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Javad Nodeh Farahani, Payam Shafigh, Belal Alsubari, Sheida Shahnazar, Hilmi Bin
Mahmud
PII: S0959-6526(17)30291-3
DOI: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.02.077
Reference: JCLP 9003
Please cite this article as: Javad Nodeh Farahani, Payam Shafigh, Belal Alsubari, Sheida Shahnazar,
Hilmi Bin Mahmud, Engineering properties of lightweight aggregate concrete containing binary and
ternary blended cement, (2017), doi: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.02.077
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3 Javad Nodeh Farahani a, *, Payam Shafigh b, c, Belal Alsubari a, Sheida Shahnazar d, Hilmi Bin
4 Mahmuda
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a
5 Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
b
6 Department of Building Surveying, Faculty of Built Environment, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
c
7 Center for Building Science, Technology and Performance, Faculty of Built Environment, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala
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8 Lumpur, Malaysia
d
9 Institute of Graduate Studies, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
10 *Corresponding author: Email: j_farahani_my@yahoo.com, Tel: +601111859965, Fax: +60379675713
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12 ABSTRACT
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13 Lightweight concrete (LAWC) has numerous advantages over normal weight concrete (NWC),
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such as less dead load and construction costs. Using lightweight aggregates (LWA) is one of the
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15 most typical methods of fabricating structural LWAC. This paper studies the possibility of
16 LAWC production by agricultural solid waste, specifically oil palm shell (OPS) and also by
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17 replacing ordinary Portland cement (OPC) with rice husk ash (RHA) and fly ash (FA) up to 50%.
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18 The effect of cement replacement with 0%, 10%, 20% and 30% of RHA (binary blended cement)
21 absorption, drying shrinkage and ultrasonic pulse velocity) of OPS concrete was analyzed. The
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22 impact of 2, 4, and 6 days of water curing on 28-day compressive strength was examined as well.
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23 This study proved the possibility of fabricating sustainable LAWC made of high volume
24 agricultural and industrial waste materials. Although the high amount of RHA in OPS Concrete
25 caused reduction of compressive strength and workability, incorporating FA along with RHA
26 addressed this issue. OPS concrete showed to be more sensitive to curing and only 4-day initial
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1 curing decreased the strength reduction up to 26 % compare to air dry curing. Grades 30 (with
2 OPC content of 350 kg/m^3) and 25 (with OPC content of 250 kg/m^3) green LAWC were
4 significant CO2 reduction, as high as 41%, is calculated in this work to be emitted for
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5 manufacturing studied sustainable concretes.
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6 Keywords: Oil Palm Shell; Lightweight Concrete; Lightweight Aggregate; Fly Ash; Rice Husk
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8 1.0 Introduction
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9 Concrete, as the most common construction material, exhibits outstanding mechanical and
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physical characteristics which are the main reasons for its popularity. The elements of structural
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11 concrete have the potential to be shaped into a wide range of sizes and patterns. Concrete is a
12 highly cost-effective and easily accessible substance for the operation and it has outstanding
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13 resistant to water as well (Mehta and Monteiro, 2006). However, the considerable interest in
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14 using normal weight concrete (NWC), caused the excessive consumption of aggregates like
15 granite and gravel, which in turn tremendously decreased natural stone deposits, and resulted in
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17 conventional aggregates with more sustainable materials are being constantly studied (Hamidian
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19 Developed countries have been utilizing the lightweight concrete (LAWC) for many years.
20 Using lightweight aggregate (LWA) is the most popular approach for manufacturing LAWC.
21 Conventional aggregates could be replaced either partially or totally by LWA (Kılıç et al., 2003;
22 Polat et al., 2010; Shafigh et al., 2013a) . There are number of advantages in using LWAC as a
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1 substitute for NWC , for example, construction cost saving thanks to the reduction of dead
2 weight, as well as being thermally isolated, freeze–thaw resistant, and having lesser handling
3 expenses (Bingol and Gul, 2004). Reducing the structure/building dead load, which could be
4 attained by using LAWC, is of utmost importance, considering this fact that earthquake forces
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5 are proportional to structures’ weight (Kılıç et al., 2003). Dead load reduction by using LWA in
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6 concrete will reduce the columns cross-section, beams and foundations which will reduce the
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8 Many industrial and agricultural wastes (e.g. diatomite, pumice, scoria, volcanic cinders,
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9 coconut shell and tuff) could be used in mix proportion of concrete instead of conventional
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aggregates (Neville and Brooks, 1987). Utilizing the wastes is beneficial in terms of saving
money as well as going Green. Countries with agro-based industries, such as Malaysia,
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12 Indonesia, and Thailand are ideal places to invest in this area by virtue of their high production
13 of agricultural waste , especially Oil Palm Shell (OPS), which is extensively found in these
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14 tropical countries (Shafigh et al., 2010). OPS is a kind of LWA, having superior impact
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15 resistance in contrast to the NWA (Alengaram et al., 2013). Structural LAWCs are defined as
16 having densities of lesser than 2000 kg/m^3, making OPS concrete a suitable choice considering
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17 their density which falls within this limit. Compared to the density of NWC which is 2400
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19 Employing OPS as LAWC to fabricate concrete was first studied in 1985 by Abdullah in
20 Malaysia (Abdullah, 1984). Malaysia is the second largest producer of palm oil in the world. It
21 has been reported that palm oil industries in Malaysia produce over 4 million tons of OPS
22 annually (Shafigh et al., 2011a). From the results of several studies, OPS has the potential to be
23 employed as coarse aggregate in order to produce structural LAWC (Shafigh et al., 2014b). In
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1 one recent study, it was shown that OPS lightweight aggregate concrete has a compressive
2 strength of between 14 MPa and 40 MPa (Shafigh et al., 2011a). However, Shafigh (Shafigh et
3 al., 2011a) documented that OPS concrete can be produced with high strength ranging from 42 to
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5 The global usage of Portland cement (OPC) is reported to be around 1.5 billion tons annually
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6 and is predicted to get by 2.5 billion tons in 2020 (Mehta and Monteiro, 2006). Production of this
7 volume of cement demands a huge amount of natural resources. In addition, OPC manufacturing
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8 consumes a great deal of energy and therefore accounts for major share of CO2 emission (Paris et
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9 al., 2016). The cement industry is estimated to be responsible for approximately 5-8% of global
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man-made greenhouse gasses emission (for each kg of produced cement, 0.87 kg of carbon is
emitted) (Cai et al., 2016; Damtoft et al., 2008; Supino et al., 2016). Considering all
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12 aforementioned reasons, alternative materials are being examined to replace portions of OPC
13 which are referred as supplementary cementitious materials (SCM) (Meyer, 2005). A significant
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14 amount of waste materials is being produced worldwide as by-products of various sectors which
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16 Industrial and agricultural by-products such as rice husk ash (RHA) and fly ash (FA) are
17 recently obtaining a huge interest owing to their application as pozzolan material that typically
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19 reduction of expenses and negative influences on the environment (Aprianti et al., 2015; Sua-iam
21 One of the main by-products of the agricultural fields is rice husk which is easily accessible in
22 various parts around the globe. In order to reduce rice husk volume it has been extensively
23 applied as fuel in the boiler of electricity power plants and therefore RHA is produced in
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1 significant quantities (Ganesan et al., 2008). Previous studies concluded that RHA is applicable
2 for partial substitution of cement, due to its extremely high silica (SiO2) content which is around
3 90%.(Bui et al., 2005). The RHA’s silica content helps to improve the concrete’s mechanical
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5 Moreover, FA is found as the most frequently used pozzolan and is highly in demand for its
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6 application around the world in concrete works. FA is produced during the coal combustion in
7 the stations of coal-fired power. Employing fine fly ash highly enhance the characteristics of
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8 concrete and mortar (Lee et al., 1999; Targan et al., 2002).
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9 This communication is intended to investigate the potential of making structural sustainable
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lightweight aggregate concrete (LWAC) using high volume waste materials. For this purpose ,
11 OPS has been used as total coarse aggregate and OPC has been replaced by RHA and FA up to
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12 50%. RHA was selected to be used as a cement replacement in OPS concrete due to lack of
13 information about the effectiveness of using this pozzolanic material on the fresh and hardened
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14 properties of OPS lightweight concrete. Considering this fact that RHA is a porous material and
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15 absorb the mixing water, the use of RHA in different replacement levels in OPS concrete could
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16 be interesting. The water absorption of OPS is also very high compared to the other type of
17 lightweight aggregates. However, in contrast to RHA, FA does not absorb mixing water and due
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18 to being spherical, it improves the workability of concrete. Therefore, it was used as cement
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19 replacement together with RHA to compensate workability reduction due to large surface area of
20 RHA as well as to maximize the total volume of waste materials in a structural lightweight
21 aggregate concrete.
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2 Binder
3 In this work, blends of OPC, RHA, and FA were utilized as binder. The surface area of OPC
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4 being used was 3.51 m2/g and its specific gravity was 3.15. Rice husk - obtained from a local
5 rice milling plant - was burnt in ferrocement furnace to produce required RHA. The temperature
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6 was controlled by the structure of the furnace. FA used in this work was classified as class F
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7 based on ASTM: C618 and was obtained from a local power station.
8 Chemical compositions of OPC, RHA, and FA- resulted from XRF analysis- are being displayed
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9 in Table 1. Based on Table 1, the main pozzolanic components (SiO2 + Al2O3 + Fe2O3) for RHA
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is 92.5% and for FA is 84.1%, thus addressing ASTM: C618-12a requirements. As it can be
11 observed from the table below, RHA has very high percentage of SiO2 (91%), making it a
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12 suitable choice to be used as SCM.
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RHA 91.00 0.30 1.19 0.80 0.30 3.17 0.90 0.14 1.96 0.06 0.02
FA 50.24 23.53 10.34 6.95 0.94 1.53 1.84 0.01 0.97 1.56 1.42
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16 Fig.1 shows particle size distribution of FA, RHA, and cement. The particle size of RHA is
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17 greater than cement and fly ash. Mean particle sizes of RHA, FA, and cement are 29.61µm, 5.49
18 µm, and 1.89 µm, respectively. According to Brunauer–Emmett–Teller (BET), the specific
19 surface area of RHA and FA was, 12.25 and 2.04 m²/g. RHA has bigger surface area than OPC
20 and FA. The pore diameter size of OPC was 12.3 nm, RHA was 21.3 nm and FA was 8.2 nm. In
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1 addition, the pore size of these three materials is in the range of 2 nm and 50 nm which is
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Fig. 1. Particle size distribution of OPC, RHA, and FA
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6 Aggregates
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7 The local mining sand having fineness modulus of 3.00, the highest particle size of 4.75 mm, and
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8 water absorption of (< 1%) along with specific gravity of 2.55 was employed as fine aggregate in
9 this study. The fine aggregate of zone 2 (Fig. 2.) was used based on experimental works.
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2 Fig. 2. Sieve analysis of fine aggregates (Sand)
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4 Coarse aggregates were replaced by OPS. Fig. 3 and Table 2 shows crushed OPS and its sieve
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analysis, respectively. OPS has been washed and soaked in the water for 24 hours before casting
6 and then dried in the room temperature up to complete drying of the surface. Table 3 displays the
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7 physical characteristics of OPS.
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9.5 81.5
8 56.16
4.75 13.91
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2.36 2.46
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2 Fig. 3. Coarse OPS aggregates in different sizes
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4 Table 3 OPS physical properties
Physical property
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Specific gravity (saturated surface dry) 1.19
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Bulk density (kg/m^3) 674
Fineness modulus 5.87
24 hours water absorption (%) 20.6
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6 Superplasticizer
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8 was used at 1.0% of the mass of cement for control mix (R0) and 1.5 % for OPS concrete mixes
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11 Mix Proportion
12 OPS concretes were produced in six various mix proportions with the main difference in binder
13 content. Table 4 illustrates the mix proportion and slump value for all mixes. Mix R0 is an OPS
14 concrete without SCM. 10% (by mass) of OPC was replaced by RHA to obtain Mix R10
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1 concrete. Mix R20 and R30 has 20% and 30% (by mass) replacement of OPC by RHA. In mix
2 RF15, 30% of cement (by mass) was substituted by FA and RHA. 50% of Mix RF25 binder is
3 supplementary cementitious materials which contain 25% RHA and 25% FA (by mass). Three
4 specimens were used for each individual test except drying shrinkage. Two samples were used
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5 for drying shrinkage and three sides of each sample were examined. The total of six reading was
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6 collected each time for drying shrinkage.
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Slump Content (kg/m^3)
Mix w/b*
Range
Design OPS Sand OPC RHA FA SP ratio
(mm)
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R0 324 945 500 0 0 5 0.36
R10 324 945 450 50 0 7.5 0.38
R20
R30
65-85
324
324
945
945
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350
100
150
0
0
7.5
7.5
0.46
0.52
RF15 324 945 350 75 75 7.5 0.37
RF25 324 945 250 125 125 7.5 0.43
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* Effective water to binder ratio
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11 Fig. 4, 5 and 6 show the scanning electron microscope (SEM) images of the OPC, RHA, and FA,
12 respectively. SEM images can provide information about external morphology and crystalline
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13 structure of the sample (Sivakumar et al., 2009). Fig. 5 depict that FA is made of spherical
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14 glasslike particles having a wide range of sizes. The spheres are typically hollow and they appear
15 intact or within some other smaller spheres in their interior. SEM images of RHA show that it
16 consists of pores on the surface and it is amorphous. The pores of RHA and its amorphous shape
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1 result in its higher specific area and therefore higher water demand and its lower workability
2 whereas the spherical shape of FA particle helps to improve the workability of concrete.
3 Accordingly, RHA presence causes the mixture to be over-dried and thus in this study it is used
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4 in combination with FA to address this issue.
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Fig. 4. SEM Images; OPC particles
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2 Fig. 6. SEM Images: RHA particles
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3 3.2 Workability and Density
4 The density of all mixes can be found in Table 5. In presence of RHA, inter-particle friction
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5 increases because particles cannot easily roll over one another which is caused by their
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agglomerated and crushed shape. Therefore, in order to acquire a workable mix with almost
7 similar slump value of control mix, more water is needed in RHA-containing mixtures. Reduced
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8 density is one of the consequences of enhanced pore formation which is due to water addition.
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9 On the contrary, fresh concrete workability boosts by using FA particles, considering this fact
10 that they reduce the binder and fine aggregates friction thanks to their spherical shape. FA
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11 spherical shape also helps to minimize surface to volume ratio of the particle which leads to
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12 decreased fluid demand. These findings are also confirmed in a work by Sathawane (Sathawane
13 et al., 2013) that showed using FA increases the workability owing to its very low binding
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14 property and workability of concrete was found to drop in case of RHA content increase
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15 From the test result of oven dry density of all six mixes (Table 5), it is observed that the densities
16 of all concretes are significantly lesser than the density of normal aggregates concrete. If we
17 assume that the density of NWC is 2400 kg/m^3, the density of R0, R10, R20, R30, RF15, and
18 RF25 mixes are about 23%, 25%, 28%, 32%, 26%, and 30% respectively lower than normal
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1 weight concrete at the age of 28 days. Therefore, such LAWC significantly reduces the dead load
3 Crushed particles resulted in higher packing density compared to spherical ones. Hence, in case
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4 of spherical particles the water retention is lower and therefore lesser amount of water is required
5 for a particular workability. As it can be seen in Table 5, the density of RF15 increased by 3.9%
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6 compared to R30. This shows that 15% FA content of RF15 made the concrete denser due to its
7 physical properties which needs less water content compared to R30. This result is also
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8 previously proved by researchers. For example, Mannan and Ganapathy (Mannan and
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9 Ganapathy, 2004) showed that using 10% and 15% of FA as SCM in OPS concrete, reduce
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density by 2% and 3%, respectively, in addition to 1% and 2% reduction in normal weight of
concrete.
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12 Furthermore, having lower density compared to OPC, utilizing SCM significantly reduces the
13 weight. Shafigh (Shafigh et al., 2013a) showed how density drops by replacing cement with high
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14 volume FA (up to 50%) in low water to binder ratio (w/b) OPS concrete. It was also shown that
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Density (kg/m^3)
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Mix No.
Demoulded Oven Dry
R0 2001 1838
R10 1980 1794
R20 1903 1707
R30 1875 1623
RF15 1949 1774
RF25 1905 1673
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3 The 28-day compressive strength of R0 was measured to be about 40 MPa, thus the control mix
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4 could be considered as high strength LAWC. Fig.7 illustrates the effect of RHA addition to OPS
5 concrete specimens on their compressive strengths up to 90 days. As depicted in this figure, at all
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6 ages, the RHA concretes have lower compressive strength compare to control mix (R0). The 28-
7 day compressive strength and the oven dry density of all OPS concretes containing RHA (binary
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8 blended cement) varied from 27.2 to 37.7 MPa and from 1623 to 1794 kg/m^3, respectively
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9 Moreover, at all ages, the compressive strength of RHA-containing OPS concretes decreases
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with the increase of RHA replacement percentage. In addition, high fineness and porous surface
11 of RHA causes an increase in w/b ratio while the replacement percentage escalate. Previous
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12 studies have documented these findings as well (Rukzon and Chindaprasirt, 2006; Rukzon et al.,
13 2009; Van et al., 2013).The decline in compressive strength is due to elevated w/b ratio (Table
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14 4). Fig. 8 shows how RHA replacement level affects compressive strength at 1, 3, 7, 28 and 56
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15 days. The figure indicates that the correlation coefficients between these two variables are quite
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16 high.
17 The strength of pozzolanic cement depends very much on the formation of cementing agents,
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18 and any condition that accelerates the formation of dicalcium silicate (C2S) will result in
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19 pozzolanic cement having reasonably good strength. Generally, the results from this study show
20 that the compressive strength of OPC and RHA-OPS concretes increase with age. The 1-day
21 compressive strength of mix R10, R20 and R30 are 10.2%, 32% and 50.6% lower than the
22 control mix, and their 28-day compressive strengths are 5.5%, 23.5% and 31.8% lower than
23 control mix, respectively. It should be noted that mix R20 (with an OPC content of 400 kg/m^3
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1 and the 28-day compressive strength of about 30 MPa) has the same compressive strength with
2 Scoria lightweight concrete at the same cement content as reported by Kilic et al. (2003). Scoria
3 is a natural lightweight material of volcanic origin with a vesicular surface texture. R20 also has
4 the same 28-day compressive strength with Cold-bonded fly ash lightweight concrete with a
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5 cement content of about 550 kg/m^3 as reported with Gesoğlu et al. (2004).
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7 Fig. 7. Compressive strength of OPS concretes under water curing
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9 Fig. 8. OPS concrete compressive strength vs. RHA replacement percentage at different ages.
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1 As it was shown in the previous section, using RHA as cement reduces the workability. As a
2 consequence of the RHA porous nature together with its high surface area, the demanded water
3 increases. w/b ratio in addition to RHA replacement percentage are the main determinant of
4 compressive strength.
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5 Chindaprasirt (Chindaprasirt and Rukzon, 2008) reported that the mortar strength remarkably
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6 improves at later ages and with lower replacement levels, in the case of ternary blended cement.
7 As can be seen from Fig.9, for all mixes containing RHA and FA the compressive strength was
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8 lower than that for control mix. However, the mixture containing 15% RHA and 15% FA gives
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9 the best result. This concrete is in grade 30 and 35 at 28 days and 56 days, respectively. In mix
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RF25, the cement content is 250 kg/m^3. RF25 is classified as grade 25 which is applicable for
many structural works according to British Standard and American Concrete Institute Code of
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12 Practice. The compressive strength grade of this concrete is equivalent to concrete grade of
13 lightweight expanded clay (LECA) lightweight concrete with a cement content of 350 kg/m^3 as
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16 Fig.9. Compressive strength development of OPS concrete incorporating of RHA and FA
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1 Therefore, this study shows that grade 30 green lightweight concrete (having oven dry density of
2 1750 kg/m^3) and grade 25 green concrete (having oven dry density of about 1650 kg/m^3)
3 could be produced by incorporating 30% and 50% of RHA/FA respectively. High volume
4 RHA/FA containing concrete has two main advantages: 1) Being lighter than NWC which has
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5 many benefits for construction as previously widely reported (Altwair and Kabir, 2010; Manual,
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6 1977; Rossignolo et al., 2003; Shafigh et al., 2011b, 2013b). 2) Being considered as
7 environmentally friendly materials. (Bremner, 2001). That is to say, presence of waste materials
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8 in OPS concrete containing RHA/FA (ternary blended cement) as aggregates and cement makes
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The amount of cement in mix RF15 is 25-40 % lower than cement content being utilized for
obtaining a same grade of OPS concrete in previous research (Alengaram et al., 2011; Mahmud
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12 et al., 2009; Mannan and Ganapathy, 2004). The 28-day compressive strength of mix RF25 was
13 28 MPa with only 250 kg/m^3 cement content, which is about 50% lower than what Alengaram
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14 investigated (Alengaram et al., 2011). He produced OPS concrete with cement content of 510
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15 kg/m^3 with 90-day compressive strength of 28 MPa. Furthermore, Sathawane (Sathawane et al.,
16 2013) used 15% FA and 15% RHA as a cement replacement in normal weight concrete with a
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18 Compared to the normal weight concrete, lightweight aggregates mixture should have higher
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19 cement content to acquire the same strength (Neville, 2011; Shafigh et al., 2013b). However, it
20 has been reported that based on the type of lightweight aggregate and cementitious material used
21 in the mixture, the cement consumption could be reduced to a low level. For example, in one
22 study by Pelisser et al. (Pelisser et al., 2012), it was shown that by using metakaoline, cement
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1 From Fig. 5 and 7, the best mix proportion containing cementitious materials could be identified.
2 Based on the compressive strength development, the OPS concrete containing 10% RHA (R10)
3 is the greatest mix proportion which is in Grade 35. However, by considering the high
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5 strength, a mix containing 15% RHA and 15% FA is preferred as the most suitable concrete.
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6 Fig.10 shows how 28-days compressive strength is different for various densities of demolded
7 and oven dry RHA-OPS and RHA/FA-OPS concretes. This figure indicates strong linear
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8 relationship which exists between compressive strength and two types of densities.
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10 Fig. 10. Relationship between OPS concrete containing RHA and RHA/FA density and 28-day compressive
11 strength
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14 The satisfactory performance of concrete is much dependent on the curing process (Weber and
15 Reinhardt, 1997). Previous research demonstrated that LAWC has the same curing requirements
16 as NWC (Hoff, 2002). According to ACI-318 (Committee et al., 2008), following the placement
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1 , concrete (other than high-early strength) should be kept in the moist condition above 10 ºC for
2 at least 7 days. However, it should be noted that this ideal period of moist curing is rarely
3 practiced in reality (Türkmen, 2003). Ozer (Ozer and Ozkul, 2004) has also reported that the
4 curing conditions may impact the compressive strengths of both the OPC and pozzolanic cement
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5 concretes. Furthermore, Shafigh (Shafigh et al., 2011a) showed that under air curing condition
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6 OPS concrete having 28-day compressive of between 42 and 48 MPa, can experience the
7 strength loss up to the range of 14–26%. It was proved by Al-Gahtani et al. (Al-Gahtani, 2010)
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8 that sensitivity to water curing for concretes which contain mineral admixtures is higher than
9 OPC concretes. The same result was observed for pulverized fuel ash (PFA) concrete, OPS
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10 concrete containing ground granulated blast furnace slag (Shafigh et al., 2013b) and silica fume
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concrete (Atiş et al., 2005) . Atiş (Atiş et al., 2005) reported that higher water to SCM ratios is
12 because of higher porosity and larger capillary pores and then it lets free-water to evaporate
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13 rapidly.
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14 In this investigation, initial water curing (3D, 5D, and 7D) effect on 28-day compressive strength
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15 is studied. Table 6 indicates that OPS concretes’ compressive strength is lower in the case of
16 initial water curing than in continuous water curing condition. From the result, it can be seen that
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17 under 5D and 7D curing conditions, compressive strength development is almost the same.
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18 Under all 3 types of initial curing, reference OPS concrete (R0) and mix R10 concrete have
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19 almost the same strength. It is because of low SCM content and low w/b ratio of these two
20 mixes. As it is shown in Table 6, mix R20 with 20% of RHA content with 3D curing had almost
21 28% reduction in compressive strength (compared to full water cure) whereas the reduction in its
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R20 30.5 20.5 22.1 25.8 26.8
R30 27.2 19.1 23.4 26.0 26.7
RF15 33.2 24.8 28.3 30.4 29.8
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RF25 28.5 15.0 20.0 22.4 23.5
2
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3 One significant finding of this study is that OPS concrete is more sensitive to lack of curing
4 although having a higher amount of SCM. Nevertheless, it is proved that if the mix is being
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5 cured under 4-day initial water curing regime (5D), the compressive strength reduction will be
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much lesser compared to air dry curing (AC). For example, the strength loss for RF25 mix is as
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7 high as 47% (highest measured strength loss under AC) compared to 21% reduction for the same
8 sample under the 5D curing regime. Thus, even a short curing time for OPS concrete containing
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9 RHA or RHA/FA is highly effective on strength gain at 28 days. In a work by Teo et al. (Teo et
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10 al., 2009) durability performance of OPS concrete (28 MPa compressive strength and 1965
11 kg/m^3 air-dry density) was investigated under various curing conditions. They proved how
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12 better durability could be achieved by proper curing process (at least 7 days). Previous studies
13 indicate that lower amount of cement, together with higher OPS content and lesser water to
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14 cement (w/c) ratio can decrease OPS concrete sensitivity in poor curing conditions (Shafigh et
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15 al., 2012). In one study by Shafigh (Shafigh et al., 2013a), it was proved that FA presence in
16 OPS concrete increases the concrete sensitivity to deficiency of curing. Although, initial moist
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2 The concrete strength is not the only important characteristic which should be taken into account
3 for structural design. For example, in specific applications, namely highway and airfield slabs
4 some other properties such as resistance to cracking, tensile and shear strength are of great
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5 importance as well (Neville, 2011). The knowledge of tensile strength is of substantial
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6 significance in concrete structures, particularly with regards to crack mitigation. Tensile strength
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8 concrete; and to resist shrinkage and thermal stresses (Razak and Wong, 2004). In many non-
9 reinforced concrete structural applications such as concrete damn, pavement, slab and airfield
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10 runway, the tensile strength of concrete is even more important than its compressive strength
13 concrete with w/b ratio of 0.35 and cement content of 510 kg/m^3 with an additional binder of
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14 10% silica fume and 5% of fly ash by weight of cement. It was reported in this work that the
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15 weaker bond between aggregate–matrix contributes to the lower tensile strength in OPS concrete
16 whereas the rough surface of aggregates increases the bond and thereby increasing tensile
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18 In this study, reference OPS concrete (mix R0) with 500 kg/m^3 cement content proved to have
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19 the splitting tensile strength of 3.2 MPa. Fig. 11 illustrates the splitting tensile strength rates from
20 1 day to 7 days increase for all mixes. The splitting tensile strength of mixes R0, R10, R20, R30,
21 RF15, RF25 and RF35 increase at the age of 7 days by 37%, 40%, 73%, 88%, 57% and 88%
22 compared to splitting tensile strength at the age of 1 day. Furthermore, it can be seen from fig. 11
23 that the splitting tensile strength rates for all mixes from 28 days to 90 days did not have a
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1 significant change over the time. According to ASTM: C330, a structural LWAC should have
2 minimum 2.0 MPa of tensile strength. In this study, all mixtures proved to address the ASTM:
3 C330 minimum requirement. The splitting tensile strength of mix R0, R10, R20, R30, RF 15,
4 RF25, RF35 was 3.21, 2.73, 2.03, 2.28 and 2.87, respectively at the age of 28 days. It can be
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5 observed from the fig.11 that the increase in the rate of splitting tensile strength with time is
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6 more significant when concrete contains more than 30% supplementary cementitious material.
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8 Fig. 11. Splitting tensile strength development for OPS concrete
9
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10 Neville (Neville, 2011) showed that tensile strength increases with compressive strength rise,
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11 though at a decreasing rate. Although tensile strength and compressive strength collate with each
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12 other, no direct proportionality exists and their ratio is much dependent on the general level of
13 concrete strength.
14 Most of the previously developed correlations for these two properties are having the below
15 form:
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2 Where, k and a are equation coefficients and value of a estimated to be in the range of 0.5 and
3 0.75 (Khan and Lynsdale, 2002). The similar form of the equation is suggested by British Code
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4 of Practice BS 8007:1987 as well which suggests the values of 0.12 and 0.70 for k and a,
5 respectively. Fig.12 depicts the splitting tensile strength relation with compressive strength. The
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6 strong correlation (R2 = 0.95) of this relationship shows that it can be used for accurate
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7 prediction of splitting tensile strength from compressive strength.
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12 Fig. 12 Compressive strength vs splitting tensile strength
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14 Table 7 shows different empirical formula of the relationship between splitting tensile strength
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1 Fig.13 shows the relation of experimental values of 28-day splitting tensile strength to
2 theoretically predicted ones. As it can be seen, the closest prediction to experimental value is by
3 Eq. 6 which has done by Neville (Neville, 2011). It has been previously stated that the
4 relationship between tensile and compressive strength is dependant on the age and strength of
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5 concrete, type of curing, aggregate type, the amount of air entrainment and degree of compaction
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6 (Mindes and Young; Zain et al., 2002).
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8
9
10 Table 7 Formulated empirical equations by past studies
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Equation Description No.
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OPSC containing original OPS aggregates with cube
Eqn. 1
compressive strength ranging from 17 to 37 MPa
(Shafigh et al., 2010)
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Crushed OPS concretes with cube compressive
Eqn.2
strength 35 to 53 MPa
(Shafigh et al., 2012)
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Eqn.6
compressive strength ranging from 10 to 65 MPa
(Neville, 2011)
(Khan Normal weight concrete containing POFA and/or SF
with cube compressive strength ranging 25 to 115 Eqn.7
and Lynsdale, 2002) MPa
Normal weight concrete with cube compressive
Eqn.8
strength ranging 21 to 83 MPa
(Committee, 1992)
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3
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4 Fig. 13. OPS concrete 28-day splitting strength; Predicted/Experimental value
5
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7 The ratio of strength to weight which is called specific strength is an influential concrete
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8 structure behavior (Shafigh et al., 2014a). The lower specific strength of concrete compared to
9 steel is a disadvantage of concrete. However, at the same strength, the structural LAWC proved
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10 to have significantly higher specific strength compared to NWC. This significant asset of LAWC
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11 makes it so competitive with even NWC having high strength (Mahmud et al., 2013). Table 8
12 shows the 28-day compressive strength, specific strength, in addition to density for different
13 types of LWA. It can be observed from Table 8 that LAWC without mineral admixture (R0)
14 shows 27%, 37%, and 44% higher specific strength compared to expanded clay, volcanic tuff,
15 and Basaltic-pumice LAWC, respectively. Mix RF25 containing 50% CSM with the cement
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1 content of 250 kg/m^3 shows better specific strength compared to volcanic tuff and basaltic-
2 pumice LAWC without CSM with a cement content of 400 and 500 kg/m^3, respectively. It
3 should be emphasized that OPS lightweight aggregate is more sustainable as agricultural residues
4 compared to expanded clay which are manufactured materials and need energy to be produced.
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5 Furthermore, OPS concrete (mix R0) has 31% higher specific strength compared to NWC having
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6 2400 kg/m^3 dry density and 28-day strength equal to mix R0. At the same compressive
7 strength, higher OPS concrete specific strength indicates superior performance of OPS in
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8 comparison with normal weight concrete (Shafigh et al., 2014a).
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9 Table 8 Specific strength of different lightweight aggregate concrete
(Shafigh
Expanded clay et al., 30.8 1801 17102
2014a)
(Shannag
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12 In this study, the 28-day flexural strength measured to be between 3.1 and 4.4 MPa for OPS
13 concretes. It can be seen from Table 9 that flexural strengths decrease as the RHA content
14 increases. Flexural strength value of mixes R10, R20, R30, RF15 and RF25 concrete mixes
15 decreased by 1.4%, 29%, 31.3%, 24.5% and 29.3 % compared to control concrete (R0). The
16 results show that replacement of cement by 10% RHA almost does not have an effect on the
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1 flexural strength of OPS concrete. The addition of FA up to 25% in RHA concretes helps to
2 increase the flexural strength compared to mix R30. Yasar (Yasar et al., 2003) also reported that
3 28-days flexural strength of scoria lightweight aggregate concrete containing FA(20%) is higher
4 than scoria mixture without FA. As it can be seen from Table 9, the ratio of 28-days flexural
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5 strength to compressive strength is around 10-11%. Shafigh (Shafigh et al., 2013a) also reported
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6 that this ratio is in the range of 9-11% for high strength OPS concrete. Mahmud (Mahmud, 2010)
7 investigated that the average flexural strength to 28-day compressive strength ratio was about
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8 13% for normal weight concrete whereas this ratio for OPS concrete was 10%.
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9 According to Zheng (W. Zheng and Lee, 2001), the concrete flexural strength is 35% greater
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than the splitting tensile strength. Based on Mahmud (Mahmud et al., 2009) finding, the ratio
between splitting tensile strength and flexural strength in OPS concrete was 60-70%. In this
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12 study, the 28-day flexural strength of OPS concrete mixes of R0, R10, R20, R30, R15 and RF25
13 is 37%, 53%, 32%, 49%, 40% and 9% higher than its splitting tensile strength, respectively.
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14
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18 Fig.14 shows the relationship of OPS concrete (containing RHS and RHA-FA) 28-day cube
19 compressive strength with its flexural strength. From data analysis, the equation below has been
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4 fcu is cube compressive strength (MPa)
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6 Fig. 14. OPS concrete 28-day flexural strength vs. compressive strength
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8 There are several equations proposed in the literature for predicting flexural strength from
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9 compressive strength. Table 10 shows the equation developed by past researchers. As can be
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10 seen in Fig.15, for OPS concrete having Compressive strength up to 35 MPa, the best equation
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11 was proposed by Mahmud (Mahmud et al., 2009) (Eqn. 1). However, for high strength OPS
12 concrete (with Compressive strength more than 35 MPa), the Shafigh’s (Shafigh et al., 2012)
14 Table 10 Proposed equation by past studies for predicting flexural strength from compressive strength
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(Mah
mud OPS concretes with compressive strength ranging
Eqn.1
et al., from 15 to 37 MPa
2009)
(Shaf
igh et Crushed OPS concretes with cube compressive strength
Eqn.2
al., 35 to 53 MPa
2012)
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(Lo
Expanded clay lightweight aggregate concrete with cube compressive strength
et al., Eqn.3
ranging from 29 to 43 MPa
2004)
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5 Fig. 15. Experimental and theoretical value for 28-day flexural strength of OPS concrete
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7 The ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) test was conducted as a non-destructive test to detect the
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8 presence of voids or cavities and the uniformity of concrete. The UPV of all the OPSC mixes are
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9 presented in Table 11. The 28 days UPV of all the water cured (FC) mixes varied from 3.66 to
11 excellent, good, doubtful, poor and very poor in terms of their UPV values of 4.5 km/s and
12 higher, 3.5–4.5, 3.0–3.5, 2.0–3.0 km/s and below 2.0 km/s, respectively (Whitehurst, 1986).
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1 Table 11 Ultrasonic pulse velocity of OPS concrete at 28 days under different curing condition
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R 30 3.13 3.28 3.37 3.40 3.67
RF 15 3.53 3.58 3.65 3.69 3.87
RF 25 2.92 3.08 3.18 3.28 3.66
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3 OPS concrete with zero percent replacement of cement has higher ultrasonic pulse velocity
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4 compared to other mixes. This is rooted in the higher proportion of compressive strength and
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5 UPV of primary hydration products (formed from cement and water reaction) than secondary
7
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ones (formed from the reaction between calcium hydroxide, silica, and alumina in RHA).
Therefore, an increase in the RHA content, as well as FA in the mixes, was bound to attain lower
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8 UPV values.
9 The UPV value also can be affected by the water content of concrete; as can be seen in mix
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10 proportions of concretes (Table 4), the w/b increased as the amount of cementitious material
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11 (RHA and FA) increased in the concrete mixture. By increasing w/b, the voids in the concrete
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12 increases as well. In the other hand, the speed of pulse propagation is less through the voids.
13 Therefore, the UPV value for concrete containing higher cementitious materials is lower.
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14 By replacing of cement with RHA by 10% and 20% in OPS concrete, it resulted UPV values of
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15 3.6 – 4.1 km/s in every curing conditions and it indicates that OPS concrete could be categorized
16 as a good quality concrete. As mix R10, R20 and control mix lies within a good classification, it
17 shows that there is no large voids or cracks present in a particular concrete that negatively impact
18 the structural integrity. Table 11 shows that an increase in the replacement of RHA by cement
19 led to a decrease in UPV values at 28 days curing. The reduction in the UPV values was
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1 insignificant for the OPS concrete with RHA replacement of 10 %; a reduction of 2.7 % was
2 noticed for 10% replacement of OPC by RHA at the age of 28 days water curing.
3 The result of 30% cementitious material replacement showed that by mixing 15% RHA and
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4 15% FA, higher UPV value can be obtained compared to 30% replacement of RHA. Mix R30,
5 RF15, and RF25 concretes showed the UPV value of 3.66 to 3.87 km/s at 28 days continuously
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6 moist curing and they could be categorized as good quality concrete. Results show that curing
7 plays an important role in the quality of concrete. Mix RF25 concrete has the UPV value of 2.92
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8 km/s for 28 days of air drying and the UPV value of 3.66 km/s for 28 days continuously moist
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9 curing. It is possible to conclude that the quality of concrete can be altered by water curing. Mix
10
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RF25 concrete can be categorized as poor concrete by air drying but it can be categorized as
13 done with a calibration curve. Fig.16 shows the UPV and the compressive strength relation for
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14 RHA-based OPS concrete and RHA with FA-based OPS concrete. A correlation was found with
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15 R2 = 0.85 and the following equation were proposed for the relationship:
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16
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17
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18 Where, v is Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity (km/s) and fcu is Compressive Strength (MPa)
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1
2 Fig. 16. Relationship between UPV and compressive strength
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3
4
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Table 12 shows different equations for the relationship between compressive strength and UPV
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5 of different LWAC which are proposed by previous studies.
OPS (Mo et 1
al.,
2014)
Arlita (Bogas 2
et al.,
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2013)
Leca (Bogas 3
et al.,
2013)
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Argex (Bogas 4
et al.,
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2013)
fcu is compressive strength (MPa) and v is ultrasonic pulse velocity (km/s)
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9 Another important property of concrete is drying shrinkage. Hardened concrete, when exposed to
10 the ambient temperature and humidity, will undergo drying shrinkage, thus exhibits shrinkage
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1 strain that is associated with moisture loss. It is a time-dependent process and will occur over
2 long period of time which could be deleterious when concrete is restrained (Mehta and Monteiro,
3 2006). Drying shrinkage may also contribute to stress loss in pre-stressed members and joint
4 failure. This property is not usually critical in case of LAWC being used as insulation or fill.
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5 Although, when it comes to structural applications drying shrinkage should be taken into
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6 account.
7 Cement type and its contents, w/c, hydration degree, aggregates and their elastic modulus,
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8 amount of admixtures and their characteristics, relative humidity and length of exposure, the
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9 concrete mass size/shape and the distribution and amount of internal reinforcement, have great
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impact on drying shrinkage (Bisschop, 2002; Chandra and Berntsson, 2002). Drying shrinkage is
reported to be greater for LWAC rather than NWC and is much dependent on the properties of
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12 LWA and the content of aggregate (Neville, 2011).
13 From Fig.17, it can be observed that drying shrinkage for all mixes increases with age, and the
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14 control concrete mix (R0) has lower shrinkage value compared to RHA and RHA-FA concrete
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15 mixes.
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1
2 Fig. 17. Drying shrinkage of OPS concrete
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As shown in fig. 17 the shrinkage rate declined for the control and R10 mixes after about 40
5 days. At 100 days, the shrinkage of mix R0 and R10 mixes was about 570 micro-strains. For R20
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6 and R30 mixes, it was about 720 and 1020 micro-strains, respectively at 100 days, which was
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7 almost 26% and 79% above shrinkage of the reference concrete (R0). Having higher w/b could
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8 be the main reason of why R20 and R30 mixes show higher shrinkage than R0. Hence, it can be
9 concluded that RHA effect on drying shrinkage of OPS concrete is of great significance when
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10 the slump value is kept in range of 65-85 mm as control concrete (R0) and cement replacement
12 As can be observed from Fig.17, drying shrinkage of R30 concrete is about 1000 micro-strain.
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13 Although the compressive strength of this concrete is in an acceptable range to be used for
14 structural purposes, this concrete could not be used as a material for constructing structural
15 elements due to its high drying shrinkage value. Therefore, it is concluded that the criteria for
16 accepting a sustainable concrete to be used in structural elements should be different from the
17 conventional concrete.
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2 OPC is mainly made of clinker which is produced by heating limestone to a temperature above
3 950 °C. The energy required for this reaction ( 3000 to 6500 MJ/ton of clinker (García-Gusano
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4 et al., 2015)) is achieved by fossil fuels combustion (Taylor et al., 2006). Therefore, the cement
5 industry is known to be responsible for roughly 5-8% of global CO2 emissions (Kajaste and
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6 Hurme, 2016) (only in 2010, 2823 million metric ton of CO2 was emitted from cement sector
7 (OECD)). One of the alternative solutions to reduce CO2 emission from cement industry is to
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8 replace clicker with SCMs. This study aimed to produce sustainable lightweight aggregate
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9 concrete incorporating waste materials to replace both OPC and aggregate. The carbon dioxide
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analysis is presented in Table 13. The calculation of the amount of carbon dioxide emission for a
particular component of concrete was based on 1 m3 of concrete. The CO2 for OPC was taken as
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12 0.931 t CO2/ton (Yang et al., 2015) in which on average, about 40% released from fuel
13 combustion, grinding and other processes, and 60% coming from the decomposition of calcium
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14 carbonate (limestone) to calcium oxide (lime) and carbon dioxide (Ali et al., 2011; Purnell and
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15 Black, 2012). The FA was reported to have a CO2 of 0.0196 t CO2/ton, while the mining sand
16 has CO2 emission factor of 0.026 per ton (Yang et al., 2015). Whereas, the total CO2 emitted
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18 It was reported that after Portland cement, coarse aggregate is the next major source of CO2
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19 emission generated by typically commercially produced concrete mixes, being responsible for
20 13–20% of total CO2 emissions (Shafigh et al., 2013b). Hence, replacement of coarse aggregate
21 with the waste lightweight material can lead to further reduction in the overall CO2 emission.
22 The OPS utilized in this study is a final industrial by-product that could be utilized directly for
23 concrete production without any further processing stages and the crushing energy required to
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1 crush it is significantly lower than that for gravel due to the porosity and can be easily crushed.
2 Hence, the carbon emission for crushing OPS was considered at the minimum level of zero. It
3 should be noted that it was assumed that all the concrete compound were transported for the
4 same distance (120 km) using 1.5-ton capacity diesel truck. The CO2 emission was calculated to
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5 be 6.3x10^-5 CO2-kg/kg.km (Yang et al., 2015).
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6 It can be observed that the amount of CO2 emission of the mix R0 was higher than the other OPS
7 mixes. The higher CO2 emission for the R0 mix is attributed to the higher cement content that
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8 has been used. With replacing OPC with 10%, 20%, and 30%. RHA, the amount of CO2 was
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9 reduced about 8%, 15%, and 24%, respectively. A significant reduction in CO2 emission for
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binary mix RF25 (25% Fan 25% RHA) was calculated to be about 41% lesser than the reference
11 mix (R0). The results are in good agreement with previous results of using binary of FA (30%)
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12 and RHA (20%) in self-compacting concrete (Gursel et al., 2016). Moreover, according to
13 American concrete institute (ACI) 25% FA to replacing the OPC can reduce the overall CO2
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14 emission by 13% to 15%. In addition, the American coal ash association (ACAA) estimated that
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15 utilization of FA in concrete can annually reduce about 12 million ton of CO2 (Glazer et al.,
16 2011).
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R20 324 2.3328 945 9.261 400 374.88 100 18.22 0 0 404.694
R30 324 2.3328 945 9.261 350 328.02 150 27.33 0 0 366.944
RF15 324 2.3328 945 9.261 350 328.02 75 13.665 75 2.01 355.289
RF25 324 2.3328 945 9.261 250 234.3 125 22.775 125 3.35 272.019
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3 Fig. 18. Relationship between carbon dioxide and OPS concrete containing RHA and FA
4
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7 4.0 Conclusion
8 The application of oil palm shell (OPS) as coarse lightweight aggregate (LWA) in addition to
9 rice husk ash (RHA) and fly ash (FA) as supplementary cementitious materials (SCM), was
10 studied throughout this work for producing lightweight concrete (LAWC). The physical and
37
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1 mechanical behavior of concretes were measured and analyzed for six samples with various
2 replacement levels of RHA and FA (binary and ternary blended cement). Based on the outcome
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4 1. Replacement of ordinary Portland cement (OPC) by RHA and FA significantly reduces
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6 2. The compressive strengths for OPS concretes containing RHA (binary blended cement)
7 and RHA-FA (ternary blended cement) are lower at all ages. The 28-day compressive
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8 strength values and the oven dry density of all OPS concretes containing RHA and RHA-
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9 FA measured to be from 27 to 38 MPa and from 1620 to 1790 kg/m^3, respectively.
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3. If RHA content increases over 10% in OPS concrete, the compressive strength and
workability will be reduced due to high water demand of RHA particles. High water
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12 demand of RHA is because of its high porosity and consequently the high surface area of
13 the particles.
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15 and eventually FA will help to increase the workability owing to FA particles’ spherical
16 shape.
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17 5. It is possible to produce grade 30 and 25 OPS lightweight concrete by using 30% and
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18 50% of RHA and FA with oven dry density of about 1750 kg/m^3 and 1650 kg/m^3,
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19 respectively.
20 6. OPS concrete incorporating RHA and FA is more sensitive to the lack of curing.
21 Although OPS concrete has a significant reduction in the compressive strength under air
22 drying condition, but initial water curing significantly improves the strength gain
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1 7. All OPS concretes satisfied the requirements of ASTM: C330 for splitting tensile strength
3 8. Replacement of cement by 10% of RHA almost did not have effect on the flexural
4 strength of OPS concrete
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5 9. Quality assessment of OPS concretes incorporating RHA and FA by using ultrasonic
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6 pulse velocity at 28 days showed that all the water cured (FC) concretes classified as
7 good concrete.
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8 10. The use of RHA and RHA-FA in OPS concrete increased the drying shrinkage. The
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9 contribution of RHA more than 20% had a notable effect on the shrinkage of OPS
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concrete. This is due to higher RHA content demanded more water and increased water
13 structures. However, this concrete has very high drying shrinkage (about 1000 micro-
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15 recommended that for concretes containing unconventional materials the other properties
16 of concrete are considered before making any decision about using these type of
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17 concretes in structures.
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18 12. Substitution of OPC with 10, 20, and 30% RHA in OPS concrete reduced the CO2
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19 emission of about 8%, 15%, and 24%. The highest emission reduction (up to 41 %) was
21 13. The current research regarding the OPS concrete would highly benefit from further
23 properties of OPS concrete containing SCMs, such as creep. In addition, the durability of
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1 OPS concrete when FA and RHA are incorporated is also of great significance and
2 should be taken into account in future works. Moreover, shear and flexural behavior of
3 reinforced OPS concrete beam containing a high volume of SCM should be carefully
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5 investigations should be carried out on the effect of accelerated curing methods on OPS
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6 concrete, such as hot water or steam curing.
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