Vidyalankar

S.E. Sem. III [CMPN]

Discrete Structures & Graph Theory
Prelim Question Paper Solutions

1. (a) L.H.S. = ((A ∪ B) ∩ A ) ∪ (B ∩ A)

= (A ∩ A) ∪ (B ∩ A)  ∪ (B ∩ A) distributive law
 
= [φ ∪ B ∩ A ] ∪ ( B ∪ A ) B ∩ A = B ∪ A De Morgan’s law & A ∩ A = φ
= (B ∩ A ) ∪ ( B ∪ A )
= [B ∪ ( B ∪ A )] ∩ [ A ∪ ( B ∪ A )] distributive law
= [(B ∪ B ) ∪ A ] ∩ [ A ∪ B ] associative law
= [U ∪ A ] ∩ [ B ∪ A ] B∪ B =U
= U ∩ [A∪B] ∵ U is universal set
= A∪ B
= A∩B By De Morgan’s law

1. (b) For n = 1,
72n + (23n − 3)(3n − 1) = 72 + (20) (30) = 49 + 1
= 50 which is divisible by 25.
∴ Result is true when n = 1
Now, let the result be true for n = k, we have
72k + (23k − 3)(3k − 1) is divisible by 25.
For n = k + 1 expression becomes
72(k + 1) + (23(k + 1) − 3)(3(k + 1) − 1) = 72k + 2 + 23k . 3k = 72k . 72 + 23k − 3 . 3k − 1 . 8 . 3
= 72k . 49 + 24 . 23k − 3 . 3k − 1
= (50 − 1)72k + (25 −1)23k − 3 3k − 1
= 50 . 72k + 25 . 23k − 3 . 3k − 1 − 72k − 23k − 3 . 3k − 1
= 50 . 72k + 25.23k − 3 . 3k − 1 − (72k + 23k − 3 3k − 1)
First and Second term is multiple of 25 and last term is divisible by 25 from inductive
hypothesis. Therefore, expression is divisible by 25.
Hence the result is true for n = k + 1. ∴ It is true for all n.
1. (c) Let the total number of professors be 100.
Let A be set of professors playing tennis
B be set of professors playing bridge
C be set of professors jogging
From given data, ∴ | A | = 60 | B | = 50 | C | = 70
| A ∩ B | = 20 | A ∩ C | = 30 | B ∩ C | = 40
| A ∪ B ∪ C | = 100 i.e., 100% are playing all games.
∴ by the principle of inclusion and exclusion, we have
|A∪BUC| =|A|+|B|+|C|−|A∩B|−|A∩C|-|B∩C|+|A∩B∩C|
100 = 60 + 50 + 70 − 20 − 30 − 40 + | A ∩ B ∩ C |
∴ | A ∩ B ∩ C | = 10
∴ The percentage of professors playing tennis, bridge and jogging are 10%.
If someone is claming that 20% of the professors jog and play bridge and tennis
I do not believe this claim.
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1. (d) p ∨ ¬ ( p ∧ q)
⇒ p ∨ (p∨q )
⇒ (p ∨ p ) ∨ q
⇒ T∨ q
⇒ T

1. (e) L.H.S. = q ∨ ( p ∨ q ) ∧ ( p∨ ∼ q )  … Commutative law

= ( q ∨ ( p ∨ q ) ) ∧ ( q ∨ ( p∨ ∼ q ) ) … Distributive law
= [p ∨ q] ∧ [p ∨ t]
= [ p ∨ q ] ∧ t ....p ∨ t = t
= p ∨ q.
= R .Η.S.

1 if a i R a j i.e. a j is multiple of a i

2. (a) MR =  m ij  where mij = 
  5×5
0 if a i R a j i.e. a j is not multiple of a i

1 2 3 4 5
1 1 1 1 1 1
2 0 1 0 1 0
3 0 0 1 0 0
4 0 0 0 1 0
5 0 0 0 0 1
R can be expressed as the collection of ordered pairs.
R = {(a, b) | a R b} iff b is multiple of a.
R = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (1, 5), (2, 2), (2, 4), (3, 3), (4, 4), (5, 5)}
and digraph of R is

1 3

1 2 3 4 5
In−degrees 1 2 2 3 2
Out−degrees 5 2 1 1 1 5 4

2. (b) Properties of Relations :

(i) Reflexive : if (x, x) ∈ R ∀ x ∈ A; i.e. x R x ∀ x ∈ A.
(ii) Diagonal Relation : x R x ∀ x ∈ A but x R y for any y ∈ A
it is denoted by ∆ and defined as
∆ = {(x, x) ∀ x ∈ A }
It is also known as equality relation
(iii)Irreflexive : xR x∀x∈A
Note :
(i) A relation R on A is said to be reflexive if ∆ ⊆ R.
 Prelim Question Paper Solutions (3)

(ii) A relation R on A is said to be irreflexive if ∆ ∩ R = φ

(iii)A relation R may be either reflexive or irreflexive but
cannot be both.
(iv) Symmetric : if (x, y) ∈ R then (y, x) ∈ R; i.e. x R y ⇒ y R x.
(v) Not symmetric : x R y but y R x for some (x, y) ∈ R
(vi) Asymmetric : If x R y ⇒ y R x ∀ (x, y) ∈ R
Note :
Asymmetric relation is a particular case of not symmetric.
(vii)Anti−Symmetric : If x R y & y R x ⇒ x = y
Note : If R is a relation on A. Then
(i) R is symmetric iff R = R−1
(ii) R is asymmetric iff R ∩ R−1 = φ
(iii)R is anti symmetric iff R ∩ R−1 ⊆ ∆
(viii)Transitive : if (x, y) ∈ R and (y, z) ∈ R then (x, z) ∈ R.
i.e x R y & y R z ⇒ x R z.
Note :
(i) If M R 2 = MR then R is transitive but converse statement
need not be true.
(ii) If the non zero entries in M R 2 are present in MR at the
same position then R is transitive. i.e. R2 ⊆ R.

2. (c) (i) Suppose aRb ⇒ a − b ≥ 0.

Then aRb does not imply bRa.
For aRb ⇒ a − b ≥ 0
does not imply b − a ≥ 0 ⇒ bRa.
Hence R is not symmetric so R is not an equivalence relation.

(ii) Suppose aRb ⇔ | a | = | b |.

This relation is
reflexive : aRa, for | a | = | a |
symmetric aRb ⇒ bRa
For aRb ⇒ | a | = | b | ⇒ | b | = | a | ⇒ bRa
transitive : aRb, bRc ⇒ aRc.
For aRb, bRc ⇒ | a | = | b |, | b | = | c |
⇒ | a | = | c | ⇒ aRc.
Hence this relation is an equivalence relation.

2. (d) (i)Groupoid :
Let ‘G’ be a non empty set and ‘∗’ be a binary operation then the algebraic system (G,
∗) is called groupoid.
OR
Let ‘G’ be a non empty set, then the system (G, ∗) is said to be groupoid if it follows
closure axiom.
e.g. (N, +) (N, .) (I, +)
(I, −), (I, .) are the groupoids.
Closure axiom : ∀ a, b ∈ G ⇒ a ∗ b ∈ G
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(ii) Semi Group :

An algebraic system (G, ∗) is said to be a semi group, if it satisfies
i) Closure axiom
ii) Associativity
Associativity : ∀ a, b, c ∈ G
a ∗ (b ∗ c) = (a ∗ b) ∗ c
e.g., (I, −) is a groupoid but (−) is not an associative operator hence it is not a semi-
group.

(iii)Monoid :
An algebraic system (G, ∗) is said to be a monoid if it satisfies
i) closure axiom
ii) associativity
iii) existence of an identity element.
Identity element : ∀ a ∈ G ∃ an element ‘e’ such that a ∗ e = a = e ∗ a then e is
called identity element w.r.t. operation ‘*’
eg. 4∈N
4+e =4=e+4
⇒ e = 0 (identity element) but 0 is not an element of set of natural number hence
(N, +) is not the monoid.
and (I, +) is a monoid
(I, . ) is a monoid.

(iv) Abelian Group :

A group (G, ∗) is said to be an Abelian group or commutative group if it follows
commutativity.

Commutativity : ∀ a, b ∈ G ⇒ a*b=b*a
(I, +) , (R, +), (C, +), (R − {0}, ⋅) and (R+, ⋅) are Abelian groups.
3. (a) R ⊆ A × A
R = { (a, b) ∈ A × A | a and b both belong to same Ai }
(i) (x, x) ∈ R for x ∈ Ai ; since both element in this pair are same, therefore they are in
the same block. So therefore ‘R’ is reflexive.
(ii) Let (x, y) ∈ R
⇒ x and y ∈ Ai for any i
⇒ (y, x) ∈ Ai ∴ R is symmetric
(iii)Let (x, y) ∈ R, (y, z) ∈ R
⇒ x, y belongs to some one Ai & y, z belongs to some one Aj
⇒ y ∈ Ai and Aj both.
∵ Ai ∩ Aj = φ if i ≠ j
∴ Ai = Aj
⇒ x, z belong to same Ai
⇒ (x, z) ∈ R
∴ R is transitive
∴ R is an equivalence relation.
Let R be an equivalence relation on a set A and let us denote by [a], the equivalence
class determined by the element a, then (i) a ∈ [a] (ii) a ∈ [b] ⇔ [a] = [b],
 Prelim Question Paper Solutions (5)

(iii)The equivalence classes determined by two elements are either disjoint or identical.
i.e. either [a] ∩ [b] = φ or [a] = [b].

Proof : (i) The relation R being reflexive, we have

a R a ∨ a ∈ A,
And therefore, a ∈ [a] ∨ a ∈ A.
(ii) Let a ∈ [b], then a R b.
So, x ∈ [a] ⇔ x R a
⇔ x R a and a R b (given)
⇔ xRb (by transitivity)
⇔ x ∈ [b].
∴ [a] = [b].
Thus a ∈ [b] ⇒ [a] = [b].
Again, let [a] = [b]
Then from (i), a ∈ [a] and so a ∈ [b] ( ∵ [a] = [b])
Hence a ∈ [b] ⇔ [a] = [b].
(iii)For any two classes, [a] and [b], if [a] ∩ [b] = φ, then the result follows. So, let us
consider the case, when [a] ∩ [b] = φ.
Let x ∈ [a] ∩ [b].
Then x ∈ [a] ∩ [b]
⇒ x ∈ [a] and x ∈ [b]
⇒ x R a and x R b
⇒ a R x and x R b (by symmetry)
⇒ aRb (by transitivity)
⇒ a ∈ [b]
⇒ [a] = [b].
Thus, either [a] ∩ [b] = φ or [a] = [b].

3. (b) From given matrix form of the relation R,

R = {(a1, a1), (a1, a4), (a2, a2), (a3, a4), (a3, a5), (a4, a1), (a4, a4), (a5, a2), (a5, a5)}
is not transitive since (a3, a4), (a4, a1) ∈ R but (a3, a1) ∈ R.
By Warshall’s algorithm, we consider
1 0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0 0
w0 = MR = 0 0 0 1 0
 
1 0 0 1 0
 0 1 0 0 1 
and C1 ⇒ 1’s are at the positions 1, 4
R1 ⇒ 1’s are at the positions 1, 4
No 1 will insert at any new position.
∴ w1 = w0
C2 ⇒ 1’s are at position 2, 5
R2 ⇒ 1 is at the position 2.
No 1 will insert at any new position.
∴ w2 = w1 = w0
C3 ⇒ There is no 1 at any position
(6) Vidyalankar : S.E. − DS

∴ No 1 will insert at any new position.

∴ w3 = w2 = w1 = w0
Again C4 ⇒ 1’s are at the position 1, 3, 4
R4 ⇒ 1’s are at the position 1, 4
∴ We insert 1 at the positions (3, 1)
1 0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0 0
∴ w4 = 1 0 0 1 0
 
1 0 0 1 0
 0 1 0 0 1 
C5 ⇒ 1’s are at positions 3, 5
R5 ⇒ 1’s are at positions 2, 5
Insert 1 at position (3, 2), (3, 5)
1 0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0 0
∴ w5 = 1 1 0 1 1
 
1 0 0 1 0
 0 1 0 0 1 
⇒ RTC = {(a1, a1), (a1, a4), (a2, a2), (a3, a1), (a3, a2), (a3, a4), (a3, a5), (a4, a1), (a4, a4), (a5,
a2), (a5, a5)}
It is a transitive relation and containing given relation R.
∴ RTC is required transitive closure of R.

3. (c) Here f : R → R is defined by f (x) = 2x − 3

(i) Injective :
Consider f (x1) = f (x2)
2x1 − 3 = 2x2 − 3
⇒ x1 = x2
∴ f is injective.
(ii) Surjective :

x y

R (domain) R (codomain)
Consider an arbitrary element y in R (codomain)
Let y = f (x)
y = 2x − 3
or y + 3 = 2x
y+3
or x =
2
⇒ ∀ y ∈ R (codomain) ∃ pre image x ∈ R (domain)
⇒ Range of f = codomain
⇒ f is surjective
∵ f is injective and surjective both
∴ f is bijective.
∴ f−1 exists.
y = f (x) ⇒ x = f−1 (y)
 Prelim Question Paper Solutions (7)

y = 2x − 3
y+3
x = = f −1(y)
2
∴ The rule for f−1 is
x+3
f−1(x) =
2

4. (a) There are 50 bicycles (50 pigeons) and 7 colours (7 pigeonholes).

∵ Number of pigeonholes << number of pigeons (7 << 50).
∴ Extended pigeonhole principle is applicable
n = 50, m = 7.
 50 − 1 
 7  + 1 = 7 + 1 = 8 pigeons.
 
∴ 8 of them must have same colours.

∀ a∈Z
+
4. (b) (i) Reflexive : ∵ a|a
∴ a R a ∀ a ∈ Z+
⇒ | is reflexive.
(ii) Antisymmetric : Let a R b and b R a
⇒ a|b&b|a
⇒ a = b ∀ a, b ∈ Z+
⇒ | is antisymmetric.
(iii)Transitive : Let a R b and b R c
⇒ a|b & b|c
⇒ a|c
⇒ aRc
⇒ | is transitive.
∴ | is partial order relation on Z+.
∴ (Z+, | ) is a poset.

4. (c) (i) 30

15
6 10

2 3 5
Nonlinearly Ordered
1
60
(ii) 12 30
6
10
4 15

3 5
2
1
Nonlinearly Ordered
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4. (d) 1
a, b, c ∈ L
a ∨ (b ∧ c) = a ∨ 0
b d
=a
(a ∨ b) ∧ (a ∨ c) = b ∧ d = a
⇒ a ∨ (b ∧ c) = (a ∨ b) ∧ (a ∨ c)
a c a ∧ (b ∨ c) = a ∧ 1 = a
(a ∧ b) ∨ (a ∧ c) = a ∨ 0 = a
⇒ a ∧ (b ∨ c) = (0 ∧ b) ∨ (a ∧ c)
0 ⇒ Lattice is distributive lattice

4. (e) LHS = a ∨ (a′ ∧ b)

= (a ∨ a′) ∧ (a ∨ b) ∵ L is distributive
= 1 ∧ (a ∨ b) ∵ L is bounded
= a∨b
= RHS

LHS = a ∧ (a′ ∨ b)
= (a ∧ a′) ∨ (a ∧ b) ∵ L is distributive
= 1 ∨ (a ∧ b) ∵ L is bounded
= a∧b
= RHS

5. (a) 1. No. of vertices in G1 = 11

No. of vertices in G2 = 11
2. No. of edges in G1 = No. of edges in G2 = 10
3. No. of vertices of degree 4 in G1 = No. of vertices of degree 4 in G2 = 1
No. of vertices of degree 3 in G1 = No. of vertices of degree 3 in G2 = 1
No. of vertices of degree 2 in G1 = No. of vertices of degree 2 in G2 = 4
No. of vertices of degree 1 in G1 = No. of vertices of degree 1 in G2 = 5

The graphs G1 and G2 are not isomorphic because under any isomorphism the vertex V3
of degree 4 must correspond to vertex U6 of degree 4 and the vertex V7 of degree 3 must
correspond to vertex U7 of degree 3, but V3 & V7 are non−adjacent whereas U6 & U7 are
adjacent.

∴ Adjacency is not preserved. Hence these are not isomorphic.

5. (b) (i) Yes, every complete graph on odd number of vertices ≥ 3 is both Eulerian as well as
Hamiltonian.
1 2

5 4 3
This graph is neither Eulerian nor Hamiltonian.
 Prelim Question Paper Solutions (9)

(ii) (a) Since, V0 is called as root so it is unique.

(b) No edges enter V0, but several may leave. Because, V0 is said to be at Level 0 and
it is called as parent of Level 1 vertices.
(c) In-degree: If T be relation on A and a ∈ A , then In- degrees of A is number of B.
(b R a)
(d) Since no edge enter V0 or points V0, so In – degree of V0 is zero.
5. (c) Maximum number of vertices can be available in complete n-tree.
Here, we are considering complete binary tree.
∴All vertices will have exactly 2 off springs.
v Level 0
v Level 0 v Level 0
v v Level 1
v v
v v v v Level 2
Level 1
Level 0 Highest Level = Level 1 Highest Level = Level 2
⇒ Height = 0 ⇒ Height = 1 ⇒ Height = 2
Number of vertices = 1 Number of vertices = 3 ∴Number of vertices = 7
(20+1 − 1 = 1) (21+1 − 1 = 3) (22+1 − 1 = 7)
So, by generating, we get, maximum number of vertices in binary tree of height = n is
2n+1 − 1.

5. (d)
Consider the mapping
f : (c, +) → (R+, .) defined by
f(a + ib) = 2a . 3b, a + ib ∈ C
(i) Let a + ib, c + id ∈ C
f(a + ib) = f(c + id) ⇒ 2a . 3b = 2c . 3d
⇒ a = c and b = d
⇒ a + ib = c + id
∴ f is injective.

(ii) Any positive real number y ∈ R+ can be expressed as y = 2a . 3b

For any y = 2a . 3b ∈ R+ ∃ x = a + ib ∈ C, such that
f(a + ib) = 2a . 3b x y
∴ ∀ y ∈ R (codomain) ∃ preimage x in C (domain)
+

∴ Range of f = codomain C (domain) R+ (codomain)

∴ f is surjective.

(iii) Let a + ib, c + id ∈ C

f [(a + ib) + (c + id)] = f[(a + c) + i (b + d)]
= 2a + c . 3b+ d
= 2a . 2c . 3b . 3d
= (2a . 3b ) . (2c . 3d)
= f(a + ib) . f(c + id)
∴ f is homomorphism.
Hence f is isomorphic from (C, +) to (R+ , .).
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6. (a) (i) Closure axiom :

Let a1 , b1, a2, b2 ∈ Q
and x = a1 + b1 2 ,
y = a2 + b2 2
x . y = (a1 + b1 2 ) . (a2 + b2 2 )
= a1a2 + a1b2 2 + a2b1 2 + 2 b1b2
= (a1a2 + 2 b1b2) + 2 (a1b2 + a2b1)
i.e. in the form of a + 2 b and (a1a2 + 2 b1b2) and (a1b2 + b1a2) ∈ Q.
∴ ‘G’ is closed with respect to multiplication.
(ii) Associativity :
∀ x, y, z ∈ G
( ∵ x = a + b 2 such that a, b ∈ Q ⇒ a + b 2 ∈ R)
⇒ (x.y).z = x.(y.z)
( ∵ product of three real numbers can be taken in any order)
⇒ G holds associativity.
(iii)Identity Element :
∀ x ∈ G ∃ an element e such that x. e = x
⇒ e = 1
e = 1+0 2 ∈G
⇒ Identity exists i.e. 1.
(iv) Inverses :
∀x∈G
x = a+b 2 ∃α ∈ G
x.α = 1
(a + b 2 )α = 1
1 (a − b 2)
α = ×
a+b 2 (a − b 2)
a −b 2
=
a 2 − 2b 2
a  −b  a −b
= 2
+ 2 2
2 ∈ G ∵ , ∈Q
a − 2b  a − 2b2  2
a − 2b 2
a − 2b 2
2

⇒ All the elements of G are invertible

(v) Commutativity :
∀ x, y ∈ G
⇒ x, y ∈ R (∀ a, b ∈ P, a + b 2 ∈ R)
⇒ x. y = y. x
⇒ G follows commutativity.
OR
x. y = (a1 + b1 2 ). (a2 + b2 2 )
(a1, b1, a2, b2 ∈ Q)
= (a1 a2 + 2 b1b2) + (a1 b2 + b1a2) 2
= (a2a1 + 2b2b1) + (a2b1 + b2a1) 2
= (a2 + b2 2 ) . (a1 + b1 2 ) = y . x
⇒ it follows commutativity.
⇒ (G, .) is an abelian group.
 Prelim Question Paper Solutions (11)

6. (b) We have, G = {0,a 2 ,a 3 ,...,a 8 = e}

and its subgroups generated by a 2 and a 4 respectively.
H = {a 2 ,a 4 ,a 6 ,a 8 = e}
K = {a 4 ,a 8 = e}
∵ G is cyclic group.
∴ G is abelian group.
⇒ H and K are normal subgroups of G.
∴ The right cosets of H are
H = {e,a 2 ,a 4 ,a 6 }
Ha = {a,a 3 ,a 5 ,a 7 }
Ha2 = {a 2 ,a 4 ,a 6 ,a 8 = e} = Ha4 = Ha6 = Ha8 = H
Ha3 = {a 3 ,a 5 ,a 7 ,a} = Ha = Ha5 = Ha7 = Ha
Hence H and Ha are only two distinct right cosets of H in G.
∴ G/H = {H, Ha}
Similarly, the cosets of G/K are
K = {e,a 4 }
Ka = {a,a 5 }
Ka 2 = {a 2 ,a 6 }
Ka 3 = {a 3 ,a 7 }
and Ka 4 = K,Ka 5 = Ka, Ka 6 = Ka 2 , Ka 7 = Ka 3 .
Here, K, Ka, Ka 2 ,Ka 3 are four cosets of K in G.
∴ G/K = {K, Ka, Ka2, Ka3}
∵ Every left coset of a subgroup of an abelian group is equal to corresponding coset.
∴ Every subgroup of an abelian group is normal.

6. (c) 1. (R, ⊕) is an abelian group.

(i) Closure prop. :
Let a, b, ∈ I
⇒ a + b ∈ I & −1 ∈ I
∴ a + b, −1 ∈ I
∴ a⊕ b∈I
Hence I is closed w.r.t. ⊕ .
(ii) Associativity −
For ∀ a, b, c ∈ I
a ⊕ (b ⊕ c) = a ⊕ (b + c −1) by definition.
= a + (b + c − 1) − 1
= (a + b − 1) + c − 1
= (a ⊕ b) + c − 1
by definition.
= (a ⊕ b) ⊕ c
∴ ⊕ is associative.
(iii) Identity element :
For any a ∈ I
e ∈ I such that
a⊕e = a
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⇒ a+e−1 = a
⇒ e−1 = 0
⇒ e = 1.
∴ 1 is identity in I w.r.t. ⊕ .
(iv) Inverse :
For a ∈ I ∃ α ∈ I such that
a ⊕ α = 1 (identity element)
a+α−1=1
α=2−a ∈I
∴ all the elements of I are invertible w.r.t. ⊕ .
(v) Commutativity :
a ⊕ b = a + b −1
= b+a−1
= b⊕a
∴ ⊕ is commutativity.
∴ (I, ⊕) is an abelian group.
2. Consider (I,
)
(i) Closure prop. :
Let a, b, ∈ I
a + b ∈I & ab ∈ I ( ∵ ordinary multiplication & addition are binary operations in
I)
a + b − ab ∈ I
⇒ a
b∈I
∴ Closure prop. is satisfied.
(ii) Associativity :
Let a, b, c ∈ I
a
(b
c) = a
(b + c − bc) by def.
= a + (b + c − bc) − a(b + c − bc) by def.
= a + b + c − abc − ab − ac + abc
= (a + b − ab) + c − c(a + b − ab)
= (a
b) + c − c (a
b) by def.
= (a
b)
c by def.
∴
is associative.
∴ (I,
) is semi group.
3. Distributive Law :
a
(b ⊕ c) = a
(b + c − 1) by def.
= a + (b + c −1) − a (b + c −1) by def.
= 2a + b + c − ab − ac − 1 (1)
∴ (a
b) ⊕ (a
c) = (a + b − ab) ⊕ (a + c − ac) by def.
= 2a + b + c − ab − ac − 1 by def. (2)
From (1) and (2), we get,
a
(b ⊕ c) = (a
b) ⊕ (a
c)
4. Commutativity
a
b = a + b − ab
= b + a − ba
= b
a
∴
is commutative.
 Prelim Question Paper Solutions (13)

5. Identity w.r.t.
.
∀ a ∈ I ∃ e such that
a
e = a
a + e − ae = a
e − ae = 0
e (1 − a) = 0
e = 0.
⇒ 0 is identity w.r.t.
.
∴ (I, ⊕,
) is commutative ring with identity.

7. (a) (2 < 6) and e : B2 → B6 is an encoding function defined as

e (00) = 000000 = x0
e (01) = 011110 = x1
e (10) = 101010 = x2
e (11) = 111000 = x3

(i) x 0 ⊕ x1 = 011110 = 4 , x 0 ⊕ x 2 = 101010 = 3

x 0 ⊕ x 3 = 111000 = 3, x1 ⊕ x 2 = 110100 = 3
x1 ⊕ x 3 = 100110 = 3, x 2 ⊕ x 3 = 010010 = 2
⇒ Minimum distance = 2
(ii) ∵ An (m, n) encoding function can detect k or fewer error if the minimum distance is
(k + 1)
k+1=2
k=1
⇒ e can detect 1 or fewer error.

7. (b) We have B3 = {000, 001, 010, 011, 100, 101, 110, 111}
Let e (000) = 000 x1 x2 x3
1 0 0 
[x1 x2 x3 ] = [0 0 0 ] 0 1 1 
 1 1 1 
= [000]
⇒ x1 = x2 = x3 = 0
e (001) = 001 x1 x2 x3
1 0 0 
[x1 x2 x3 ] = [0 0 1 ] 0 1 1 
 1 1 1 
= [111]
⇒ x1 = x2 = x3 = 1
e (010) = 010 x1 x2 x3
1 0 0 
[x1 x2 x3 ] = [0 1 0 ] 0 1 1 
 1 1 1 
= [011]
⇒ x1 = 0, x2 = 1, x3 = 1
e (011) = 011 x1 x2 x3
(14) Vidyalankar : S.E. − DS

1 0 0 
[x1 x2 x3 ] = [0 1 1 ] 0 1 1 
 1 1 1 
= [100]
⇒ x1 = 1, x2 = 0, x3 = 0
e (100) = 100 x1 x2 x3
1 0 0 
[x1 x2 x3 ] = [1 0 0 ] 0 1 1 
 1 1 1 
= [100]
⇒ x1 = 1, x2 = 0, x3 = 0
e (101) = 101 x1 x2 x3
1 0 0 
[x1 x2 x3 ] = [1 0 1 ] 0 1 1 
 1 1 1 
= [011]
⇒ x1 = 0, x2 = 1, x3 = 1
e (110) = 110 x1 x2 x3
1 0 0 
[x1 x2 x3 ] = [1 1 0 ] 0 1 1 
 1 1 1 
= [1 1 1]
⇒ x1 = x2 = x3 = 1
e (111) = 111 x1 x2 x3
1 0 0 
[x1 x2 x3 ] = [1 1 1 ] 0 1 1 
 1 1 1 
= [000]
⇒ x1 = x2 = x3 = 0
Hence e : B3 → B6 is defined as
e (000) = 000000
e (001) = 001111
e (010) = 010011
e (011) = 011100
e (100) = 100100
e (101) = 101011
e (110) = 110111
e (111) = 111000

7. (c) x2 = 4x + 5 ⇒ x2 − 4x −5 = 0
x2 − 5x + x − 5 = 0
x (x − 5) + 1(x − 5) = 0 (x + 1) (x − 5) = 0
x = −1 & x = 5
an = u ( −1) + v ( 5 )
n n
∴
 Prelim Question Paper Solutions (15)

Put n = 1
∴ a1 = − u + 5v ⇒ −u + 5v = 2 …(1)
Put n = 2
∴ a2 = u + 25v ⇒ u + 25v = 6 …(2)
30 v = 8
∴ v = 4/15
∴ −u + 4/3 = 2
4 2
∴ u = −2=−
3 3
 2  n  4 
 −  ( −1) +   ( 5 )
n
an =
 3   
15

7. (d) an = −3an−1 −3an−2 −an−3

⇒ a n + 3a n −1 + 3a n −2 + a n −3 = 0
It is a linear Homogeneous recurrence relation.
Its characteristic equation is
x 3 + 3x 2 + 3x + 1 = 0
∴ (x + 1)3 = 0
∴ x = −1, −1, −1
∵ There are three equal roots, the homogeneous solution is given by
a n (h) = (u + vn + wn 2 ) ( −1) n
where u, v, w are constants
∵ a0 = 1
∴ 1 = (u + v × 0 + w × 0) × ( −1)0
∴ u = 1
∵ a1 = −2
−2 = (u + 1 × v + 1 × w)(−1)
⇒ 1 = v+w
and ∵ a 2 = −1
−1 = (u + 2v + 4w)( −1)
−2 = 2v + 4w
∴ −1 = v + 2w
∴ 2 = −w
∴ w = −2
∴ v = 3
∴Solution is
a n = (1 + 3n − 2n 2 ) (−1)n