Structural Theory |1
Module 1: Fundamentals of
Structural Engineering
1.1 Definition of Terms
Theory
It is “a plausible or scientifically acceptable general
principle or body of principles offered to explain phenomena.”
Theory of Structures
It deals with the “principles and methods by which direct
stress, the shear and bending moment, and the deflection at any
section of each constituent member in the structure may be
calculated.”
Structural Analysis
It is the “prediction of the performance of a given
structure under prescribed loads and/or other external effects,
such as support movements and temperature changes.”
1.2 Equilibrium Principles in Structural
Analysis
Principles of Equilibrium
The principles of equilibrium are the most important
concepts needed in theory of structures. This is so because
structures main function is to carry loads. Rigid structures like
beams, frames and trusses carry loads without failure or
appreciable distortions.
Equilibrium
“Equilibrium is the term used to designate the condition
where the resultant of a force system is zero. The physical
meaning of equilibrium, as applied to a body, is that the body is
either at rest or moving along a straight - line path with constant
velocity. Mathematically speaking equilibrium means that the
resultant or summation of forces is equal to zero.
𝛴𝐹 = 𝑅 = 0
In other words, the summation of forces in any direction
is equal to zero and the summation of moments at any point is
equal to zero. These are expressed below where 𝛴𝐹𝑥 is the
summation of forces along the x-axis, 𝛴𝐹𝑦 is the summation of
forces along the y-axis, and 𝛴𝑀𝑜 is the summation of moments
about any point.
𝛴𝐹𝑥 = 0
𝛴𝐹𝑦 = 0
𝛴𝑀𝑜 = 0
Types of Structures
Three types of structures are considered in this term.
These are truss, beam, and frame which are narrowly defined by
follows:
A. Truss
“A truss is composed of members connected by
frictionless hinges or pins. The loads on a truss are
assumed to be connected at the joints. Each member of a
truss is considered as a two-force member subjected to
axial forces only.”
B. Beam
“A beam is a straight member subjected only to
transverse loads. A beam is completely analyzed when
 Structural Theory |2

the value of bending moment and shear are determined.”

C. Frames
“A rigid frame is built of members connected by
rigid joints capable of resisting moment. Members of
rigid frame, in general, are subjected to bending moment,
shear, and axial forces.”
B. Frames
When the frame with external uniform and
inclined load is cut at the intersection of column and
beam, it is acted upon by axial force, shear force and
moment which are symbolized as 𝑋, 𝑌 and 𝑀.

Internal Forces at Cut Section of Structures

A. Truss
For the truss below loaded by external forces
12𝐾𝑁, 10𝐾𝑁, and 8𝐾𝑁 has internal effects on members
𝑋, 𝑌, and 𝑍 internally. The internal effect in the member
can be in tension T or compression C as illustrated
below.

C. Beam
When the beam is loaded by external uniform
load 𝑤 is cut between supports, the internal reactions are
the shear force 𝑆, axial force 𝐴, and internal moment 𝑀.
The hinge has two component reactions and the roller has
one component reactions.

Internal Axial or Normal Force, N
“The internal axial force N at any section of a beam is
equal in magnitude but opposite in direction to the algebraic sum
(resultant) of the components in the direction parallel to the axis
of the beam of all the external loads and support reactions acting
on either side of the section under consideration.”
Shear Force, V
“The shear V at any section of a beam is equal in
magnitude but opposite in direction to the algebraic sum
(resultant of the components in the direction perpendicular to the
axis of the beam of all the external loads and support reactions
acting on either side of the section under consideration.”
Bending Moment, N
“The bending moment M at any section of the beam is
equal in magnitude but opposite in direction to the algebraic sum
of the moments about (the centroid of the cross section of the
beam at) the section under consideration of all the external loads
and support reactions acting on either side of the section.”
Structural Theory |3
Two-Force Members
When a member is subject to no couple moments and
forces are applied at only two points on a member, the member
is called a two-force member.
If the body is in equilibrium, the two equal forces must
be directed along line bc as shown in figure A. The two equal
forces in figure B cannot be in equilibrium because of random
orientation. These can be proven by summation of moments at
either points c and b, where in figure B is summation of moment
not equal to zero.
Three-Force Members
If a member is subjected to only three forces, then it is
necessary that the forces be either concurrent or parallel for the
members to be in equilibrium.
 Structural Theory |4

If the body is in equilibrium, then the three external 1.3 Determinacy of Structures
forces 𝐹𝑏, 𝐹𝑐, and 𝐹𝑑 applied at b, c, and d cannot be in random
position as shown in figure B. To be in equilibrium, they must Geometric Stability of Structures According to Supports
be orientated as shown in figure A where the external forces A structure (beam, frame and truss) can be stable or
intersect at a common point o. unstable due to supports. Consequently, the stability of
structures depends on the number of component reactions. These
Support Reaction are summarized in the table below:
Rollers and hinges are provided in order to provide
supports to the structure. Other supports are fixed support and
link. Supports are connected into a stationary body usually the
ground or another structure. Tabulated below are the component
reactions for each type of support.

External Geometric Instability of Structures

The addition of supports does not necessarily help make
the structure stable. Because it must be associated with the
orientation which both translation and rotation are prevented.
The figures below show that the structures remain unstable
despite the addition of the roller. This instability which results
from the inadequacy of arrangement of supports is called
external geometric instability.
 Structural Theory |5

Table 1.2 When to use respective Determinacy Equations

Type of Structure Description
Beam* No closed loop
Closed loop with at least
Frame
4 sides
Truss 3-sided loop
*Structures having no closed loop maybe a frame or a beam.
Because both the determinacy equations of a beam and a frame
provide the same answer for structures having no closed loop,
Stability classifying it simply as a beam will give a simpler solution.
The addition of supports does not necessarily help make
the structure Condition Equations, c
These are release conditions within the structure that
Determinate (External) provide extra equilibrium equations beyond the three for global
The ability to calculate all of the external reaction equilibrium.
component forces using only static equilibrium A. Internal Hinge or Pin

Indeterminate (External)
Indeterminate structures effectively have more
unknowns than can be solved using the equilibrium equations.
c = no. of member connected - 1
c = 2 -1 = 1
Table 1.1 Determinacy Equations
Type of Structure Determinacy Equation B. Internal Roller
Beam r ? 3+c
Frame 3m + r ? 3j + c
Truss m + r ? 2j
r = no. of external reactions (should not be confused with
internal supports) c=2
j = no. of joints (basically defined as supports)
m = no. of members (segments between 2 joints)
c = no. of compatibility equations (internal supports)
 Structural Theory |6

From the discussion, we can establish criteria of stability

and determinacy of beams. Let 𝑟 denotes the number of Example 1.1 Classify each of the structures shown as
component reactions, and 𝑐 denotes the number of equations of statically determinate, determinate but unstable,
condition. n° indeterminate, or n° indeterminate and
unstable. If the structure is statically
indeterminate, determine the degree of
indeterminacy.
Beam
r?3+c
4?3+2
4<5
Determinate but unstable
Shown below is the summary of criteria for the stability
and determinacy of frames. Beam
r?3+c
5?3+2
5=5
Determinate
Beam
r?3+c
6?3+4
Consequently, we can deduce a set of criteria for the
6<7
stability and determinacy of trusses by comparing the value of Roller
(m + 𝑟) with that of 2𝑗. Determinate but unstable

Beam
r?3+c
4?3+0
4>3
1° Indeterminate and
unstable (due to the
reactions being parallel)
 Structural Theory |7

Example 1.2 Classify each of the structures shown as Frame

statically determinate, determinate but unstable, 3m + r ? 3j + c
n° indeterminate, or n° indeterminate and 3(14) + 8 ? 3(12) + 0
unstable. If the structure is statically 50 > 36
indeterminate, determine the degree of 14° Indeterminate
indeterminacy.

Beam
Beam
r?3+c
r?3+c
8?3+0
3?3+0
8>3
3=3
5° Indeterminate
Determinate but unstable
Frame (due to the reactions being
3m + r ? 3j + c concurrent)
3(4) + 3 ? 3(4) + 0
15 < 12
Beam
3° Indeterminate
r?3+c
10 ? 3 + 0
10 > 3
7° Indeterminate
Frame
3m + r ? 3j + c
3(10) + 9 ? 3(9) + 5 Frame
39 < 32 3m + r ? 3j + c
Hinge
7° Indeterminate 3(14) + 12 ? 3(12) + 5
Roller
54 > 41
13° Indeterminate
 Structural Theory |8

Truss
Example 1.3 Classify each of the structures shown as Hinge m + r ? 2j
statically determinate, determinate but unstable,
n° indeterminate, or n° indeterminate and 21 + 3 ? 2(10)
unstable. If the structure is statically 24 > 20
indeterminate, determine the degree of 4° Indeterminate and
indeterminacy. unstable (due to the
internal hinge)
Truss
A
m + r ? 2j
11 + 3 ? 2(7)
14 = 14 B C D E F
Determinate
H
Truss G I
m + r ? 2j Truss
17 + 2 ? 2(10) m + r ? 2j
19 < 20 12 + 6 ? 2(9)
Determinate but unstable 18 = 18
Determinate

A B Truss
m + r ? 2j
8 + 3 ? 2(5)
Truss C
11 > 10
m + r ? 2j
1° Indeterminate but
19 + 5 ? 2(12) D E
24 = 24 unstable (due to the
internal hinge at AC)
Determinate
 Structural Theory |9

Practice Problems
Exercise 1.1 Classify each of the structures shown as
statically determinate, determinate but unstable,
n° indeterminate, or n° indeterminate and C. Roller
unstable. If the structure is statically
indeterminate, determine the degree of
indeterminacy.

A. D.

Hinge

I
E.
Hinge

B. J K L
Hinge

Answers to Practice Problems

A. Determinate
B. 9° Indeterminate
C. Determinate but unstable
D. Determinate but unstable
E. 1° Indeterminate and unstable
 S t r u c t u r a l T h e o r y | 10

1.4 Load Analysis Table 1.4. Minimum Design Dead Loads

Mentioned in the previous lecture are the principles of

equilibrium and the external reactions of each type of structural
supports. The next chapter is the application of these principles
with due regard to structures namely beams, frames, cables, and
three-hinged arches. Included as well is the analysis of loads in
the structure.

Dead Loads
“Dead loads due to the weight of the structural system
itself and any other material permanently attached to it.”
(Kassimali: 2015) In effect, they are characterized as having
fixed both in positions and magnitudes. These include the weight
of the beams, columns, floors, ceilings, foundations, roofs,
walls, etc.
Table 1.3. Unit Weights of Common Construction Materials

Live Loads
Live loads “are considered to include all loads on the
structure that are not classified as dead loads. However, it has
become common to narrow the definition of live loads to include
only loads that are produced through the construction, use, or
occupancy of the structure and not to include environmental or
dead loads.” (West: 1993) This indicates that live loads are of
changing positions and magnitudes.

Table 1.5. Minimum Uniform Live Loads (NSCP 2015)
Wind Loads
“Wind loads are produced by the flow of wind around
the structure. The magnitudes of wind load that may act on a
structure depend on the geographical location of the structure,
obstructions on its surrounding terrain, such as nearby buildings,
and the geometry and the vibrational characteristics of the
structure itself.” (Kassimali: 2015)
Earthquake Loads
“An earthquake is a sudden undulation of the portion of
the earth’s surface. Although the ground surface moves in both
horizontal and vertical directions during an earthquake, the
magnitude of the vertical component of ground motion is usually
small and does not have a significant effect on most structures.
It is the horizontal component of ground motion that causes the
structural damage and that must be considered in designs of
structures located in earthquake-prone areas.” (Kassimali: 2015)
Snow Loads
“The procedure for establishing the static snow loads on
a building is normally based on ground-to-roof conversion.”
S t r u c t u r a l T h e o r y | 11
Rain Loads
“Roof loads that result from the accumulation of
rainwater on flat roofs can be a serious problem. This condition
is produced by the ponding that occurs when the water
accumulates faster than it runs off, either because of the intensity
of the rainfall o because of the inadequacy or blockage of the
drainage system. The real damage is that as ponding occurs the
roof deflects into a dished configuration, which can
accommodate more water, and thus greater loads result.” (West:
1993)
Hydrostatic Pressure
“Structures used to retain water, such as dams and tanks,
as well as coastal structures partially or fully submerged in water
must be designed to resist hydrostatic pressure.”
Soil Pressure
“Underground structures, basement walls and floors, and
retaining walls must be designed to resist soil pressure.”
Impact Loads
“Impact loads are loads that are applied over a very short
period of time have a greater effect on the structure than would
occur if the same loads were applied statically. The manner in
which a load varies with time over which the full load is placed
on the structure will determine the factor by which the static
response must be increased to obtain the dynamic response.”
(West: 1993)
Thermal and other Natural Loads
Statically indeterminate structures may be subjected to
stresses due to temperature changes, shrinkage of material,
fabrication errors, and differential settlements of supports.
 S t r u c t u r a l T h e o r y | 12

Load Combinations Load Transfer

Based on past experience and probability analysis, the Loads are transferred via basic structure of building. The
NSCP Standard specifies various load combinations to be transfer starts from top to bottom i.e. from the load carried by
considered when designing structures. It is important to realize the truss, it is transferred to the roof beams. Similarly, loads
that the structure must be designed to have adequate strength to carried by the slab is transferred to the beams then to the columns
resist the most unfavorable of all the load combinations. below until it reaches the footing and finally the underlying soil.
The following are selected load combinations from the
2015 edition of the 𝑁𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝐶𝑜𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒
𝑃ℎ𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑝𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑠, where:
𝐷 = 𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝐸 = 𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝐹 = 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑𝑠
𝐻 = 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡o 𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙
𝐿 = 𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝑊 = 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝑇 = 𝑠𝑒𝑙𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒, thermal
A. Strength Design or Load and Resistance Factor
Design
1.4(𝐷 + 𝐹)
0.9𝐷 + 1.6𝑊 + 1.6𝐻
0.9𝐷 + 1.0𝐸 + 1.6𝐻
B. Allowable Stress Design
𝐷+𝐹
D+H+F+L+T
𝐸
D + H + F + (0.6W or )
1.4
C. Alternate Basic Load Combination
0.6D + W + H
D+L+W
𝐸
D+L+
1.4
 S t r u c t u r a l T h e o r y | 13

𝑤𝐷𝐿 = 𝑤𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 + 𝑤𝑠𝑙𝑎𝑏 + 𝑤𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑟 + 𝑤𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙

Example 1.4 The floor beam in shown below is used 𝐾𝑁 𝐾𝑁
to support the 4-m width of a reinforced concrete 𝑤𝐷𝐿 = 22.6 3
[0.100𝑚(3𝑚)] + 23.6 3 [0.125𝑚(4𝑚)]
m m
slab having a thickness of 125 mm. The slab 𝐾𝑁 𝐾𝑁 (1m)2
serves as a portion of the ceiling for the floor +0.24 2 [4𝑚] + 77.3 3 [9280mm2 ]
m m (1000mm)2
below, and therefore its bottom is coated with 𝐾𝑁 𝐾𝑁 𝐾𝑁 𝐾𝑁
plaster. Furthermore, a 3-m-high, 100-mm-thick = 6.78 + 11.8 + 0.96 + 0.71734
m m m m
lightweight plain concrete wall is directly over 𝑲𝑵
𝒘𝑫𝑳 = 𝟐𝟎. 𝟐𝟓𝟕𝟑
the top flange of the beam. Determine the total 𝐦
dead load carried by the steel beam measured per
meter of length of the beam.
Example 1.5 A two-story office building shown in the
photo has interior columns that are spaced 22 ft
apart in two perpendicular directions. If the (flat)
roof loading is 20lb/ft2, determine the total live
load (in Kips) supported by a typical interior
column located at ground level.

The weight per unit length is the product of the unit

weight and the cross-sectional area. Thus, the total dead
load 𝑤𝐷𝐿 is the summation of weight per unit length of
each component due to the wall 𝑤𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙, floor concrete slab
𝑤𝑠𝑙𝑎𝑏, ceiling plaster 𝑤plaster, and the steel beam itself
𝑤𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙.
As shown, a typical interior column has a tributary area
or effective loaded area of
𝐴𝑇 = (22𝑓𝑡)(22𝑓𝑡) = 484 ft2
The total live load 𝐿𝐿𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 is the summation of the live
 S t r u c t u r a l T h e o r y | 14

loads due to the roof loading 𝐿𝐿𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑓 and the 2nd floor Idealized Framing Plan
loading 𝐿𝐿𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑟 .
𝐿𝐿𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝐿𝐿𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑓 + 𝐿𝐿𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑟
𝑙𝑏
𝑙𝑏 1
𝐿𝐿𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 20 2 (484ft2 ) + [(2.4𝐾𝑃𝑎)( ft2 )](484ft2 )
ft 0.048𝐾𝑃𝑎
𝑳𝑳𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 = 33880𝑙𝑏 = 𝟑𝟑. 𝟖𝟖 𝑲𝒊𝒑𝒔

Tributary Loadings
When flat surfaces such as walls, floors, or roofs are
supported by a structural frame, it is necessary to determine how
Idealized Beam
the load on these surfaces is transmitted to the various structural
elements used for their support. There are generally two ways in
which this can be done.

A. One-way System
A slab or deck that is supported such that it delivers its
load to the supporting members by one-way action, is often
referred to as a one-way slab.

Idealized Girder

For some floor systems the beams and girders are
connected to the columns at the same elevation, as in the figure
below. If this is the case, the slab can in some cases also be
considered a “one-way slab.”
If L2 > L1 and the span ratio (L2 / L1) > 2, the slab will
behave as a one-way slab.
S t r u c t u r a l T h e o r y | 15
B. Two-way System
If L2 > L1 and the span ratio (L2 / L1) ≤ 2, the load is
assumed to be delivered to the supporting beams and girders in
two directions. When this is the case the slab is referred to as a
two-way slab.
Idealized Framing Plan (L2 / L1) = 1
 S t r u c t u r a l T h e o r y | 16

Idealized Beam Idealized Beam

Idealized Framing Plan (L2 / L1) = 1.5
Example 1.6 The floor system of a residential
building consists of 100𝑚𝑚 thick reinforced
concrete slab resting on four steel beams, which
in turn are supported by two steel girders as
shown below. The cross- sectional areas of the
floor beams and girders are 9480𝑚𝑚2 and
33740𝑚𝑚2, respectively. Determine the factored
loads (1.2DL+1.6LL) acting on all the beams and
girders.

Idealized Beam
 S t r u c t u r a l T h e o r y | 17

The girders AD and EH are connected on the columns at corners Live Load Diagram for Girder AD
A, D, E, and H. They carry the floor beams AE, BF, CG, and
A. Method 1 (Using live loads carried by Beams AE,
DH, which carry the floor concrete slab. The load diagrams of
BF, CG, and DH which is then transferred to Girder AD)
the beams and girder are as shown below, where the tributary
width of beams AE and BF are 1.5𝑚 and 3.0𝑚, respectively.

B. Method 2 (Disregarding Beams AE, BF, CG, and

DH; and using the live load carried by Girder AD alone.

Dead Load Diagram for Girder AD

Dead and Live Load Diagram for Beam AE
 S t r u c t u r a l T h e o r y | 18

Dead and Live Load Diagram for Beam BF 𝛴𝑀𝐸 = 0

𝑅𝐴(7) − 𝑤𝐴𝐸(7)[3.5] = 0
𝑅𝐴(7) − 9.6876(7)[3.5] = 0
𝑹𝑫 = 𝑹𝑨 = 33.907 𝐾𝑁

𝛴𝐹𝑣 = 0
𝑅𝐴 + 𝑅𝐸 − 𝑤𝐴𝐸(7) = 0
33.9066 + 𝑅𝐸 – 9.6876(7) = 0
𝑹𝑯 = 𝑹𝑬 = 33.907 𝐾𝑁

Know that beams AE and DH are similar, same is with Beams 2. Beams BF and CG
BF and CG. It is also true with Girders AD and EH. Refer to A. Dead Loads
tables 1.3,1.4 and 1.5 for the unit weights to be used. (1m)2
𝑤𝐵𝐹(𝐷𝐿) = 23.6[0.100(3)] + 77.3 [9480 ]
(1000mm)2
1. Beams AE and DH 𝐾𝑁
A. Dead Loads 𝑤𝐵𝐹(𝐷𝐿) = 𝑤𝐶𝐺(𝐷𝐿) = 7.813
m
(1m)2
𝑤𝐴𝐸(𝐷𝐿) = 23.6[0.100(1.5)] + 77.3 [9480 ]
(1000mm)2 B. Live Loads
𝐾𝑁 𝐾𝑁
𝑤𝐴𝐸(𝐷𝐿) = 𝑤𝐷𝐻(𝐷𝐿) = 4.273 𝑤𝐵𝐹(𝐿𝐿) = 1.9 (3𝑚)
m m2
𝐾𝑁
𝑤𝐵𝐹(𝐿𝐿) = 𝑤𝐶𝐺(𝐿𝐿) = 5.7
B. Live Loads m
𝐾𝑁
𝑤𝐴𝐸(𝐿𝐿) = 1.9 (1.5𝑚) C. Factored Loads (1.2DL+1.6LL)
m2
𝐾𝑁 𝑤𝐵𝐹 = 1.2𝑤𝐵𝐹(𝐷𝐿) + 1.6𝑤𝐵𝐹(𝐿𝐿)
𝑤𝐴𝐸(𝐿𝐿) = 𝑤𝐷𝐻(𝐿𝐿) = 2.85
m = 1.2(7.813) + 1.6(5.7)
𝑲𝑵
C. Factored Loads (1.2DL+1.6LL) 𝒘𝑩𝑭 = 𝒘𝑪𝑮 = 𝟏𝟖. 𝟒𝟗𝟓𝟔
𝐦
𝑤𝐴𝐸 = 1.2𝑤𝐴𝐸(𝐷𝐿) + 1.6𝑤𝐴𝐸(𝐿𝐿)
= 1.2(4.273) + 1.6(2.85) 1 𝐾𝑁
𝑅𝐵 = [(18.4956 ) (7𝑚)]
𝑲𝑵 2 m
𝒘𝑨𝑬 = 𝒘𝑫𝑯 = 𝟗. 𝟔𝟖𝟕𝟔 𝑹𝑪 = 𝑹𝑮 = 𝑹𝑭 = 𝑹𝑩 = 64.735 𝐾𝑁
𝐦
 S t r u c t u r a l T h e o r y | 19

3. Girders AD and EH
A. Dead Loads
(1m)2 Factored Loads on Beams AE and DH
𝑤𝐴𝐷(𝐷𝐿) = 77.3 [33740 ]
(1000mm)2 9.6876 KN/m
𝐾𝑁
𝑤𝐴𝐷(𝐷𝐿) = 𝑤𝐸𝐻(𝐷𝐿) = 2.608
m

B. Live Loads
𝑤𝐴𝐷(𝐿𝐿) = 𝑤𝐸𝐻(𝐿𝐿) = 0 33.907 KN 33.907 KN
(Because live load carried by the beams were already
considered and were incorporated in RA, RB, RC and RD)
Factored Loads on Beams BF and CG
C. Factored Loads (1.2DL+1.6LL) 18.4956 KN/m
𝑤𝐴𝐷 = 1.2𝑤𝐴𝐷(𝐷𝐿) + 1.6𝑤𝐴𝐷(𝐿𝐿)
= 1.2(2.608) + 1.6(0)
𝑲𝑵
𝒘𝑬𝑯 = 𝒘𝑨𝑫 = 𝟑. 𝟏𝟐𝟗𝟔
𝐦
64.735 KN 64.735 KN
33.907 KN 64.735 KN 64.735 KN 33.907 KN

Factored Loads on Girders AD and EH

3.1296
KN/m 33.907 KN 64.735 KN 64.735 KN 33.907 KN

3.1296
KN/m

1 𝐾𝑁
𝑅𝐴𝐷 = 𝑅𝐷𝐴 = [(3.1296 ) (9𝑚) + 2(33.907)
2 m
+2(64.735)] 112.725 KN 112.725 KN
𝑹𝑨𝑫 = 𝑹𝑫𝑨 = 𝑹𝑬𝑯 = 𝑹𝑯𝑬 = 𝟏𝟏𝟐. 𝟕𝟐𝟓𝑲𝑵
 S t r u c t u r a l T h e o r y | 20

Axial Load on Column B

Example 1.7 The reading floor of a library has plan 𝐾𝑁
shown. Determine the axial load (KN) acting to 𝐵𝐿𝐿 = 2.9 (12𝑚)(2.5𝑚)
m2
the columns B, D, and E due to live load. 𝑩𝑳𝑳 = 𝟖𝟕 𝑲𝑵

Axial Load on Column D

𝐾𝑁
𝐷𝐿𝐿 = 2.9 (6𝑚)(5𝑚)
m2
𝑫𝑳𝑳 = 𝟖𝟕 𝑲𝑵

Axial Load on Column E

𝐾𝑁
𝐸𝐿𝐿 = 2.9 (12𝑚)(5𝑚)
m2
𝑬𝑳𝑳 = 𝟏𝟕𝟒 𝑲𝑵

From table 1.5, the live load for reading floors of
libraries is 2.9𝐾𝑃𝑎. Tributary areas of columns B, D, and
E are shaded as shown below.
Example 1.8 Determine the live load (KN/m)
distribution of beams X, Y, and Z of the
residential building with the given floor framing.
The floor is mounted on the beams which are then
supported by the girders.
 S t r u c t u r a l T h e o r y | 21

From table 1.5, the live load for residential buildings is

1.9𝐾𝑃𝑎. Tributary areas of beams X, Y, and Z are shaded
as shown below.

𝐾𝑁
𝑤𝑦1 = 1.9 (2𝑚)
m2
𝐾𝑁 𝑲𝑵
𝑤𝑥 = 1.9 (1.5𝑚) 𝒘𝒚𝟏 = 𝟑. 𝟖𝟎
m 2 𝐦
𝑲𝑵
𝒘𝒙 = 𝟐. 𝟖𝟓 𝐾𝑁
𝐦 𝑤𝑦2 = 1.9 (1.5𝑚 + 2𝑚)
m2
𝑲𝑵
𝒘𝒚𝟐 = 𝟔. 𝟔𝟓
𝐦
 S t r u c t u r a l T h e o r y | 22

𝐾𝑁 45°
𝑤𝑧 = 1.9 (2𝑚)
m2
𝑲𝑵
𝒘𝒛 = 𝟑. 𝟖𝟎
𝐦
45°
Example 1.9 The concrete girders shown in the photo
of the passenger car parking garage span 30 ft and
are 15 ft on center. If the floor slab is 5 in. thick
and made of reinforced stone concrete, and the
specified live load is 4.8 KPa or 100 lb/ft2 (see
Table1.5), determine the distributed load (lb/ft)
the floor system transmits to each unique girder.
Neglect weight of the beams. Girders are of same
elevation.
 S t r u c t u r a l T h e o r y | 23

Here, L2 = 30 ft and L1 = 15 ft, so that L2 / L1 = 2. We have a Girder CD

two-way slab. From Table 1.3, for reinforced stone concrete, the 𝑤𝐶𝐷 = 𝑆𝐿(max 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑏𝑢𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ)
specific weight of the concrete is 23.6 KN/m3 or 150 lb/ft3. Thus, 𝑙𝑏
𝑤𝐶𝐷 = 162.5 (7.5𝑓𝑡)
the design floor loading is ft2
𝒍𝒃
𝑆𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑, 𝑆𝐿 = 𝐷𝐿 + 𝐿𝐿 𝒘𝑪𝑫 = 𝟏𝟐𝟏𝟖. 𝟕𝟓
𝐟𝐭
𝑙𝑏 1𝑓𝑡 𝑙𝑏
= 150 (5𝑖𝑛) ( ) + 100
ft3 12in ft2 1218.75 lb/ft
𝑙𝑏
𝑆𝐿 = 162.5
ft2

In solving for the loading of each respective beam, the peak

intensity is to be considered. The distances wherein the loading
declines is also of utmost importance and should be shown in the
diagrams.

Girder AB Girder AD
𝑤𝐴𝐵 = 𝑆𝐿(max 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑏𝑢𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ) 𝑤𝐴𝐷 = 𝑆𝐿(max 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑏𝑢𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ)
𝑙𝑏
𝑙𝑏 𝑤𝐴𝐷 = 162.5 (7.5𝑓𝑡)
𝑤𝐴𝐵 = 162.5 (7.5𝑓𝑡 + 7.5𝑓𝑡) ft2
ft2 𝒍𝒃
𝒍𝒃 𝒘𝑨𝑫 = 𝟏𝟐𝟏𝟖. 𝟕𝟓
𝒘𝑨𝑩 = 𝟐𝟒𝟑𝟕. 𝟓 𝐟𝐭
𝐟𝐭

2437.5 lb/ft 1218.75 lb/ft

 S t r u c t u r a l T h e o r y | 24

Practice Problems Answers to Practice Problems

Exercise 1.2 The floor system of a building consists of
a 15-cm-thick reinforced concrete slab resting on
four steel floor beams, which in turn are
supported by two steel girders, as shown below.
The cross- sectional areas of the floor beams and
the girders are 94.8 cm2 and 337.4 cm2,
respectively. Determine the dead loads acting on
the beams CG and DH and the girder AD.
 S t r u c t u r a l T h e o r y | 25

REFERENCES

a. Kassimali, A. (2011). Understanding

structural analysis.Wang, C. and Eckel,
C. (1983). Indeterminate structural
analysis. New York, USA: McGraw Hill
Inc.
b. Tuma, J. (1969). Theory and problems of
structural analysis. New York, USA:
McGraw Hill Inc.
c. Kinney, J. (1987). Indeterminate
structural analysis. New Delhi, India:
Narosa Publishing House and
Applications.
d. Engr. Crisostomo’s CE 3111 Modules

CONTACT INFORMATION OF THE FACILITATOR

Engr. Arjay B. Cuh-ing

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E-mails: arjaycuhing@gmail.com,
abcuhing@slu.edu.ph ,
arjaycuhing@yahoo.com
Cellphone/Viber Nos.: 09392600616 /
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S t r u c t u r a l T h e o r y | 26