, paraphrase, or not use the information in
the situations below. Write Q (quote), P (paraphrase), or X (not use) to note your ideas. Then
share your ideas with the whole class.

70
 a. The sentence is a famous saying.....
b. The sentence contains a lot of technical terms that can’t be said another way....
c. You only want to use one fact from the sentence, and not the rest of it….
d. You don’t really understand what the sentence means.....
e. The sentence is common knowledge........
f. The idea in the sentence is extremely well expressed....
g. The idea in the sentence is important, but the sentence is long and a bit confusing....
Using quotations
It is important to blend quotations in smoothly with your own writing. You can do this with
transitions and with signal phrases that introduce the quotation Avoid putting an entire
quoted sentence between two original sentences with no words or phrases to link them
together; this is known as a dropped quote. Your paper will be much more effective with an
integrated quote, where the reader can clearly see how the quotation supports the point you
are trying to make.
A dropped quote:
Volunteering was an important idea to President John F. Kennedy. "Ask not what your
country can do for you - ask what you can do for your country." (1961). In 1961, President
Kennedy established the Peace Corps, which still sends thousands of Americans to work in
developing countries today.
An integrated quote:
Volunteering was important to John F Kennedy, the President who famously told
Americans during his 1961 Inaugural Address to "Ask not what your country can do for you
- ask what you can do for your country." One way in which he encouraged Americans to
volunteer and to serve was through the creation in 1961 of the Peace Corps, an
organization which still sends thousands of Americans to work in developing countries
today.
To use quotations effectively, follow these steps;
I. Locate the phrase or sentence you want to quote. In the example below, the desired quote
is underlined.
Sugar is not an ideal fuel for the body. Instead, it acts more like the body s enemy. It causes weight
gain and obesity, which can lead to many serious illnesses, as well as death. Sugar appears to be
responsible for a range of other diseases and conditions such as cancer diabetes, tooth decay, and
gout, and It is actually not at all nutritious for your body. Of course, as with many things in life, raw
sugar in moderation is both healthy and desirable. (Kang, 2011)

71
 II. Introduce the quote with a signal phrase.

 As Kang says, …
 Kang argues that …
 In her paper on the dangers of sugar Kang notes that ...
 According to Kang ...
 ..., as Kang explains,
III. Finally, include in parentheses the year that it was written.
Sugar is not necessarily evil. As Kang says, "... raw sugar in moderation is both healthy and
desirable." (2011)

72
73
74
 Exercise 3: The following extracts are taken from the text “Mustafa Kemal Atatürk – A
Commander and an Effective Leader”. Match the citations with the suitable explanations.

a. Quotation with omitted words

b. Secondary citation from a book
c. Paraphrase / summary of an article from a book
d. Secondary citation of a book with more than 3 or more writers (previously mentioned in the text)
e. A long quotation taken from an Internet article
f. A paraphrase / summary of a book with 3 or more writers (mentioned for the first time)
g. Paraphrase / summary of an Internet article

1. ____ In his article “Atatürk and His Lifetime and Today”, Mango (2000) explains, as one of the
Turkish biographers put it, the basic ideas, the new ideas came from Atatürk, their implementation
he left to others (para. 3).
2. ____ Lewis (1967) points out that following his victory in the Turkish War of Independence,
there were many distractions, which at that time might have dissuaded Mustafa Kemal, a war-hero
(p.254).
3. ____ He led Turkey on a path toward modernization, with a serious of innovative reforms, all
geared towards setting Turkey on a Western course. Therefore, to Mango (2000):
There is much to justify Turkey’s reverence for [Atatürk]. He is the force that allowed
Turkey to rise from the ashes of defeat and emerge as a vibrant new nation. Without
[Atatürk’s] vision, without his ambition and energy, without his astonishing boldness in
sweeping away traditions accumulated over centuries, today’s Turkey would not exist and
the world would be much poorer. (para. 5)
4. ____ In Leadership: Enhancing the Lessons of Experience, it is argued that leaders can be
distinguished by their vision and values (Hughes, Ginnett, & Curphy, 2006, p. 290).

75
5. ____ To Cloud, a leader with integrity creates and maintains trust, is able to see and face
reality, embraces negative realities and solves them, causes growth and increase, and achieves
meaning in life (as cited in Lewis, 1967, p. 259).
6. ____ Lord Kinross (1965) acknowledges Mustafa Kemal’s courage in the battlefield and
observes that “Mustafa Kemal’s own evident readiness to die for the defense of his country . . .
made others ready to die at his orders” (p. 94).
7. ____ According to Viscount Slim, willpower and firmness, which are elements of determination,
are the most critical characteristics for a leader (as cited in Hughes et al., 2006, p. 15).
Exercise 4 Quoting

Work with a partner. Look at the passages from original sources. Examine the partial excerpts
from the model research paper. Choose information from the original to quote. Then compare
your choices with another pair.

Original:

What most leaders seem to have in common is the ability to reawaken primitive emotions in their
followers. Leaders, particularly those who are charismatic, are masters at manipulating certain
messages. Followers under the spell of certain types of leaders, often feel powerfully grandiose 14
and proud, or helpless and acutely15 dependent.

Author: Danny Miller Year of publication: 2003, Page: 389

Direct quotation in a student research paper

Restimulating aboriginal feelings in the followers is a common characteristic of most leaders,

especially of those who can control messages to their own advantage by using their charisma. As
Miller suggests, “[f]ollowers__________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________ (2003, p. 389).

14
grandiose (adj): seeming more important than sth actually is

15
acutely (adv): completely; extremely
76
Exercise 5: Fill in the blanks with words or phrases given in the box to complete the information
on how to quote.

Structure striking square-brackets [ ]

Double quotation marks distort (change) quotation marks
40 words punctuation grammar
Ellipsis points words

In quoting, you use not only another author’s ideas or material but also that author’s exact (1)
____________________, (2) ___________________, and (3) ___________________. Writers quote
sources rather than paraphrase them when the original wording is particularly (4) ______________
or when they are afraid they might (5) ___________________ the information if they express it in
other words. When quoting:

 Put (6) ________________________ on either side of the quoted material.

 If the borrowed information is a quotation from another source, use single quotation marks
on either side of the quoted material.
 When you think that you do not need all the words in the original source, you may skip a few
words in a sentence, or even a few sentences in a paragraph. To show you did not use some
part of the material, use (7) ______________________________ (…).
 If it is necessary to insert a word or two into the quoted material in order to clarify the
quotation for the reader or to make it fit the (8) __________________________________,
use (9) __________________________________ ( [ ] ).
 If the quotation is more than (10) ____________________________, separate the quoted
lines from your own text by indenting the entire quote on the left. Do not use (11)
________________________________.
77
 BASICS of PARAPHRASING
• You may decide to paraphrase any densely written, or confusing material.
• It is essential to rewrite a material in your own style by making sure that:
- You use your own words and,
- You change the grammatical structures.

• A paraphrase is usually the same length as the original passage and includes all the
information.
• In order to avoid plagiarism, the paraphrased part needs; proper paranthetical reference (in-
text reference) specifying;

- the writer’s surname,

- year of publication,

- page / paragraph number.

 Original ideas remain unchanged in a paraphrase, that is, the keeping the original meaning is
the core of paraphrasing.
 You replace the language of the original text by using different vocabulary, grammar, and
writing style.
 The paraphrase is approximately the same length as the original.
 When changing grammar, you can;

- divide the longer sentences into shorter ones,

- join shorter ones with sentence connectors,

- or make other grammatical changes.

78
What if you don’t understand a text?

• General temptation of the students who find a text “very difficult” is to skip that material. 

RESIST THIS TEMPTATION!

• You can even use paraphrasing as a tool for explaining to yourself the main ideas of a
difficult passage

HERE’S HOW:
• Rewrite the parts that you have understood, and
• Pinpoint the ones that you did not fully understand.
• It’s easier to understand long texts in smaller groups of sentences of your own.

HOW TO PARAPHRASE

• First of all, make sure that you understand the source passage.
• Write what you understand without looking at the original.
• Paraphrase as much as possible by writing the text in your own style, making the necessary
changes in the wording and grammar.
• Compare your paraphrase with the original to make sure that you included all the ideas and
you did not change the meaning.
• Rearrange your own sentences so that they read smoothly. Sentence structure or even
sentence order need not be based on those of the original.

AND
• Do not forget to include an in-text reference in your paraphrase if the information is not
common knowledge.

79
We can simplify paraphrasing by dividing it into 4 steps:

STEP 1: Read the selection carefully several times until you understand it fully.

STEP 2: Look up any words you do not understand; find synonyms for them.

STEP 3: Write a brief outline, including:

a. The main idea (topic and controlling idea)

b. The main supporting points

c. Primary and secondary supporting details

STEP 4: Write the paraphrase. Use your own words and do not omit any essential ideas.

A Model Paraphrase
Original:

When Maracaña soccer stadium [in Rio de Janerio, Brazil] was opened to the public in 1950,
and Brazil lost the World Cup to the Uruguayan team, the Brazilians were so disheartened that
one had the impression that the country itself had died. And people did die of sadness. Mere
threats of defeat in a championship match can cause heart attacks and the despair of the
public is so great that many beat their heads against the cement posts. Such is the Brazilian’s
passion for soccer.

A Model Paraphrase
Paraphrase:

80
 In 1950, Brazil lost the World Cup in soccer to Uruguay in Rio de Janerio. The entire country
was overcome by sadness; some people even died from it. Brazilians react very strongly to
potential defeat in championship soccer games. Some people have heart attacks, and others
beat their heads against cement posts. Brazilians are very emotional about soccer.

Beginning writers often try to paraphrase by using a dictionary or a thesaurus and finding
synonyms for the key nouns and verbs. However, this method almost always results in a weak
paraphrase, and by some definitions, can still be plagiarism.
The most effective way to paraphrase is to change the syntax of the sentence. Ask yourself,
“What does the sentence really mean? What is the main idea? What is another way to say the
same thing?”
Look at the examples of weak and strong paraphrases:
Original: "To be or not to be; that is the question." (William Shakespeare, Hamlet)
Weak Paraphrases:
Being or not being, that is the query, from Hamlet by William Shakespeare.
Shakespeare's Hamlet asks the question to be or not to be.
These are weak paraphrases because they are too dose to the original. Furthermore, an
instructor who read either of those paraphrases would suspect that the student writer did not
actually understand the quotation.
Strong Paraphrase:
Shakespeare's Hamlet questions whether it would be better for him to live or to die.
In the famous speech from Hamlet. Shakespeare shows a man struggling with the difficulties of
living, yet unsure if death would bring relief or further problems of a different nature.

81
 SENTENCE-LEVEL PARAPHRASE

Basically, we can paraphrase ideas by;

(a) Using a different structure

(b) Using a synonym or a different form of a word.

1. Using a different structure

1. Active Voice Passive Voice

a) The scientist made an important discovery.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
b) She was taken to the hospital by the people who were passing by.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

2. Adverbial clause Adverbial phrase

-Since he failed, he was disappointed.

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

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 He was dissappointed because of his failure.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
He felt disappointment because of his failure.
It was …………..……………… his failure that he felt disappointment.

Despite the fact that

Although /Though / he lacks experience,
Even though he hopes to get the job.
In spite of the fact that

In spite of / Despite his lack of experience

2. Using a different word (synonyms or different forms of the words)

Smoking is detrimental to human health.

……………………………………………………………………………………………………….

He accomplished his aim.

……………………………………………………………………………………………………….

The fact that the system is inefficient creates many problems.

……………………………………………………………………………………………………….
3. Giving definitions

Example: “A college student usually has homework to do.”

1) A person going to college typically has to study at home.

2) People taking college courses usually have assignments to do.

“ Alcoholics drink more and enjoy it less than social drinkers.”

83
1) ...........................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................

2) ......................................................................................................................................................................... .

........................................................................................................................................................................

EXERCISE: Read the sentences on the left and then complete the sentences on the right, using the correct
forms of the words written in the bold face.

1. She was very anxious. She felt …………………………….…………………………………

2. The audience applauded loudly. The audience’s …………………………………………………..

3. It surprised us greatly. It was ………………………………………………………………….

4. He behaves very badly. His ………………………………………………………………………

5. He has great courage. He is ………………………………………………………….………..

6. These two boks are similar. There ………………………………………………………………….

7. He is a very determined man. He is a man …………………………………………………………

8. His work has improved considerably. There …………………………………………………………………

9. He lives comfortably. He leads………………..……………………………………………

10. She is very patient. She has………………………………………………………………

11. He was severely injured. His …………………………………………………………………….

12. He tends to ignore traffic rules. He has ………………………………………………………………

13. I don’t object to your driving the car. I have ……………………………………………………………….

14. I am confident of his honesty. I have ……………………………………………………………….

15. He knows a lot about commerce. He knows a lot about …………………………... affairs.

4. Dividing complex sentences

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 Example: Although our human ability to communicate is genetically determined and hence is a part of

our biological nature, speech development is importantly affected by the environment.

a. The ability for human communication is biologically based.

b. The ability for human communication is transmitted through genes.

c. Environment also influences how human communication develops.

EXERCISE: Extract three ideas from the given sentence and state them separately.

Although a bad environment can retard language development, children can learn to speak in any

environment where other people speak, but they need a supportive environment to learn to speak

eloquently.

a. …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

b. …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

c. …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

EXERCISE

Examine the following paragraph and its paraphrases. Which one is better? Discuss and give your
reasons.

Original: Political campaigns vary in the effectiveness with which they transmit their messages
via the news media. Effective tactics recognize the limitations of both the audience and the
media. The typical voter is not deeply interested in politics and has trouble keeping track of
multiple themes supported with details. By the same token, television is not willing to air
lengthy statements from candidates.

Janda, K., Smith, L., & Jackson, B. (1992). Political leaders and the media. New York: Routledge.

(Note that this excerpt is taken from page 305.)

1. Most political campaigns simply do not take into account voter limitations. Instead,
candidates assume that the typical voter is deeply interested in political issues. The truth is
85
 that the typical voter cares more about a candidate’s image than about the candidate’s
political positions.

2. Not all political campaigns use the news media with equal effectiveness. Those that are
successful recognize that television is not willing to air long, detailed explanations that the
typical voter neither understands nor cares much about (Janda, Smith, & Jackson, 1992, p.
305).

Use the checklist below to decide. Write YES or NO.

Paraphrase 1 Paraphrase 2

WORDING CHANGED

GRAMMATICAL STRUCTURE CHANGED/NOT JUST REPLACING

THE WORDS

HAS THE SAME MEANING

INCLUDES ALL THE IDEAS

SIMILAR LENGTH

NO PERSONAL OPINION INCLUDED BY THE PARAPHRASER

IN-TEXT REFERENCE INCLUDED

Examine the following paragraph and its paraphrases. Which one is better? Discuss and give your
reasons.

86
 Original: Nobody called him Abe – at least not his face – because he loathed the nickname. It
did not befit a respected professional who had struggled hard to overcome the limitations of
his frontier background. Frankly Lincoln enjoyed his status as a lawyer and politician, and he
liked money, too, and used it to measure his worth. By the 1850’s, thanks to a combination of
talent and sheer hard work, Lincoln was a man of substantial wealth. He had an annual income
of around $5,000 – the equivalent of many times than today – and large financial and real –
estate investments.

Oates, S. (1979). Our fiery trial: Abraham Lincoln, John Brown, and the Civil War era. Amherst, MA: University of
Massachusetts Press.

(Note that this excerpt is taken from page 65).

1. No one used Lincoln’s nickname, Abe, because he detested it. It did not go with a lawyer and
politician who had worked to get away from the restrictions of his country heritage. Lincoln
liked his new position, and his wealth, and used it to gauge his status. By mid-century, his
skill and labor had made him a fairly wealthy man. He had a yearly income of approximately
$5,000 – the equivalent of many times than today – and large financial and real-estate
investments (Oates, 1979, p. 65).

2. By the middle of the century, Lincoln enjoyed life as a well-respected lawyer and politician,
having acquired a position of status and wealth that was well removed from his early
“frontier background.” He now was bringing in $5,000 a year, and had substantial “financial
and real estate investments.” As a consequence, he disliked being called Abe because of its
association with his rural heritage (Oates, 1979, p. 65).

Use the checklist below to decide. Write YES or NO.

Paraphrase 1 Paraphrase 2

WORDING CHANGED

GRAMMATICAL STRUCTURE CHANGED/NOT JUST REPLACING

THE WORDS

HAS THE SAME MEANING

INCLUDES ALL THE IDEAS

SIMILAR LENGTH

87
NO PERSONAL OPINION INCLUDED BY THE PARAPHRASER

IN-TEXT REFERENCE INCLUDED

A) Extract 3 ideas from the given sentence and write them seperately by paraphrasing them.
“Human nonverbal16 communication is not unique17 and indeed is no better than that of other
primates, but our verbal18 system sets us apart from other animals because it gives us the ability to
express cognitive19 as well as emotional thoughts, and to share complex ideas with others.”
a. _____________________________________________________________________________
b. _____________________________________________________________________________
c. _____________________________________________________________________________

B) Paraphrase the given sentences. (4x1=4 pts)

1) The computer is a learning tool since it helps children to master math and language skills.

_________________________________________________________________________________.

2) Due to the ability of computers to keep records of sales and inventory 20, many department stores
rely on21 them.

_________________________________________________________________________________.

3) A medical computer system is an aid 22 to physicians23 because of its ability to interpret 24 data
from a patient’s history and provide a diagnosis.

_________________________________________________________________________________.

16
Nonverbal (adj.): not using spoken language
17
Unique (adj.): unusual, special; being the only one of its type
18
Verbal (adj.): spoken, lexical / with words
19
Cognitive (adj.): mental; connected with thinking; concerned with the mind
20
Inventory (n.): a detailed list of all the things in a place; a list of stock
21
Rely on (v): to need a particular thing or the help and support of someone or something in order to continue, to work
correctly, or to succeed; depend on
22
Aid (n.): help; support
23
Physicians (plural n.): medical doctors, especially ones who have general skill and are not a surgeon
24
Interpret (v.): comment; make comment; commentate; describe
88
4) Since European audiences seem to prefer movies that explore psychological or philosophical
issues, European movies are generally quieter and more thought-provoking.

_________________________________________________________________________________.

C. Paraphrase the given paragraph by replacing words with their synonyms, changing the
grammar of the sentences, and the general structure of the paragraph. Note that the extract is
taken from paragraph 6 and give in-text reference.

“There is no evidence that homework provides any benefits in elementary school. Even if you
regard standardized test results as a useful measure (which I don’t), homework isn’t even
associated with higher scores at this age. The only effect that does show up is more negative
attitudes on the part of students who get more assignments.”

Kohn, A. (2006, September 14). Kids may be right after all: Homework stinks. USA Today Retrieved
April 14, 2012, from http://www.alfiekohn.org/teaching/kmbraa.htm

_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

89
Exercise 13 Multiple choice questions
Find the option that has the closest meaning to the given sentences.
1. The word ‘robot’ was popularized in 1921 by Czech playwright Karel Capek, but people have
envisioned creating robot-like devices for thousands of years.
a) For thousands of years, the notion of creating robot-like devices was a very popular one.
b) Robots have, in theory, been around for thousands of years, but the first real robot was
created by Karel Capek in 1921.
c) People have had the idea of creating robots for a long time, but it wasn’t until 1921 that the
term “robot” became widespread through the work of Karel Capek.
d) Robot-like devices were actually created thousands of years ago, but were not popular until
one appeared in a play in 1921.
e) Karel Capek was the first person who took the idea of creating robot-like devices seriously.

2. The British are not actually more modest than other nations, but they do have a set of social
rules that include maintaining a front of modesty at all times.
a) Modesty is maintained by The British through the observation of strict rules that have always
been of great importance throughout history.
b) Although not necessarily more modest than others, the social rules they have show that it is
important for British people to appear modest.
c) Besides the fact that most British people are modest, they also have more social rules than
other nations.
d) Other nations may actually be more modest than the British despite not having a set of social
rules.
e) For the British, it is important that they are viewed as the most modest nation in the world
since they have a set of strict social rules.
3. For decades, Latin America’s importance in the world has been decreasing – it is not an
economic powerhouse, a security threat or a population bomb.
a) Due to the lack of security, and the population explosion in Latin America, it can no longer be
considered an important player in the world stage.
b) Latin America has become increasingly less important in the world because its economy is
shrinking, its population is exploding and it is no longer a security thread.
c) Over the past few decades, globally there has been recognition that Latin America is slowly
gaining a place in the world economy despite its shrinking population.
90
 d) For many years now, Latin America has become less important and poses no threat
economically, security-wise or in terms of over-population.
e) Recently, Latin America has lost its global importance in terms of its economic power and
population, but it is still a potential security threat.
4. As inhabitants of one of earth’s most densely populated continents, Europeans know well that
environmental protection is not a luxury, but rather a necessity.
a) Living in one of the world’s most densely populated continents, Europeans are well aware that
they need to protect the environment.
b) More people live on the European continent than anywhere else and for this reason they
know that they have a duty to protect the environment.
c) It is necessary for Europeans to stop living in luxury and start taking more responsibility for the
protection of the European continent.
d) Of all the densely-populated continents on earth, Europe is the one that is in most need of
environmental protection.
e) The luxury of protecting the environment can no longer be applied to earth’s continents,
particularly in the case of Europe.

91
92
 PARTS OF AN ACADEMIC PAPER
Transforming a non-documented Essay into a documented essay
THE POWER OF THE SCREEN
When television was first introduced, writers and social scientists thought that this new
invention would better life. Pictures which advertised television in the 1950s invariably showed a
happy family gathered together in the living room, sharing the TV viewing experience. Who could
have guessed that a quarter of a century later mother would be in the kitchen watching a daytime
drama, dad would be in the living room watching a ball game, and the children would be watching
cartons in the bedroom? Who could have known then that each family member would get glued to
their own television in their own rooms and that this would be a normal scene in every household?
Nobody could have foreseen this sad picture, which prevail almost all homes all over the world
today. Unfortunately, TV has taken over family life and thus has two negative effects on family
relationships.
To begin with, TV has certainly influenced the activities of family members, especially limiting
family outings. As families today schedule their lives around the television only, when there is a
special occasion, which requires every family member to attend, there is always someone in the
family who does not want to go. They generally utter the same complaint, I will miss my program".
Afraid of missing even one episode of their favorite program, they sacrifice the valuable time they
would otherwise spend together with their family. Because each family member today has at least
one program per week that cannot be sacrificed for an ordinary family outing, there is an increasing
decrease in the interest in possible family outings these days. Another reason why TV is favored
over family outings is that it provides a variety of entertainment programs, which in ret um make
family members house-bound. When people have the opportunity to spend time with TV series, talk
shows or entertaining shows, they do not feel the need to go out. For example, technology made it
possible today to watch a live concert comfortably at home or watch a very recent movie supported
with surround systems. Because all this entertainment is free of charge, TV also greatly contributes
to the family budget. Why would people go out and spend huge amounts of money for activities
they can access at home?
Perhaps more important than the lack of family outings is the destruction of family time together
at home. TV leaves little time for the traditions that used to be formed during long evenings
together. The time devoted to traditional games, songs, and hobbies - all traditional activities - in
the years before TV is now dominated by "the tube". On New Year's Eve, for example, most families
used to enjoy themselves playing bingo; however, they now spend their time in front of the screen
watching colorful TV shows. In addition to the loss of traditions, TV has decreased quality time spent
together. When all the family members are at home, they do not bother to communicate with each
other, because they are mostly busy watching their favorite shows even when they are eating
meals. Thus, they miss the opportunity to spend time talking, arguing, or discussing. It is

93
unfortunate that people now know more about the TV characters than they know about their
husbands, wives or children. Another example to the decrease in quality time is that modern day
mothers use television as a babysitter. They leave their small children spend countless hours in front
of the TV, passively ingesting whatever flashes before their eyes, instead of playing with them.
All in all, TV has robbed the valuable time families spend outside and at home. Families
unfortunately live a dismal and mechanized life, which is predetermined by TV guides. Due to these
guides families simply cannot do without and require a four to five hour "Television dose'' everyday,
which cruelly kills the quality time spent together with the other family members away from the TV
set. Indeed, if the family does not accumulate shared experiences, it is not likely to survive.
Consequently, if parents and children alike do not change their priorities, television will continue to
exert its influence on family life as babysitter, pacifier, teacher, role-model, and supplier of morals,
thus supplant the place of the family in the society.

Exercise 1 Organization of the essay

Answer the questions according to the essay above
1. How does the writer start the essay? Any introductory strategy used?
____________________________________________________________________
2. Underline the sentence that gives the main idea of the essay; the thesis statement.
3. How does the writer conclude the essay? Any concluding strategies?
____________________________________________________________________

Exercise 2 Analyzing the sources and using quotations

1. First read the following articles and analyze the sentences underlined.
2. Choose 3 quotations which you can use to support the ideas in the essay.
3. Paraphrase the quotations that you have chosen, and write them down in the box provided on
page 57.
4. Insert them in places that need support in the essay “The Power of the Screen”

Article 1 Negative Effects of Television

While merrily watching television, we seldom think that it may affect us negatively. We rarely think
about the negative effects it can have on our mind and body. To look at the negative effects of
television, read on...
Is television an important source of entertainment for you? Do you sit to watch television on
reaching home from work? Do your children join you in watching daily soaps and reality shows?
Then this is an alarming bell for you! (A) In a study conducted in Paris, Institute of Psychological
94
Research, 80% of the participants reported that they are addicted to watch at least 2 TV shows
per week and that this relaxes them more than anything else could. Television, while it appears to
be a stress buster, it actually adds to your mental stress. Television may seem to help you get rid of
your tensions but it is rather adding a burden to your brain. Yes, television manifests its negative
effects. It has a severely negative impact on the minds of the watchers.
(B) Spending too many hours watching television, consumes the precious time that can rather he
spent in fruitful and healthy activities like exercise or reading. It also uses up the time that you can
rather spend with your family and friends. Chatting with your near ones, spending time with your
close ones is a better expenditure of time than in watching TV.
The children of today watch television for long hours. Many a time, they spend their evenings
watching their favorite programs on TV. At times they stay up late to watch films on TV. This activity
adds to their sedentary hours. The addiction to television deprives them of their time to play.
Children should rather engage in physical activities during the evenings. They should go to the open
spaces to play with friends or spend time reading some good books. Moreover, watching television
is detrimental to one’s eyesight. These activities can help them live a healthier living.
(C) Some researchers claim that the attention deficit disorders in children are a result of watching
television. They say that watching television leads to a developmental disorder in the part of the
brain, which is responsible for language skills. Children, who watch television and read less, show
difficulties in paying attention or concentrating. Children spending long hours in watching
television are susceptible to being affected by attention deficit disorders.
Television is one of the effective media, which are used to propagate all types of products
Unsupervised television watching in children can lead to an early exposure to a wide variety of
things. Television advertisements may influence the children to resort to improper measures.
Commercials about fast foods, cold drinks or other such products that are not good for health, are
bound to leave an impact on children watching them. Attractively presented advertisements and
film stories deeply impact young minds, thus influencing the thoughts and behavior of children.
(D) People watching television, especially children and youngsters, start identifying with what is
shown on TV. They relate to television shows and films to such an extent that they get bored pf
living a normal and simple life. They crave for fame and riches; they yearn for living the lives of
their favorite TV characters. This may lead to a high amount of dissatisfaction in the masses. As
real life is the contrast of the life, portrayed on TV, such TV addicts become hungry for power,
money and status.
Studies in psychology have shown that watching intense emotions on television leaves a long-lasting
impact on one's mind. Horror scenes, ghosts, frightful scenes that are featured on television have a
negative impact on the minds of people watching them. Violence, murder, bloodshed and physical
abuse that is shown on television impacts the thoughts and emotions of the spectators.
Television is one means of recreation but its excessive use is detrimental to one's physical and
mental health. You need to strike a balance of everything in life.

Taken from:

95
 Gisso, A. (2000, September 14). Negative effects of television. Retrieved February 25, 2008 from
http://www.bpsjOurnals.co.uk/artide I 345

Article 2 TV and its Impact on Kids

Are you in the habit of relaxing by watching television? However, television is replete with programs
involving objectionable content and violence.
Watching television is one of the ways many people choose to unwind after a hard day's work.
While television is a major source of entertainment the content depicted including violence and
adult content in television can have negative effects on the viewers. Many children end up watching
television even before they start school and so television has a huge impact on their impressionable
minds. (A) Even infants and toddlers watch around 2 hours of television per day. For kids under
the age of 6 the time spent in front of the television is also around 2 hours while kids and teens
tend to spend as much as 4 hours in front of the television besides spending some time at the
computer.
Television can be used to impart education where children learn the alphabet but as they grow
older they tend to spend tar too much time and this in turn interferes with their normal activities
such as playing with friends, reading and doing homework, and spending quality time with their
families.
The negative effects of television include:
 (B) The violence depicted on television has a desensitization effect on the children On an
average American children witness around 200000 acts of violence in television by e time
they turn 18. This makes them less sensitive and increases their aggressiveness since this
television violence is often portrayed to be fun and acceptable. E.g.: A child may think it is
perfectly alright for a man to hit another person because his favorite character did that.
 Television also portrays certain topics rather brazenly when in fact these issues need to be
dealt with care and sensitivity. Sex, substance abuse and other important issues are not
handled and depicted with a great deal of maturity on television and this in turn can end up
giving out the wrong message. E g.: A program objectifying women and portraying them as
sex objects may end up giving the wrong message to youngsters
 (C) Advertisements such as those promoting alcohol and cigarettes have resulted in a Large
number of youngsters indulging in their consumption.
 One of the biggest ill effects of television is that it has contributed to increasing obesity
among people. While watching television people lend to consume large amounts of
unhealthy rood items such as chips and soft drinks. Television is only promoting the
sedentary lifestyle that people follow and this in turn has contributed to obesity.
 Commercials on television are directed towards marketing toys and other items for the kids
and these are responsible to a certain extent to the wrong habits and wrong choices that
children tend to make.
96
  Some research studies indicate that television is responsible for hampering the development
of some areas of the brain that are in control of moral judgment and also attention. That is
why many studies also seek to link the relationship between attention and comprehension
problems and television.
 (D) Television may also affect relationships between families since it may not allow family
members to spend quality time with each other. Recent studies blame "babysitter effect
for this and suggest that mothers are mostly responsible for this because of their acts
during infancy. Since they constantly use TV as a source they can rely on when their babies
start crying, children grow up to be addicted to watching TV at very young ages and thus
are deprived of the precious time they would otherwise spend with their families.
Taken from:
Wall, L. (2007). TV and its impact on kids. In S. Butcher, & N. Thomson (Eds.), The “tube” in the
new century (2nd ed.). (pp. 98 - 99). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Article 3 Television: Killing Social Life?

(A) Television has become a "member" of almost every single family on our planet and not just an
ordinary member, but a very important one, because the time spent in front of it exceeds the
amount of time spent together with any other family member. You do not have to put any efforts
to talk or listen to complaints while "communicating" with it. It is so simple that it has become an
integral part of the culture of every family. It is only when people watch TV that they forget about
all the family troubles and the failures of the day. The sofa opposite the TV set has become the
place of "reconciliation and spiritual unity" of the family.
Years ago the role models for children were their own parents only; however, now these examples
come from hit-thrillers and violent films where those imitated are cruel, impartial and often evil.
Nowadays, resulting from this phenomenon, children, instead of playing leap-and-frog in the
streets, pretend to be "terminators" and run around "killing" each other. These children's
identification with "negative" destructive images has a vital impact on the development of their
personality. Violence becomes an ordinary means of interaction and they cannot learn the right
virtues in social interaction.
(B) Television has, also a great influence on the self-image of people watching it. We see perfectly
shaped bodies hundreds of times per day. All the men shown on the TV screen have big muscles
and are handsome, and all the women shown are very skinny and their faces and bodies look like
a complete perfection. This has caused numerous eating disorders, especially among teenagers.
Such things as bulimia, anorexia, and self-mutilation have become a well-spread phenomenon.
A person, especially a child that spends a lot of time in front of the TV-set has a very high probability
of having eye sight problems. Another negative influence that is connected with the sight is the
problem in hearing due to the shortage of auditory stimulation. Even if the programs watched are

97
not violent, if they are watched per hours they may have a deep impact on the personality, causing
psychological and physiological problems.
…
(C) Television prevents children from doing their homework and adult, from completing their
work, resulting in lower grades on the part of the children and decreased work productivity on
the part of the parents. Children being attached to the TV-set miss the possibility to learn the world
through real nature, games, sports, and conversation with family members. Television has turned
our lives into a nightmare. This is a nightmare in wh.ch television performs the role of a family
member that cannot be sacrificed for anything. This is a nightmare in which not only children but
also parents regard TV as their sole family member whom they should be giving full attention. It has
turned our lives into an addiction that suppresses the beauty of our family life and can without any
doubt be called one of the worst inventions of modern times.
It is now time to wake up and lead a better life without TV. Unless this is done, TV will harm family
relations more in the future. (D) We should not forget this: The quality of life is diminished as
family ties grow weaker, as children's lives grow more and more separate from their parents, as
the opportunities for living and sharing within a family are eliminated.
Taken from:
Thuente, Z. (2001). Television: Killing social life? Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Article 4 How Do You Think Watching TV Affects us?

(A) There is probably no greater influence on social issues and society itself than the television. It
has become arguably the greatest invention of the past century. With it, we have witnessed
countless historical events: Inaugurations of presidents; man's first steps on the moon; the
assignation of John F. Kennedy; even disasters as they happen. But how did this invention enter our
lives?
It was in 1954 that the first TV was completed and released for consumer use. (B) People were
highly enthusiastic about the possible positive effects of this incredible machine on their lives
because this change meant the end of an era for them. Families did not need to rely only on print
as the main channel to access information and knowledge any more. This machine was going to
introduce new lives to them and inform them of the news at no cost. TV has undoubtedly fulfilled
that role successfully because it is the most common and trustworthy source of information that
each and every family has access to.
What about the social aspects of this issue? For most people their life at home was going to be
much more colorful thanks to TV from then onwards. They were going to start sharing more time
with their families since their family lives would then center around the television. Nearly everyone
was optimistic about this new invention. (C) Psychologist Joel Gold, for instance, thought television
was going to bring families closer together. However, the belief that TV would make their lives
better by bonding family ties is now challenged.

98
 As television has enriched our lives, it has unfortunately led to the destruction of social life because
television today has actually made many people very addicted to its content. While watching
television people put off things to do such as paying bills, dishes, yard work, even going to the
washroom. (D) They fear they will miss something vital and due to this people have become
zombies who need TV for survival and thus do not want to go out for a walk or meal together
with their loved ones. Family members today feel that they have to have the television on so
someone can fall asleep, or they want to hear that background noise as they are doing housework.
Nobody talks to their husbands, wives or children anymore since they believe having TV on may
substitute real talk.
…
All in all, television is increasingly controlling people and their lives today. Parents need to give their
children more attention and mirror a healthy and productive life away from the television so that
children lead a happy life in which they have a loving bond with their parents instead of one with
the TV.
Taken from:
Guwern, J. (2008, March 12). How do you think watching TV affects us? Psychology Today, 40 (2),
103 - 105.

Please paraphrase three quotations into the box below:

Paraphrase 1:

Paraphrase 2:

99
- To which paragraphs would you insert these quoted / paraphrased sentences?

Exercise 3 Analyzing the final form of an academic paper

Your instructor will provide you with the final version of the essay in which the citations are
inserted. Analyze the essay carefully to see a sample documented essay by answering the
questions below.

1. How similar is this version to yours? Why?

2. Underline the signal phrases. Use a dictionary if you do not know their meanings.
3. Does the writer make use of any direct quotations? Why? Why not?
4. What are the functions of each paraphrase and each quotation?
5. Do you think the paraphrased versions are weak or strong? (You may refer to p. 40)

100