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Vll
The Authors
Lenore Fine, a member of the Engineer Historical Division since 1945,
has an A.B. degree from Goucher College and an M.L.A. degree from The
Johns Hopkins University. She has done additional graduate work in history
at the latter institution.
Jesse A. Remington, who holds a Ph.D. degree from the University
of Maryland, joined the Engineer Historical Division in 1947 and has been
chief historian since 1958. During World War II, he served in the Historical
Section, Headquarters, China Theater.
Vlll
Preface
A vast homefront construction effort by the U.S. Army undergirded
mobilization and combat in World War II. Started by the Quartermaster
Corps and carried to completion by the Corps of Engineers, this building
program embraced more than 27,000 projects, large and small, and cost
$15.3 billion, roughly $59 billion in 1970 prices. (See Appendix.) Among
its major features were camps and cantonments to house 5.3 million troops;
plants to mass-produce explosives, ammunition, tanks, and planes; hospitals
providing nearly half a million beds; a huge network of ports and depots;
improvements to principal waterways and flood protection for vital industries;
bomber bases which entailed a whole new technology; the mammoth Penta-
gon Building; and facilities for the epochal Manhattan Project. Our book is
a history of this undertaking.
It is also a history of people: of military leaders and their staffs; of civilian
engineers, contractors, suppliers, and equipment dealers; of dollar-a-year
men and expert consultants; of industrialists and union organizers; of states-
men and politicians; of patriots and profiteers; and of the faceless multitude—
workers, GI's, small businessmen, dispossessed property owners, and citizens
of every stripe who participated in or felt the impact of the program. Through-
out we have tried to show how individuals and groups influenced events.
Ostensibly a diffuse technical subject, an untempting prospect for his-
torians, construction proved a rewarding field of inquiry. High-level planning,
site selection, land acquisition, engineering design, contractual arrangements,
procurement methods, labor relations, and day-to-day operations in the
field—all were illuminating studies. Gradually a story emerged of public
indifference and military myopia, of unprecedented challenges and initial
unpreparedness, of cruel disappointments and serious mistakes, of remedial
measures and sweeping reorganizations, and of prodigious efforts and crown-
ing success. Because many World War II developments had their roots in
World War I and the two decades that followed, the narrative begins in 1917
and, more or less following a chronological scheme, proceeds through eighteen
chapters to August 1945. The final chapters discuss two extraordinary
achievements—airfields for heavy bombers and the atomic bomb.
We are deeply grateful to all those persons who aided in the preparation
of this volume. Special thanks are owing to our past and present colleagues
in the Engineer Historical Division whose advice and assistance eased our
task. Dr. O. J. Clinard, who launched us on the undertaking, was a source
ix
of inspiration and encouragement. Dr. Karl C. Dod offered many valuable
comments and suggestions. Miss Dorothe M. Grand gave us the benefit of
her discriminating editorial judgment. Mr. Eugene V. McAndrews was a
thoughtful critic. Miss Blanche D. Coll did research and drafted sections on
labor relations; Miss G. Louise Marr, on real estate. A study of the Man-
hattan Engineer District by Dr. Ralph F. Weld provided the groundwork
for Chapter XX. Many participants, nearly all of whom are named in the
volume, gave generously of their time and knowledge, helping to illuminate
the written record and correcting factual errors. We are particularly grateful
to the officers who read and commented upon the entire manuscript: Lt.
Gen. Leslie R. Groves; Maj. Gen. John R. Hardin; Lt. Gen. Eugene Reybold;
Col. Lloyd C. Ritchie; Lt. Gen. Samuel D. Sturgis, Jr.; and Lt. Gen. Walter
K. Wilson, Jr. To Generals Groves and Sturgis, who worked closely with us
for many years, our debt is exceptionally heavy. Mr. Thomas B. Pringle and
Mr. Harry B. Zackrison were invaluable advisers on technical subjects.
General acknowledgments are due to Mrs. Lois Aldridge, Mrs. Virginia
M. Nester, Mrs. Mary K. Stuart, Mr. John E. Taylor, and Mrs. Mae E.
Walker, whose archival assistance was indispensable; to Miss Agnes M.
Dutkevich and Mrs. Ruth E. Steers, who typed the final draft of the manu-
script and verified quotations and names; and to Mr. Robert L. Collins, Jr.,
who did artwork for maps and charts.
We are also obliged to members of the Office of the Chief of Military
History, especially to Dr. Stetson Conn, Chief Historian, and Mr. Joseph R.
Friedman, Editor in Chief, for their practical advice and constructive criti-
cism. Mr. David Jaffe, Chief of the Editorial Branch, demonstrated rare
skill and admirable diplomacy in the final editing. Mrs. Marion P. Grimes
was the copy editor. Mrs. Muriel Southwick prepared the index.
Finally, we wish to express our warm appreciation to Mr. Robert W.
Blakeley, Lt. Col. Frank E. Burk, Brig. Gen. Curtis W. Chapman, Jr., Mr.
Logan O. Cowgill, Brig. Gen. Ira A. Hunt, Jr., Mr. August J. Karasek,
Mrs. Bessie S. Rubin, and all the other members of the Engineer family who
effectively supported our effort.
For the facts presented and the conclusions drawn in this volume, the
authors alone are responsible.
Baltimore, Maryland LENORE FINE
15 April 1971 JESSE A. REMINGTON
Contents
Chapter Page
I I . LEAN YEARS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
The Construction Service, 1920-1938 .
. . . . . . . . 43
Preparedness a n d Public W o r k s . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Mobilization Plans. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
xi
Chapter Page
V I . T H E FIRST CAMPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
T h e Administrative Setup . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
Preliminary Work a t Camp Sites . . . . . . . . . . 205
Lumber a n d Other Materials . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Construction Equipment. . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
Labor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
Management a n d Supervision . . . . . . . . . . . 231
Nearing t h e Goal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
xii
Chapter Page
XII. REAL ESTATE: A FRESH DEPARTURE. . . . . . . 393
The Case of the Brokerage Contracts . . . . . . . . . 393
Changes in Organization and Procedures . . . . . . . . 401
X V . T H E IMPACT O F W A R . . . . . . . . . . . . 477
T h e All-Out Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477
The W a r Construction Command . . . . . . . . . . 485
T h e B i g Push . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 499
Peak Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519
xiii
Chapter Page
INDEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 719
Tables
No.
1. National Army Cantonments, 1917 . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2. National Guard Camps, 1917 . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3. Appropriations for Maintenance and Repairs . . . . . . . . 54
4. Construction Workers in the United States, June 1 9 4 0 . . . . . 121
5. Schedule of Minimum Fees for Construction Services . . . . . . 195
6. Schedule of Average Fees for Architect-Engineer Services . . . . . 196
7. Schedule for Housing National Guard Divisions . . . . . . . 199
8. Revised Induction Schedule for Fall 1940 Quota of Selectees . . . . 200
9. Reserve Officers on Active Duty With Construction Division, 13 Decem-
b e r 1940 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
10. Number of Persons Employed on Projects Under Jurisdiction of Con-
struction Division, OQMG, July-December 1940 . . . . . . 222
11. Cost of Air Corps Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
12. Summary of Quartermaster Projects Completed and Under Way, 5
December 1941 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
13. Revised Schedule of Fees for Architect-Engineer and Construction
Services, 2 3 June 1941 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
14. Division Engineer Service Command Assignments . . . . . . . 497
15. Status of Projects, 15-31 March 1942 . . . . . . . . . . 511
1 6 . Hospital Cost Estimates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529
17. Breakdown of Delaying Factors, 31 May-31 October 1942 . . . . 537
18. Lumber Purchased by CPA, 1942-1945 . . . . . . . . . . 553
1 9 . Variations i n Barracks Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . 558
20. Unfinished Construction, January 1944 . . . . . . . . . . 607
xiv
Charts
No. Page
1. Organization of Construction Division of the Army, April-November
1918 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2. Volume of New Construction in the United States, 1925-1939 ... 120
3. Organization of Construction Division, OQMG, June-November 1940 . 124
4. Organization of Engineering Branch, Construction Division, OQMG,
September 1940 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
5. Organization of Fixed Fee Branch, Construction Division, OQMG,
November 1940 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
6. Organization of Construction Division, OQMG, 16 December 1940 . . . . 261
7. Organization of Office of Assistant Chief of Engineers, December 1940. . 269
8. Organization of Operations Branch, Construction Division, OQMG,
January t o March 1941 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
9. Rate of National Guard Inductions . . . . . . . . . . . 296
10. Rate of Selective Service Inductions . . . . . . . . . . 296
11. Progressive Improvements in Divisional Cantonment Layouts. . . . 352
12. Value of Work Placed by Month on Quartermaster Construction Program,
1 July 1940 to 30 November 1941 . . . . . . . . . . . 416
13. Comparison of Costs—Quartermaster Construction Program, 1 April to
1 5 December 1941 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418
14. Organization of Defense Projects Branch, Construction Section, OCE,
April 1941 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442
15. Construction by the Corps of Engineers at Air Corps Stations—U.S. Army 458
16. Position of Corps of Engineers in War Department After 9 March 1942 . 492
17. Organization of Construction Division, OCE, April 1942 . . . . . 494
18. Value of Work in Place, Monthly Additions . . . . . . . . . 520
19. Organization of Engineering Branch, Construction Division, OCE,
Spring 1942 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 524
20. Dollar Value of Work Placed During 1943 . . . . . . . . . 599
21. Field Employment During 1943 . . . . . . . . . . . . 599
22. Organization of Military Construction, Civil Works, and Real Estate
Divisions, OCE, December 1943 . . . . . . . . . . . 604
23. Value of Work Placed on War Construction Program, Continental
United States, June 1940-August 1945 . . . . . . . . . 606
24. Tentative Design Curves for Flexible Airfield Pavements . . . . . 627
2 5 . Design Storm Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 634
26. Wheel Loads as Columns of Concrete 3 Feet 8 Inches in Diameter . . . 646
27. Organization of Manhattan Engineer District, April 1943 . . . . 678
xv
Maps
No. Page
Illustrations
Camp Custer, Michigan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Tents at Camp Wheeler, Georgia, 1917 . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Barracks and Lavatories, Camp Dix, New Jersey . . . . . . . . 17
Brig. Gen. Richard C . Marshall . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Old Hickory Powder Plant, Tennessee . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Chanute Field, Illinois, Showing Dilapidated Structures . . . . . . 47
Post Chapel, Randolph Field, Texas . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Officers' Club, Fort Belvoir, Virginia . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Camp on Levee, Arkansas City, Arkansas, During 1927 Flood . . . . . 57
Col. Charles D . Hartman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
USS Houston Passing Through Panama Canal . . . . . . . . . 78
Barracks Burning at Hickam Field After Japanese Attack . . . . . . 85
Maj. Gen. Julian L. Schley . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Maj. Gen. Edmund B . Gregory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Equipment Arriving at Borinquen Field, Puerto Rico . . . . . . . 105
Maj. Gen. Richard C. Moore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Ferdinand J. C. Dresser, Forrest S. Harvey, and Francis Blossom . . . . 126
Barksdale Field, Louisiana, in Late 1930's . . . . . . . . . . 132
Excavation at Fort Devens, Massachusetts . . . . . . . . . . 142
Robert P . Patterson. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Harry W . Loving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Capt. Leslie R . Groves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Michael J . Madigan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Frank E . Lamphere. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Mess Hall, Camp Grant, Illinois . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Hangar Construction, MacDill Field, Florida . . . . . . . . . 170
Site of Plum Brook Ordnance Works, Ohio . . . . . . . . . . 179
Cantonment Construction, Camp Edwards, Massachusetts . . . . . 197
Clearing Swamps at Camp Blanding, Florida . . . . . . . . . 206
Railroad Bridge Over Big Piney River, Camp Leonard Wood, Missouri . . 208
xvi
Page
Camp San Luis Obispo, California. . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
Building Barracks, Camp Leonard Wood, Missouri . . . . . . . 232
Prefabricating Yard and Sawmill, Camp Blanding, Florida . . . . . . 234
Standard Chapel, Exterior View . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
Standard Chapel, Interior View . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
Bonneville D a m . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
Col. Brehon B . Somervell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
Col. Wilhelm D . Styer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
Maj. Clinton F . Robinson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
Col. Edmund H . Leavey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
Brig. Gen. Thomas M . Robins. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
Camp San Luis Obispo After Heavy Downpour. . . . . . . . . 283
Pouring Concrete in Subzero Weather, Pine Camp, New York . . . . . 284
Camp Blanding, Florida, Late November 1940 . . . . . . . . . 292
Men of the 29th Division at Camp Meade, Maryland . . . . . . . 294
Barnes General Hospital, Vancouver, Washington . . . . . . . . 295
Spillway Under Construction, Camp San Luis Obispo . . . . . . . 299
Aerial View of Camp Jackson, S.C. . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
Frank R . Creedon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
Construction at Indiana Ordnance Works, 1940. . . . . . . .. 315
General Grant (M3) Rolls Off Assembly Line . . . . . . . . . 320
Night Shift at Work, St. Louis Ordnance Plant . . . . . . . . . 326
Constructing Standard Igloo Magazine . . . . . . . . . . . 334
Somervell Addressing Construction Force . . . . . . . . . . 337
Morgantown Ordnance Works, West Virginia . . . . . . . . . 340
Experimental Steel Barracks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
Lake City Ordnance Plant, Missouri . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
James P . Mitchell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
Flag Raising at Radford Ordnance Works, Virginia . . . . . . . 375
Fitzpatrick Cartoon on Senator Truman . . . . . . . . . . . 386
John J . O'Brien . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
Pentagon Building, Main Entrance . . . . . . . . . . . . 432
Cartoonist's View of Controversy over Pentagon Site . . . . . . . 436
Concrete Drainage Culvert at Brookley Field, Alabama . . . . . . 445
Paving Runway, Lowry Field, Colorado . . . . . . . . . . . 446
Bradley Field, Windsor Locks, Connecticut . . . . . . . . . . 449
Fort Worth Aircraft Assembly Plant, Texas . . . . . . . . . . 459
Maj. Gen. Eugene Reybold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465
Transfer Proposal Approved by the President . . . . . . . . . 466
Hutments, Fort Sill, Oklahoma, July 1942 . . . . . . . . . . 483
Maj. Gen. John R . Hardin. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487
Col. Samuel D. Sturgis, Jr. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 504
Pentagon Under Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512
xvii
Page
Heart Mountain Relocation Center, Heart Mountain, Wyoming . . . . 515
Brig. Gen. James H. Stratton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525
Harry B . Zackrison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 526
Bachelor Officers' Quarters, Sioux Fails Army Air Force Base, South Dakota . 527
Corbetta Beehive Magazine Under Construction . . . . . . . . 530
Wood Truss Construction, Pennsylvania Ordnance Works . . . . . . 534
Col. Fred G. Sherrill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545
Airmen on Grounds of Stevens Hotel . . . . . . . . . . . 557
Double-Decker Bunks in Permanent Barracks, March Field, California . . 559
Winter Construction at Mountain Home Air Base, Idaho . . . . . . 595
Holston Ordnance Works, T e n n e s s e e . . . . . . . . . . . . 596
Work in Progress on Tulsa Bomber Modification Center . . . . . . 597
Conference at Stockton Test Track, California . . . . . . . . . 630
240,000-Pound Pneumatic Roller . . . . . . . . . . . . . 647
Brig. Gen. James C. Marshall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 651
Col. Kenneth D. Nichols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 653
General Groves as Head of the Manhattan Project . . . . . . . . 661
Mrs. Jean M. O'Leary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 662
Cemesto Houses on Black Oak Ridge. . . . . . . . . . . . 671
Y-12, Electromagnetic Process Plant . . . . . . . . . . . . 685
First Pile Area at Hanford, June 1944 . . . . . . . . . . . 688
S-50, Thermal Diffusion Plant Under Construction. . . . . . . . 689
K-25, Gaseous Diffusion Plant Nearing Completion . . . . . . . 691
Separation Building at Hanford, Summer 1944 . . . . . . . . 692
View of Los Alamos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 699
xviii
THE CORPS OF ENGINEERS:
CONSTRUCTION IN THE
UNITED STATES
CHAPTER I
Construction in the United States, 1955, I, I. Cited of modern mass armies, construction
hereinafter as Groves Comments. presented no serious wartime challenge.
2
S Sp Comm Investigating the National Defense
Program, 77th Cong, 1st sess, Hearings, Part 8, p. Throughout most of the country's
2493. Cited hereinafter as Truman Comm, Hearings. history, responsibility for military con-
4 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
struction was shared by various branches days. Utilities became more elaborate;
of the Army. At the outbreak of the and maintenance work assumed greater
Revolutionary War, Congress, following importance. From time to time, a large
British and Colonial practice, assigned project cropped up, for example, the
to the Chief Engineer the work of build- Jeffersonville Depot in Indiana and the
ing bridges, roads, and fortifications quarters for the Hawaiian Division at
and to The Quartermaster General the Schofield Barracks. But the volume of
task of quartering the Army. Thus it work was never large. Between 1865
was established early that the Corps of and 1900 Congress seldom authorized
Engineers would perform combat con- more than 150 new buildings a year.3
struction and the Quartermaster Corps Quartermasters General carried out
would see to sheltering troops. The di- construction with a minimum of or-
vision of authority did not end there. ganization. In the Office of The Quarter-
The Ordnance Department erected ar- master General in Washington an officer
senals; the Signal Corps, after its found- or two and a few civilians took care of
ing in 1863, built some of its own fa- budgetary and other administrative mat-
cilities; and most of the other branches, ters. Most officers on construction duty
at one time or another, also engaged in in the field were temporarily detailed
building work. Nevertheless, the two from the line. Their work, in most in-
agencies most closely associated with stances, was supervised not by The
military construction were the Quarter- Quartermaster General but by local
master Corps and the Corps of Engineers. and departmental commanders. In the
The Quartermaster Corps was a multi- early days, construction not performed
functioned organization concerned with by troops was usually accomplished
service and supply. Provision of trans- under a system known variously as day
port, shelter, clothing, and equipage labor, force account, or purchase and
were its principal functions. In dis- hire—an arrangement whereby the of-
charging his construction duties, The ficer in charge drew whatever plans
Quartermaster General over the years were needed, purchased materials, hired
encountered little difficulty. A handful workmen, and oversaw the, work. As
of small posts sufficed to house the Army time went on and structures became
in the early days of the Republic. As more elaborate, master builders entered
the westward movement gained mo- the picture. By the 1850's the Quarter-
mentum, hundreds of garrisons were master Corps had begun to utilize the
built on the frontier by the occupying services of contracting companies which
troops. Most of these outposts were tiny were then springing up in cities. After
and most were of rude design. In time 1861 contracts with such firms came
many of them outlived their usefulness under a law of that year which required
and were abandoned, but scores were advertising except when "public exi-
retained as part of the regular establish- gency" demanded immediate per-
ment. At permanent stations, buildings
of brick and stone gradually replaced 3
Annual Reports of The Quartermaster General
the log and frame structures of earlier to the Secretary of War.
LEGACY OF WORLD WAR I 5
formance. By 1900 the Quartermaster posed almost exclusively of top academy
Corps had constructed 120 permanent graduates, was the only sizable group of
posts and stations with capacity for trained engineers in the country. As the
34,000 men. The largest of these instal- demand for internal improvements rose
lations, Fort Riley, Kansas, could ac- and federal projects multiplied, the
commodate 1,300 troops; the smallest, government turned to the Engineers.
Fort Ontario, New York, could house Rivers and harbors improvements, sur-
4
40. With only a small amount of work veys and explorations, roads, canals,
to do, oriented toward supply rather lighthouses, and public buildings—the
than toward construction, composed Corps' responsibilities came to encompass
largely of detailed officers, few of whom all of these. By the time the civil en-
had any technical background, and gineering profession came of age in
forced to rely more and more on private America, the Corps' role in civil works
builders, architects, and engineers, the construction was firmly established.
Quartermaster Corps was unable to Peacetime construction experience,
develop anything approaching the con- plus first-rate technical education, fitted
struction capability of the Corps of Engineer officers for wartime combat,
Engineers. logistical, and command assignments.
A combat branch and a public works West Point Engineers, who after gradua-
construction agency, the Corps of En- tion had gone on to build seacoast de-
gineers was a unique organization. His- fenses, made a brilliant record in the
torically, June 16th, 1775, the date of War of 1812. Not one fortification de-
the Corps' founding, was barely more signed by them fell to the enemy. His-
significant than March 16th, 1802. On torian Henry Adams wrote of their
that day President Jefferson signed a performance: "Perhaps without exag-
bill providing for a Corps of Engineers— geration the West Point Academy might
seven officers and ten cadets—to be be said to have decided, next to the
stationed at West Point, New York, and Navy, the result of the war." Adams
to "constitute a military academy." credited West Point Engineers with
Jefferson's main object was a national doubling the Army's capacity for resis-
college of engineering, and he designed tance during the campaign of 1814.5
the new academy not to train officers The Corps' experience in organizing
of the line but to educate engineers for sizable labor forces and in directing
public service. The first engineering large construction enterprises was of
school in the United States, West Point great importance in later wars. Not only
was the leading one until the Civil War. did Engineer officers perform the tra-
The Army Corps of Engineers, com- ditional duties of military engineers—
impeding enemy advances and assisting
4
(1) Ibid. (2) Testimony of Maj Gen Edmund B. movements of friendly troops—but they
Gregory, TQMG, 30 Sep 41. In H Comm on Mil
Affs, 77th Gong, 1st sess, Hearings on H R 5630, 5
p. 82. (3) 12 Stat. 220. (4) Statement by OQMG, Henry Adams, A History of the United States of
13 Nov 1900, sub: Capacity of Posts. Doc 15827 America, 1930 ed. (New York: Albert and Charles
OQMG Doc File, 1800-1914. Boni, 1930), IX, 336.
6 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
6
also occupied high staff and command were established. At the turn of the
positions. In the Civil War the Army's century, the Army Engineers had a con-
top logistician was an Engineer: struction organization that was by far
Montgomery C. Meigs; Robert E. Lee the largest, best trained, and most ex-
epitomized the Engineer commander. perienced in the country.
The defenses around Washington, the By the early 1900's, sentiment was
crossings of the Rappahannock under growing in favor of placing all military
fire, and the bridging of the James ex- construction under the Engineers. At
emplified the Engineer support of the the time the General Staff was con-
Union Army. By employing the Corps stituted, such a change was considered
in time of peace, the government con- but was not effected.7 The question came
tinued to assure that competent military up again and again. In 1910 a high-
engineers would be available in the ranking proponent of the Engineers ex-
event of war. plained his position:
As time went on, as the westward It may, I believe, be asserted without fear
movement accelerated and the country of challenge that construction work in the
grew, the construction capability of the army under present conditions leaves much
Corps of Engineers was enhanced. Al- to be desired. . . . Construction re-
though control of West Point passed to quires technical knowledge of a high order.
Such knowledge is possessed by only a small
the Army-at-large in 1866, engineering percentage of the officers of the Quarter-
and mathematics continued to form the master's Department, while in the Corps of
core of its curriculum, and its top gradu- Engineers every officer receives special train-
8
ates consistently chose careers in the ing along those lines.
branch that offered superior opportuni- Maj. Gen. Leonard Wood, Chief of
ties for public service. To supplement Staff from 1910-1914, took the same
the West Point education of Engineer stand. During his term the issue was
officers, the Engineer School was founded hotly debated but no decision was
at Willet's Point, New York, in 1885. reached.9 The Quartermaster con-
Meanwhile, during the great expansion struction organization continued along
following Appomattox, Congress focused
greater attention on internal improve- 6
(1) W. Stull Holt, The Office of the Chief of Engineers
ments, and civil works programs bulked of the Army: Its Non-military History, Activities, and
large. From 1866 through 1900, federal Organization (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins Press,
1923), PP- 11-17. (2) H Doc 330, 80th Cong, 1st
expenditures for rivers, harbors, and flood sess, Historical Statistics of the United States, 1789-1945:
control totaled $333 million. During A Supplement to the Statistical Abstract of the United
this period, a permanent, nationwide States (Washington, 1949), p. 169. Cited hereinafter
as Historical Statistics of the United States, 1789—1945,
organization came into being. In 1888 (3) Annual Report of the Chief of Engineers, U.S. Army,
the need for a formal field structure led 1889 (Washington, 1889), Part 1, p. 16. (4) Paul W.
the Chief of Engineers, Brig. Gen. Thompson, What You Should Know About the Army
Engineers (New York: W. W. Norton and Company,
Thomas L. Casey, to remake the En- Inc., 1942), pp. 194-198.
gineer Department by creating five 7
8
S Doc 421, 57th Cong, 1st sess, 23 Jun 02.
divisions—one west and four east of the Rpt, TIG to SW. In WD Annual Rpts, FY
Ending 30 Jun 10. OCE Doc 81599.
Rocky Mountains. Later more divisions 9
(1) OQMG 1800-1914, Doc 494615. (2) OCE
were added and districts, or subdivisions, Docs 93454, 99428.
LEGACY OF WORLD WAR I 7
ficer, serving his second Quartermaster the Engineer Department, the General
detail. Scion of a prominent Old Do- Staff on 7 May ordered The Quarter-
minion family, an honor graduate of master General to complete thirty-two
15
Virginia Military Institute and a former divisional cantonments by I September.
mathematics professor there, he displayed Among the prominent industrialists
a rare blend of boyish charm and ag- who hastened to Washington to volunteer
gressive leadership. Word had gone out their services after war was declared
that a million men would be called to were William A. Starrett, president of
arms. A big construction effort seemed Starrett & Van Vleck, architects of New
imminent, but Littell and his officers York City; Morton C. Tuttle, general
did not know what role they would have manager of the Aberthaw Construction
in it. Company of Boston; and Clemens W.
Their resources for handling a large Lundoff, vice president of Crowell,
emergency program were meager, and Lundoff and Little of Cleveland. Late
their claim to such responsibility was in April Secretary of War Newton D.
weak. In the spring of 1917, the Con- Baker asked these men to form the Com-
struction and Repair Division had three mittee on Emergency Construction under
officers and fifty-three civilians in Wash- the General Munitions Board. Starrett
ington and a handful of constructing chaired the committee. Frederick Law
quartermasters in the field.13 Except for Olmsted, the famous landscape archi-
blueprints of barracks and mess halls tect, joined the group. Leonard Metcalf,
prepared for use on the Mexican border one of the country's foremost designers
by the Punitive Expedition of 1916, of water and sewerage systems, and two
Littell had no plans for temporary struc- leading consulting engineers, George
tures. Nor did he have any plans for W. Fuller and Asa E. Phillips, agreed
organizing and directing a huge, high- to act as a subcommittee on engineering.16
14
speed construction effort. Providing Taking the situation in hand, the Starrett
temporary shelter had long been a duty committee charted the course war con-
of commanders in the field. When the struction would follow.
United States entered the war against To Starrett and his colleagues, the
Germany, many assumed that the com- magnitude of Littel's task was appalling.
manding generals of the six regional Time was short, and the Quartermaster
departments would build whatever camps Corps was unfamiliar with high-speed
were necessary. Some, among them building operations. A quick survey of
General Leonard Wood, advocated that the Construction and Repair Division
the work be done by the Corps of En- convinced the committee that "the ma-
gineers. But despite Littel's lack of prep- chine would collapse; that it would not
aration and despite the availability of accomplish anything." Urging swift
13 15
1stInd, TAG to TQMG, 7 May 17, on Memo,
Report of the Board of Review of Construction To The
Chief,
Assistant Secretary of War, August 31, 1919 (Washington,
16
WCD GS for CofS, 4 May 17. AG 2593945.
1920), p. 99. Cited hereinafter as Blossom Report. Min of the Gen Mun Bd, 27 Apr 17, p. 61;
14
(I) Ltr, TAG to TQMG, 21 Mar 17, and 1st 10 May 17, p. 81; 22 May 17, p. 99. In Sp Comm
Ind, same date. AG 2540178. (2) Ltr, TQMG to Investigating the Mun Industry. S Comm Print 7,
TAG, 9 Apr 17. AG 2570158. 74th Cong, 2d sess.
LEGACY OF WORLD WAR I 9
20 21
(1) Ltr, Pres CSC to Baker, 8 Jun 17, in Brig (1) Conv, Starrett with Clarkson, p. 2526. (2)
Gen Richard C. Marshall, Jr., Hist of the Constr Memo, Comm on Emergency Constr for Littell,
Div of the Army, 1919, Book II. Cited hereinafter 22 May 17. Hist of Constr Div, Book II. (3) Canton
as Hist of Constr Div. (2) Interv with Brig Gen Div Office Orders, 24 May 17. QM 020 (Constr)
Richard C. Marshall, II Apr 57. (3) Conv, Starrett
with Clarkson, p. 2526. 22
12 Stat. 220.
LEGACY OF WORLD WAR I 11
then, these agreements could not be not handle such a task "without blun-
used effectively unless materials and ders."25 Construction would have to be
labor markets were relatively stable. placed at a rate of $500,000 per week.26
Furthermore, advertisement was time From long experience in the "building
consuming. The Starrett group saw that game," members of the Starrett com-
this method was far too slow and cum- mittee knew who the best contractors
bersome for a situation where time was were. As a check on their own judgment,
of the essence.23 they sent a confidential questionnaire
On 12 April 1917 Secretary Baker to nearly 2,000 architects and engineers
invoked the emergency provision of the requesting them to appraise the or-
1861 law. Advertisement generally gave ganization, efficiency, and integrity of
way to negotiation throughout the War contractors with whom they had done
Department. Fixed-price contracts were business. At the same time, the com-
superseded by cost-plus-a-percentage-of- mittee asked architect-engineers and
cost, whereby the government agreed constructors to submit performance
to foot nearly all the bills and to pay records, together with data on their
contractors a percentage of the cost of organizations, personnel, and financial
the work. The Starrett committee status. As replies came in, the committee
adopted a modified form of this agree- classified firms according to geographic
ment, the "cost-plus with sliding scale areas and graded them on the basis of
and fixed maximum fee." Under it the size and experience. By early June,
contractor's fee represented a percentage Starrett was in a position to recommend
of cost, but the percentage decreased, a top-flight company for each canton-
from 10 to 6 percent, as the cost ad- ment project.27
vanced and the maximum allowable After the enactment of selective ser-
fee was fixed at $250,000. This agreement vice legislation on 18 May 1917, several
avoided the worst features of percentage highly placed officers showed signs of
contracting and preserved the best: developing cold feet. Shortly after the
construction could begin at once, with- President signed the bill, Captain Mar-
out detailed plans and specifications; shall received a message from Brig. Gen.
and changes in the scope of a project Joseph E. Kuhn, chief of the War Col-
24
could be made easily and at any time. lege Division of the General Staff, and
As Starrett saw it, contractors were Brig. Gen. Enoch H. Crowder, who
the key to success in the operation. On would have charge of the draft. They
the big cantonment jobs, planning and doubted if the draft could be called in
design would have to be carried out at September. According to Marshall, they
the same time as construction. Even stated "that construction could not be
"the best engineering organization in completed in time" and that they "would
the world," the committee held, could
25
23
Memo, Starrett for Littell, 25 May 17. AG
(1) Memo, Comm on Emergency Constr for 2612346.
26
Gen Mun Bd, 9 May 17. Hist of Constr Div, Book III. Conv, Starrett with Clarkson, p. 2531.
27
(2) Min, Gen Mun Bd, 12 May 17, p. 86. (1) Memo, Comm on Emergency Constr for
24
(I) WD Orders, 12 Apr 17. (2) Blossom Report, Gen Mun Bd, 12 Jun 17. Hist of Constr Div, Book
pp. 41-43. III. (2) Min, Gen Mun Bd, 6 Jun 17, p. 126.
12 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
like to be able to advance that as a rea- basket. He and his associates adopted
son." Marshall replied that the canton- four rules: build a team; throw away
ments would be completed on schedule. peacetime yardsticks; substitute the day
Should the draft be postponed and con- for the dollar; and get the job done.30
struction blamed, he would give the During June the tempo quickened.
whole story to the newspapers.28 On the 8th Chairman Scott of the Muni-
Marshall's superior, Colonel Littell, tions Board and Colonel Littell ap-
took a different position. Called to proved the final draft of the new emer-
Kuhn's office late in May and asked if gency contract. A few days later, Secre-
the cantonments could be completed tary Baker informally OK'd it.31 With
by September, he said it would be the help of civilian engineers recruited
"physically impossible." On 29 May by Olmsted, site selection boards ap-
Secretary Baker approved an order de- pointed by department commanders
ferring construction of cantonments for made rapid progress. By the 14th Baker
sixteen National Guard divisions. Work had approved locations for twelve of the
on cantonments for sixteen National sixteen cantonments.32 As sites were
Army divisions would be started at the selected the Starrett committee nom-
earliest possible date. For these projects, inated leading construction firms,
the September deadline held.29 among them George A. Fuller, Thomp-
Meanwhile, the Cantonment Division son-Starrett, Stone & Webster, Bates &
was assuming the character of a big Rogers, and Mason & Hanger, to build
engineering firm. In their own eyes, the the cantonments. The subcommittee
newly commissioned officers of the di- chose top professional organizations, such
vision were heads of an enterprise that as Black & Veatch, Frank A. Barbour,
differed from ordinary civilian under- Samuel A. Greeley, and Alvord &
takings only in size and urgency. The Burdick, to serve as architect-engineers.
division corresponded to the company Littell and Baker approved the selec-
home office. CQM's, handpicked by tions.88
Major Whitson for their experience with On the morning of 11 June Shelby
large projects, would have roles equiva- delivered the first two contracts for
lent to general superintendents. Almost Littell's signature: the total estimated
to a man, the civilians in uniform were cost was nearly $13 million. Returning
impatient with military discipline, chan- a short time later to find the colonel
nels of command, customs of the service, poring over the fine print, the attorney
and the caution displayed by old-line
30
officers. Soon after Shelby took charge (1) Blossom Report, pp. 18-19. (2) Interv with
Evan Shelby, 17 Aug 56; Interv with Frank M.
of the Contracts Branch, someone handed Gunby, 15 Aug 56.
him a thick volume containing the Army 31
(1) Min, Gen Mun Bd, 8 Jun 17, p. 29. (2)
Regulations. He tossed it into the waste- Hist of Constr Div, Exhibits, Part 3.
32
Memo, Littell for TQMG, 14 Jun 17. QM 600.1
(Gen).
28 33
Ltr, Marshall to OCMH, 30 Mar 55. See also (1) Memo, Starrett for Gen Mun Bd, 12 Jun 17.
article from New York World, June 19, 1917, re- Hist of Constr Div, Book I. (2) Conv, Starrett with
printed in 55 Cong. Rec. 5187. Clarkson, pp. 2528-31. (3) War Department, Annual
29
Memo, with Incls, Actg CofS for TAG, 29 May Reports, Report of the Chief of the Construction Division,
17. QM 020 (Constr) 1917. 1918 (Washington, 1919), p. 59.
LEGACY OF WORLD WAR I 13
protested that the papers had to go out As soon as agreements were executed,
that afternoon. Littell sat back a mo- sometimes even before, contractors has-
ment and then explained that he always tened to the job sites. On 13 June an
read every word before he signed his advance party from Fred T. Ley & Com-
name. Forty years in the Army had pany arrived at Ayer, Massachusetts,
taught him to be cautious. To elucidate to start building Camp Devens, a can-
he told a story. Some years before, while tonment for 30,000 men. The following
he was serving in the Philippines, a halter day, Stone & Webster commenced work
for which he was accountable slipped off on Camp Travis, near San Antonio,
a mule and fell into a well. When efforts Texas, and Irwin & Leighton began
to retrieve it failed, Littell was ordered staking out Camp Dix, near Wrights-
to make good the loss, $1.40. He re- town, New Jersey. By July construc-
fused. The debt still stood and he would tion was in full swing at all sixteen can-
have to pay it before he could retire. tonments. Land was cleared, roads
Signing Shelby's contracts, he shook his graded, and railway spurs brought in
head; the old army, he observed, did with record speed. Barracks, mess halls,
things differently.34 latrines, hospitals, and storehouses went
up fast. At Camp Upton, near Yaphank,
34
(1) Blossom Report, p. 142. (2) Shelby Interv, New York, Thompson-Starrett erected
17 Aug 56. sawmills and turned out prefabricated
14 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
building sections. Several other con- Although trained electricians and
tractors adopted the same method. Even plumbers were needed, the big job,
the installation of utilities, usually slow- carpentering, was mainly one of nailing
moving work, went forward rapidly. boards together, and for that handy
Speed was virtually the only criterion. men sufficed. Pay was good. Under an
Where there was a question of time or agreement between Secretary Baker and
35
money, contractors spent. Samuel Gompers, president of the Amer-
Shortages of materials slowed progress ican Federation of Labor (AFL), union
occasionally but not for long. The first wage scales and working rules applied
war agency to enter the market for con- on cantonment projects. Men worked
struction supplies, the Cantonment Di- overtime, Sundays, and holidays at time
vision made the most of its advantage. and a half or double time rates. There
As fast as Gunby could complete bills were no serious strikes. Supervision was
of materials, Hamilton wired concerns often weak and organization inadequate.
all over the country, placing orders for Results were obtained through sheer
wallboard, roofing, window glass, fur- force of numbers. When one contractor
naces, and nails. He purchased lumber said he could increase production 25
through lumber manufacturers' as- percent by doubling his work force, his
sociations, which set up offices in Wash- CQM told him to go ahead.37
ington. The plumbing industry also In the midst of the drive to complete
established headquarters in the capital the cantonments, Littell got orders to
to assist Hamilton in his work. The de- provide sixteen camps for the National
mand for nails, pipe, and lumber soon Guard. The directive came on Friday,
outran supplies. By bringing pressure 13 July. The first contingent of the Guard
to bear on producers, substituting wood would arrive on I August. At a Saturday
stave pipe for cast iron, and accepting conference, Gunby, Whitson, and several
green lumber, Hamilton managed to others took stock of the situation. The
fill requirements. Daily, 30,000 tons of Guardsmen had tents, so they would
supplies moved to the sixteen job sites. not need barracks. The Guardsmen had
When a shortage of freight cars de- field kitchens, so they would not need
veloped, Captain Marshall, trading dol- cook shacks. The Guardsmen had tools
lars for days, sent toilet fixtures south with which to dig latrines. Water would
from New Jersey by Pullman.36 have to be provided for them. That, said
By mid-July 1917 an army of 160,000 Gunby, meant pipe, lots of pipe. He
workers was laboring to build the can- knew just the man to turn to for help.
tonments. Each project had a hastily An important pipe manufacturer from
assembled force of 8,000 to 14,000 men. Youngstown, Ohio, was in town that
day. Gunby located this man on a golf
35
(1) Camp Devens, National Army Cantonment, course, called him into the office, and
published by Fred T. Ley & Co, Inc., 1917. (2) War
Department, Annual Reports, Report of the Chief of Con-
persuaded him to telephone Youngs-
struction Division, 1918, p. 59. (3) Blossom Report, pp.
116, 152. 37
36
(1) Blossom Report, p. 133. (2) Benedict Crowell, (1) Memo, Littell for TQMG, 28 Nov 17. Hist of
America's Munitions, 1917-1918 (Washington, 1919), Constr Div, Book V. (2) QM 020 (Constr) 1917.
pp. 536-37. (3) Marshall Interv, II Apr 57. (3) Blossom Report, p. 35.
LEGACY OF WORLD WAR I 15
town and start pipe moving south. By "Guard business," said Gunby, was "the
Monday CQM's were on their way to jewel of the whole thing."39 Meanwhile,
the job sites. On Tuesday and Wednes- cantonment deadlines were being met.
day Littell signed fifteen contracts. Be- Housing for 287,300 draftees was ready
fore the week was out work was under on 4 September. Considerable work
way on ten of the camps; by the 25th remained when the troops moved in,
all sixteen were building.38 but no soldier went without a bed. From
At the thirty-two camp and canton- September on, construction ran ahead
ment jobs, contractors pushed furiously of schedule. More than a million men
40
ahead, their eyes on the calendar. By were housed by late 1917.
mid-August accommodations were ready The cost totaled $179,478,978,
for 54,000 Guardsmen; by 1 September
the camps could take 295,000. The 39
(1) Memo, Littell for TQMG, 26 Aug 17. Hist
of Constr Div, Book III. (2) Blossom Report, p. 143. (3)
Gunby Interv, 15 Aug 56.
38 40
(1) Memo, Chief WCD GS for CofS, 9 Jul 17. (1) Memo, Littell for Chief Admin Div OQMG,
AG 2619836. (2) Memo, Actg CofS for TAG, 13 Jul 23 Aug 17. (2) Rpt, Canton Div, n.d., sub: Tps
17. Hist of Constr Div, Book I. (3) Gunby Interv, Housed at NA Cantons on 4 Sep 17. Both in Hist of
15 Aug 56. (4) Min, Gen Mun Bd, 13, 16, 17, 24 Jul Constr Div, Book III. (3) Report, Chief of the Con-
17- (5) Blossom Report, pp. III, 143. struction Division, 1918, p. 39.
16 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
Source: Canton Div, Total Estimated Cost for Constr of National Army Cantons, 1917. EHD Files.
Source: Canton Div, Total Estimated Cost of Camp Constr, 1917. EHD Files.
LEGACY OF WORLD WAR I 17
$140,726,472 for the National Army roofing paper, 34 million square feet of
cantonments and $38,752,506 for the wall board, 1 million feet of wood stave
National Guard camps. The average pipe, 468,000 feet of cast iron pipe,
per capita costs were $215 and $88, 105,000 kegs of nails, and 314,000 bar-
respectively. (Tables 1 and 2) To builders rels of cement had been purchased for
of the cantonments, the Army paid the cantonments alone. A total of 105,358
$4,000,000 in fees, or 2.84 percent of freight cars had been used to haul ma-
the total cost. Every one of these con- terials to the 32 mobilization projects.41
tractors received the maximum fee of A total of 212,172 workmen had been
$250,000, a sum less than would have employed—an average of 8,400 at each
been earned under straight cost-plus- of the cantonments and of 2,750 at each
a-percentage agreements. Proportion- of the camps. It was the largest force of
ately the fees for camp construction construction labor ever assembled in the
were higher, amounting to $2,638,524, United States.
or 6.8 percent of the total cost. Because The training centers for the National
none of these contractors had attained Army and the National Guard were
the maximum fee, their earnings repre- veritable cities, complete with roads,
sented straight percentages of cost. walks, power lines, and water systems.
Huge quantities of materials and The largest of the cantonments, Camp
prodigious efforts had gone into con-
struction. Close to 1 billion board feet 41
Incl with Memo, Littell for TQMG, 28 Nov 17.
of lumber, 80 million square feet of Hist of Constr Div, Book V.
18 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
of the Corps of Engineers, Marshall him, Secretary Baker tried to have the
undertook construction in the theater passage deleted. Appearing before the
of operations—three meat storage and committee on 6 May, March declared
ice-making plants in France.58 that the Secretary was perfectly satisfied
Recognizing the defects in current with the existing arrangement for con-
contracting methods, Marshall adopted struction. And so was he. "If there is
a new form of emergency agreement. any legislation in the appropriation bill
Although contracts used during the first relating to this subject in connection
ten months of the war had in every case with the Engineer Corps," said March,
fixed a maximum allowable fee, there "we want it stricken out."61 The bill
still existed an incentive for unscrupulous reported out by the committee contained
contractors to increase costs to the point no such provision.
that gave them the largest allowable Marshall lost no time in striking back.
profits. Since a contract under which On 16 May, at his prompting, Senator
contractors made the most money when Harry S. New of Indiana introduced
costs were high was obviously not to the a bill to create a permanent construction
government's advantage, the use of per- corps. The proposed corps would be
centage contracts was discontinued in headed by a major general and staffed
February 1918, when Marshall switched by 570 officers, two-thirds of whom would
to an arrangement very like the cost- be drawn from the officers of the present
plus-a-fixed-fee (CPFF) contract of division. But the bill went further, for
World War II. Fees were henceforth Marshall had included a provision to
based on original estimates rather than take rivers and harbors work away from
on actual costs. The new method had the Engineers and assign it to the new
62
all the speed of percentage contracting Construction Corps. The bill went to
but avoided offering rewards for in- the Committee on Military Affairs,
59
efficiency and extravagance. which forwarded the measure to the
Beginning in the spring of 1918, War Department.
Marshall had to devote more and more The task of commenting on the bill
of his energies to fending off attacks on fell to Brig. Gen. Lytle Brown, director
the division. About the first of May a of the War Plans Division of the General
disturbing rumor reached him: a para- Staff and an Engineer officer. On 29
graph calling for the transfer of the Con- May, Brown wrote General March:
struction Division to the Corps of En- "Consideration of this measure might
gineers had found its way into the Army lead to the belief that it is a scheme for
appropriation bill then before the House making permanent provision for certain
Committee on Military Affairs. Marshall officers who have received temporary
immediately conferred with Crowell and commissions in the Construction Corps
the new Chief of Staff, Maj. Gen. Peyton and in this respect seems to be largely a
60
C. March. When the news reached plan for personal preferment." He found
58 61
(1) Ltr, TAG to OIC Constr Div, 10 Apr 18. H Comm on Mil Affs, 66th Cong, 2d sess,
Hist of Constr Div, Book I. (2) Blossom Report, p. 302. Hearings on Army Appropriation Bill, 1919, vol. 2, pp.
59
Blossom Report, pp. 192-93. 27-28.
60 62
Marshall Interv, 11 Apr 57. 56 Cong. Rec. 6575.
24 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
the portions of the bill that dealt with gineer Reservists were members of the
the Engineers' civil functions particularly Construction Division. "I now find that
objectionable. "The War Plans Di- the continued separation of the Construc-
vision," Brown protested, "is of the tion Department has resulted in embar-
opinion that it is beyond the power of rassment to this Department . . . . ,"
the human mind to solve in time of war, Black informed March. In conclusion, he
a question which pertains to a basis of declared:
peace." He drafted, and on 15 June Difficulties would disappear were the
Secretary Baker signed, a letter to the Construction Department made a part of
committee chairman opposing the bill.63 the Engineer Department and placed under
Senator New's measure posed a dire the control of the Chief of Engineers. There
threat to the Corps of Engineers. For would be need for but one purchasing de-
more than forty years a group within the partment. Since there is a great variety in
the work now assigned to the Construction
construction industry had labored to Department as well as to the Engineer De-
consolidate all federal construction, in- partment, the best experts for any particular
cluding rivers and harbors work, into class of work could be selected from either
one government department. Men iden- department were the Construction Depart-
tified with this movement dominated ment under the control of the Engineer
Department, and the number of experts
the Starrett committee and the Con- required reduced. Without a doubt, an in-
struction Division of the Army. Leagued creased efficiency and economy would re-
with them was Assistant Secretary of War sult. The present organization is anomalous,
Benedict Crowell. To Maj. Gen. William and the Construction Department really now
M. Black, the Chief of Engineers, the constitutes an independent bureau of the
War Department. It is submitted that the
bill appeared to be part of a fine-spun existing conditions are not those compatible
plot which was beginning to unfold. The with good organization and greatest effi-
64
time for a showdown had come. The ciency.
Engineers had either to crush the separate March sent Black's proposal to the Con-
corps or to risk being crushed by it. struction Division the following day.
On 27 May, Black tried to persuade Replying on 6 June, Marshall at-
the Chief of Staff that the Construction tempted to refute Black's arguments.
Division should be turned over to the The Engineers had not built the em-
Corps of Engineers. He reminded March barkation depots, he declared; credit
that the Corps had done construction for that accomplishment belonged to
of every type in discharging its military Cantonment Division. Moreover, the
and civil duties. "Since the outbreak of Engineers had detailed only nine Reser-
war," he pointed out, "in the United vists to him and Littell. Marshall dis-
States it has constructed the first com- missed Black's statement about compe-
plete system of embarkation points the tition by saying that there was none.
Army now possesses . . . and is He argued that a tradition-bound mili-
now in charge of all construction work tary organization could not be effective
of all character in France." Many En- in a war situation. Engineer officers
63
(1) Memo, Brown for March, 29 May 18. (2)
64
Ltr, Baker to Chm S Comm on Mil Affs, 15 Jun 18. Memo, Black for March, 27 May 18. Hist of
Both in OCS 10394-14. Constr Div, Book II.
LEGACY OF WORLD WAR I 25
than with saving tax dollars. Vast sums fifteen weeks and producing 2,500 pages
of money were being squandered. Con- of testimony, its hearings told a story
struction costs were soaring out of sight. of failure and abuses.73 In the rash of
Moreover, McKellar charged, favori- sensational headlines which emanated
tism had entered into the selection of from the inquiry, construction had a
contractors. He identified Starrett with prominent place.
the George A. Fuller Company, con- Appearing before the committee in
tractors for Camp Funston, and with February 1918, the top men in the
the Thompson-Starrett Company, con- construction program were confronted
tractors for Camp Upton. He stated that by Senator McKellar in the role of
associates of other camp contractors principal interrogator. Hinting at con-
were serving with the Committee on spiracy and collusion, McKellar sub-
Emergency Construction and the Can- jected the witnesses to exhaustive ques-
tonment Division. Inveighing against tioning. Were all thirty-two camps and
big business, the Senator declared that cantonments built under cost-plus con-
the construction program was being run tracts? Who was responsible for adopting
for the benefit of a few large corpora- the cost-plus system? Were not the fees
tions.71 enormous for three months' work? Who
Although other legislators soon joined had selected the contractors? What were
McKellar in condemning the conduct Starrett's connections with these firms?
of the building program, some months Was not his brother Paul head of George
elapsed before Congress launched a for- A. Fuller? Who were the stockholders in
mal inquiry. In December 1917 the Thompson-Starrett? How many con-
Senate Military Affairs Committee, of struction men had come into the govern-
which McKellar was a member, began ment in order to feather their nests and
an investigation of the mobilization ef- those of friends and relatives? The
fort. Speaking at a rally of the National examination continued for two full days—
Security League in New York City during Littell, Starrett, Marshall, Gunby,
January 1918, Chairman George E. Whitson, and Willcutt testified in turn—
Chamberlain revealed the committee's as McKellar sought to uncover a plot
attitude: "The Military Establishment to mulct the government.74
of America has fallen down. ... It Denying imputations of wrongdoing,
has almost stopped functioning . . . the accused put up a vigorous defense.
because of inefficiency in every bureau Starrett had severed connections with
and in every department of the Govern- the Fuller Company of which his brother
ment of the United States."72 Two days was president some years before; he had
later he introduced a bill to take direction no interest in Thompson-Starrett or any
of the war out of the President's hands other company which had received an
and to vest it in a war cabinet. The emergency contract. Contractors had
committee endeavored to show why been chosen solely for their ability to
such a bill was necessary. Consuming
73
Ibid., 211-12, 216-23.
74
S Comm on Mil Affs, 65th Gong, 2d sess,
71
55 Cong. Rec. 5181 ff. Hearings, Investigation of the War Department, Part 4,
72
Quoted in Paxson, America at War, p. 216. 11 and 12 Feb 18, passim.
28 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
and "to rescue the business of the country careful scrutiny. In the course of their
from a few enormous corporations and inquiry, Blossom and his colleagues
trusts." In the House, Representative visited some fifty projects, where they
Daniel R. Anthony, Jr., declared that questioned constructing quartermasters,
"adoption of the cost-plus system" had engineers, contractors, auditors, super-
"led to a veritable riot of waste and intendents, foremen, and workmen. In
extravagance."79 And Representative August 1919, they submitted their re-
John C. McKenzie, an outspoken foe port to Crowell.82
of construction "grafters," drew applause The Blossom board gave the program
for the following remarks: a clean bill of health. Adoption of the
When war comes, like snakes in the grass emergency contract was fully justified.
you can see their heads coming up every- No other form of agreement could have
where looking for an opportunity to rob produced the required results. Fees paid
their Government. O God, grant that such contractors were "exceedingly low as
may not be the opportunity they may have, compared with the fees paid on prewar
and may God pity each and every one of
them and damn each and every one of them private construction."83 There was no
forever.80 evidence to support charges of favoritism
in making awards. There had been no
In July 1918, amid crescendoing profiteering. The high cost of the work
complaints, Assistant Secretary Crowell was due to abnormal conditions, not to
called into being the Board of Review inefficiency or mismanagement. True,
of Construction.81 Appointed to review economy had been sacrificed for speed.
the work, record the facts, and apply But, said the board, "If the completion
the lessons of the wartime building ef- of these cantonments and camps in time
fort were three respected figures in the to receive the army in September 1917,
industrial and financial world: Chair- and to house it during the extreme win-
man Francis Blossom was a partner ter of 1917-18 shortened the war by only
in Sanderson & Porter, one of the coun- one week, their total cost was saved."84
try's leading engineering firms; W. Blossom and his colleagues directed
Sanders Davies was president of the their most trenchant criticism against
American Institute of Accountants; decentralization—the system whereby
Charles A. Morse headed the American each federal agency handled its own
Railway Engineering Association. Be- construction. This arrangement, they
gun in September 1918, the board's declared, was "at variance with business
investigation continued for almost a year. practice" and "wrong in principle."
Scores of persons testified—officers of Even within bureaus responsibility was
the Construction Division, members of divided; at the beginning of the war, the
the Starrett committee, heads of con- Ordnance Department alone had had
tracting firms, chiefs of using services, five groups dabbling in construction.
and many more. Records came in for Consolidation seemed the logical solu-
79
80
Ibid., 5863, 5864, 7203.
82
Ibid., 7209. Blossom Report, pp. 11-16.
81 83
Ltr, Crowell to Blossom et al., 24 Jul 18. Quoted Ibid., p. 194.
in Blossom Report, p. 13. 84
Ibid., pp. 194, 286.
30 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
tion. The board strongly recommended usual form of construction contract, who
that all government construction, both was responsible for its preparation, and
military and civil, be centralized in a whether or not such form of contract
new department of public works. Dis- safeguarded the interest of the Govern-
cussing the future of the Army Engineers, ment; and if not, why not?"86 For the
the members agreed: "It is unwise to ask next six months, the McKenzie group
the War Department to do any national probed for answers to these questions.
construction and engineering work that Called before the subcommittee, high-
civilians can do, because, in another ranking Engineer officers characterized
war, its engineers will again be unable the emergency construction contract as
to handle such home work in addition evil and unnecessary. Giving his views
to their military work." Asserting that on cost-plus agreements, General
the officers of the Corps were "outclassed Goethals stated: "I have always been
by civilian engineers on most construc- opposed to them. It might have cost
tion work," the Blossom committee went the Government a little more to do it
on to state: "Satisfactory results in the by force [account], but there could never
war emergency construction have been have been any criticism if they had had
accomplished largely by, and in degree the proper men and put one in charge
proportionate to, the freeing of exper- of each cantonment." General Black
87
ienced constructors from control by testified in much the same vein. Col.
Army officers."85 Published by the Gov- Clarence O. Sherrill, recently returned
ernment Printing Office, the 380-page from France where he had served as
Report of the Board of Review of Construction chief of staff of the 77th Division, said
bore the War Department's imprimatur. that the camps and cantonments could
When the Republicans gained control have been built faster and cheaper by
of Congress in 1918, more rigorous in- purchase and hire. The thirty-five dis-
vestigations appeared certain. By the trict offices of the Corps of Engineers
summer of 1919 a select committee of could have started construction almost
the House, headed by Representative at a moment's notice. A telephone call
William J. Graham of Illinois, was from General Black would have put the
ready to begin a full-dress inquiry into machinery in motion. Neither contrac-
war expenditures. A subcommittee of tors nor cost-plus contracts would have
two Republicans—John C. McKenzie had any part in the program. The
of Illinois and Roscoe C. McCulloch of cost-plus arrangement, Sherrill insisted,
Ohio—and one Democrat—Frank E. "is a dangerous one for the Government
Doremus of Michigan—was assigned to to use, and opens the door to both inef-
investigate construction. Chosen to ficiency and fraud."88
head the subcommittee, McKenzie an- Members of the Starrett committee
nounced his intention "to take up the and the Construction Division em-
question of the so-called emergency con-
tract for the purpose of ascertaining why 86
H Subcomm 2 (Camps) of the Select Comm on
it was adopted to the exclusion of the Expenditures in the WD, 66th Gong, 1st sess, Hear-
ings on War Expenditures, I, 869.
87
Ibid., pp. 1015, 1166-70.
85 88
Ibid., pp. 275, 276, 296-98. Ibid., pp. 2391-94.
LEGACY OF WORLD WAR I 31
House action, he went at once to Secre- economically, and to the satisfaction of the
tary Baker. On 12 March, the same day Army and the country. The long and honor-
able record of able, honest, and faithful ser-
the amendment carried, the Secretary vice of the Corps of Engineers is one of which
repudiated the letter read by Mr. the entire Army, and the United States it-
Harrison. In a letter to Chairman Kahn, self, may well be proud, and I feel sure that
Baker stated: "Through inadvertence no mistake will be made if all military con-
the full purport . . . escaped my struction is, in the United States as it was in
France, given to that Corps.120
notice and I desire at once to correct
any erroneous impression it may have On the 18th the House, reversing its
conveyed as to my attitude." He strongly stand, voted to strike out the Sanford
urged that construction go to the Corps amendment and passed the committee
of Engineers.117 On the 13th Beach called bill returning construction to the Quar-
attention to serious errors of fact in Mr. termaster Corps.
Reavis' remarks. There was no Con- Having blocked the separate corps in
struction Corps in the AEF. Virtually the House, Beach hoped to go on to win
all construction in France was done by the Senate vote. Initially, he tried to gain
the Engineers. Generals Harts, Sibert, the support of Senator Wadsworth. Two
and Biddle were promoted out of the of the top-ranking Engineers in the AEF,
Corps for "meritorious service."118 On Maj. Gen. William C. Langfitt and Maj.
the 17th Beach reached an agreement Gen. Mason M. Patrick, went in person
with General Rogers: the Engineers to ask that Wadsworth sponsor an amend-
would back the Quartermaster effort ment favoring the Corps. Making the
to obtain transportation, finance, and same request in writing, General Beach
maintenance and utilities; The Quarter- inclosed a draft of the proposed rider
master General would support the En- and copies of his correspondence with
gineers' contention that construction be- General Rogers. Secretary Baker also
longed in their Corps.119 The following urged the Senator to back the Engi-
121
day General Pershing made a strong neers. When Wadsworth rejected these
statement on the Engineers' behalf. advances, another champion was found.
Holding that the Engineers should not On 13 April Senator Irvine L. Lenroot
be "deprived of the credit justly due of Wisconsin moved to strike out the pro-
them for the energy and skill" they had vision in the committee bill which called
displayed as the sole construction arm of for a separate corps and announced that
the AEF, Pershing wrote: if his motion carried he would propose
that construction be placed where it
If Congress is indisposed to return the work
to the Quartermaster Corps, it might with belonged—in the Corps of Engineers.
equal advantage be confided to the Corps The highlight of the debate was a speech
of Engineers, which I know to have proved by Senator Wadsworth, flaying Generals
itself competent to perform the task promptly, Beach and Rogers. Behind the scenes.
117 120
Ltr, Baker to Kahn, 12 Mar 20. Martin Papers Ltr, Pershing to Kahn, 18 Mar 20. Martin
in EHD. Papers.
118 121
Ltr, Beach to Kahn, 13 Mar 20. Martin Papers. (1) Ltr, Beach to Wadsworth, 19 Mar 20.
119
(1) Ltr, Beach to Rogers, 17 Mar 20. (2) Ltr, Martin Papers. (2) Ltr, Baker to Wadsworth, 29
Rogers to Beach, even date. Both in Martin Papers. Mar 20. AG 011-012.2.
40 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
Wadsworth charged, a fierce struggle When the Construction Division of
for power had raged between the two. the Army went down in defeat, the
But when both realized they were losing, drive for a national department of public
they had joined forces to squelch the works was temporarily blunted. As the
separate corps. Wadsworth advised his civilians who had joined up in 1917 re-
colleagues to turn down the Lenroot turned to their firms, pressure on Con-
amendment.122 The decision came on 14 gress relaxed. According to Leighton's
April; Lenroot was defeated. Six days recollection, two or three "old fellows,
later the Senate passed the committee fierce folk who would speak out," con-
bill providing for an independent con- tinued the battle. But Marshall's officers,
struction corps. on whose backing Leighton had counted
With the Engineers out of the run- heavily, left him in the lurch. When
ning, the choice was between the Con- Congress adjourned early in June, on
struction Division of the Army and the the eve of the Republican national con-
Quartermaster Corps. There could be vention, the Jones-Reavis bill died in
no question as to which General Beach committee. But the "dream," as Leighton
preferred. When the House and Senate called it, was far from ended.124 Pro-
conferees made their report late in May, ponents of a public works department
he could take heart from their decision. would be heard from again.
Along with transportation, construction The Construction Division was dis-
and real estate were assigned to General banding. One by one the officers were
Rogers' department. Both houses ac- saying farewell. General Marshall was
cepted the conferees' version of the bill, resigning from the Army to become
and on 4 June President Wilson signed it managing director of the Associated
into law. In his order transferring con- General Contractors. Colonel Hartman,
struction, Secretary Baker directed that the one remaining regular, was at-
the Construction Service be "organized tempting to sign up temporary officers
and operated as a separate service of the for permanent service in the Quarter-
Quartermaster Corps."123 Implicit in master Corps. The spirit of the wartime
this directive was the idea that con- organization was preserved in a song to
struction might be lifted out again in be sung to the tune of "Hinkey Dinkey
another emergency. The new arrange- Parlez-Vous." Evoking memories of their
ment was a compromise; how long it warm comradery:
would endure only time could tell. To "We fought the war with Gen-
the Engineer way of thinking, the Quar- eral Puck's Construction
termaster Corps was a supply organiza- Crew,
tion. What was needed was a branch The only French we ever
whose sole duty would be construction. learned was 'Entre Nous'"
That branch ought to be the Corps of
Engineers. From this premise, no Chief and glorying in their accomplishment:
of Engineers ever wavered. "We made a dollar look like
a dime,
122 124
59 Cong. Rec. 5600-5612, 5650, 5894. Interv with Marshall O. Leighton, 2 Apr 57.
123
WD GO 42, 14 Jul 20. See also The Bulletin of the AGC, August 1920, p. 33.
LEGACY OF WORLD WAR I 41
But all the camps were done On that note the Construction Division
on time, of the Army passed into history.
By General Puck's Construc- American experience in the First
tion Crew" World War had demonstrated con-
clusively the vital role of construction
the singers ended with a promise:
in modern-day mobilization and the
"And if we have another war, decisive importance to national security
They'll only have to signal for of a strong construction force in being.
General Puck's Construction Unfortunately, lessons taught are not
Crew."125 always lessons learned. A second, graver
emergency would have to arise before
125
Reprinted in The Homecomer, December 3, 1937, these truths were grasped and translated
p. 4. into action.
CHAPTER II
Lean Years
The years following World War I ors."1 Maintaining a staff of technically
were famine years for the War Depart- competent officers was also difficult.
ment, as the American people reverted Such men were often reluctant to serve
to their traditional postwar custom of in a corps which might assign them to
reducing a fighting army to a skeleton wagon companies, remount depots, or
force. The war to end war had been graves registration duty; and the Gen-
fought and won. Disarmament, neu- eral Staff showed little inclination to
trality, and isolationism were widely place good officers in Quartermaster
accepted as desirable and attainable vacancies. Moreover, the status of the
goals. The twenties, with their return service was at times affected by the onus
to normalcy and balanced budgets, of criticism which attached to its war-
brought sharp retrenchment in military time predecessor, and its future seemed
spending. The great depression of the filled with uncertainties. As the public
thirties directed attention away from works controversy waxed hotter, as
problems of national security to prob- powerful forces battled for high stakes,
lems of national recovery. As the Army rumors periodically swept through the
dwindled to virtual insignificance, the Construction Service: "The Engineers
military plant decayed and military are going to grab us."2
vision clouded. Efficiency was sacrificed That many problems could have been
to economy. Planning tended to become avoided by placing military construction
increasingly unrealistic. The Construc- under the Engineers is beyond doubt.
tion Service of the Quartermaster Corps, A specialist corps, with a large contin-
like most of the Army, suffered from the uing program of rivers, harbors, and
effects of governmental parsimony and flood control projects, and the chosen
public indifference. branch of most top West Point graduates,
The Construction Service labored the Corps of Engineers was in a far more
under even crueler handicaps. As a sub- advantageous position than the Con-
division of a multipurpose supply or- struction Service. But despite strong
ganization, it was at a serious disad- arguments in favor of a transfer, the
vantage. Its chief, one of three brigadier compromise of 1920 endured for two
generals in the Quartermaster Corps, decades, as circumstances combined to
was selected on the basis of seniority; preserve the status quo.
no engineering background was re- 1
quired. "It was sometimes difficult," Comments of Brig Gen Wilmot A. Danielson on
MS, Constr in the United States, 1959, p. 55. Cited
one construction officer recalled, "to get hereinafter as Danielson Comments.
technical matters across to our superi- 2
Interv with Miss Winnie W. Cox, 10 Sep 56.
LEAN YEARS 43
The organization inherited from General Weeks disclosed that 40,000 men were
Marshall deteriorated sadly. Morale living under "unsuitable" conditions.26
dipped. Some gave up in disgust. A dedi- Leading periodicals took up the theme,
cated few fought to prevent further losses. featuring articles with such titles as
When Major Danielson talked of trans- "Our Homeless Army" and "Army
27
ferring to the Corps of Engineers, his Housing: A National Disgrace."
brother officers persuaded him to stay. By the fall of 1924 Weeks was pre-
Conditions, they told him, were bound pared to offer a long-range building
22
to improve. program to Congress. Two plans had
A turning point came in the mid- been submitted by Constructing Quar-
1920*5, when living conditions at Army termaster General Knight. Both were
posts became a topic of wide concern. based on an Army of 150,000 men,
As early as May 1923, commenting on and both were relatively modest. The
housing at Fort Belvoir, Virginia, the first made use of virtually all existing
Chief of Engineers, General Beach, ad- posts; the second concentrated troops
vised The Quartermaster General: at a few large reservations and provided
Present temporary buildings are rapidly for the abandonment of surplus in-
approaching the end of their usefulness as stallations. Although the General Staff
habitable shelter. Maintenance cost by con- preferred the second plan, practical con-
stant repair is prohibitive. Considering the siderations compelled it to choose the
delapidated condition of these buildings, first. As G-4 advised the Chief of Staff:
money spent for repairs, while an immediate
necessity, is beyond a doubt uneconomical "Difficulty has always been experienced
and each year of delayed replacement by in securing the necessary authority to
permanent construction adds to what is dispose of old Army posts due to the fact
considered a waste of Government funds.23 that adjoining communities through their
Congressmen have raised such strong
A few months later The Inspector Gen-
objections to having the garrison taken
eral pointed out that temporary wartime
away." There was another important
structures were "becoming unfit and
24 consideration: the first plan would cost
unsafe for occupancy." Early in 1924,
$10 million less than the second.28
when an officer publicly stated that
The program presented to Congress
posts in the Second Corps Area were contemplated the expenditure of $110
"rotting away" and told how soldiers
million over a l0-year period. To alle-
at Governors Island fished for driftwood viate miserable living conditions was the
to repair flooring, the story made the main objective. Permanent barracks,
25
front page of the New York Times. In quarters, and hospitals would replace
his annual report for 1924 Secretary ramshackle wartime structures. Water
and sewage systems would be modern-
22
Danielson Comments, p. 55.
23
Ltr, CofEngrs to TQMG, 28 May 23. 600.1 26
Part 1. Report of the Secretary of War, 1924 (Washington,
24
Ltr, TIG to SW, 10 Sep 23. AG 319.12 1924), p. 16ff.
27
(9-31-23).
25
(1) Outlook, vol. 142, no. 5 (February 3, 1926),
New York Times, February 26, 1924, pp. 1, 10. pp. 178-80. (2) The Literary Digest, Novembers, 1927,
© 1924 by The New York Times Company. Re- pp.28 l0-11.
printed by permission. Memo, G-4 for CofS, 18 Oct 24. G-4/14958.
LEAN YEARS 47
ized, and up-to-date heating and cold In 1926 Congress loosened the purse
storage plants would be provided. Later strings slightly. The Quartermaster Gen-
on, if funds permitted, hangars, vehicle eral received his permanent construction
storage, and warehousing would be con- fund, together with authority to spend
structed. The Quartermaster General $7 million during the coming year. The
came up with a scheme for financing total made available for new construction
the program. Since the end of the war, in 1926 topped the $8 million mark for
he had transferred to other departments the first time since the war. Appropria-
or sold over $90 million worth of surplus tions for maintenance, repairs, and utili-
military real estate. The War Depart- ties, the so-called barracks and quarters
ment had received nothing whatever funds, amounted to nearly $14 million,
from these transactions. The Quarter- almost $10 million more than the figure
master General asked that proceeds for the previous year. The sum for
from future sales go into a fund to be used construction and repair of hospitals re-
for permanent construction.29 mained as before, between $400,000 and
29
G-4/14958. $500,000. Recognizing another urgent
48 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
clubs sprang up at almost every post. A Davis. The attitude of Congress was
ladies' committee, headed by Mrs. favorable; from 1926 through 1930 it
Cheatham, assisted with the decor of voted approximately $126 million for
family quarters. The large, well-planned, the Construction Service.35
permanent posts, with their fine buildings Large-scale construction at permanent
and attractive landscapes, were a source posts, major airfield projects, modern
of pride to the Army. Fort Belvoir, hospital wards and clinics, the Wright
Virginia, with its colonnaded structures Brothers Memorial at Kitty Hawk, North
spread out along ridges overlooking the Carolina, restoration of the Lee Mansion
Potomac, and Randolph Field, Texas, at Arlington, Virginia, a group of mas-
with its gleaming Mission architecture sive buildings at the U.S. Military Acad-
and imposing grounds, were particularly
35
striking. The program aroused consider- (1) Annual Rpts of TQMG, 1927-30. QM 319.1.
(2) Ltr, Chief Constr Serv OQMG to TAG, 5 Nov
able enthusiasm and won the strong 28. QM 618.34 (Gen). (3) Summary of Appns,
support of Secretary of War Dwight F. 1920-40.
LEAN YEARS 51
emy—each new assignment added to advantages of a Quartermaster career.
the strain. The officers of the Construc- In response to his appeals, three mem-
tion Service were aging, and few young bers of the class of 1929—Everett C.
men were being trained to fill their Hayden, Elmer E. Kirkpatrick, and
shoes. Since the war, second lieutenants Clarence Renshaw—joined the Con-
had shown little interest in Quartermaster struction Service. Assigned to West
careers. In the spring of 1928 General Point in the summer of 1929 as CQM
Cheatham had only five on his rolls, for the new million-dollar project there,
although he was authorized forty-two. Hartman assumed the role of talent
A hard core of "old guard" construction scout. During his 5-year stay at the
officers—men like Danielson, Hartman, Academy, he helped guide a score of
Nurse, and Thomas—endeavored to hold graduates into military construction.38
the line. CQM and Vicinity offices, each Cheatham and his successor, Maj. Gen.
having jurisdiction over a wide area, John L. DeWitt, arranged for ten of
were established in major cities. Civilians these "boys" to take degrees at leading
filled key posts in the Washington office. engineering schools. Hopes for the future
When Colonel Wheaton retired in the depended heavily on these young ca-
late 1920's, Leisenring took over as reerists.
supervising architect. Another mainstay With Brig. Gen. Louis H. Bash, the
of the organization was Joseph A. Bayer, unusually able and forceful officer who
who administered fiscal activities for was Chief of Construction from 1929
nearly twenty years. Increasingly, Cheat- to 1933, DeWitt took further steps to
ham felt the need for an "automatic strengthen the organization. He revived
supply of second lieutenants." Deter- specialization, classifying construction of-
mined to meet this need, he set out to ficers as such and restricting them to
get what the Quartermaster Corps had their specialty. Years later he explained,
never had before, men from West Point "I always operated on the theory that
36
graduating classes. a Jack-of-all-trades is master of none."
Arguing before the General Staff for More new blood was infused into the
a "fair share of the intelligent and well Construction Service. DeWitt personally
educated young officers who enter the combed the files in The Adjutant Gen-
Army," Cheatham won his case. Each eral's office, looking for likely candidates,
year a few vacancies in the Quarter- men with superior ratings and technical
master Corps would be open to Academy qualifications, who might be detailed to
37
graduates. But recruitment proved dif- the Quartermaster Corps.39 About a
ficult. The attitude of the faculty was dozen officers, including five with en-
discouraging; one instructor asked a gineering degrees, came into the Service
cadet if he wished to spend his life buying in this way. Meanwhile, Bash and his
groceries and issuing shoes. On several 38
visits to West Point, General Cheatham (1) Intervs with M. Scott Dickson, 10 Jul 61;
Brig Gen Clarence Renshaw, 13 Feb 59; Brig Gen
spoke to the first classmen, stressing the Christian F. Dreyer, 27 Feb 59. (2) Ltr, Hartman to
DeWitt, 16 Jun 31. QM 210.321.
36 39
Ltr, Cheatham to TAG, 10 Mar 28. QM (1) Interv with Gen John L. DeWitt, 10 Apr 57.
210.321 (Asgmts) 1928. See also WD Ltr AG 201.6 (1-12-33) Misc M, 17
Jan 33.
52 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
assistants were also on the lookout for termaster General, DeWitt stated: "There
good men. Among the outstanding of- were no weaknesses that I know of. We
ficers they recruited were 1st Lt. Kester did a good job."42
L. Hastings and Maj. Hugo E. Pitz. A With the advent of the New Deal, the
1918 West Point graduate, Hastings situation changed radically. Assuring
was destined to become The Quarter- the "host of unemployed citizens" that
master General. Pitz, a 1904 graduate first things would come first, and calling
of Rensselaer Poly, was to be a key for "action now," President Roosevelt
figure in construction during the 1930's— declared in his inaugural address: "Our
"a human dynamo who kept the train greatest primary task is to put people
on the track," one associate described to work." At the same time he pledged
40
him. A noteworthy change made by his administration to reducing the cost
DeWitt and Bash in 1930 was the revival of government and to "making income
of the name Construction Division—a balance outgo."43 The military appro-
change which served to remind con- priation act approved on 4 March 1933,
struction officers of the wartime ac- the same day Roosevelt took office, pro-
complishment. vided $12 million for routine main-
As the economic crisis deepened, as tenance but no new money for Army
the volume of construction in the United housing. Before the month was out,
States fell from $13.9 billion in 1929 to directives reached the War Department
$5.7 billion in 1932, Congress voted severely restricting expenditures and im-
modest increases in Army building funds. pounding construction money appro-
In the last three years of the Hoover priated under Hoover. The first "Hun-
administration, approximately $100 mil- dred Days" of the new administration
lion, roughly half of it for new con- produced the Civilian Conservation
struction, became available to Bash's Corps (CCC) and the Public Works
organization. The landmark legislation Administration (PWA), both designed
approved on 21 July 1932, the Emer- to created useful employment for the
gency Relief and Construction Act, set jobless. The Army came into the picture
aside more than $15 million for housing when Roosevelt ordered it to have
at Army posts. A program comprising 250,000 young men in the forests by
some sixty projects, including million- early summer and when the Chief of
dollar jobs at Barksdale, Langley, and Staff, General Douglas MacArthur, re-
Maxwell Fields, went forward during quested a large sum of PWA construc-
the early years of the depression.41 Re- tion money.44
vitalized and strengthened by DeWitt For the first time since the war, the
and Bash, the Construction Division Construction Division faced an emer-
took this work in stride. Recalling the gency. Fourteen hundred CCC camps
organization as it was in February 1933, 42
DeWitt Interv, 10 Apr 57.
when Bash succeeded him as The Quar- 43
H Doc 218, 87th Cong, 1st sess, Inaugural Addresses
of the Presidents of the United States, pp. 236-37.
40 44
Dreyer Interv, 27 Feb 59. (1) Annual Rpt of TQMG, 1933, pp. 62, 59.
41
(1) Summary of Appns, 1920-40. (2) 47 Stat. (2) Annual Rpt of the CofS, 1933. In Report of the
716. (3) Annual Rpt of TQMG, 1933, pp. 52-55. Secretary of War to the President, 1933 (Washington,
QM 319.1. 1933). PP- 15-l6, 19.
LEAN YEARS 53
to be ready by July, plus plans for notify the field: "Time is not available
spending $135 million in PWA funds for any extensive effort toward creating
asked for by the Chief of Staff—such designs, drawing new plans, or effecting
was the task confronting the Constructing variations in plans already proven to be
Quartermaster General, Brig. Gen. satisfactory."47 They made a good record.
Patrick W. Guiney, and his principal Within a 4O-week span, they awarded
assistant, Colonel Pitz, in the spring of contracts totaling $47.5 million, launched
1933. With more than 13,000,000 people purchase and hire jobs with a total
out of work, speed was "paramount" estimated cost of $10.8 million, and put
and time was "the dominant considera- more than 11,000 persons to work. Proj-
tion." "Everything had to be done before ects undertaken with PWA funds in-
it was started," Danielson recalled.45 cluded extensive construction at Aber-
Part of the load was lifted from Guiney's deen Proving Ground, a photolitho-
shoulders, when CCC construction was graphic plant at Fort Belvoir, a riding
decentralized to the corps area com- hall at Fort Myer, a chapel at Fort
manders, who surmounted the crisis by Meade, and needed improvements at
48
calling up Reserve officers and housing several dozen other posts.
the enrollees, temporarily, in tents. The An experiment designed to tide the
burden was lightened still further, when needy over the winter of 1933-34 pointed
the Army allotment under the 3.3- work relief in another direction. Less
billion-dollar PWA program was pared businesslike than Interior Secretary
to $61.4 million, less than half the sum Harold L. Ickes' PWA, but a good deal
MacArthur had requested. Even so, the faster, was the Civil Works Adminis-
undertaking was several times larger and tration (CWA), set up under Harry L.
far more urgent than anything attempted Hopkins in the fall of 1933. With a bil-
since 1918.46 lion dollars transferred by the President
The situation demanded extraordinary from PWA, Hopkins created jobs for
measures. Responding to the President's 4,000,000 people in thirty days. Par-
call for action, Guiney and Pitz hastened ticipating in this program, the Con-
to enlarge their organization, freeze de- struction Division had its first experience
signs, and place construction under way. with "make work" projects. In a few
They hired more civilian engineers. months, the division spent $24.3 million
They rounded up every available officer at 265 posts, cemeteries, and Guard
with construction experience, including camps to employ 55,000 men. The bulk
Danielson and Hartman, who came to of the money went for wages and vir-
Washington to help direct the effort. tually all the work was of a pick and
They issued standard blueprints, in- shovel variety: improving drainage, grad-
structed CQM's to brook no interference ing roads, and the like.49 Although CWA
by corps area and post commanders,
and persuaded the Secretary of War to 47
WD Ltr AG 600.12 IR (5-19-33) Misc M-D,
45
9 48Jun 33.
(1) WD Ltr AG 600.12 IR (5-19-33) Misc (1) QM 210.321. (2) Annual Rpt of TQMG,
M-D, 9 Jun 33. (2) Danielson Comments, p. 26. 1934, p. 20. (3) 1st Ind, 9 May 34, on Memo, G-4
46
Annual Rpt of TQMG, 1934, pp. 20, 25. QM for TQMG, 4 May 34. QM 600.1 (Public Works).
49
319.1. Annual Rpt of TQMG, 1934, pp. 20-21.
54 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
passed from the scene in early 1934, more lion in 1936—were the chief reliance;
and more money flowed into this type of but, because most of the money had to
activity, as first the Federal Works Ad- be spent for wages and much of the labor
ministration (FWA) and later the Works was unskilled, the Construction Divi-
Progress Administration (WPA) or- sion received a low return for its relief
ganized so-called "leaf-raking" projects dollars. An increase in the enlisted
in virtually every community. Mean- strength of the Army to 153,212 in 1936
time, the flow of PWA funds slowed to led to serious overcrowding. Men were
a trickle and appropriations for military housed in stables, attics, and gymnasiums;
construction all but ceased. and at Carlisle Barracks prisoners were
The Army housing and Air Corps confined in a Hessian guardhouse dating
programs, begun so hopefully in the from the Revolution. Without proper
late 1920's, came to a halt and mainte- maintenance, the military plant became
51
nance funds dwindled almost to the more and more dilapidated. Recalling
vanishing point. From 1934 through 1936 living conditions at run-down Army
only $14 million was appropriated for posts, one high-ranking officer declared:
military construction, and nearly $10 "We reached a situation where, at
million of this sum was for buildings times, an umbrella inside the house was
52
at West Point and for Hickam Field, as useful as oneoutside." Appeals for an end to m
Hawaii. The Wilcox Act, passed in 1935,
authorized construction of five strategic a resumption of constructive effort were
air bases in the United States and Alaska bootless. Year after year The Quarter-
and two major air depots, one in the master General drew up realistic esti-
southeast and one in the Rocky Moun- mates based on the Army's needs. Year
tain area, but no funds were voted for after year the Bureau of the Budget
this work until 1937, when Congress turned thumbs down, with a repetition
made available $8.8 million. Appropria- of the set phrase, "not in accord with
tions for maintenance and repairs hit the program of the President." Mean-
50
bottom during this period. (Table 3} 51
FWA and WPA funds—$5 million in (1) Summary of PWA and Work Relief Funds
Available to OQMG, FY's 1934-40. Opns Br Files,
1934, $19 million in 1935, and $28 mil- S.3 (WPA). (2) G-4/30552.
52
Testimony of Gen G. C. Marshall, 5 Aug 40. In
50
Incl with Memo, G-4 for TQMG, 8 May 36. S Subcomm of the Comm on Appns, 76th Gong, 3d
QM 600.3 (Misc) 1941. sess, Hearings on H R 10263, p. 6.
LEAN YEARS 55
while, the construction industry pushed Branch, G-4, led the movement to put
a campaign of militant opposition to the plan across. When the Bureau of
WPA. In a speech to the annual con- the Budget withheld approval, the Chair-
vention of the AGC early in 1936, Presi- men of the Military Affairs Committees,
dent William A. Klinger presented the Senator Morris Sheppard and Repre-
industry's "viewpoint of recovery eco- sentative Lister Hill, took a hand. The
nomics":53 result was an act approved on 26 August
The basic principle of priming the pump 1937. authorizing the appropriation of
is to put the water into the pump. This can't $25.5 million to be spent at forty-six
be done by taking a bucket of water and posts and stations. This authorization
spilling it over the pump, letting the great helped pave the way for a twelve-mil-
bulk of the water waste itself in holes in the lion-dollar appropriation on 11 June
ground . . . . A pump cannot be primed
by men that know nothing about the pump 1938. The first big break came ten days
that is to be primed. It cannot be primed by later, when President Roosevelt agreed
a Social Welfare worker . . . . It must to give the Construction Division $65
be done by somebody who knows something million—$50 million in PWA funds and
about the industry to be used as the primer.54 $15 million in WPA money—on con-
But the industry's thrusts had little ef- dition that contracts be let and work
fect. When Danielson's assistant, Lt. M. started by 15 August.56
Scott Dickson, a personal friend of At this point a new obstacle arose in
Hopkins', called on the WPA adminis- the person of the Constructing Quarter-
trator for help in accomplishing new master General, Brig. Gen. A. Owen
construction projects, Hopkins told him: Seaman, who declined to accept the
"I don't give a damn about your proj- money on the President's terms. An
ects. I just want to put men to work. I officer with thirty-eight years' service
don't give a damn if they dig a hole one and good political connections, Seaman
day and fill it up the next. I want them had succeeded General Guiney upon
working."55 the latter's death in December 1936.
As international tensions mounted af- The appointment had been made over
ter 1936, as the Army was augmented the opposition of construction officers
to 165,000 in 1937 and to 170,000 in who favored Danielson for the post.
1938, continued efforts were made to Peppery and unpredictable, Seaman had
resume the military construction pro- antagonized the General Staff, and his
gram suspended in 1933. Colonel Pitz refusal to take the proferred funds exas-
developed a plan for spending $162 mil- perated the Chief of Staff, General
lion over a period of years. Colonel Malin Craig. Sending for The Quarter-
Hartman, as chief of the Construction master General, Maj. Gen. Henry
Gibbins, Craig arranged to "sidetrack"
53
Seaman. On 21 June, the day the
(0 Ltr, BOB to SW, 25 Jan 36. G-4/30552 Sec
II. (2) WD Ltr AG 600.12 (5-1-37) Misc M-D,
56
4 May 37. (3) Memo, G-4 for CofS, 20 Jan 38. (1) G-4/30552 Sec III. (2) 50 Stat. 857. (3)
G—4/30552 Sec IV. (4) The Constructor, March 1936, 52 Stat. 651. (4) Ltr, Roosevelt to Ickes, 21 Jun
p. II. 38. AG 600.12 IR (3-11-33) Sec ID. (5) Memo, G-4
54
The Constructor, April 1936, pp. 5-6. for TQMG, 11 Aug 38. QM 600.I (Public Works)
55
Dickson Interv, 10 Jul 1961. 1938.
56 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
money became available, Colonel out of six. Overhead generally ran well
Hartman became executive officer of below 7 percent. Looking back over the
the Construction Division with full au- lean years of the 1920's and 1930's, one
thority to see that the President's wishes long-time Quartermaster officer re-
were carried out.57 Of this assignment flected:
Hartman later wrote: I feel confident that that loyal group of
I was ordered by the Chief of Staff to re- hard-working, experienced, competent, and
port to The Quartermaster General with efficient men and women inwardly glow with
instructions to assume full charge of the Con- a fierce pride and take great pleasure in the
struction Division to carry out the program. accomplishments of the Construction Division
General Seaman remained in the office with- of which they were a part. They can point
out authority and acted on all papers subject with justifiable pride to the beautiful monu-
to my approval. This was a most embarrass- mental buildings at the United States Mili-
ing situation since I was then a colonel and tary Academy at West Point and to the un-
his junior by some ten years.
58
obtrusive grandeur and beauty of the Me-
morial Amphitheater and Unknown Soldier's
Despite his awkward situation, Hartman Tomb at Arlington. Who can deny being
had the program under way by 15 Au- impressed with such tremendous plants as
gust.59 His subsequent success was but the posts of Fort Benning, Fort Sill, Fort
Bragg, and Fort Knox that were built within
one of many achieved by the Construction the span of a single generation?
60
Division.
With but half a billion dollars to The list of accomplishments was long.
spend over a 19-year span, the division But whether the Construction Division
did a remarkable job, providing per- would be equal to a major emergency
manent housing for 75,000 officers and was open to question.
men, erecting more than a dozen modern
Air Corps stations, enlarging older gen- Preparedness and Public Works
eral hospitals and building several new
ones, constructing schools, laboratories, A construction force capable of meeting
depots, and memorials, and updating almost any emergency existed in the
the military plant. High quality at low civil works organization of the Corps of
cost was the Quartermaster hallmark. Engineers. A nationwide network of
An annual prize awarded by the Asso- field offices, a host of professional civilian
ciation of Federal Architects went to employees, and a select group of officers
the Construction Division three years imparted strength to the Engineer De-
partment. A $2.5-billion program of
57
(1) Statement of Gen Hartman (prepared in navigation, flood control, and fortifi-
response to questionnaire from the authors), 5 Jul
55, pp. 3-4. (2) Danielson Comments, pp. 18-19.
cations projects, undertaken in the years
(3) Memo, M. H. McIntyre for the President, 19 of peace, contributed to the depart-
Dec 36. (4) Ltr, Dickson to McIntyre, 20 Dec 36. ment's stability.61 Vast engineering enter-
Last two in Roosevelt Papers, OF25-X, WD QMG,
1933-34. (5) Intervs with Mr. Dickson, 10 Jul 61; prises tested its capacity to perform ex-
Brig Gen George P. Tyner, 28 Sep 55; Maj Gen
60
James H. Burns, 24 May 56. (6) Memo, Gibbins for Answers to Questionnaire, Violante to authors,
Rcd, 21 Jun 38. QM 625 1935-41. (7) Memo, G-4 25 Sep 57.
61
for SGS, 23 Jun 38. G-4/22853-27. Table, prepared by OUSW, Sep 41, title:
58
Statement of Gen Hartman, 5 Jul 55, p. 4. Constr Opns, FY's 1920-39. USW Files, Misc and
59
Ltr, Craig to Ickes, 15 Aug 38. G-4/29778. Sub—Constr Transfer, QM-CE.
LEAN YEARS 57
gineers was to be more temperate. movement. During the fall of 1920 ef-
Flanking movements would replace forts focused on reviving the Jones-
frontal assaults. A prospectus of the Reavis proposal for a department of
public works department contained this public works. Then, at the lame duck
commendation of the Corps: session of the 66th Congress convened
While the work of the Army engineers has in December of that year, a joint reso-
been open to many objections and has often lution established a committee of the
been accompanied by delays and waste- House and Senate to study the executive
fulness, it has been conducted with the mini- branch of the government with a view to
mum of graft and the minimum of petty reorganization. In May 1921 the Presi-
political partisanship. And this has been not
so much because of the men themselves, but dent appointed a representative to work
because they were given a high standing, were with the committee. Privately, Harding
suitably protected in their positions, and told industry leaders that his adminis-
could not be peremptorily discharged with- tration would press for a public works
out real cause. It is the principle in- department.66
volved in this matter which should be pre- The Engineer posture was defensive;
served. . . . To apply this principle to
the permanent technical force of a Depart- the attitude was one of watchful waiting.
ment of Public Works, it will be necessary To combat the charge "neither en-
that the members of this force should be given gineers nor soldiers," the Corps adopted
as secure a tenure of office as is given to offi- a career development program designed
cers of the Army and Navy. to give every young officer a degree from
The Engineers' contention that public a civilian engineering college in addi-
works experience was essential to pre- tion to experience with troops and civil
paredness received this endorsement: works. The latter day Army Engineer
was likely to be an alumnus of Cornell,
It is realized [the prospectus stated] that
modern war demands the services of nearly California, or MIT, as well as a top
the entire engineering profession, and pro- graduate of West Point. Master's de-
vision should therefore be made for the full- grees were plentiful, and here and there
est use desired by the Army of the officers of was a Ph.D.67 To build support within
this new department. They should be and the Army, the Engineers engaged in
can be as eligible for immediate detail with
the Army in time of war or other emergency missionary work. A lecture by General
as are the present officers of Army engineers Patrick at the General Staff College em-
who are engaged on civil work. bodied their message. Emphasizing the
65 "vital importance" of civil works in de-
How the plan would work was hazy.
A determined offensive soon got rolling.
veloping Engineer officers, Patrick stated:
The Federated American Engineering This is a matter which is not thoroughly
Societies, led by Herbert Hoover, spear- understood by the army at large, . . .
headed the drive for legislative action. and it is known that in many quarters there
The Associated General Contractors as- 66
(1) The Bulletin of the AGC, January 1921, p. 33.
sumed a major role in the struggle, and (2) 41 Stat. 1083. (3) 42 Stat. 3. (4) A. C. Oliphant,
"The Need for a Bureau of Public Works," The
its aggressive managing director, General Constructor, November 1925, p. 23.
Marshall, became the firebrand of the 67
(1) 025 Part 2. (2) Incl with OCE Memo, 13
Jun 28. 316 (Office Methods and Opns). (3) Data
The Constructor, January 1922, pp. 65, 86. prepared in EHD, Education of CE Officers, 1920-39.
LEAN YEARS 59
70
is a decided prejudice against the Corps oftion. Reaction to these developments
Engineers being charged with the conduct was mixed. "A monstrous wrong," said
of such civil works. To us it seems clearly
President Arthur S. Bent of the AGC.
evident that this is due to a misunderstanding
"To indict a great industry, to accuse
and misconception of the relation which this
duty bears to the work of the Corps of En- its outstanding leaders of treason to this
gineers in war. . . . We must have in Government of the most despicable
the permanent Army a sufficient number character, is to attack the morale of the
of trained military engineers to guide and
entire country and feed the dangerous
direct our reserve officers until such time as
they shall have become thoroughly conver- fires of distrust and lawlessness."71 By
sant with military conditions. . . . We contrast, Col. Clarence O. Sherrill, the
know of no other way in which this trainingEngineer officer who served as principal
can be secured except by the employment of military aide to Presidents Harding
engineer officers on public works.68
and Coolidge, expressed the view:
While attempting to shore up their po- "Take the graft and absolute loss of
sition, the Engineers tried to steer clear funds through graft to the Govern-
of controversy. Much as they wanted the ment . . . . I feel no hesitation
military construction function, they were in saying that if that work had been
69
content to bide their time. If, as the under the Corps of Engineers .
72
saying went, the first step in any war that would never have happened."
was to reorganize the Quartermaster The government lost every case. Im-
Corps, their opportunity would come. puting political motives to the Republi-
Aiding the cause of the Engineers can administration, Crowell and his
were proceedings instituted by the Jus- fellow defendants retained as counsel
tice Department late in 1922. Around Henry L. Stimson, Secretary of War
Thanksgiving Day, Attorney General in the Taft administration, and Frank J.
Harry M. Daugherty filed lawsuits to- Hogan, a prominent Washington lawyer.
taling $55 million against eleven of the The defense attorneys promptly filed
sixteen World War cantonment con- demurrers. Appearing before the Su-
tractors. A month later, after examining preme Court of the District of Columbia
the evidence of the Graham committee in the fall of 1923, they assailed the in-
and hearing a number of witnesses, dictment as "an attempt to turn a dif-
among them, reportedly, the wartime ference of 73 political opinion into a charge
Chief of Engineers, a special grand of crime." On 30 January 1924 Judge
jury indicted former Assistant Secretary Adolph A. Hoehling sustained the de-
of War Benedict Crowell for conspiracy
to defraud the government. Charged as 70
New York Times, November 25, 1922, p. 15;
co-conspirators were Starrett, Lundoff, December 5, 1922, p. 10; December 31, 1922, p. I.
71
Tuttle, and three other members of the Address before Annual Mtg of AGC at Los
Committee on Emergency Construc- Angeles, 30 Jan 23. Reprinted in The Constructor,
February 1923, p. 22.
72
H and S Joint Comm on Reorgn of the Admin
Br of the Govt, 68th Cong, 1st sess, Hearings on S Jt
68
Lecture by Gen Patrick, 10 Feb 20. 025 Part 2. Res 282, p. 744.
69 73
(1) Ltr, CofEngrs to Col S. M. Felton, 24 May The Constructor, November 1923, p. 27. See also
26. 400.12 Part 33. (2) Memo, CofEngrs for Rcd, 13 New York Times, October 4, 1923, p. 25; October 5,
Jun 28. 020 (Engrs, Office, Chief of) Jan 21-Sep 40. 1923, p. 21.
60 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
murrers, thus dismissing the indictments. my point was that ... it was not the
The civil actions also failed. One by one, function of the Engineer Corps, nor was it
so regarded, I take it, by the Corps itself, to
suits against the contractors were thrown point out to Congress or to the Senator who
out of court. In the only case which went might have been responsible for this measure
to trial, the jury took just three minutes that it was less desirable economically than
to bring in a verdict for the defendants. a number76of other projects which were be-
As General Marshall put it, the prosecu- fore them.
tions "begun with a shout" had "ended Other witnesses contended that the new
with a whisper."74 Nevertheless, suspicion department would strengthen national
of wrongdoing lingered in the public defense. Looking at the matter from the
mind. The "colossal cantonment steals" standpoint of preparedness, Professor
of World War I—the phrase is H. L. William F. Willoughby of the Institute
Mencken's—became an American myth, for Government Research averred:
and echoes of scandal reverberated down "Should war break out, the Government
through the years. would have its engineering ability prac-
Early in 1924, while the construction tically mobilized in one department,
world awaited Judge Hoehling's de- available for use . . . . Of course,"
cision, a joint committee of Congress he added, "it would then work under
began hearings on proposals to reorganize military direction."77 A plan emerged
the government. An imposing array of for detailing Engineer officers to the
witnesses appeared in support of a public public works department. Extolling the
works department—officials, professors, advantages of this plan to the Engineers,
and industry spokesmen. Propounding General Marshall stated: "I think it
the classic argument for consolidation, would be a distinct addition to their
Secretary of Commerce Hoover testified: training . . . they would go back
"At the present moment we have a great to the service and to the Army with a
many departments doing construction better development and a greater asset
work. Congress today has no knowledge than can now be had . . . where
of the totals of our construction activ- their line of construction is limited."78
ities."75 Speaking for the American Soci- Opposition came from expected quar-
ety of Civil Engineers, Leonard Metcalf ters, the Secretary of War and the Corps
elaborated on this theme: of Engineers. Called before the joint
The Engineer Corps stands rather as committee, Secretary Weeks presented
an executor of works than as a plan- a judicious argument for keeping things
ner . . . . The question of a desirableas they were. After weighing the pros
project is, of course, a relative question. and cons of transferring rivers and har-
There are thousands of projects which are
perfectly feasible. The relative economic bors work from the War Department,
desirability may be different, however. And he concluded:
It is apparent that the principal points
74
General R. C. Marshall, Jr., "Cantonment upon which decision might rest are in dis-
Suits Now in Discard," The Constructor, November
1927.
75
P. 19. 76
H and S Joint Comm on Reorgn of the Admin Ibid., pp. 253-55.
77
Br of the Govt, 68th Gong, 1st sess, Hearings on S Ibid., p. 72.
78
Jt Res 282, p. 344 Ibid., p. 583.
LEAN YEARS 61
pute; moreover, that they are not of a charac-
the traditional tiger getting his taste of
ter to admit of practical proof one way or human blood."80
the other. ... In this connection, it
should be remembered that the present ar- The testimony of Beach and Sherrill
rangement has a record of many years of produced a sharp reaction within con-
struction circles. In a resolution of cen-
successful operation to its credit, whereas the
proposed arrangement has little more than sure, the executive board of the Ameri-
a theory with which to support its claim. can Society of Civil Engineers branded
I want to say at this point, Mr. Chairman,
the statements of these officers as "mani-
that I think one of the finest exhibitions in
our Government has been the conduct of festly unfair and grossly inaccurate" and
the rivers and harbors improvements under deplored their "wholesale charges of graft
the Engineer Corps of the Army. and incompetency." The resolution went
That the work could have been more eco- on to urge that, "in the best interest
nomically done under civilian administration,
of the people of the United States," all
79
I do not believe.
river and harbor work be placed "under
Last minute witnesses, appearing at their civilian and not under military engineer-
own request, were General Beach and ing direction."81 A press release issued
Colonel Sherrill. Disposing of insinua- by the society raised the following ques-
tions about "little creeks and streams" tions: did the Corps of Engineers honestly
(the Board of Engineers for Rivers and believe that members of the profession
Harbors, created in 1902, was an effec- outside its own ranks were untrust-
tive safeguard against pork-barrel proj- worthy; did the Engineers deny that the
ects), Beach warned the committee building of the wartime cantonments
against flying to ills they knew not of. was a creditable achievement; did the
Civilians, he emphasized, would be far Chief of Engineers endorse charges which
more responsive to political pressure than no court had upheld?82 Joining in the
military men. Questioned about the wis- condemnation of Beach and Sherrill,
dom of detailing Engineers to the pro- Frederick L. Cranford, president of the
posed department, he ridiculed the idea AGC, labeled their attacks on brother
that officers could be effectively trained engineers as "despicable and damnable."
outside the Army. Taking a bolder line He contended that the Corps had "fixed
than the Chief, Colonel Sherrill made a upon a policy of destroying the estab-
strong bid for more construction func- lished method of conducting construction
tions. High on his list was the work of the work in this country" and would use
Constructing Quartermaster General. any means to accomplish its purpose.
Both Beach and Sherrill identified pro- Unless the Engineers were stopped,
ponents of a public works department virtually all federal construction would
with the "vicious" cost-plus system. In sooner or later come under their con-
fact, they suggested, the real purpose of trol. Only by the creation of a public
these men was to fasten that system on
the government. Alluding to cost-plus
profiteering in the recent war, General 80
Ibid., pp. 695-715, 743-746.
81
Beach observed: "It was a good deal like Resolution, ASCE, Board of Direction, Apr 8,
1924. Reprinted in The Constructor, May 1924, p. 34.
82
79
Rpt, ASCE Comm on Public Relations. Re-
Ibid., pp. 116-17. printed in The Constructor, May 1924, pp. 34, 51—52.
62 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
works department could this blow be vided that no navigation or flood control
83
averted. project would be done by contract if
If civil engineers and general con- bids exceeded by 25 percent the esti-
tractors believed a change was neces- mated cost of the job.86 By 1924 the En-
sary, the joint committee of Congress gineers were doing 75 percent of their
did not. In its report, released in June work by day labor as against 12 percent
1924, the committee rejected the idea in 1900; and capital investment in
of a public works department. On the government-owned equipment was about
subject of the Engineers' civil responsi- $50 million as compared with $2.5 mil-
87
bilities, its findings were as follows: "The lion a quarter of a century earlier.
assignment of Army Engineers to river Condemning the Corps' use of day labor,
and harbor work is at the present time Marshall told a House committee:
the principal means whereby these of- The Bolshevistic regime of Russia favors
ficers can acquire the engineering ex- the taking of industry by the Government,
perience necessary to fit them to meet the nationalization of industry, and its opera-
the demands put upon them in time of tion by individuals on the Government pay-
war; and, on the other hand, there is a roll. The Corps of Engineers of the Army
favors the application of the same principle
measure of economy in using personnel to the Government work which falls under
of the Corps of Engineers on necessary its control. . . . I t actually operates
public works of a nonmilitary charac- whatever industry it controls as the soviet
ter." The committee recommended Government in Russia would operate it.
against a transfer of functions from the He went on to argue, in this case justly,
Corps.84 Terming this verdict "illogical" that Engineer estimates were too low,
and complaining of "political pressure since they made no allowance for hid-
strongly brought to bear in this way and den costs, such as interest and insurance.
that," General Marshall sounded the Extending over four years, Marshall's
call for a new offensive. Leaving the crusade failed.88 Regularly, bills were
campaign for legislative action largely introduced to compel the Corps to do
to the Federated Engineering Societies, more work by contract; with equal
85
he launched attacks along another front. regularity, Congress declined to enact
In speeches and articles, in testimony such legislation.
before Congressional committees, in One of several proposals for a public
every forum open to him, Marshall de- works department discarded by Congress
nounced the Engineers as socialistic. during the Coolidge administration, the
Increasingly, river and harbor improve- Wyant bill of 1927 called forth a thought-
ments were being accomplished under ful statement by Secretary of War Davis.
the system known as day labor or pur- Taking up the "specious arguments,
chase and hire. The building of the speculations, and postulates" advanced
Panama Canal had furnished a striking by the opposition, he disposed of them,
demonstration of the system's effective-
ness; and an Act of July 27, 1916, pro- 86
39 Stat. 411.
87
H Subcomm of the Comm on the Judiciary,
83
The Constructor, November 1924, p. 38. 69th Cong, 1st sess, Hearings on H R 8902, pp. 1-12.
84 88
H Doc 356, 68th Cong, 1st sess, 3 Jun 24, p. 21. (1) Ibid., p. 34. (2) The campaign can be
85
The Constructor, June 1924, pp. 28, 50. followed in the pages of The Constructor, 1924-28.
LEAN YEARS 63
one by one. To consolidate all engineer- in the Corps. Old policies gave way to
ing in one department would be as sense- new, and moderate views prevailed. A
less as to consolidate all chemistry. En- cost accounting system, the first in the
gineering was a means to an end, not an federal government, produced more ac-
end in itself. Each operating unit ought curate estimates and enabled contractors
to have its own technical force. There to bid successfully for river and harbor
was no advantage in bigness as such; jobs. A 300-million-dollar program of
quite the contrary. Competition made flood control, adopted in the wake of
for efficiency. Turning to questions of the 1927 disaster, was designed to make
the Engineers' competence, the Secretary maximum use of contracting firms. Work
pointed out that there were no complaints was "packaged" in such a way that small
from users of the waterways and people concerns could bid as well as large;
of the river valleys. The service of the specifications were revised to throw less
Corps had been exceptional. After men- risk on contractors; and the Corps' cost
tioning the Panama Canal, the work on and experience records were opened to
the Mississippi, the deepening of the prospective bidders. In a message to the
Great Lakes harbors and channels, and AGC convention at Chicago in February
the improvements along the coasts, Davis 1929, Brig. Gen. Thomas H. Jackson
went on to state: "The Corps of Engineers of the Mississippi River Commission ex-
of the Army has built up a degree of plained that a certain amount of day
respect and a capacity for teamwork labor was "vital" to the Corps' existence,
which I do not believe are equaled, and but, he said: "We want this; we want
certainly not surpassed in either private no more."90 On becoming Chief of En-
or Government organizations. . . . gineers in the fall of 1929, Maj. Gen.
No other bureau can hope to achieve this Lytle Brown announced that all river
coherence without the fraternal back- and harbor work would be done by con-
ground of war sacrifice which is its in- tract except where it was "manifestly
spiration." Predicting that in future wars impracticable or a waste of government
engineering would be "even more im- funds."91 Industry spokesmen applauded
portant and far more complicated" the "new spirit of sincerity and coopera-
than in the past, Davis held that "a com- tion."92 Unquestionably, a change in
petent and versatile" Corps of Engineers the management of the AGC did much
was essential for adequate defense. The to promote this spirit. General Marshall's
civil works responsibility was a guaran- resignation in May 1928 helped usher in
tee that such a corps would be availa- an era of good feeling between con-
ble.89 tractors and the Corps of Engineers.
As the turbulent twenties drew to a Hoover's elevation to the Presidency
close, the Engineers moved to heal the gave fresh impetus to the movement
breach with industry. A younger genera-
tion of officers moved into key positions 90
Brig. Gen. Thomas H. Jackson, "A New Policy
on Flood Control Work," The Constructor, April 1929,
89
Ltr, Davis to Rep William Williamson, 25 Jan pp.91 26-29.
28. In H Comm on Expenditures in the Executive Ltr, Brown to Editor. In The Constructor, Novem-
Depts, 70th Cong, 1st sess, Hearings on H R 8127, ber 1929, p. 51.
92
pp. 3-6. lbid., October 1930, p. 24.
64 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
After reviewing the wartime experience Failing to rally much support, Harris
and evaluating current plans in the light tried to start the ball rolling with the
of this experience, a committee headed help of Frink and Hartman.
by Maj. Raymond G. Moses of the Battling the high tide of pacifism and
Corps of Engineers submitted a 96-page isolationism, the planners made uncer-
study of the problem. Gravely critical tain progress. Reflecting the mood of
of existing plans, the committee urged the American people were the Nye com-
prompt corrective action. The fact had mittee investigation of the international
to be faced: mobilization would require arms traffic and the branding of muni-
a major construction effort. Plans had tions manufacturers as "merchants of
to be made accordingly. The committee death"; the passage of neutrality acts
underscored the need for firm con- in 1935 and 1937; and the embargo on
struction requirements, for a survey of exports of war materials to belligerents
the building industry, for uniform types in the Spanish Civil War. As late as
of emergency contracts, for standard October 1937 the President's appeal
plans and specifications, and for a strong for a quarantine against aggressors evoked
organization in the field. Most impor- no popular response. So pervasive was
tant, Moses and his colleagues held: this mood that it infected even top levels
"There should be centralized control of of the War Department. In this situa-
114
all construction activities in the Army." tion, planning funds were hard to come
Armed with the findings of the Moses by, and planning continuity was diffi-
group, Colonel Harris called together cult to maintain. Much that needed doing
representatives of G-4 and the Arms remained undone. Nevertheless, the plan-
and Services in September 1934. After ners scored some gains.
describing the "mammoth size" of the Assistant Secretary Harry H. Wood-
emergency construction task and re- ring scored one gain on 14 June 1935,
ceiving a lukewarm response, Harris when he approved drafts of two emer-
told the others bluntly: gency construction contracts. Developed
It is absolutely necessary to get this con- in co-operation with the AGC, these
struction control actively oriented and begin forms would supersede the controversial
to get some plans for its accomplishment. It agreement used in World War I. The
will be the first load placed on industrial first, designed "for relatively small proj-
America when war is declared. We must ects where the scope of the work is known,
get requirements from the Corps Area Com-
manders for their needs. We must get re- and there is small probability of material
quirements f o r industrial needs . . . . changes and where time will permit
We have got to analyze the priorities and get competitive bidding," was a fixed-price
that coordinated. If the Corps Area Com- contract with an "escalator" clause.
mander should not be charged with con- This clause provided for increases in the
struction, we must get it changed . . . .contract price when wages or prices
The thing we have to plan is what we are
going to do and how.115 rose. The second form was a negotiated
"evaluated fee" contract. Based on the
114
AIC Rpt on Problem 17, Conversion and Con- cost-plus-a-percentage principle, this
struction of Facilities, 21 Feb 34. QM 020 (Constr) agreement introduced a novel method
1921-39.
115
Min of Mtg in Plng Br OASW, II Sep 34. of computing fees. In 1917-18 contrac-
G-4/20052-55. tors had received a percentage of the
LEAN YEARS 71
cost of the work regardless of the quality fered. The view of the using services
of their performance or the efficiency of was expressed by a Chemical Warfare
their operations. The new form pro- officer in September 1934: "Control of
vided a bonus for good work and a pen- construction facilities through a central-
alty for bad. Although it perpetuated ized point in time of war would break
the basic defect of all percentage con- down of its own weight. All our plans
tracts by using actual costs to measure are built around decentralized opera-
the value of contractors' services, it tions."119 Six months later Ordnance
nevertheless gave the War Department made a bid to handle its own construc-
a larger measure of control.116 tion: Colonel Harris proposed that the
Another significant advance was in using service appoint the officers who
the field of engineering. According to would direct the work.120 Quartermaster
one informed estimate, it would take a officers opposed this change as a viola-
technical force of 25 to 50 men 5 years tion of the National Defense Act. Writing
to complete preparations—drawings, to the Assistant Secretary, Colonel Frink
specifications, bills of materials, and explained:
layouts—for a major war construction
117
effort. "Of course," as Frink recalled, This law . . . was brought about
by the chaotic conditions existing in the
"the main trouble was always money." early stages of the World War where . . .
In the summer of 1935, with the help valuable time was lost, much confusion
of Colonel Hartman, who had recently created, and greatly increased costs were
become chief of the Construction Branch, directly attributable to the systems of control
G-4, General Guiney was able to secure and supervision advocated in the proposed
changes.121
$55,000 in relief money. "A godsend,"
Frink called it. Work on the 700-series There the matter rested.
plans began anew in the fall. In the The trend appeared to be in the right
spring of 1937 revised drawings went to direction. On becoming Chief of Staff
the General Staff, and Hartman had the in October 1935, General Malin Craig
satisfaction of approving them for the reviewed the M-day plans and ordered
War Department. Although much had a complete revision. By early 1936 a
been accomplished, the plans were still three-man committee, headed by Colonel
far from complete.118 Hartman, was at work restudying the
Meanwhile, an attempt to dilute the problem of emergency shelter. Extremely
already weak authority of the Construct- critical of decentralization, the Hartman
ing Quartermaster came to nothing. Who committee received strong support from
would build for Ordnance and Chemical corps area commanders, who held that
Warfare? On this issue opinions dif- the War Department's "makeshift"
116
policy of using racetracks, fairgrounds,
Ltr, Harris to Bash, 16 Aug 35. QM 160 II.
The contract forms are in QM 160 (Constr Contract)
and QM 160 (Evaluated Fee Constr Contract).
117 119
Memo, H. L. Burt for TQMG, 16 Jan 26. QM Min of Mtg in Plng Br OASW, 11 Sep 34.
381 (Policies, Precedents, etc.) 1925-40. G-4/20052-55.
118 120
(1) Answers to Questionnaire, Frink to authors, Draft of Amendment I to Plng Br Circ 3, 22
22 Apr 64. (2) Memo, G-4 for CofS, 8 Jul 35. G- Mar 35. QM 600.1 (1918-41).
121
4/20052-55. (3) Ltr, TQMG to TAG, 24 Apr 37, and Memo, Frink for ASW, 23 Apr 35. QM 600.1
1st Ind, 5 May 37. QM 600.1 (Mobl) 1936. (1918-41).
72 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
122
and public buildings was not feasible. plan thus reaffirmed the Army's faith in
The committee's stand for centraliza- the war potential of private enter-
tion would be reflected, though faintly, prise. Johnson's greatest contributions
in later mobilization plans. Louis A. were not to construction planning but
Johnson, who succeeded Woodring as to production. It was largely because
Assistant Secretary of War in June 1937, of his efforts that the War Department
gave new impetus to industrial planning. was able to encourage industrial prepara-
In collaboration with his executive, tions for war, through a program of
Col. James H. Burns—"the finest officer production studies and educational or-
127
in the U.S. Army," in Johnson's ders in the late 1930's.
123
words —the new Assistant Secretary The result of General Craig's 1936
tried to get rearmament rolling. During directive, the Protective Mobilization
his first year in office, he traveled Plan (PMP) of 1938 envisioned a moder-
50,000 miles, preaching the gospel of ate-sized, balanced force for the defense
preparedness.124 of U.S. territory.128 Emphasizing the
Under Johnson's leadership, progress purely defensive purpose of the plan,
on the industrial front was good. With Secretary Woodring observed:
the co-operation of DuPont and other In general, the protective mobilization plan
armaments manufacturers, the Chiefs visualizes in the event of a major war im-
of Ordnance and Chemical Warfare mediate employment of an initial protective
selected sites and developed typical plans force of approximately 400,000 men. This
for plants to be built in an emergency. force will comprise existing units of the Regu-
The setting up of a Wilmington office lar Army a n d National Guard . . . .
Under the protection of this initial defensive
in 1937 enabled the Ordnance Depart- force there will be progressively mobilized,
ment to maintain close liaison with trained, and equipped such larger national
DuPont engineers.125 Guidelines for fu- armies as129the defense of the United States
ture plant construction appeared in the demands.
War Construction Plan of 1937, which To be ready eight months after M-day
was based on the most recent edition was a force of a million men. Plans for
of IMP, published in 1936. Under the full-scale mobilization of a 4-million-man
construction plan, the number of new army remained somewhat nebulous.
plants would be held to the minimum PMP contemplated virtually no con-
and such building as was necessary struction. Regular Army divisions would
would be done by industry under the assemble at home stations; National
supervision of the using services.126 The Guard divisions at state summer camps.
122
(1) Kreidberg and Henry, History of Military The men would live in existing barracks
Mobilization, p. 475. (2) WDGS SO 5, 7 Jan 36. (3)
127
Remarks of Col Hartman at G-I Conf, 4-16 May 36. (1) Thomson and Mayo, Procurement and Supply,
AG123 381 (7CA GMP-Gen). (4) AG 381 (7-7-33). pp. 19-21. (2) R. Elberton Smith, The Army and
Interv with Louis A. Johnson, 9 May 56. Economic Mobilization, UNITED STATES ARMY
124
Annual Rpt of ASW, 1938, p. 19. IN WORLD WAR II (Washington, 1959), pp.
125
Harry C. Thomson and Lida Mayo, The 61-65. (3) Col. H. K. Rutherford, "Educational
Ordnance Department: Procurement and Supply, UNITED Orders," Army Ordnance, November-December 1939,
STATES ARMY IN WORLD WAR II (Washing- l62ff.
128
ton, 1960), pp. 11-12. For a detailed discussion of PMP see Kreidberg
126
Planning Br OASW, War Construction Plan, and Henry, History of Military Mobilization, ch. XIV.
129
1937, pp. 15-16. EHD Files. Report of the Secretary of War, 1938, p. 2.
LEAN YEARS 73
and in tents. Corps area commanders he charted the M-day organization and
would provide tent floors, kitchens, and considered ways to streamline con-
utilities. Moving overseas one month tracting methods. In pushing these prep-
after M-day, the initial protective force arations, Hartman faced several ob-
would vacate shelter which would then be stacles. One was Seaman, who scorn-
130
occupied by successive groups of men. fully referred to the mobilization struc-
133
Whether a large-scale construction effort tures as "cigar boxes," and who failed
would be undertaken in later stages of to foresee another war.134 A second was
mobilization was left up in the air. The the lack of requirements. With no idea
plan read: how many units of what type and size
The acquisition of additional land and the might someday have to be housed,
construction of cantonments, or provision of Hartman framed his typical layouts
housing facilities, for troops and installations around the battalion. He later explained:
not included in the Protection Mobilization
Plan but which may be required at a later In the plans that I formulated I conceived
period is a function of The Quartermaster of block units each complete with water,
General and will be provided as directed sewage, housing, etc. These block units
by the War Department. He will maintain would care for roughly a battalion of men
standard plans for buildings, and groups of and could be modified for varying type units
buildings, and will so draw his plans that he and multiplied for larger units. In addition,
will be able to undertake construction by 30 there were plans for special type installations.
M if so ordered.131 I believed, in general, that it was much easier
After the sidetracking of General to modify an existing detail plan than it was
135
to begin from scratch on a new one.
Seaman in the summer of 1938, Hartman
fell to work on the plans for war con- During Hartman's stay in the division,
struction. Securing $63,000 from WPA, the plans progressed steadily. But whether
he hired a staff to complete the 700 series they would ever be put to use no one
drawings. Using some $200,000 in PWA knew.
money, he let contracts for a new building A vast program of military construction
at Fort Myer, Virginia; ostensibly a to be undertaken on or before M-day—
warehouse, this structure was designed the War Department's plans did not
to hold a large emergency force of en- foresee this eventuality. Prophets who
gineers and draftsmen. With the help foretold such a program and who warned
of the Air Corps, he obtained aerial that construction would be the controlling
mosaics to supplement the division's factor in mobilization were little honored.
collection of post maps, some of which Nevertheless, their vision was clear. In
were hopelessly out of date.132 Meantime, Biblical imagery, the stone which the
130
Testimony of Gen Tyner, 7 Aug 41. In Truman builders rejected would become the head-
Comm Hearings, Part 7, pp. 1994-97. stone of the corner.
131
The Protective Mobilization Plan, 1939, sec.
V, p. II. AG 381 (10-31-38) (Misc) G-M.
132
(1) QM 600.1 (Funds—Work Projects) II.
133
(2) Memo, Maj Arthur R. Wilson for Budget and Interv with Gen A. Owen Seaman, 2 Oct 57.
134
Legis Plng Br WDGS, 4 Oct 38. G-4/29778. (3) Testimony of Gen Seaman, 7 Aug 41. In Truman
Interv with Mr. Leisenring, 5 Jun 57. (4) QM 600.92 Comm Hearings, Part 7, p. 2021.
135
1941. Statement of Gen Hartman, 5 Jul 55, p. I.
CHAPTER III
When Roosevelt learned what was And this estimate did not include the
happening, he summoned his advisers aircraft plants, which would cost in the
to a second meeting. He wanted planes, neighborhood of $40 million. The plan-
he told them, and they were trying to ners did their best to economize, pro-
give him everything but planes. Besides, posing to build as little and as cheaply
he said, he was not inclined to ask Con- as possible. When the aircraft industry
gress for more than $500 million. Before promised greatly to increase its capacity,
the discussion ended, the President had they dropped the seven factories. Still,
nevertheless agreed to accept roughly enough money was not in sight. Unless
one-quarter of the Army's program. He the President would ask for more, much
would call for a total of half a billion work that the planners believed essential
14
dollars: $200 million for nonair items, would have to be postponed.
$180 million for planes, and $120 mil-
lion for other air requirements. Of this The Quest for Funds
last amount $62 million would be ear-
13
marked for construction. When Congress convened in January
The War Department was planning 1939, Roosevelt proposed "a minimum
15
more construction than could possibly program for the necessities of defense."
be had for such a sum. Panama, Alaska, The price was appropriately modest.
Puerto Rico, the southeastern United The regular budget for fiscal year 1940,
States, and New England were each to submitted to Congress on 5 January,
have a big, new air base. Some forty contained $470 million in funds for the
existing Air Corps stations were slated for War Department plus $20.7 million in
expansion. There was talk of four more contract authorizations. This request,
bombing and gunnery ranges and at which was not much larger than the
least two more air depots. Considerable previous year's appropriations, provided
work would be done on seacoast and almost nothing for expansion. Only
antiaircraft defenses, and three new posts $28.5 million was to go for construction,
would be built in the Canal Zone to land, and maintenance. A week later, in
house an increase in the Coast Artillery a special message to Congress, the Presi-
garrison there. The list of proposed in- dent asked for $525 million for defense—
dustrial projects included the seven air- $450 million for the Army, $65 million
craft factories and important additions for the Navy, and $10 million for private
to the Frankford and Springfield Ar- schools which would train civilian pilots.
senals, Aberdeen Proving Ground, the The Army's share would be apportioned
Signal Corps laboratory at Fort Mon- as follows: $300 million for the Air Corps;
mouth, New Jersey, and the aeronautical $110 million for critical items of equip-
laboratory at Wright Field, Ohio. How ment for the 400,000 men of the Initial
to build so much with so little money was Protective Force; $32 million for edu-
a difficult problem indeed. General cational orders; and $8 million for sea-
Arnold predicted that the Air Corps 14
(1) Memo, Arnold for Craig, 28 Nov 38. WPD
alone would require $194 million in 3807-28A. (2) Memo, Johnson for the President,
construction funds before 30 June 1940. 28 Dec 38. (3) Memo, G-4 for TQMG, 20 Feb 39.
Last two in G-4/31265 Sec I.
15
13
Public Papers and Addresses of Franklin D. Roosevelt,
lbid. 1939, P. 73.
78 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
coast defenses, in the United States, the were, from the War Department's stand-
Canal Zone, and Hawaii, and for a point, far from sufficient.
transisthmian highway in Panama. In Congress lost little time in taking up
addition to his big request, the President the President's proposals. On 17 January
made another smaller one for $27 million the Military Affairs Committees of both
to strengthen the Panama garrison. He houses began hearings on his rearma-
recommended that $5 million of this ment plans. Appearing that same day
amount be granted at once so that con- before both these groups, Secretary
16
struction of housing could begin. Al- Woodring set forth the views of the War
though he stressed the need for an ade- Department. Regardless of world con-
quate defense, the sums he asked for ditions, he declared, the defenses of the
16
United States must be modernized and
(1) Ibid., pp. 36ff., 70-74. (2) H Subcomm of strengthened. Of first importance were
the Comm on Appns, 76th Cong, 1st sess, Hearings on
Military Establishment Appropriation Bill for 1940, pp. plans for the Panama Canal, "the key-
4, 226, 257-70, 497. point of our whole protective system."
COMING OF THE EMERGENCY 79
The Canal Zone must have more air- Corps construction, he explained, nearly
fields, more planes, and better seacoast $23 million was set aside for projects in
and antiaircraft defenses. To protect the the Canal Zone. Another $4 million was
eastern approaches, an air base must for the Alaskan air base. The remainder
be built in Puerto Rico. Although Alaska would have to cover the jobs in the
was of less strategic value, it was essen- United States, Puerto Rico, and Hawaii.
tial that an airdrome be constructed When his turn came to testify, General
there. "We must be ready," Woodring Arnold outlined a scheme for making
explained, "to guard northwestern Amer- the money go around. He meant to hold to
ica against the establishment of hostile a minimum the number of shops, hangars,
air bases." After commenting on the and warehouses, dispense with concrete
need for educational orders and war runways except in Alaska and the tropics,
reserves, he took up the proposal for an and provide officers quarters only where
expanded air force. The amount asked no accommodations could be had in
by the President would provide 3,000 nearby towns. He expected to save on
additional planes and make possible the housing for enlisted men. In the extreme
organization of new squadrons for the climates of Panama and Alaska, bar-
United States and outlying possessions. racks had to be sturdy, but elsewhere he
It would also provide "personnel, ma- planned to erect cheap prefabricated
teriel, a portion of the bombs, and some structures. "In any event," Arnold as-
of the bases and shelter construction sured the congressmen, "we feel that
necessary for the operation of an in- construction will not present a very
creased Air Corps." Regarding the pro- difficult problem." The Quartermaster
gram as a whole, Woodring said, "I General appeared less sanguine. Asked
consider . . . [it] exceedingly mod- what troubles he foresaw in carrying out
est, and I feel that its soundness can be his part of the program, General Gibbins
sustained under the most searching ex- replied, "I do not think we would have
amination. That program has the whole- any difficulty with any of those problems,
hearted support of the Army's staff, the problems of procurement, except
which has intensively studied the matter for construction."18
and has worked out the detailed plans As the bill to authorize the President's
involved." Pointedly, he added, "I do program moved toward passage, the
not mean that the officers concerned find War Department endeavored to secure
included in the program all that they additional building funds. Looking about
think necessary."17 for any available cash that might help
Following Woodring to the stand, get construction started, Colonel Max-
General Craig told the House committee, well uncovered $4.5 million in unused
"Our most difficult problem has been work relief money, which he was able
to arrive at a satisfactory decision with to obtain for expanding the Wright
reference to the construction program." Field Laboratory and purchasing land.
Of the $62 million requested for Air At the Congressional hearings several
17 18
H Comm on Mil Affs, 76th Cong, 1st sess, H Comm on Mil Affs, 76th Cong, 1st sess,
Hearings, An Adequate National Defense as Outlined by the Hearings, An Adequate National Defense . . . , pp.
Message of the President of the United States, pp. 1-3. 5-6, 12-13, 23, 78.
80 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
witnesses testified that an adequate de- sell the idea to the President."21 During
fense would cost much more than October Hopkins and his assistants per-
Roosevelt had seen fit to ask. But these suaded Johnson, Arnold, and Marshall
indirect appeals to Congress for bigger that WPA could be of help in the re-
appropriations were unsuccessful. Gen- armament program. The idea appealed
eral Craig approached the Bureau of to the President. At the White House
the Budget. On 16 March he put in a conference of 14 November, he an-
supplemental estimate for $122.5 million nounced his intention of turning over to
for construction. The Budget turned him Hopkins the aircraft plant projects, the
down. The authorization act, approved only construction he then contemplated.
on 3 April, sanctioned the program rec- As the construction program grew, WPA
ommended by the President but stipu- funds assumed larger importance in the
lated that the appropriations, which plans of Johnson and his group. While
had yet to be made, not exceed the sums Hopkins was eager to participate, he
asked in January.19 Chances of getting naturally wished to do so on his own
more money from Congress seemed terms. He had long disliked the arrange-
practically nil. Maxwell's lucky find was ment whereby WPA transferred money
not likely to be duplicated. There re- to other federal agencies, preferring to
mained one last resort—the funds of the have relief work directed by his own
22
WPA. organization. Late in November word
WPA had entered the picture early. reached The Quartermaster General
At the time of the Munich Crisis, the that WPA was preparing to superintend
President had sent Harry Hopkins to a part of the Army's construction pro-
survey the West Coast aviation industry gram.
and explore the possibilities of expanding The men responsible for military con-
it. Hopkins returned with a plan for em- struction took a dim view of this develop-
ploying WPA to build more aircraft fac- ment. General Gibbins pointed out that
tories.20 Meanwhile, Maj. Arthur R. the Quartermaster Corps had "an ex-
Wilson, the War Department's liaison perienced and thoroughly competent
officer with WPA, had informed the organization." While offering to co-
General Staff that Hopkins believed operate "with whatever agency may be
"the Army and Navy are sitting pretty directed to conduct this work," he ques-
to get a lot of money in the next relief tioned the wisdom of entrusting high-
bill for the national defense if they can speed projects to WPA. The Assistant
Chief of Staff, G-4, Brig. Gen. George
19
(1) Memo, Johnson for the President, 14 Feb P. Tyner, was more outspoken. Stating
39. AG 600.12 IR (5-13-39). (2) Maxwell Interv,
15 Feb 57. (3) H Comm on Mil Affs, 76th Cong, 1st that he was "unable to compre-
sess, Hearings, An Adequate National Defense . . . , hend . . . how the WPA could
pp. 4-8, 46, 73. (4) S Comm on Mil Affs, 76th Cong,
21
1st sess, Hearings on H R 3791, pp. 34, 295-98. (5) Ltr, Ltr, Wilson to WD. Quoted in Sherwood,
BOB to SW, 12 Apr 39. G-4/30552-21. (6) 53 Roosevelt and Hopkins, p. 100.
22
Stat. 555. (1) Watson, Chief of Staff, pp. 137-38. (2) Arthur
20
(1) Robert E. Sherwood, Roosevelt and Hopkins, W. MacMahon et al., The Administration of Federal
An Intimate History (New York: Harper & Brothers, Work Relief (Chicago: Social Science Research
1948), pp. 99-101. (2) Arnold, Global Mission, pp. Council on Public Administration, 1941), pp. 134,
171-72,177-78. 329-30.
COMING OF THE EMERGENCY 81
handle this job," he reminded General General Tyner was taken aback. Col.
Marshall: "It is an accepted fact that Francis C. Harrington, an Engineer
the WPA is inefficient and uneconomical officer of 30 years' service, had recently
on construction projects." Since much succeeded Hopkins as WPA Adminis-
of the work would be in thinly settled trator. Tyner could not believe that
areas, Tyner failed to see how WPA Harrington approved of Johnson's
could even man the jobs, much less com- scheme. He therefore proposed that
plete them on time.23 the War Department and WPA get to-
Despite the conspicuous lack of en- gether and work out a more practicable
thusiasm on the part of Tyner and plan.24
Gibbins, pressure for using relief funds The powwow took place on 25 Janu-
continued to grow. Disappointed in the ary. Among those present were Maj.
President's request to Congress, Johnson Bartley M. Harloe, Harrington's prin-
and Arnold looked increasingly to WPA cipal assistant, Lt. Col. Paul W. Baade,
for a way out of their budgetary diffi- chief of the Construction Section, G-4,
culties. On 18 January Arnold informed and Colonel Maxwell. Speaking for
Craig that if adequate storage and main- General Tyner, Baade attempted to
tenance facilities were to be ready when show that Johnson's plan was unwork-
planes began rolling off the assembly able. Construction in Panama, Alaska,
lines, $20 million was necessary at once and Puerto Rico would cost at least
for enlarging two air depots and building $34.3 million, and there was no WPA
two new ones. As no appropriation had in those territories. Some $7 million
been asked for depots, Arnold urged would be necessary to equip depots and
that negotiations be started with WPA other installations in the United States
immediately. A few days later he added and Hawaii; yet WPA could buy no
a third new depot, bringing to $28 mil- equipment with its funds. Moreover,
lion the sum required from the relief the relief agency could spend only
agency. Johnson was meanwhile seeking piddling sums for materials—a mere $7
$3,750,000 in WPA money for Ordnance per man per month for common labor
and Signal Corps projects. By late Janu- and even less for skilled. Colonel Maxwell
ary the estimated cost of the War De- interrupted Baade to disclose that the
partment's building program, exclusive President had, in confidential reserve,
of fortifications and posts for the Panama $25 million that could be used for pur-
garrison, had risen to $93,750,000. chasing. Maxwell suggested that this
Johnson now revealed his intention of fund, together with the sponsor's con-
allotting only $32 million of the big Air tribution and $25 million from WPA,
Corps appropriation to construction would see the program through. Baade
and of using this money as the sponsor's disagreed. Alluding to the high cost
contribution toward work to be done and slow progress of most WPA construc-
by WPA. The bulk of defense construc- 24
(1) Ltrs, Arnold to Craig, 18 Jan, 23 Jan 39.
tion would thus go to the relief agency. G-4/31265 Sec I. (2) Memo, Tyner for Craig, 26 Jan
39. OCS 20808-159. (3) Memo, Harrington for Hop-
23
(1) Memo, Gibbins for Marshall, I Dec 38. kins, 30 Nov 38. (4) Memo, ExecO G-4 for P & E
G-4/31265 Sec I. (2) Memo, Tyner for Marshall, 16 Br G-4, 20 Jan 39. Last two in AG 580 (10-19-38)
Jan 39. G-4/30552-4. Bulky, Increase of the AC.
82 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
tion, he questioned whether the work Johnson promptly sent this proposal to
could be completed with the funds the White House.26
and in the time available. Furthermore, There was some question whether
he argued, Panama, Alaska, and Puerto WPA would be in a position to under-
Rico had still to be provided for. Turning take any of the Army's jobs, for the
over military funds to WPA was, in his relief agency was in trouble with Con-
opinion, highly unwise if not illegal. gress. During the recent election, charges
Baade's objections were brushed aside. of improper political activity had been
Maxwell and Harloe agreed to work made against it. Conservatives of both
out a plan which Harrington could lay parties, never friendly toward WPA,
before the President.25 had been further antagonized. The in-
The plan submitted to Harrington tended victims of the President's at-
early in February 1939 was ill-contrived tempted congressional purge were par-
and tentative. Unable to find a way of ticularly hostile. Roosevelt's request on
handling the jobs in Panama, Puerto 5 January 1939 for $875 million to see
Rico, and Alaska through WPA, Max- WPA through to the end of the fiscal
well and Harloe made no provision for year had aroused determined opposition.
them; nor did they refer to a sponsor's The House slashed $150 million from
contribution. In substance their proposal the President's estimate and the Senate
was that WPA do the construction in refused to restore the cut. The supple-
the continental United States and Ha- mental appropriation, approved on 4
waii, using $25 million of its own money February, carried a provision which, for
and the President's confidential reserve. the first time, prohibited WPA from
But whether Roosevelt would release competing with private manufacturers.
his funds they did not know. Two months On 27 March the House passed a resolu-
went by and nothing happened. Mean- tion to investigate WPA's activities.27
while, WPA had run short of money and The Associated General Contractors had
the President had spent his reserve funds meanwhile renewed their pledge to
for unemployment relief. By late March "fight for the preservation of private
little time remained. The House and industry in construction, the enlighten-
Senate conferees had reached agreement ment of the public, and the retarding
on the authorization act, and the way and ultimate dissolution of the Works
would soon be open for introducing an
appropriation bill. On 25 March
Harrington proposed a solution. Leaving 26
(1) Draft of Memo for the President, prepared
the Canal Zone, Puerto Rico, and by Maxwell and Harloe, 28 Feb 39, and Incl. SW
Alaska to the Army, he recommended Secret Files, 591-701. (2) Memo, Harloe for Maxwell,
27 Jan 39. (3) Ltr, Harrington to SW, 25 Mar 39.
that WPA and the War Department Last two in G-4/31265 Sec I. (4) Memo, Johnson
each contribute $25 million toward the for the President, 29 Mar 39. SW Files, Constr Work
projects in the States and Hawaii, which 1-250. 27
(1) MacMahon, Federal Work Relief, pp. 282ff. (2)
local WPA administrators would build. Sherwood, Roosevelt and Hopkins, pp. 98, 104. (3)
Donald S. Howard, The WPA and Federal Relief
Policy (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1943),
25
Memo, Baade for Rcd, 25 Jan 39, and related pp. 116-17, 133, 576. (4) H Res 130, 76th Cong, 1st
correspondence in G—4/31265 Sec I. sess, 27 Mar 39.
COMING OF THE EMERGENCY 83
28
Progress Administration." Neither Con- made for new Ordnance and Signal
gress nor the contractors seemed likely installations. On orders from Johnson,
to accept a plan for putting large-scale G-4 wiped out the priorities and revised
military construction projects under the list to include all the projects. Still
WPA. hoping that WPA would come through
Assistant Secretary Johnson faced a with more funds than Harrington had
tough decision. At most, only $87 mil- so far offered, Johnson insisted that
lion was in prospect for emergency Congress be asked to vote the $62 mil-
construction, and $25 million of that lion as a lump sum which could be used
was WPA money, worth no more than for any or all projects on the revised
fifty cents on the dollar in terms of fin- list. How this appropriation would be
ished work. If the program were de- spent would be decided later, after WPA
signed to fit these funds, few plant or received its money for the new fiscal
depot projects could be included. On the year.30
other hand, if all the jobs were started, Johnson's decision stirred up protests.
chances were that the money would General Arnold stated his unalterable
run out before many of them reached opposition to including items that had
completion. Johnson chose the bolder nothing to do with the Air Corps in the
course. On 29 March he advised the Air Expansion Program. General Tyner
President that, while $87 million would contended that industrial projects,
"initiate the main features of the pro- though urgently required, "should not
gram on a minimum basis, additional be constructed at the expense of much
funds may be required."29 In Woodring's
31
needed Air Corps items." Several of-
absence, Johnson, as Acting Secretary, ficers pointed out that The Quarter-
ordered affairs in the War Department master General would not be able to
to suit his purpose. For some days G-4 make detailed plans "primarily for the
had been developing a construction reason that the money provided was in-
program that could be accomplished for sufficient for the construction involved."32
$62 million. Each project had received Learning that the War Department was
a priority. Installations in Panama were proceeding "on the assumption" that
first on the list, followed, in order, by it would be able to employ large amounts
bases in Puerto Rico and Alaska and of relief money for emergency con-
the more urgent jobs in the United struction, several congressmen suggested
States and Hawaii. Should funds be that the assumption might turn out to
forthcoming from WPA, G-4 planned be mistaken.33 But it was futile to argue.
to use them for General Arnold's depots 30
(1) Memo, Tyner for Craig, 27 Mar 39. (2)
and additional buildings at the Wright Memo, Johnson for Craig, 29 Mar 39. Both in
Field laboratory. No provision had been G-4/31265 Sec I. (3) Memo, OCAC for Rcd, 5
Apr 39. AAF Central Files, 6oo.1-6oo.12H to 30
28
Jan31 '39.
Ltr, E. J. Harding, Managing Dir AGC, to Sen Memo, Tyner for Craig, 27 Mar 39.
32
James F. Byrnes, 11 Mar 39. In S Sp Comm to Notes of Conf in G-4, 4 Apr 39. G—4/31265
Investigate Unemployment and Relief, 76th Cong, Sec I.
33
1st sess, Hearings on S 1265, p. 307. H Subcomm of the Comm on Appns, 76th Cong,
29
Memo, Johnson for the President, 29 Mar 39. 1st sess, Hearings on Supplemental Military Appropriation
SW Files Constr Work, 1-250. Bill for 1940, pp. 24, 43-44.
84 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
Johnson had his way. The supplemental themselves without reference to Washing-
estimate submitted to Congress late in ton. The Air Corps, displaying strong
April requested a lump sum of $62 mil- separatist tendencies, entered a bid for
lion for construction. more authority in construction matters.
Some construction money was be- Proponents of transferring construction
coming available, though not much. to the Corps of Engineers felt the time
On 26 April the President signed the had come to act. For the Construction
regular military appropriation bill, which Division, these threats were far graver
carried $25.5 million for construction, than the one posed by WPA. Turning
maintenance, and land at permanent over part of the expansion program to
posts and $2.7 million for Engineer work the relief agency would be no more than
on fortifications. A week later he ap- a temporary expedient designed to
proved a deficiency appropriation giving stretch appropriations, but any shift of
the Construction Division $800,000, most responsibility within the Army was likely
of it to repair damage done by the New to be permanent.
England hurricane of 1938, and pro- Among the first to challenge the exist-
viding $2 million for the erection of sea- ing order were the commanding generals
coast defenses. Hearings on the big of the Panama Canal and Hawaiian
emergency appropriation bill did not Departments. Normally, commanders of
34
begin until 16 May. Uncertainty as to the overseas departments had little to do
what emergency projects would be built with the Construction Division. A 1929
and how they would be financed prom- War Department order permitted them
ised to continue for some time. to choose locations, prepare layouts, and
draw plans and specifications for most
Questions of Responsibility new structures within their commands.
Construction was carried out by de-
Where responsibility for emergency partment quartermasters under the com-
construction would lie was an open manding generals rather than by Con-
question. So long as the volume of new structing Quartermasters responsible to
construction remained small, the com- The Quartermaster General. Neverthe-
promise of 1920 endured. There was dis- less, department commanders came under
satisfaction, to be sure. There were com- the regulations which stated that all
plaints that Quartermaster methods were projects involving new construction or
too slow and Quartermaster organi- major alterations must have prior ap-
zation was too centralized. But there proval of the Secretary of War and that
was no concerted effort to bring The Quartermaster General would award
about a change. No sooner had expan- construction contracts unless otherwise
sion begun than moves were afoot to directed. The Secretary sometimes asked
wrest responsibility from The Quarter- the Construction Division to plan large or
master General. Local commanders, in- unusual overseas projects.35 During the
tent on strengthening defenses as fast as 35
(1) WD Ltr AG 620 (12-9-29) Misc Div (D) to
possible, sought to do construction work CG's Panama Canal and Hawaiian Depts, 11 Dec
29. WPD 1379-18 to 45. (2) Memo, Tyner for
34
(1) 53 Stat. 592. (2) 53 Stat. 626. (3) H Subcomm Marshall, 16 Jan 39. G-4/30552. (3) AR 30-1435,
of the Comm on Appns, 76th Cong, 1st sess, Hearings 28 Nov 33. (4) Bruner, Outline of Authorizations—
on Supplemental Military Appropriation Bill for 1940. Constr Contracts, p. I. EHD Files.
COMING OF THE EMERGENCY 85
latter half of 1938 Maj. Gen. David L. General Arnold attempted to tighten
Stone, the commander in Panama, his control over Air Corps construction
clashed with the division over designs in Panama and Hawaii. At the first sign
for runways at Albrook Field, and Maj. of trouble with the Albrook job, he
Gen. Charles D. Herron, who com- urged that the overseas departments
manded in Hawaii, arguing in favor of turn design responsibility back to the
a dispersed layout, opposed the divi- War Department. A few months later,
sion's plans for a 3,200-man barracks when General Herron tried to prevent
at Hickam Field. Protracted disagree- the building of the 3,200-man barracks,
ments delayed the start of construction Arnold broadened his demands. This
on these projects, both of which the time he recommended that all questions
33
Air Corps considered urgent. concerning both the construction and
In order to restrain the commanders, design of Air Corps stations overseas be
36
decided jointly by him and Gibbins
(1) QM 600.1 (Hickam Fld) II. (2) QM 600.92
(Hickam Fld) 1935-40. (3) QM 611 (Albrook Fld) and that any disagreements between
1938-40. (4) G-4/29980-6. them be referred to the General Staff.
86 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
"The adoption of such a policy," he tion. Some persons argued that cen-
wrote, "would parallel that now existing tralized design meant poor design. That,
for Air Corps stations in the continental said Hartman, was untrue; he pointed
limits—a policy which has resulted in a to the many prizes and commendations
smooth and very satisfactory develop- won by supervising architect Leisenring
ment of Air Corps construction."37 and his staff. Some maintained that
While Colonel Hartman favored centralization resulted in the same type
Arnold's plan, he wished to go still fur- of housing everywhere. Hartman called
ther. He proposed that responsibility attention to the Spanish-style quarters
for all construction, ground as well as in Texas, the Provincial French in
air, be centered in Washington. Whether Louisiana, and the Colonial in Mary-
a change would be made was largely up land and Virginia. Some asserted that
to General Tyner, who viewed the the Air Corps built for itself better quar-
existing arrangement with concern. ters than the Quartermaster provided
Arnold and Hartman had little difficulty for the rest of the Army. Emphasizing
in persuading him to go along with them. that the air stations were comparatively
On 18 February 1939 Tyner recom- new, while the great majority of ground
mended recision of the 1929 order. Gen- posts had been built by local com-
eral Craig agreed. A new directive went manders many years before, Hartman
to the department commanders on 25 commented: "The fact that the con-
February. Henceforth, the War De- struction of the Air Corps stations has
partment would pick sites and make been satisfactory is very gratifying, in-
layouts for all military projects in the asmuch as the Office of The Quarter-
Canal Zone and Hawaii, and although master General is entirely responsible
plans and specifications might still be for that condition." Repeatedly the
prepared locally, they could not be used question had arisen why Constructing
until Washington approved them.38 The Quartermasters took their orders from
advocates of centralized control ap- Washington rather than from post and
peared to have won a signal victory. corps area commanders. The day was
So sharp a reversal of policy did not long past, Hartman said, when non-
go unchallenged. Hartman soon had professionals could do construction. Now-
to defend the principle of centralized adays a corps of specialists was required.
control. In a 12-page memorandum pre- Commanders could not themselves di-
pared for Tyner's signature, he dealt rect CQM's with any degree of com-
with the objections against centraliza- petence, nor could they justify the ex-
37
pense of maintaining separate technical
(1) Ltr, Arnold to TAG, 11 Aug 38. AAF Central
Files, 611 A to Jul 40. (2) 1st Ind, Arnold to TAG, on staffs. Hartman warned that if authority
TWX, Herron to Arnold, 14 Nov 38. QM 600.1 were decentralized, construction would
(Hickam Fld) II. be back where it was in the spring of
38
(1) Draft of Ltr, TAG to CG's, Panama Canal
and Hawaiian Depts, 2 Dec 38. G—4/31288. (2) 1917. Having disposed of these objec-
Memo, Tyner for Marshall, 16 Jan 39. G-4/30552. tions, he took the following stand:
(3) Memo, Tyner for Craig, 18 Feb 39. G—4/31288.
(4) WD Ltr (2-18-39) Misc D to CG's, Panama In light of the lessons of the past and the
Canal and Hawaiian Depts, 25 Feb 39. AG 600.12 recognized civilian practice, . . . the
(2-18-39). need of a strong centralized organization is
COMING OF THE EMERGENCY 87
important, first, because a central organiza- tion."40 The President, too, was for
tion can be more efficiently and economically making the change, though he gave
managed and controlled, and second, [be-
cause] responsibility can more readily and Johnson to understand that there must
directly be placed . . . . The present be no fight in Congress. It was with
plan of operation provides for much needed this backing that Colonel Maxwell on
centralization of advisory and directing 28 March proposed that the Chief of
functions, a decentralization of necessary Engineers be charged with building for
supervisory and executive duties, and the the Air Corps.41
ability to expand to meet construction
requirements of almost any character. Such The National Defense Act offered a
a plan, past experience indicates, is essential convenient loophole. As mentioned ear-
to meet war time demands. lier, Congress had excepted fortifications
when it assigned military construction
He recommended continuation of the to the Quartermaster Corps in 1920. The
current policy. On 24 March General same day that Maxwell made his pro-
Tyner signed the memorandum and posal, General Tyner began investi-
forwarded it to G-3 and the War Plans gating whether airfields could be con-
Division (WPD) for concurrence. But sidered fortifications and as such turned
those divisions did not concur.39 They over to the Engineers. The Judge Advo-
now had before them a proposal of cate General held that runways, han-
another kind, one to give the airfield gars, and other technical structures, as
projects to the Corps of Engineers. distinct from housing, could be so con-
Behind the scenes, a powerful trium- sidered. But because he doubted the
virate was seeking to effect a transfer. legality of diverting funds appropriated
The Assistant Secretary sparked the for one branch to another, he advised
movement to take construction from The Tyner to wait until Congress voted
Quartermaster General. In Johnson's construction money directly to the En-
eyes, the Quartermaster Corps was a gineers. Taking issue with the Judge
clumsy, slow-moving outfit that seldom Advocate, the Budget Officer for the
finished anything on time, while the War Department saw no objection to
Engineers were experienced technicians shifting funds about.42 Meanwhile, Gen-
who did the work assigned them expedi- eral Marshall had talked the matter
tiously and well. General Marshall, now over with the Chief of Engineers, Maj.
a leading candidate to succeed Craig Gen. Julian L. Schley, who recalled:
as Chief of Staff, also believed the En- "I remember . . . Marshall as the
gineers would do a better job. He held, strong advocate of having the Corps
moreover, that additional experience build the airfields. He discussed the
with peacetime construction would
strengthen the Corps for its wartime 40
Replies to Questionnaire, Marshall to authors,
mission of building in theaters of opera- received 23 Apr 56.
41
tions. "All along," he wrote, "I favored (1) Johnson Interv, 9 May 56. (2) Memo,
the Engineer Corps to handle construc- Maxwell for Marshall, 28 Feb 39. (3) Memo, Maxwell
for ACofS WPD, 28 Mar 39. Last two in Maxwell's
Papers.
42
(1) Memo, Tyner for JAG, 30 Mar 39. (2)
39
Memo, Tyner for Craig, 24 Mar 39. AG 211.99 Memos, JAG for Tyner, 3 Apr 39, and BOWD for
CQM (4-1-36). Tyner, 10 Apr 39. All in G-4/31324.
88 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
46
Ltr, Schley to EHD, 19 Feb 57.
ping, supply, research and development, (1) Interv with Maj Gen Julian L. Schley, 26
Oct 55. (2) Incl, Appns for Mil and Civil Functions
CE, with Memo, Chief Budget and Programs Div
43
Incl with Ltr, Schley to EHD, 5 Sep 53. OCE for Chief EHD, 6 Jan 55.
COMING OF THE EMERGENCY 89
and might delay completion. As for tion the huge construction program now
"the larger question of the future re- underway and in immediate prospect. In
this apprehension I frankly share. It is de-
sponsibility of the Corps of Engineers sired, however, to point out that this is a
for construction and maintenance of personnel problem which should be solved
Air Corps technical features," Schley o n i t s o w n merits . . . . Certainly,
asked that this be settled later.47 the War Department should not .
Tyner decided to let well enough endeavor to correct a faulty personnel situ-
ation by making a hasty change in basic
alone. On 15 April, he told Craig why organization.48
he believed the proposed change should
not be made. There were, he knew, sound Under its system of concurrences, the
arguments in favor of a transfer. The General Staff made no changes in policy
Quartermaster General had too many until all interested branches had ap-
duties, and the Engineers would un- proved. Hence, Tyner's opposition
doubtedly turn in a fine performance. stopped the move to classify airfields
Tyner for many years had felt that con- as fortifications.
struction belonged with the Engineers. By this time a way was open to trans-
But to detach a part of the program— fer all construction to the Engineers
either the runways and hangars at five without amending the Defense Act. On
fields, as discussed by Schley, or all Air 3 April Congress had passed the Re-
Corps technical structures, as actually organization Act of 1939, authorizing
proposed—seemed to him unwise. Every the President to overhaul the adminis-
post affected by the move would have trative machinery of the government
two construction offices buying land, by regrouping agencies and transferring
making layouts, and competing with one functions. Soon afterward, Roosevelt
another for labor and supplies. The job asked Woodring what changes ought
of administering building funds would to be made within the War Department.
be much more difficult. And what of the By mid-April the General Staff was con-
Construction Division, which would still sidering whether to recommend that
be charged with the bulk of the work? Quartermaster construction work go to
49
Surely, its morale would suffer. For the the Engineers. General Tyner favored
present, Tyner held, things ought to such action. He argued that construction
stay the way they were. Perhaps later was a branch of engineering and should
the Defense Act could be amended to be handled by engineers rather than by
transfer all construction to the En- specialists in supply. Schley had the
gineers. He concluded with the following right men for the job, the cream of the
reminder: crop from West Point and many gradu-
ates of the finest civilian engineering
A contributing factor in raising the basic
question at this time is the fact that consider- schools. The transfer would be beneficial
able apprehension exists within the War all the way around. The Engineers
Department General Staff as to the qualifi-
cations and capabilities of the head of the 48
Memo, Tyner for Craig, 15 Apr 39. G-4/31324.
Construction Division [General Sea-See also Tyner Interv, 28 Sep 55.
man] . . ., to carry to successful comple- 49
(1) 53 Stat. 561. (2) Ltr, BOB to SW, 14 Apr 39.
(3) Memo, SGS for Tyner, 17 Apr 39. Last two in
47
Memo, Schley for Tyner, 10 Apr 39. G-4/31324. G-4/31343.
90 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
would gain additional experience. The entirely different nature than is the perma-
Quartermaster General would be shed nent construction carried on at our various
posts and stations during peacetime. It is
of an onerous responsibility unrelated doubted that the training obtained by the
to supply. The War Department would Corps of Engineers . . . would be of
have a single construction agency, one particular value during a period of national
capable of attaining "a standard of emergency.
efficiency not possible under the present As a matter of fact, Beck feared that
set-up." Having concluded that main- giving the Engineers additional con-
tenance and the group that oversaw it struction might impair their readiness
would have to remain with the Quarter- for combat. Furthermore, he opposed
master Corps—a combat arm must not splitting maintenance and construction.52
be burdened with "unnecessary and un- Since the General Staff would not act
desirable housekeeping duties," he said— without G-3's approval, Tyner's plan
Tyner proposed to move the other was shelved. Perturbed by what he re-
branches of the Construction Division garded as the Staff's inertia, Johnson
to the Office of the Chief of Engineers. forwarded papers to the White House,
No abrupt change would be made in recommending the transfer. Learning
operating methods and personnel. Only of this, Secretary Woodring recalled
gradually would the former Quarter- the papers for reconsideration and
master organization be fitted into the pigeonholed them. Roosevelt's first re-
Engineer scheme of things.50 organization plan, presented to Congress
Although generally well received, on 25 April, made no mention of mili-
Tyner's plan foundered. The Assistant tary construction.53
Chiefs of Staff, G-I and WPD, endorsed The Air Corps was the next to chal-
the plan, Craig seemed willing to go lenge the Construction Division. Late
along, and Schley raised no objections.51 in April Arnold's office ordered com-
But the G-3, Maj. Gen. Robert M. manding officers at air stations to draw
Beck, would have none of it. On 22 layouts for the new housing proposed
April, in a memorandum of noncon- under the Expansion Program. Colonel
currence, he explained his position: Hartman soon learned of this develop-
Primarily it is believed that the present is ment, for Constructing Quartermasters
a very inopportune time to make any such promptly sent him copies of the order,
radical change in organization as is indicated. and local air commanders, faced with
It should also be borne in mind that although an unfamiliar task, appealed to him for
the Corps of Engineers is charged with con- help. Hartman lost no time in reminding
struction duties in the theater of operations,
the character of this construction is of an Arnold that responsibility for layouts
rested with The Quartermaster Gen-
60
Memo, Tyner for Craig, 21 Apr 39. G-4/31343.
62
See also Tyner Interv, 28 Sep 55. Memo, Beck for Tyner, 22 Apr 39. AG 020
61
(1) Memo, Tyner for Craig, 21 Apr 39, and (4-21-39).
63
concurrences thereon. (2) Note, Marshall to Craig (1) Johnson Interv, 9 May 56. (2) Statement of
(n.d.), and Craig's penciled comments thereon. Gen Hartman, 5 Jul 55, p. 14. (3) Public Papers and
G-4/31324. Addresses of Franklin D. Roosevelt, 1939, pp. 245ff.
COMING OF THE EMERGENCY 91
eral.54 Arnold was conciliatory. Knowing a secondary matter."57 As Lee sped from
commanders would shortly want to com- place to place, inspecting ten jobs in
ment on layouts prepared by the Quar- thirteen days, he found much to con-
termaster Corps, he had sought to firm his view. Almost every project fur-
familiarize them with the problem be- nished him with an example of un-
forehand. "The Chief of the Air Corps satisfactory progress or faulty design
is greatly concerned over the construc- which might be laid to centralized con-
tion phase of the program, since its trol. He was shocked to learn that The
completion on time is vital . . .," Quartermaster General had let con-
he wrote to Hartman on 6 May, "and tractors set their own completion dates.
this was one of his efforts to make sure Although a few Constructing Quarter-
that no Air Corps officer or agency masters impressed him favorably, he
causes or is responsible for any delay rated most of them as mediocre or worse.
55
whatever." Arnold failed to mention All of them appeared to be handicapped
another step he had taken to expedite by the necessity of referring so many
construction. Sometime around the first decisions to Washington. Reporting to
of May, he and Marshall had visited the Arnold on 23 May, Lee recommended
Pacific coast, where they had discussed immediate decentralization. On the 25th
construction matters with Col. John C. he discussed his findings with Gibbins,
H. Lee, the highly regarded division Seaman, and Hartman, who advised
engineer at Portland. At Arnold's re- him that they considered "the present
quest, Lee had agreed to investigate the centralized system of design and control
airfield program and report "what ac- to be not only satisfactory but the best
58
tion, if any, seemed necessary to assure method ... for the Army." That
completion in two years."56 same day Arnold wrote to Craig, en-
Even before he took off on 9 May for closing Lee's report and urging that
a flying tour of airfield projects, Lee Gibbins be ordered to decentralize.59
thought he knew what ailed the build- On reading Arnold's memorandum,
ing program. According to his diagnosis, General Tyner was much put out. Not
construction suffered from "excessive one of the projects Lee had seen was in
centralization . . . i n T h e Quar- any way connected with the Expansion
termaster General's office, where it was Program. All had been started in 1938
with WPA funds. That, said Tyner, ex-
plained why they were slow. Since none
54
(1) Ltr, Hq 3d Wing GHQ Air Force to GO of the work was urgent and construction
Barksdale Fld, La., 21 Apr 39. (2) Ltr, CQM
Barksdale Fld to TQMG, 22 Apr 39. Both in QM
budgets were small, contractors had
600.I (Barksdale Fld) 1939. (3) TWX, CO Mitchel been permitted to fix the deadlines
Fld, N.Y., to TQMG, 27 Apr 39. QM 600.1 (Mitchel themselves. An Engineer, the G—4 in-
Fld) (AC Program) 1939-40. (4) Ltr, Hartman to
Arnold, 28 Apr 39. Last two in QM 600.1 (Mitchel
timated, ought to know that speed costs
Fld).
55 57
1st Ind, 6 May 39, on Ltr, Hartman to Arnold, Interv with Lt Gen John C. H. Lee, 25 Apr 57.
58
28 Apr 39. Memo, Lee for Strong, 8 Jun 39. WPD 3809-24.
56 59
Memo, Lee for ACofS WPD, 8 Jun 39. WPD Memo, Arnold for Craig, 25 May 39. G-4/32165
3809-24. Sec 1.
92 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
money. Dismissing Lee's report as un- on to the West Indies, Arnold and his
fair and irrelevant, he undertook to set companions found the commander of
Arnold straight. Decentralization was the new Puerto Rican Department think-
bound to create trouble. If Gibbins gave ing along the same lines as Stone. Every-
authority to the field, Constructing Quar- where they went the three officers heard
termasters would have to bow to the complaints against the Quartermaster
wishes of higher ranking Air Corps and system. At one point during the trip,
corps area officers. All sorts of innovations General Strong asked Lee what steps
would be tried. Engineering standards were necessary to meet present and
would go out the window. There would future construction requirements. By
be confusion and delay. After repeating the time they returned to Washington
the argument that most big civilian con- early in June, Lee was ready with an
struction firms used the same system as answer.
the Quartermaster Corps, Tyner referred On 8 June, in a lengthy memorandum,
to his predecessor, Brig. Gen. George he suggested drastic changes in the
R. Spalding. An Engineer officer, Army's construction organization. To in-
Spalding had come into G-4 an advocate sure timely completion of the Air Ex-
of decentralization and had left be- pansion Program, Gibbins should de-
lieving firmly "that the organization centralize at once. Colonel Hartman
of the War Department for construc- should give way to "a carefully selected
tion was fundamentally sound and should military engineer, accustomed to de-
not be changed." Arnold had indicated centralized control and to getting work
that he would refuse to delegate his properly completed on time." The field
responsibility for Air Corps construc- should take over planning and design.
tion unless his demands were met. This "Competent military engineers," who
attitude nettled Tyner, who declared: would co-operate fully with corps area
"The Chief of the Air Corps at the pres- and department commanders, should
ent time has no responsibility so far as replace unsatisfactory Constructing
construction is concerned other than Quartermasters. If Gibbins did not have
making known his requirements and the enough qualified officers, district and
necessity therefor."60 department engineers should take over
Meanwhile, on 26 May, Arnold and part of the program. Lee looked forward
Lee had left for the Caribbean with to the time when his own Corps would
Brig. Gen. George V. Strong, Assistant do all military construction. "For the
Chief of Staff, WPD. In Panama they eventual assurance of Army construc-
conferred with General Stone, who ex- tion efficiency with probable ability to
pressed dissatisfaction with the Quarter- meet any future emergency," he wrote,
master setup. He asked that he be given "all such work should, in my opinion,
entire responsibility for construction in be transferred after a reasonable transi-
the Canal Zone and that the department tion period and be placed under the
engineer superintend the work. Moving supervision of [the] Chief of Engineers."61
60
Incl, 29 May 39, with Memo, Tyner for SGS,1
61
Jun 39. G-4/31265 Sec 1. Memo, Lee for Strong, 8 Jun 39. WPD 3809-24.
COMING OF THE EMERGENCY 93
million PWA-WPA program begun in Congress were so vague that one repre-
1938, the Construction Division seemed sentative asked, "Why, in the name of
ready for larger, more difficult tasks. The heaven, should we hold hearings on a
branch chiefs were experienced men. thing like that?"66 Tyner tried repeatedly
Colonel Pitz headed New Construction to force a decision as to which projects
and Major Nurse, Planning. Lt. Col. would be built with the $62 million re-
Rigby D. Valliant, a 1902 West Point quested from Congress.67 But Johnson
graduate, was in his second term as chief insisted on waiting. Meanwhile, he de-
of Real Estate. In charge of Repairs and manded that plans be developed for all
Utilities was Maj. Will R. White, a the proposed projects with a view to
civil engineer who had joined the Can- using a maximum of WPA money and
tonment Division in 1917. With 12 of- a minimum of military funds. "Until
ficers and some 1,300 civilians in the this is done," he held, "it is premature
central office and 108 officers in the field, to determine that any of the items can-
68
the organization appeared to be ade- not be undertaken." What Johnson
quate. Since returning to the Construc- asked appeared to be impossible. Major
tion Division in the summer of 1938, Nurse had no way of knowing what
Hartman had pushed preparations for limitations Congress would place on the
emergency work with every means at future expenditure of WPA funds or how
his command, and, despite Seaman's many relief workers would be available
reluctance to co-operate, progress had in various localities some months hence.
been good. But there was, Hartman Moreover, even with $25 million in
realized, another side to the coin. The WPA money—possibly even with $50
arrangement whereby he ran the division million—funds would still be insufficient
while Seaman continued as titular head for all the projects Johnson wanted. The
had made for divided loyalties. Opinions situation did not improve until early
differed sharply on such basic matters June, when Tyner issued an unofficial
as mobilization planning, structural de- directive, telling the Quartermaster to
signs, and contracting methods. Under push ahead with plans for the overseas
the circumstances, Hartman wanted projects, the three air depots, and ad-
plans completed, policies agreed to, and ditions to a number of Air Corps sta-
69
at least some projects under way before tions.
65
he left town. Until sites were chosen, planning could
In the absence of a well-defined con- not begin. For many years boards of
struction program, planning went slowly. officers appointed, in some cases, by
Johnson's decision to wait for WPA 66
H Subcomm of the Comm on Appns, 76th Cong,
money placed the Quartermaster Corps 1st sess, Hearings on Supplemental Military Appropriation
in a tight spot. Hartman knew in general Bill for 1940, p. 42.
67
what would be built in Panama, Puerto (1) Memo, Tyner for G—1, 17 May 39. G—
Rico, and Alaska and roughly how much 4/31265-2. (2) Memos, Tyner for Craig, 13, 24 May
39. G-4/31265 Sec 1.
money would be spent there, but that was 68
Memo, Johnson for Craig, 15 May 39. G—4/
all. Parts of the program submitted to 31265 Sec 1. 69
(1) Memo, with Incl, Tyner for SGS, 29 May 39.
G-4/31265 Sec 1. (2) WD Ltr AG 600.12 (5-25-39)
65
Statement of Gen Hartman, 5 Jul 55, pp. 2, 5. Misc D to TQMG, 3 Jun 39. QM 600. 1 (Misc 1939).
COMING OF THE EMERGENCY 95
had in mind bore little resemblance to out, ... a fire hazard will be
World War barracks. created that will endanger millions of
The Air Corps' answer to the housing dollars worth of construction."77 Despite
problem was the portable building or Hartman's contention that mobilization-
prefab. At CCC camps throughout the type buildings offered superior accom-
country, portables had been erected at modations at a lower price, Arnold con-
a cost of $160 per man. Much of the work tinued to hold out for prefabs. General
had been done by the men themselves. Tyner made Hartman's position more
Confronted, on the one hand, with an difficult by 78
siding with the Air Corps on
increase of 26,000 men in the Air Corps this issue.
and, on the other, with a slim construc- Asked repeatedly by Johnson and
tion budget, Arnold had decided to have Arnold when certain projects would be
barracks prefabricated and to let troops completed, General Seaman declared,
put them up. The plan was visionary, "The immediate and pressing question is
to say the least. Shelter provided at when they can be started."79 Once site
CCC camps did not meet the Army's choices were firm and full topographic
heating and space requirements. The and subsurface data were available, it
building trades unions, stronger now might take a month or more to make
than in the early years of the New Deal, layouts for the new bases. Then would
were certain to protest. Moreover, prices come the task of drawing detailed plans
of materials were on the rise.76 Told that and specifications. How fast this work
would go was a question. Major Nurse's
74
H Subcomm of the Comm on Appns, 76th staff of engineers and draftsmen was too
Cong, 1st sess, Hearings on Supplemental Military small to cope with any considerable
Appropriation Bill for 1940, p. 46. number of crash projects; yet the long-
75
(1) Incl with Ltr, R. C. Marshall to OCMH,
30 Mar 55. EHD Files. (2) U.S. Departments of awaited formal directive was now cer-
Commerce and Labor, Construction Volume and Costs,
77
1915-1954, A Statistical Supplement to Volume I of Notes of Conf, Baade, Hartman, Spaatz, et al.,
Construction Review (Washington, 1955), Table 9, p. 20 Jun 39. G—4/31265 Bulky.
78
27. (1) Memo, Seaman for Tyner, 25 Jun 39. QM
76
(1) Ltr, Arnold to TQMG, 21 Jun 39. QM 600.1 (Misc) 1939. (2) Notes of Conf, Arnold, Tyner,
600.1 (AC) 1937-39. (2) Memo, Seaman for Tyner, Pitz, et al., 28 Jun 39. G—4/31265 Bulky.
79
23 Jun 39. G—4/31265 Sec 1. (3) Memo, Pitz for Memo, Seaman for Tyner, 18 May 39. QM
G-4 Rcd, 28 Jun 39. G-4/31265 Bulky. 600.1 (Misc) 1939.
COMING OF THE EMERGENCY 97
tain to come as a rush order. Moreover, of the Navy's bill into one of their own.
a single change might upset a good deal They next enlisted the support of the
of careful planning, and, according to Chief of Staff and the Secretary of War.
Hartman, "No branch of the War De- On 18 May Woodring sent the measure,
partment was so changeable as the Air with his endorsement, to Chairman
Corps."80 After Nurse had finished, more Sheppard of the Senate Military Affairs
time would go into advertising for bids Committee and to Speaker William B.
and awarding lump-sum contracts. Bankhead, who shortly introduced it in
Drawing on his wartime experience both houses.82 The bill was introduced
Colonel Hartman devised a plan for in the House on 23 May and in the
getting around some of these obstacles. Senate on 6 June.
In May 1939 he moved to revive the The construction industry was de-
wartime contract. "I started early," he lighted with the bill. The quickening of
wrote, "to get the necessary legislation military preparations was causing some
to handle construction on a cost-plus- concern in contracting circles. Costs
81
a-fixed-fee basis." As one who had were rising and risks increasing. Bidders
served with the Construction Division were thinking in terms of larger con-
of the Army, he knew firsthand the tingency items. Construction men were
advantages of the fixed-fee agreement; fearful lest a sharp jump in contract
and he was also familiar with the criti- prices slow the industry's progress to-
83
cisms raised against it. Obtaining au- ward recovery. AGC officials believed
thority to use the contract might not the situation called for a change in con-
be easy. The competitive system of tracting methods. Reporting to the as-
awarding government contracts was by sociation's members in the fall of 1939,
now very nearly sacrosanct. Many in Managing Director Edward J. Harding
the War Department disliked cost- declared:
plus contracting in any form. Others A solution . . . will become clearer
feared it. Still others preferred the evalu- when owners understand that the general
ated-fee agreement for emergency use. contractor performs two functions. He not
In his efforts to overcome this opposition, only constructs the project, but he insures its
Hartman had help from General Tyner completion for an agreed upon price. When
insurance alone is purchased, the purchaser
and Rear Adm. Ben Moreell of the Navy's expects to pay an increased premium to
Bureau of Yards and Docks. On 25 April cover increased hazards. So it should be in
Moreell got authority from Congress to construction; the purchaser should either
negotiate fixed-fee contracts for con- expect to pay [the] appropriate cost of the
struction outside the United States and insurance for completion of the project, or
to employ architectural and engineering
firms without reference to the law re- 82
(1) Tyner Interv, 28 Sep 55; Pagan Interv, 8
quiring competition. With Moreell's en- Mar 57. (2) 53 Stat. 591. (3) Memo, Tyner for Craig,
16 May 39. (4) Ltrs, Woodring to Sheppard and
couragement, Hartman and Tyner Bankhead, 18 May 39. (5) Memo, OCofS Budget
incorporated the pertinent provisions and Legis Plng Br for Craig, 24 May 39. Last three
entries in G—4/31364.
83
(1) Telg, Harding to Johnson, 8 Aug 39. QM
80
Statement of Gen Hartman, 5 Jul 55, p. 4. 600.1 (Ladd Fld) (AC Program) I. (2) The Con-
81
Ibid..p.11 structor, October 1939, p. 14.
98 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
he should be his own insurer, and relieve the sibilities for construction. The issue was
contractor of that burden.84 finally settled in the Assistant Secretary's
Here, then, was an argument for the favor. Meanwhile, Johnson threw the
fixed-fee contract, under which the pur- weight of his influence against what he
chaser was self-insured and the con- apparently considered a premature
87
tractor assumed very little risk. Fixed- switch to the fixed-fee method.
fee contracts imposed no penalty for On 23 June 1939 the Senate Military
delay and required no performance or Affairs Committee held a hearing on
payment bonds. Less hazardous than the bill. Tyner and Hartman were the
fixed-price agreements, they were also only witnesses. The G-4 explained why
more easily financed, since reimburse- the proposed legislation was necessary.
ments to the contractor did not need to It was imperative, he said, that the over-
lag much behind expenditures. Au- seas bases be completed at an early date.
thorization of fixed-fee agreements for If competitive contracts were used, it
overseas projects might help point the might take two and one-half years to
way toward more liberal terms for do- finish the work—two months for readying
mestic contracts also. plans and specifications, two more for
In certain quarters of the War De- advertising, two more for getting the
partment, the measure got a cold recep- jobs under way, and because fixed-price
tion. While his advice had not been contractors would insist on plenty of
asked, General Seaman was dead set time, two years for construction. Tyner
against the fixed-fee contract.85 He warned that the competitive method
summed up his attitude in a statement to would also be very expensive. Because
a congressional committee in 1941: "We bidders would have to take into account
never would have had any cost-plus jobs "unusual hazards, the uncertainty of
if I had my way about it. I don't believe weather, the distance from material and
in it. Too expensive."86 A more formida- labor markets, and the cost of over-
ble opponent was Louis Johnson, whom coming unforeseen construction dif-
the authors of the bill had not consulted ficulties," contingency items would be
either. On learning that such a measure huge. The fixed-fee contract offered a
had been introduced in Congress, he ready solution to these problems. In the
protested to General Craig. Johnson absence of plans and specifications, con-
maintained that the Defense Act gave struction could begin and go forward
him, as business head of the War De- along with design and engineering work.
partment, the same responsibility for Changes in the character and scope of
construction as for other procurement a project could be made at any time and
activities. The General Staff opposed without much trouble. Moreover, since
this view. Thus began a "paper war" the government would assume nearly
which lasted well into 1940, each side all the risk, it would probably pay less
bombarding the other with memoran- for fixed-fee construction. Coming to
dums detailing their respective respon- the matter of architect-engineer con-
84 87
The Constructor, October 1939, p. 21. (1)G-4/31381. (2) G-4/31364. (3) Incl, 23
85
Seaman Intervs, 14, 21 Jul 55, 2 Oct 57. Mar 56, with Ltr, Brig Gen John W. N. Schulz to
86
Truman Comm Hearings, Part 7, p. 2019. EHD, 24 Mar 56.
COMING OF THE EMERGENCY 99
tracts, Tyner revealed that the War terially altered. The contractor's fee
Department could not quickly enlarge was like a salary. "We are hiring his
its professional staff. Federal pay scales brains and his organization to do the
were too low and Civil Service pro- job for us," Hartman said. After pointing
cedures too cumbersome. Even office out that noninsurance of government
space was lacking. "The obvious al- property was a well-established prin-
ternative," he told the committee, "is ciple, he went on to explain that the
to engage the services of private engi- fixed-fee contract had long been used by
neering and architectural firms or in- such big corporations as General Motors
dividuals to supplement the work of the and DuPont, which were in a position
War Department." With these pro- to spread risks widely. When several
fessionals, negotiation was obligatory, Senators asked whether contractors
for their national associations had might not defraud the government by
declared competition in regard to falsifying accounts, Hartman assured
fees unethical. Furthermore, Colonel them that the War Department would
Hartman added, "It is as illogical to have "absolute check and control" over
advertise for the services of an engineering all expenditures. While he maintained
or architectural specialist as it would be that including the terms of the contract in
to advertise for the services of a medical the bill would make the law too inflexi-
specialist."88 ble, some of the members suggested that
In response to the Senators' questions, the legislation should be specific on that
Hartman described the fixed-fee con- point. "As I understand it," said one,
tract and how it worked. The agreement "you have stated what the intentions
was, as he phrased it, "essentially a of the War Department are . . .
contract for service." Under its terms, but there is nothing in the law to guar-
the contractor would furnish labor, ma- antee that what you say . . . will
terials, and equipment and do every- be carried out, is there?" "No, sir,"
thing necessary to complete the job in Hartman answered, "except that we are
the shortest possible time. The govern- all officers of the Government and bound
ment would reimburse him for all his to look after the interests of the Govern-
expenses except home office overhead, ment and that is our intention."89 Ap-
executive salaries, and interest on bor- parently satisfied, the committee re-
rowed money. Hartman emphasized that ported the bill favorably. Some time
this was not a percentage agreement. In would elapse before the proposal came
payment for his services, the contractor to a vote.
would receive a fee, determined at the During June 1939 Congress was oc-
time of negotiation and based on the cupied with other urgent legislation. The
original estimate of cost. No change in War Department followed with particu-
the amount of the fee would be made lar interest the progress of two important
unless the scope of the project was ma- bills. The first, the supplemental military
appropriation bill for 1940, carried the
88
S Comm on Mil Affs, 76th Cong, 1st sess, funds for air expansion and for new posts
Hearings on S 2562, A Bill to Facilitate Certain Con-
struction Work for the Army, and for Other Purposes, pp.
89
3-6, 14. Ibid., pp. 7-15.
100 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
in Panama. It also increased the enlisted in WPA funds, a large part of it for
strength of the Army from 174,000 to grading, the conferees provided for troop
210,000. Approved on 1 July 1939, the housing in Panama and most of the Air
measure provided $64,862,500 for con- Corps jobs. But the air depots and the
struction plus a contract authorization Ordnance and Signal projects had had to
of $21,337,500 and made available ad- be left out. At an informal get-together
ditional sums totaling $4,208,459 for on the 30th, the Chief of Ordnance
maintenance, repairs, and real estate. persuaded Tyner and Brig. Gen. Lorenzo
The second bill contained the appropria- D. Gasser, whom Marshall had recently
tion for work relief. Owing largely to the chosen as his deputy, to divert $400,000
efforts of the Associated General Con- from the Alaska air base to two labora-
tractors, the bill was amended to prohibit tory projects. For a time Johnson per-
WPA from participating in the con- sisted in trying to use larger sums of
struction of any federal building which WPA money, but at length he agreed
cost more than $50,000. With approval to ask for a deficiency appropriation to
of the relief act on 30 June, hopes of cover the remaining industrial and depot
using large sums of WPA money on projects. At Tyner's insistence, Seaman
military projects collapsed.90 Referring and Arnold ironed out their differences
to the $50,000 limitation, Colonel Baade over design; Arnold accepted the Quar-
said, "That throws out most of our termaster layouts and withdrew his
buildings—everything in the United objections to mobilization-type barracks,
91
States and Hawaii." and Seaman promised to give the prefab
With passage of the appropriation industry an opportunity to compete for
bills, the program took shape rapidly. housing contracts. Affairs were soon in
At a series of meetings, funds were ear- order. On 13 July, after months of wait-
marked and differences of opinion were ing, Gibbins was formally directed to
reconciled. On 28 June Arnold, Tyner, begin construction.92
Pitz, and members of their staffs held
an all-day conference to decide how far Construction Gets Under Way
the military appropriation—the "gold
money" they called it—would stretch. When the directive reached General
Arnold and Tyner had agreed before- Seaman's desk, the Construction Division
hand what priority each job would have. was set to go. New mobilization drawings
As Colonel Baade read down the list, the were complete and detailed plans and
others determined how much relief money layouts for many Air Corps projects
could be used for each job and how much were ready. By mid-July 1939 the di-
"gold" would have to be allotted. Late
that afternoon Tyner telephoned 92
(1) Ibid. (2) Memo, G-4 for Marshall, 28 Jun
Marshall to report that the "gold money" 39. AG 600.12 (1-23-36) sec. 1-c. (3) Memo, with
Incls, Tyner for CofS, 30 Jun 39. G-4/31265. (4)
had run out. By including $4 million Memo, CofOrd for Gasser, 30 Jun 39. AG 600.12
(1-23-36) Sec 1-c. (5) Memo, Tyner for CofS, 14
90
(1) 53 Stat. 992. (2) 53 Stat. 932. (3) Memo, Jul 39. G-4/31265. (6) WD Ltr AG 580 (7-7-39)
G-4 for DCofS, 29 Jul 39. G-4/29778. (Misc) (D) to TQMG, 11 Jul 39. (7) WD Ltr AG 580
Notes of Confs, Arnold, Tyner, Pitz et al., 28 (7-11-39) (Misc) (D) to TQMG, 13 Jul 39. Last two
91
vision was forwarding specifications to 14 July of a site near Tampa for the
the field along with instructions to ad- southeast air base, the future MacDill
vertise immediately. In line with the Field, Valliant went to Florida to over-
agreement between Arnold and Seaman, see the donation by Hillsborough County
Constructing Quartermasters were to of 5,800 acres of land to the government.
call for alternate bids on mobilization With the approval in August of a 5,000-
structures and prefabs. Bids were to be acre tract near Chicopee, Massachusetts,
opened not later than 10 August and for the New England air base—to be
shelter was to be available for the first known as Westover Field—the Real
increment of troops by 30 September. Estate Branch acted promptly to take
Meanwhile, at twenty-eight projects options, secure rights of entry, arrange
where WPA would participate, con- for the relocation of power lines, and
struction officers were working out ar- negotiate for a railroad right-of-way.
rangements with local relief authorities. Pressure for speed was great. Each site
At a cabinet meeting late in July presented its particular challenge. Yet the
Woodring reported that progress at work was, for the most part, swiftly and
existing posts was good and that pros- skillfully done.94
pects for the remainder of the program Another encouraging development was
seemed bright. When he succeeded passage of a deficiency appropriation
Hartman as executive officer early in bill. On 20 July the President sent to
August, Colonel Pitz had reason Congress a supplemental request for
to believe that construction would go $16,931,300. This sum covered con-
smoothly.93 struction at nine projects. The bulk of
This hopeful outlook was due in no the money, $14,730,900, was for two
small part to the efforts of Colonel new air depots and additional facilities
Valliant. The chief of the Real Estate at two existing ones; $400,000 was to pay
Branch lost no time in getting land ac- back the account of the Alaska air base;
quisition under way. Hardly had and the remainder was for three Ord-
Woodring approved the location for a nance installations and the Signal Corps
new installation when the veteran Quar- laboratory. Congress hastened to comply,
termaster was on the scene. On 6 July and an act of August 9, 1939 gave the
Gibbins learned that Point Borinquen President all he had asked. Although
would be the site for the Puerto Rican eased considerably, the shortage of con-
air base. Three days later Valliant flew struction funds was by no means ended.
to the island to start condemnation pro- General Arnold had tried unsuccessfully
ceedings. Shortly after the selection on to insert an item for bombing ranges into
the bill. Five important Ordnance proj-
93
(1) Memo, ExecO G-4 for Constr Br G-4, 18 ects had not been provided for. The
Jul 39. G-4/31265 Sec 1. (2) Ltr, Constr Div to
94
CQM, Barksdale Fld, La., 21 Jul 39. QM 621 (1) Memo, Tyner for Gibbins, 6 Jul 39. (2)
(Barksdale Fld) 1939. (3) Ltr, Pitz to CQM's, 31 Telg, Gibbins to CG Puerto Rican Dept, 8 Jul 39.
Jul 39. QM 600.1 (Barksdale Fld) 1938-39 II. (4) Both in QM 600.1 (Borinquen Fld) 1939. (3) Interv
Memo, ExecO G—4 for Constr Br G—4, 26 Jul 39. with Col Rigby D. Valliant, 11 Jun 56. (4) QM 601.1
(5) Memo, with Incl, Seaman for Tyner, 26 Jul 39. (MacDill Fld) 1939. (5) G-4/31411. (6) OQMG
Last two in QM 600.1 (Augmentation Program) Constr Div, Real Estate Branch Progress Report,
1939. 21 Feb 41, pp. 2-5. Copy in EHD Files.
102 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
funds available for buying land would and slowed construction at several others.
probably be inadequate. Even so, the The Quartermaster system of centralized
deficiency money gave the program a control was encountering stubborn re-
welcome boost.95 sistance from local commanders. General
During August gains were substantial. Arnold was becoming more and more
The Construction Division turned out a critical of the Construction Division's
sizable number of plans and layouts. methods. His agreement with Seaman
Woodring picked a site near Mobile, regarding structural designs was not
Alabama, for one of the new air depots working out as the Air Corps had an-
and approved locations for most of the ticipated; contractors who based their
Panama projects. A board of officers offers on mobilization drawings were
headed by Colonel Lee completed a consistently underbidding prefab firms.
survey of airfield sites in Alaska, and Meanwhile, Johnson had renewed his
Maj. Edward M. George, who was to efforts to transfer construction to the
direct construction there, left with a Engineers. Although initially unsuccess-
staff for the territory. Many new proj- ful, he had reason to be optimistic, for
ects were starting up. Constructing Quar- General Marshall assured him that a
termasters were assembling work crews, transfer was only a question of time.97
renting equipment, buying materials, Word that the Army planned to con-
and beginning what jobs they could by struct the Alaska air base by day labor
purchase and hire. Bids were being created a stir in contracting circles. On
opened and contracts awarded. Here 8 August the Lee board recommended
and there a runway was being poured building the base by purchase and hire.
and a building was going up. On 7 That afternoon the Assistant Secretary
August the President signed the fixed- received a telegram of protest from the
fee bill, authorizing negotiated contracts Associated General Contractors, urging
for architectural and engineering ser- that the job be done by the fixed-fee
vices and for construction in Panama method.98 In a reply framed by the
and Alaska.96 Construction Division, Johnson stated
While the program as a whole seemed that, since purchase and hire would take
to be going well, trouble spots were ap- no longer and cost much less, Seaman
pearing. Several jobs fell behind because was adopting the board's suggestion.
WPA could not furnish workmen. Johnson went on to explain: "Execu-
Changes in Air Corps requirements tion of construction on the basis of cost-
forced the abandonment of one project 97
(1) G-4/31265 Sec. 1. (2) QM 600.1 (Barksdale
95
(1) Ltr, the President to the Speaker, H R, 20 Fld) II. (3) Memo, Tyner for Gibbins, 25 Aug 39.
Jul 39. (2) Ltr, Dir BOB to the President, 20 Jul 39. G-4/31265 Sec II. (4) Memo, Marshall for Wood-
Both in G-4/31265 Sec 1. (3) 53 Stat. 1301. (4) ring, 1 Sep 39. G-4/31411. (5) 2d Ind, G-4 to
Memo, Tyner for Marshall, 24 Jul 39. G-4/30337-10. TQMG, 1 Aug 39, on Ltr, TAG to TQMG, 3 Jun 39.
(5) Memo, G-4 for Marshall, 31 Jul 39. G-4/31190- QM 600. 1 (Misc 1939). (6) R&R Sheet, Exec
1. OCAC to Sup Div OCAC, 22 Aug 39. AAF Central
96
(1) QM 600.1 (Panama) (AC Expansion) I. Files, 600.1-600.12 I. (7) Ltr, Arnold to TAG, 9 Aug
(2) QM 600.1 (Misc 1939). (3) QM 600.1 (Ladd Fld) 39. G-4/31190-1. (8) AG 580 (3-31-26) (0 Sec 3A.
98
(AC Program) II. (4) Incl with Memo, SGS for (1) Ltr, Lee et al. to TAG, 8 Aug 39. WPD
Marshall, 17 Aug 39. G-4/31265 Sec 2. (5) 53 Stat. 3512-38. (2) Telg, Harding to Johnson, 8 Aug 39.
1239. QM 600.1 (Ladd Fld) (AC Program) I.
COMING OF THE EMERGENCY 103
plus-fixed-fee is, in the final analysis, tween $850 million and $1 billion, though
practically identical with procedure by the President made no request to Con-
purchase and hire with the exception gress at this time. Reinforcements went
that in the former case the government to Puerto Rico and Panama. Additional
would pay to the contractor a con- demands rained in on the Construction
siderable fee for the Alaska project."99 Division: set up temporary tent camps
The contractors expressed concern. "It for recruits; provide makeshift shelter
is our hope," wrote AGC director in the Caribbean area; rush a runway
Harding, "that this does not indicate a to completion in Puerto Rico; expedite
fundamental belief by the Quarter- all work at outlying bases; and, above
102
master Corps that the use of contractors all, push the Panama jobs.
is superfluous, without advantage, on Autumn of 1939 was a busy time for
construction under difficult condi- the Construction Division. Hard pressed
100
tions." While he refused to overrule to meet the demands of the Expansion
Seaman, Johnson was reassuring. "The Program, Seaman and his organization
Quartermaster Corps, as you know," faced a new series of rush orders growing
he reminded Harding, "is constantly uti- out of the recent increase in the Army.
lizing the knowledge and skill of many There was more building to do but no
contractors on numerous construction supplemental appropriation to do it
projects and expects to continue to do with. Funds for the additional work had
101
so." somehow to be scraped together. Colonel
The outbreak of war in Europe on1 Harrington was co-operative, giving pri-
September 1939 altered the construc- ority in assignment of relief workers to
tion picture. The President moved swiftly construction for the recruits. But re-
to tighten defenses and to step up the strictions on spending WPA funds for
pace of military preparations. On 5 materials limited the help that he could
September he issued a proclamation of give. A total of $3,640,000 came from
neutrality and transferred control of Woodring's reserve and Gibbin's main-
the Panama Canal from the Governor tenance, fuel, and furniture funds. Sums
to General Stone. Three days later he also came from the accounts set up for
proclaimed a limited national emer- Expansion projects, and, in some in-
gency and, by Executive Order, pro- stances, troops did construction. Seaman
vided for expansion of the Regular Army tried by various methods to expedite the
from 210,000 to 227,000 men and of the work. To relieve his overburdened design
National Guard from 200,000 to 235,000. section, he took advantage of the Act of
Meanwhile, the War Department took August 7 to employ private architects
steps to meet the situation. It drew up and engineers for seven large projects,
plans for a defense program to cost be- including MacDill, Westover, and Borin-
99 102
Ltr, Johnson to Harding, 17 Aug 39. G-4/31364. (1) Watson, Chief of Staff, pp. 156ff. (2) Memo,
See also original draft of this letter by Seaman. Tyner for TAG, 1 Sep 39. WPD 4191-3. (3) WD
QM 600.1 (Ladd Fld) (AG Program) II. Ltr 320.2 (9-11-39) M-D to CG Puerto Rican Dept,
100
Ltr, Harding to Johnson, 21 Aug 39. QM 20 Sep 39. WPD 4191-4. (4) Memo, Gasser for
600.1 (Ladd Fld) (AG Program) I. Tyner, 14 Sep 39. CofS, Emergency Measures,
101
Ltr, Johnson to Harding, 30 Aug 39. QM 1939-40 (Misc File). (5) DS, Tyner to Gibbins, 20
600.1 (Ladd Fld) (AC Program) I. Nov 39. G-4/30552-28.
104 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
quen Fields and the Alaska air base. He factorily, several key projects were
and members of his staff made frequent lagging. One was the Mobile Depot,
trips to the field. He encouraged Con- still delayed by lack of funds for land.
structing Quartermasters to keep in Another was McChord Field, Washing-
touch with Washington by telephone ton, where boggy ground hampered run-
and report any bottlenecks at once. way construction. Of gravest concern
Lastly, he urged Woodring, Arnold, and was the work in Panama.104
local commanders to make decisions on From the first the Panama jobs were
construction matters quickly.103 beset by troubles. Early in 1939 disagree-
By the end of the year, Seaman had ments had arisen over the choice of sites.
accomplished quite a bit. He had most After locations were firm, Hartman had
of the land required for a dozen major difficulty getting layouts approved as
projects. He had permanent construc- first General Arnold and then General
tion at existing stations in this country Stone challenged his plans. Maj. George
under way. He had designs and blue- F. Hobson, who took over the new post
prints for the Ogden Depot, Westover, of Constructing Quartermaster in July,
and MacDill. He had completed prac- soon discovered that his was a tough
tically all the temporary shelter. In assignment. He got a cold reception from
Hawaii, Puerto Rico, and Alaska, work Stone, who had had another man in mind
was proceeding according to plan. Con- for the position. In carrying out the
tractors at Hickam Field were on or emergency program, Hobson faced for-
ahead of schedule. Under 1st Lt. Morton midable obstacles. Except for brick and
E. Townes, one of the young West Point- tile, virtually no construction materials
ers who had chosen a construction ca- were produced locally. Machinery was
reer, work at Borinquen was going scarce. Skilled labor was at a premium
smoothly: the runway was in; the layout and semiskilled workmen were hard to
for the entire base had won praise from find. Hobson and his two assistants had
the department commander; and clear- to start from scratch to build an organi-
ing, grading, and drainage operations zation. When Seaman suggested that
were well along. Major George reported the Panama work be done by purchase
that the Alaska project was off to a and hire, Hobson opposed the idea. The
promising start: planning was far ad- two men were soon at odds. In September
vanced; a site at Fairbanks was under the outlook brightened. On the 5th
development; and preparations were Major Nurse flew to Panama, where
moving ahead for the main construction he persuaded General Stone to approve
effort in the spring. But while the pro- the Quartermaster layouts. On the 8th
gram as a whole was progressing satis- a group of architects and engineers ar-
103 104
(1) Memo, Wilson for Tyner, 23 Sep 39. QM (1) Memo, G-4 for Rcd, 6 Jan 40. G-4/30552-
600.1 (Works Projects) V. (2) Ltr, Marshall for 29. (2) Ltr, Hq Puerto Rican Dept to TAG, 21 Dec
Harrington, 29 Sep 39. G-4/29778. (3) WD Ltr AG 39. QM 611 (Borinquen Fld) 1940. (3) Rad, CG
600.12 Ft Sam Houston (9-28-39) to TQMG, 5 Oct Puerto Rican Dept to TQMG, 1 Dec 39. QM 600.1
39. G-4/30002-70. (4) WD Ltr AG 600.12 (2-14-40) (Borinquen Fld) (AC Program) 1939-40. (4) Ltr,
M-D to TQMG, 16 Feb 40. 652 I. (5) Seaman Gibbins to CG San Francisco POE, 16 Dec 39.
Interv, 2 Oct 57. (6) G-4/31265-2 to 10. (7) QM QM 600.1 (Ladd Fld) (AC Program) II. (5) Memo,
600.1 (Ladd Field) (AC Program) 1 and II. Hartman for G-4, 4 Mar 40. QM 600.1 (Misc) 1940.
COMING OF THE EMERGENCY 105
rived from the United States. The next ficers named to the committee were
day Colonel Danielson replaced Major Engineers—Col. John R. D. Matheson
Hobson.105 of Tyner's staff, and Capt. David A. D.
Late in September Woodring decided Ogden of the Chiefs office. The third
to do the Panama jobs by the fixed-fee member was Maj. Elmer G. Thomas,
method. By using emergency agreements one of the few active Quartermaster
he hoped not only to speed the work officers who had directed a cost-plus
but also to cut costs by 35 percent. There project during World War I. As chief
would be three contracts, one for the of the newly organized Fixed Fee Section
Atlantic side and two for the Pacific. of Seaman's office, Thomas would have
Leading construction firms would be charge of all work done under emer-
invited to apply. A committee of three gency agreements. Matheson, Ogden,
officers would rate the applicants on and Thomas had no time to lose, for
experience, organization, and financial Woodring wanted the list as soon as
responsibility and submit a list of those possible.106
that seemed best qualified to the Secre- At Gibbin's invitation, fifty of the
tary. A board headed by Woodring nation's top constructors submitted ap-
would then make final selections and plications. Among those who thus ex-
conduct negotiations. Two of the of- pressed their interest in a fixed-fee con-
tract were such giant concerns as George
105
(1) Memo, Lee for Strong, 8 Jun 39. WPD A. Fuller, Mason & Hanger, Starrett
3809-24. (2) Ltr, Hartman to Arnold, 5 Jun 39, with
106
1st Ind, 9 Jun 39. QM 600.1 (Albrook Fld) (AC (1) Memo, Gasser for Gibbins, 30 Sep 39.
Program). (3) QM 600.1 (Panama) (AC Expansion) G-4/31364. (2) Interv with Col Elmer G. Thomas,
I. (4) Memo, Seaman for Gibbins, 25 Jul 39. QM 27 Dec 55. (3) OQMG Office Order 34, 16 Oct 39.
600. 1 ( Panama) 1930-41. QM 020 (Constr) 1921-39.
106 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
Brothers and Eken, and the Walsh Con- briefs. Any firm or combination of firms
struction Company. Although few of capable of handling a nine-million-
the other applicants were quite so strong dollar project was eligible. Nearly one
financially as these companies, all en- hundred individual companies and joint
joyed outstanding reputations. Some of ventures applied. Some failed to qualify,
the less prosperous firms proposed to their assets being insufficient. The com-
work in combinations of two or three. mittee quickly graded the rest and, on
With so many fine candidates to choose 17 November, sent a list of seventeen
from, the committee could not fail to "first choice" contractors to the Secre-
find a number eminently qualified for tary. At this point, a powerful sponsor,
the Panama jobs. After reviewing the dean of the House Adolph J. Sabath,
information sent in by contractors, check- urged selection of a contractor who, as
ing with Dun & Bradstreet, and con- Thomas put it, had his office in his hat
sulting the Bureau of Contract Infor- and who, moreover, had recently drawn
mation of the AGC, Thomas and his a heavy penalty for not completing a
colleagues rated the applicants. They job on time. Unable to withstand this
also drafted a contract and established pressure and unwilling to give in to it,
a tentative fee schedule. Meanwhile, Woodring in early December ordered
the Fixed Fee Section arranged to trans- Seaman to advertise the Panama proj-
port men, equipment, and materials to ects for fixed-price letting. Under the
the Canal Zone. By the third week in slow competitive system, bids could not
October, all was in readiness. Woodring be opened before February.108 The at-
had only to name the contractors and tempt to expedite construction in
negotiate the contracts.107 Panama by using fixed-fee contracts
It was not to be that simple. The pro- had ended in failure.
cedure adopted by the Secretary sparked The scapegoat for the Panama fiasco
accusations that the War Department was the Quartermaster Corps. In vain
was favoring big business. The AGC and did General Gibbins protest that the
the building trades unions demanded delay in letting contracts was owing
that all contractors have equal oppor- "to causes beyond the control of this of-
109
tunities. On learning that a majority of fice." From Panama General Stone
the applicants were from the East, several wired the War Department: "Dry season
congressmen from other sections raised 108
(1) QM 600.1 (Panama) 1920-39. (2) Ltr,
objections. Other congressmen entered Pitz to All Contractors, circa 31 Oct 39. (3) Telg,
pleas on behalf of constituents. Late in Gibbins to The Austin Co., Phila., Pa., 31 Oct 39.
October Woodring agreed to circu- Last two in Thomas Papers. (4) The Constructor,
larize the industry. Interested parties November 1939, p. 16. (5) Ltr, with Incl, Matheson
et al. to the Board of Selection, 17 Nov 39. Thomas
had until 8 November to file experience Papers. (6) Thomas Interv, 27 Dec 55. (7) Answers
to Questionnaire, Thomas to EHD, 31 May 56. (8)
107
(1) Ltr, Pitz to George A. Fuller Co., 28 Sep 39. Memo, Gasser for Gibbins, 13 Nov 39. QM 600.1
QM 095 (Fuller, George A.) 1936-41. (2) Memo, (Panama) 1930-41. (9) Ltrs, Woodring to Rep
Ogden for Schley, 21 Oct 39. (3) Ltr, Pitz to Daniel- Adolph J. Sabath, 14 Nov, 7 Dec 39. SW Files,
son, 20 Oct 39. Last two in Thomas Papers. (4) Constr Work, 251-650. (10) Telg, TAG to Stone,
Answers to Questionnaire, Thomas to EHD, 31 May 12 Dec 39. QM 600.1 (Panama) (AC Expansion) I.
109
56. (5) Memo, Matheson, Thomas, and Ogden for 2d Ind, Gibbins to TAG, 7 Dec 39, basic missing.
the Board of Selection, 25 Oct 39. Thomas Papers. QM 600.1 (Panama) (AC Expansion) I.
COMING OF THE EMERGENCY 107
has come and weather is fine . . . . about the change might ruin the En-
Am more convinced than ever of neces- gineers' chances for years to come. Al-
sity of putting all construction work here though the congressmen seemed in no
under the direction of the Department hurry, General Marshall had to be
Commander. With the push and initia- ready to take a stand should a bill be
tive he can give, the work will be car- introduced. Somewhat reluctantly, he
110
ried on to early completion." General reopened the question. The Staff re-
Arnold, still the Quartermaster's most viewed earlier studies and kept an eye
persistent critic, expressed particular dis- on Quartermaster progress.112 Vetoing a
satisfaction with the handling of the proposal by a former member of the
Panama air base. Until this time General wartime Construction Division to re-
Seaman had managed to hold his own. establish the separate corps, General
With Tyner's help he had checkmated Tyner conceded that a change was
a move by the Air Corps to take over desirable but maintained that construc-
airfield design; and he had withstood tion should go to the Engineers even-
continuing pressure from the AGC for tually. "The enormous . . . pro-
a fixed-fee contract in Alaska. There gram now underway is too far de-
were some who praised his efforts, among veloped," he added, "to change horses
them Brig. Gen. George H. Brett of at this moment."113 Then, on 18 Janu-
Arnold's staff.111 But Brett's voice and ary 1940, the President called once more
the voices of like-minded men were for recommendations as to what changes
drowned out by the rising chorus of should be made under the Reorganiza-
complaints. tion Act. The next day General Gasser
Removing construction from the asked Tyner what to do with mainte-
Quartermaster Corps came up again. nance if construction went to the En-
In October 1939 two members of the gineers.114 Learning from Matheson what
House Appropriations Committee, was afoot, General Schley hastened to
Representatives Albert J. Engel and offer his views. Maintenance, he insisted,
Joe Starnes, informed the General Staff should be left where it was. As for trans-
that they intended to sponsor legislation ferring construction, he felt the time
giving the function to the Corps of En- was inopportune. The change should
gineers. The news was not particularly not take place while the Quartermaster
welcome. A premature attempt to bring Corps was in the midst of a big emer-
gency program. "Any transfer," Schley
110
Telg, Stone to TAG, 4 Dec 39. QM 600.1 wrote, "no matter to what organization,
(Panama) (AC Expansion) I. will cause delay. Such a delay might be
111
(1) DS, G-4 to TQMG, 7 Dec 39. G-4/30552-20.
112
(2) Memo, Arnold for Tyner, n.d., sub: Delay in AC (1) Memo, OCofS (Maj James D. McIntyre)
Constr Program. QM 600.1(Air Corps) (Emergency for Marshall, 26 Oct 39. AG 020 (4-21-39). (2)
Program) 1940. (3) R&R Sheet, B&G Sec OCAC Memo, Tyner for Strong, 13 Nov 39. 6-4/30552-25.
to Arnold, 22 Aug 39, with handwritten note thereon. (3) Tel Conv, Col Chamberlain, G—4, and Seaman,
AAF Central Files, 600.121 from Jul 39-Aug 40. 29 Dec 39. QM 600.1 (Misc) 1940.
113
(4) Ltr, CQM to CO Barksdale Fld, 28 Dec Memo, Tyner for Marshall, 26 Dec 39. G—
39, and Inds. QM 600.1 (Barksdale Fld) 1940. 3/31597.
114
(5) G-4/31364. (6) R&R Sheet, Brett to Arnold, 7 (1) Ltr, BOB to Woodring, 18 Jan 40. (2) Memo,
Nov 39. AAF Central Files, 600.121 from Jul 39-Aug Gasser for Tyner, 19 Jan 40. Both in AGO 020
40. (4-21-39).
108 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
he had won the respect of the General
Staff. General Spalding had commended
him highly. General Tyner, asked later
if he had considered Hartman compe-
tent, replied laconically, "God, yes."
And although General Moore would have
preferred to see the position filled by
an Engineer, he agreed that the new
man seemed particularly well qualified.117
General Gregory, who succeeded Gibbins
on 1 April 1940, raised no objections.
Afterward he said, "At the time I was
made Quartermaster General, my three
assistants had already been chosen, which
included General Hartman, but I proba-
bly would have appointed him anyway
because he had been in the Construction
Division during World War I and had
118
made a very good record then." In
GENERAL MOORE
the months to come, Hartman was to
need all of his knowledge and exper-
serious at this time."115 This argument ience, for on his shoulders soon would
made a deep impression on the new G-4, fall the mantle of Littell.
Brig. Gen. Richard C. Moore, who had
succeeded Tyner on 21 January. When The Period of the Phony War
Moore, who was an Engineer officer,
suggested that the transfer be postponed In the offing was a far larger and better
for at least a year, Marshall and balanced program than the one begun
116
Woodring decided to wait. in 1939. Throughout the months of the
This decision was followed shortly by "phony war," military leaders, antici-
the retirement of General Seaman. Re- pating a major emergency, pressed for
called from the West Coast late in further rearmament. Among their im-
February, Colonel Hartman became mediate goals were a Regular Army of
head of the Construction Division on 280,000, a National Guard of 450,000,
1March 1940. The new chief was gen- critical and essential items of equipment
erally regarded as the logical man for for the Protective Mobilization Force,
the job. Within the Construction Service and a stronger network of defenses. Be-
he had long enjoyed an outstanding yond this they sought to prepare the
reputation. Capable and conscientious, way for an eventual wartime force of
115 117
Memo, Schley for Matheson, 2 Feb 40. 600.1 (1) Pagan Interv, 8 Mar 57; Tyner Interv, 28
Secret File No. 1 of 2 Secret Files. Sep 55. (2) Memo, Moore for Marshall, 30 Mar 40.
116
(1) Memo, Moore for Marshall, 10 Feb 40. AG 020 (4-21-39).
118
(2) Memo, Moore for Marshall, 24 Feb 40. (3) Ltr, Verbatim Rpt, Meeting with Gregory and
Woodring to BOB, 8 Feb 40. All in G-4/31343. Hastings, p. 8.
COMING OF THE EMERGENCY 109
4,000,000 men. By peacetime standards the Bureau of the Budget notified the
the cost of construction alone would be War Department that requests should
staggering. The sums required for ex- be for minimum requirements only. Be-
panding existing arsenals, depots, and fore long Roosevelt revealed his inten-
proving grounds and for building new tion of starting a drive for governmental
manufacturing plants came to more economy. In November he asked Con-
than $400 million. About $100 million gress for a modest sum to defray the costs
would go for troop construction at es- of the limited emergency. The Construc-
tablished posts in the United States. tion Division would receive a mere
The Air Corps' deferred projects would $10,661,600, two-thirds of which was to
cost another $100 million. To complete pay back money borrowed from au-
the installations in the overseas posses- thorized projects. The War Department's
sions would take at least $55 million budget for fiscal year 1941, presented
more. These sums did not cover the pro- to Congress in January 1940, contained
posed improvement of seacoast defenses. but $30,061,748 for construction,
Nor did they include contemplated $18,857,458 for maintenance, and
projects for which no estimates had yet $866,000 for land. And when the Presi-
been made. An early beginning was im- dent made drastic cuts in the rivers and
perative, particularly for the industrial harbors estimate, the House retaliated
projects.119 In December 1939 the Chief by slashing the estimate for military con-
of Ordnance, Maj. Gen. Charles M. struction in half. Meanwhile, the Budget
Wesson, warned the Assistant Secretary Bureau's insistence that future askings
that time was wasting. "To adequately be small hampered the Army's effort
prepare this nation for a major war," to draft a new construction authoriza-
he said, "would require, under present tion bill.121 As long as the "phony war"
conditions, two years from the time continued, a big preparedness effort
money is available."120 seemed unlikely.
The Army had neither the funds nor The Construction Division needed time
the authority to launch its bold new to get ready. After two decades of mobi-
program. The outbreak of war in Europe lization planning the War Department
had raised hopes of immediate large
appropriations and vigorous action, but 121
(1) Ltr, BOWD to Chiefs of Estimating Agencies,
these hopes were dashed as the President, 30 Oct 39. G-4/31190-7. (2) New York Times,
trimming his sails to the political winds, November 27, 1939, p. 1; December 6, 1939, p. 3;
December 27, 1939, p. 1; January 1, 1940, p. 1. (3)
decided to go slowly. In October 1939 H Subcomm of the Comm on Appns, 76th Cong,
3d sess, Hearings on Emergency Supplemental Appropria-
119
(1) Watson, Chief of Staff, pp. 157ff. (2) Memo, tion Bill for 1940, Nov 39, pp. 1ff., 68-80. (4) Brief,
Marshall for Woodring, 7 Sep 39. CofS, Misc Confs, OCofS (W.M.R.) 12 Feb 40. QM 652 1922-40. (5)
1938-42. (3) WD Ltr AG 320.2 (10-27-39)E-Cto H Subcomm of the Comm on Appns, 76th Cong,
WDGS, 30 Oct 39. G-4/31453. (4) Memo, Tyner 3d sess, Hearings on Military Establishment Appropria-
for Strong, 8 Jan 40. G-4/31349-1. (5) Incl with tion Bill for 1941, Feb-Mar 40, pp. 23-26, 388. (6)
Ltr, Woodring to A. J. May, Chm H Mil Affs Comm, H Subcomm of the Comm on Appns, 76th Cong, 3d
13 Jan 40. SW Files, Nat Def 151-400. (6) Memo, sess, Hearings on War Department Civil Functions Bill
Seaman for TAG, 9 Jan 40. QM 600.1 (Funds) for 1941, Jan-Feb 40, pp. 101ff. (7) S Subcomm of the
VIII. Comm on Appns, 76th Cong, 3d sess, Hearingson
120
Memo, Wesson for Johnson, 2 Dec 39. SW Military Establishment Appropriation Bill for 1941, Apr-
Files—782-850. May 40, pp. 5-6. (8) G-4/30552 and G-4/30552-27.
110 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
still had no effective blueprint for car- but command requirements as well.
rying out a large emergency building Other responsible officials continued to
program. Addressing the annual con- neglect the problem. Aside from forcing
vention of the AGC at Memphis on 8 the Quartermaster Corps to make ex-
February 1940, Assistant Secretary haustive studies of prefabs, General
Johnson said, "Let me frankly confess, Tyner did little to advance construction
we are not ready to face an M-day on preparations. General Seaman did even
t h e construction front . . . . W e less. In October 1939 he abolished the
have been so busy on the munitions front Planning Branch and henceforth made
of guns, planes, tanks and fighting equip- no apparent effort to ready the division
128
ment that we have neglected the con- for a full-scale emergency. When
struction phases of industrial mobiliza- Hartman returned in early 1940, time
tion which are equally important toward was fast running out.
122
the ultimate success of battle." The With the coming of spring, the
plans for command construction were "phony war" in Europe ended. As the
in far worse shape than those for in- Germans launched their swift offensives
dustrial projects. The latest Protective and won their crushing victories, the
Mobilization Plan echoed earlier versions United States began to mobilize.
in calling for little building. Johnson tried
belatedly to remedy the situation. In 123
(1) WD, MR 4-1, 5 Jan 40, sub: Supply,
February 1940 he organized a Con- Constr, Transport, Sec V. (2) Memo, Secy ANMB
struction Section in ANMB and in- for Gibbins, 8 Feb 40. ANMB Files—334 Comm
structed it to study not only industrial Members and Min of Mtgs (Constr Sec). (3) G—
4/31409-1. (4) QM 600.1 (Prefab Bldgs). (5) OQMG
Office Order 34, 16 Oct 39. QM 020 (Constr) 1921-
122
The Constructor, February 1940, p. 20. 39.
CHAPTER IV
supplies would be subject to this review. In June, while the scope of the de-
The commission began almost at once to fense program was becoming clear, the
chart a course consistent with the Presi- War Department received its first large
dent's aims. By late June the members increase in emergency funds. On the
were in substantial agreement that ways 26th the President signed the First
would have to be found to obtain earliest Supplemental National Defense Appro-
deliveries at lowest prices and that work priation Act for 1941, providing for the
would have to be spread in such a way expenditure of slightly more than a
as to reduce unemployment and utilize billion dollars. Roughly one-quarter of
idle productive capacity. They recog- the money was for construction. Since it
nized that these ends were attainable came so early, this measure did not
only if contracting methods were both allow for a substantially larger military
flexible and streamlined.6 force than had the regular appropriation
While the Advisory Commission was of 13 June. The enlisted strength of
thus engaged, the War Department, too, the Army was raised to 375,000, but
was bestirring itself. At the instance of there was as yet no action on the Presi-
Assistant Secretary Johnson and his dent's proposal to call the National
executive, Colonel Burns, supplemental Guard. A total of $84,079,584 was made
estimates were in preparation and long- available for reception centers, troop
range plans were under consideration housing, airfields, and seacoast defenses.
for an Army of 4,000,000 men. On 11 More significant was the provision of
June, the day after Italy entered the $200 million for expediting production.9
war, Johnson appointed a 7-man com- This sum was almost five times as much
mittee "to submit a balanced program as the act of 13 June had furnished for
based on military needs . . . for the crea- the same purpose—an indication of
tion of additional productive capacity."7 what General Marshall in mid-June
The formation of this committee was but termed "the rapidly developing threat
10
part of an intensive effort to define the ... of the world situation."
Army's objectives which began on the By the end of the month the War
11th. Knudsen had that day demanded Department had outlined the basic plan
to know how much productive capacity that would guide the first phase of its
the country would need and when. For rearmament effort. Known as the 30
the next three weeks, Johnson and June Munitions Program, the plan was
Marshall endeavored to find an answer.8 designed primarily to create the facilities
needed to equip and maintain an army
6
(1) CPA, Industrial Mobilization for War, pp. of 2,000,000 men. The President ap-
19-25. (2) Memo, Roosevelt for Woodring, 6 Jun 40.
WPB 411.33 Constr Project, Mil, Jun 40-41. (3)
proved the program on 2 July and sub-
mitted it to Congress with a price tag
CPA, Minutes of the Advisory Commission to the Council of
National Defense, June 1, 1940 to October 22, 1941 of $3.9 billion on the l0th, together with
(Washington, 1946), pp. 2-3, 15-17. Cited hereinafter
as Minutes of the NDAC. 9
7
Memo, Johnson for . . . , 11 Jun 40. (1) 54 Stat. 599. (2) H Subcomm of the Comm on
ASF 134 A, Constr Program—Site Comm. Appns, 77th Cong, 1st sess, Hearings on Military
8
(1) Memo, Burns for Johnson, 13 Jun 40, sub: Establishment Appropriation Bill for 1942, pp. 6, 156-57.
10
National Policy on Mun Production Capacity. 470 S Subcomm of the Comm on Appns, 76th Cong,
Part 1. (2) Burns Interv, 24 May 56. 3d sess, Hearings on H R 10055, p. 4.
114 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
a request for 15,000 planes.11 He de- a peacetime draft. Pressure for com-
scribed the objectives, aside from air- pulsory military service had, therefore,
craft procurement, as follows: to come from other sources. It was
To complete the total equipment for a through the efforts of the Military
land force of approximately 1,200,000 men, Training Camps Association, a group of
though of course this total of men, would not prominent New Yorkers who had served
be in the Army in time of peace. as officers in World War I, that the
To procure reserve stocks of tanks, guns, Burke-Wadsworth Selective Service Bill
artillery, ammunition, etc., for another
800,000 men or a total of 2,000,000 men if a was introduced in Congress on 20 June.
mobilization of such a force should become That same day the President named
necessary. Henry L. Stimson, one of the associa-
To provide for manufacturing facilities, tion's members, Secretary of War. Roose-
public and private, necessary to produce velt publicly endorsed the selective ser-
critical items of equipment for a land force
of 2,000,000 men, and to produce the ord- vice measure on 10 July. Two days later
nance items required for the aircraft program General Marshall appeared before the
of the Army and Navy—guns, bombs, armor, Senate Military Affairs Committee to
bombsights and ammunition.12 urge speedy passage of the Burke-
The last of these objectives alone meant Wadsworth bill and prompt action 14
to
that the War Department would build federalize the National Guard. For
its own munitions industry. Because the first time in history, Congress had
critical items were by definition non- before it proposals to mobilize the
commercial articles normally not pro- nation's manpower in time of peace.
duced by private industry, most of the The War Department confronted a
new manufacturing plants would be situation it had not foreseen. For twenty
government built and owned. A vast years top military planners had assumed
military construction effort would be that a huge emergency construction
necessary to achieve the program's goal, effort would not again be necessary. But
which was, in the President's words, the the crisis of 1940 compelled the Army
filling of "the material requirements to undertake an even larger building
without which the manpower of the program than had U.S. entry into
nation, if called into service, cannot World War I. In 1917 the Allies had
effectively operate, either in the pro- held a stable front in France, their
duction of arms and goods, or their fleets had controlled the seas, and their
utilization in repelling attack."13 factories had furnished munitions to
Until now the administration had not American forces as well as to their own.
sought to muster a citizen army. It Now German armies stood on the shores
being an election year, the President of the Atlantic, Britain was in jeopardy,
was wary of anything so controversial as and friendly nations were seeking arma-
ments here. Moreover, mobilization oc-
11
(1) Memo, Marshall for Johnson, 2 Jul 40.
curred before this country's formal entry
(2) Memo, Burns for Rcd, 3 Jul 40. (3) Memo,
14
Johnson for Secy NDAC, 16 Jul 40. All in G-4/31773. (1) Watson, Chief of Staff, pp. 188-92. (2) Sher-
12
Public Papers and Addresses of Franklin D. Roosevelt, wood, Roosevelt and Hopkins, pp. 155-57. (3) Public
1940, p. 290. Papers and Addresses of Franklin D. Roosevelt, 1940, p.
13
Ibid. 290.
FIRST STEPS TOWARD MOBILIZATION 115
into World War II. This time the United His first step was to check the plans.
States, largely on its own, had to out- Calling for the mobilization drawings,
strip Germany's arms production. This he made a startling discovery—during
time, too, it had to maintain a sizable his stay in California, someone had
army for an indefinite period on Ameri- altered the drawings. The size of the
can soil.15 barracks had been reduced, roof de-
signs had been cheapened, and studs
Early Preparations had been more widely spaced. Plywood
had been substituted for drop siding.
Even before the invasion of Denmark The new structures would be cramped
and Norway, preparations were under and weak. Some of the materials specified
way for a large-scale building program. were scarce. In short, the drawings would
Early in March, a week or ten days not serve. The men who had helped with
after Hartman's return to Washington, the original blueprints started immedi-
the Chief of Staff sent for him. General ately to make another set. Colonel
Marshall wanted to know how long it Hartman soon received an even ruder
would take to house 2,000,000 men. The jolt. The remainder of his plans had
record of the old Cantonment Division disappeared. Though copies had once
came readily to Hartman's mind. In been on file with the Construction Divi-
1917 there were virtually no plans to sion, The Quartermaster General, G-4,
start with. Yet shelter for a million men and WPD, not one could now be found.
was complete five months after work Except for the Blossom report, which
commenced. Hartman thought of the he had kept on his desk as a reference
plans he had developed during the past work these past twenty years, Hartman
six years—the organization charts, the had practically no written word to
17
studies and reports, the ideal layouts, guide him. In charting a course for
and the mobilization drawings. Then emergency construction, he had to rely
he gave his answer. If he could know primarily on his own judgment and the
at once what units were to be housed example of World War I.
and where, if he could get the money Alert to the need for sound construc-
in May or June and begin work in July, tion planning, Colonel Burns endeavored
the new Army could be sheltered before to help by bringing in men from industry.
1December. Marshall was merely seek- Through the Associated General Con-
ing information he might need if and tractors, he obtained the names of several
when mobilization did take place. But prominent men who might be available.
to Hartman this interview was the One was John P. Hogan, president of
signal to get moving.16 the American Society of Civil Engineers.
A colonel in the Engineer Reserve, Hogan
15 17
See Stimson's statement, 24 Jul 40. In H Sub- (1) Statement of Gen Hartman, 5 Jul 55, pp. 2, 7.
comm of the Comm on Appns, 76th Gong, 3d sess, (2) Hartman's Testimony, 12 Aug 41. In Truman
Hearings on Second Supplemental National Defense Comm Hearings, Part 7, p. 2042. (3) Blossom's
Appropriation Bill for 1941, pp. 107-09. Testimony, 14 Feb 41. In H Comm on Mil Affs,
16
(1) Memo, Burns for Johnson, 30 Mar 40. 77th Cong, 1st sess, Hearings, Inquiry as to National
ANMB 334 Comm Members and Min. (2) State- Defense Construction, p. 66. Cited hereinafter as May
ment of Gen Hartman, 5 Jul 55, pp. 2, 5-6, 10. Comm Hearings.
116 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
had served in France in World War I. pitals, bakeries, and laundries; of store-
As chief engineer of the New York houses, shops, and administration build-
World's Fair of 1939, he had directed a ings; and of recreation halls, post ex-
$100 million construction program. Late changes, and theaters. There were also
in March, Maj. Leo J. Dillon, Burns' blueprints for roads and utilities and
executive officer, conferred with Hogan layouts for typical camps. While these
in New York. The latter agreed to head plans resembled the "600 series" of
a Construction Advisory Committee World War I, there were marked differ-
under the Army and Navy Munitions ences. The improved standard of living
Board. During April Hogan and Dillon accounted for certain changes. Central
with Roosevelt's help recruited the heating had replaced stoves. Latrines
following outstanding men, all of whom were now inside the barracks rather
agreed to serve without pay: Stephen F. than in separate buildings. Other changes
Voorhees, past president of the American resulted from motorization. The stable
Institute of Architects; Alonzo J. had given way to the garage, and road
19
Hammond, president of the American nets were more elaborate. Secretary
Engineering Council; Malcolm Pirnie, Stimson called attention to still another
general chairman of the Construction change-producing factor:
League of America; and, from the In 1917 the cantonments were intended
Associated General Contractors, Past to house troops for a shorter period . . . . We
President E. P. Palmer and Managing then knew that our troops were going to
Director Harding. It was to take some France and that much of their training would
time for the committee to get organized, be overseas. There was then strong evidence
that the contending forces in the war were
and the first meeting did not take place nearing exhaustion and that, whatever way
18
until 20 May. Meanwhile, plans for the decision went, the end was probably not
defense construction were shaping up far off.
rapidly. Today not only are we facing a most dan-
By late April the mobilization draw- gerous emergency but there is strong evidence
20
ings had undergone a hasty overhauling. that this emergency may be very prolonged.
Working largely from memory, veteran With this situation in mind, Hartman
employees of the Construction Division introduced more durable features into
restored many of the original plans, the plans. Two important changes were
which they then hastily revised. When the substitution of concrete foundation
completed, this latest version of the piers for wooden posts and the addition
"700 series" incorporated blueprints for of termite shields. Another, aimed at
more than three hundred structures of reducing maintenance costs, was the
various types and sizes. Included were addition of canopies, or, as they were
drawings of barracks, mess halls, hos- generally called, "aqua medias" or "eye-
18
(1) Interv, Troyer Anderson with Col Leo J.
19
Dillon. Anderson File, Folder No. 4. (2) Memo, (1) Statement of Gen Hartman, 5 Jul 55, pp.
Burns for Johnson, 30 Mar 40. (3) Ltr, ANMB to 2, 7. (2) Report, Chief Construction Division, 1918, p.
Palmer, 15 Apr 40. (4) Memo, ANMB for ASW and 17ff. (3) QM Standard Mobilization Drawings, 1940-41,
ASN, 15 May 40. (5) Memo, ASN for the President, vols. I, II.
20
21 May 40. Last four in ANMB 334 Comm Members Stimson's Testimony, 15 Apr 41. In Truman
and Min. Comm Hearings, Part 1, p. 6.
FIRST STEPS TOWARD MOBILIZATION 117
brows."21 When Hitler attacked through so high. We felt that they were low and
the Low Countries, the Construction Di- we did expect difficulty in accomplishing
vision had on hand drawings for quick, our mission with the moneys we had
cheap, and serviceable camps—drawings requested."23
that still lacked complete details but could Even at this late date, few in the
nevertheless be made to do. General Staff recognized the need for
Three days before the big German an all-out construction effort. The hope
offensive, on 7 May, the G-4, General persisted that large numbers of men
Moore, asked the division to compute might be housed in tents and existing
the cost of sheltering 1,200,000 men. buildings, that the experience of World
The estimating task fell to Major Nurse. War I need not be repeated. Describing
It was a formidable assignment. Since the General Staffs attitude during the
sites were still unchosen, he could not spring of 1940, General Gregory said:
forecast requirements for utilities, roads, "In the original mobilization plans, you
and railroad spurs—all expensive items. see, it was planned to call up a unit
How much clearing and grading would and put them in fairgrounds, tents, and
be necessary was any man's guess. The buildings. They couldn't seem to get
same was true of drainage. Wages and that out of their heads, to realize that
prices were certain to rise; the question they would need something more, that
was how far. And, while plans for typical they would need some place in which
buildings were now available, bills of to train successive groups of men."24
materials were still in the writing. Using At a mid-May conference, General Mar-
the records of the 1939 projects and shall said that the shortage of shelter
such other information as he could was "no serious obstacle" to the raising
25
gather, Nurse arrived at a figure of of a million men. The Chief of Staff
$800 per man for divisional cantonments. made no pretense of being an expert in
This was a rock-bottom estimate. Keep- logistics. As a matter of fact, he left
ing within it would probably take con- logistical matters largely to General
siderable doing, but to ask for more was Moore.26
to invite refusal. Hartman checked the Confronted with Nurse's figures, the
figures and double-checked them, as G-4 refused categorically to entertain
did Joseph A. Bayer of the Funds and so high an estimate. Even assuming that
Estimates Section. Then, the three men divisional cantonments were to be built
22
called on General Moore. "When and that the 700 series plans would be
we presented our estimates," Bayer followed—the General Staff had not yet
recalled, "he seemed shocked they were finally accepted either proposition—the
21
Memo, OQMG War Plans and Tng Br for Rcd, price was out of line, he said. Hartman
1940. Opns Br Files, Misc Papers. emphatically disagreed, maintaining that
22
(1) Watson, Chief of Staff, pp. 166-67. (2) Ltr,
23
Nurse to OCMH, 9 Mar 55. EHD files. (3) 1st Ind, Ltr, Bayer to authors, 4 Jul 55.
24
2 Dec 40, on Ltr, TAGO to TQMG, 16 Nov 40, sub: Verbatim Rpt, Meeting with Gregory and
Statement of Status of Emergency Constr Funds. Hastings, p. 15.
25
QM 600.1 (Funds) IX. (4) Hartman's Testimony, Notes of Conf in OCofS, 20 May 40. OCS,
12 Aug 41. In Truman Comm Hearings, Part 7, pp. Misc Confs, 20 May-25 Sep 40.
26
2045-48. (5) Statement of Gen Hartman, 5 Jul 55, (1) Interv with Lt Gen Leslie R. Groves, 19
p.8. Jun 56. (2) Burns Interv, 24 May 56.
118 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
the Quartermaster figure could only be standard for emergency projects. Colonel
trimmed by dropping desirable features, Hartman tried to gauge how far $400
such as paved roads, theaters, and per man would go. First he set aside
recreation halls. Judging from experi- $50 per man for utilities, a small sum
ence, such action seemed inadvisable. but all that Moore would allow. Then
Hartman pointed out that the camps of he went down the list of facilities the
World War I had barely been started G-4 had approved, counting the cost of
before demands arose for these and each. When the total reached $350, he
similar refinements. Moore nevertheless drew a line. Above it were the bare
reduced the estimate to $650 per man essentials, barracks, mess halls, store-
by eliminating the "frills." Then, fearing houses, hospitals, and temporary roads.
that Congress would refuse even that This much and no more could be had
amount, he slashed the figure again, within the limit imposed. Hartman was
this time to $400. Hartman, Nurse, and under no illusions that other features
Gregory fought hard for a realistic esti- would not soon be added. Although he
mate, but General Moore held firm. In could not avoid a sizable deficit, he did
the end The Quartermaster General got hope to prevent the shortage of funds
orders to use $400 per man as the basis from hampering the building effort.29
of future requests. At the time, there When the Hogan committee met in
was speculation as to whether Moore Washington late in May, the draft of a
27
was acting on orders from above. fixed-fee contract was ready for review.
Questioned about this later, he replied: Although the members suggested several
I was responsible for cutting the estimates. changes, they approved the 30
agreement
It was contemplated at that time that all and recommended its use. Noting that
training was to take place in the South where work on detailed plans and specifications
tents could be used. The neutralism in Con- could not start until sites were picked,
gress made it expedient to keep estimates as they reported to ANMB on 10 June:
low as practicable. We asked for what we "Attempts to let competitive contracts
thought we could get. The estimates were
checked with what it cost to build a construc- without adequate contract drawings in-
tion town at Fort Peck, Montana, per man, evitably result in confusion, delay, and
in 1934.28 increased costs over any other method
In terms of the construction task . . . the first priority contracts should
ahead, Moore's figure was appallingly and must 31
be done on a management
low. Before many days had passed, the basis." The construction press echoed
General Staff accepted the fact that 29
(1) Memo, Moore for Marshall, 28 May 40.
some divisional cantonments would in- G-4/31753. (2) WD Ltr AG 600.12 (6-15-40)
deed be necessary. Shortly thereafter the M-D-M, 15 Jun 40, sub: WD Constr Policy. G—
Staff adopted the 700 series plans as 4/31751. (3) Hartman's Testimony, 12 Aug 41. In
Truman Comm Hearings, Part 7, pp. 2046-48. (4)
27
(1)Ltr, Nurse to OCMH, 9 Mar 55. EHD Constr Div Table, 17 Jun 40, Estimated Cost—
Files. (2) Statement of Gen Hartman, 5 Jul 55, p. 8. Triangular Div, 8,083 Men. Opns Br Files, Misc
(3) Hartman's Testimony, 12 Aug 41. In Truman Papers.
30
Comm Hearings, Part 7, pp. 2046-48. (4) Groves Memo, Constr Adv Comm ANMB for ANMB, 31
Comments, I, 6. May 40. ANMB-MB 203.4-3.1.
28 31
Replies to Questions, Incl with Ltr, Moore to Rpt, Constr Adv Comm ANMB to ANMB,
EHD, 3 Jan 56. 10 Jun 40. USW Files, 134 Constr.
FIRST STEPS TOWARD MOBILIZATION 119
the committee's views. Advocating use was caused" by the contracts of World
of fixed-fee contracts on emergency War I, the Senate agreed to the rider.33
projects, the editors of the Engineering On learning what had happened, Hart-
News-Record argued: man appealed through the Secretary of
Its advantages for the government lie in War to Senator Sheppard, who prom-
the speed with which work can be gotten ised to help. At Sheppard's urging the
underway, in flexibility of handling changes House and Senate conferees threw out
in plans, in increased efficiency through being the McKellar amendment and in its
able to work with the contractor as a partner, place adopted the following clause:
and finally in reduced cost by eliminating
the necessary contingent items in a competi- "the cost-plus-a-percentage-of-cost sys-
tive bid. To the contractor the negotiated tem of contracting shall not be used
agreement offers freedom from uncertainty . . . , but this proviso shall not be con-
of labor rates, material prices, weather, and strued to prohibit the use of the cost-
unforeseen difficulties. It also gives the con- plus-a-fixed-fee form of contract when
tractor assurance of a profit. . . . Without
question such a contract is the proper instru- such use is deemed necessary by the
ment for the job at hand.32 Secretary of War." The Act of 2 July
1940, which empowered the Secretary
With these opinions, Colonel Hartman to let contracts "with or without adver-
fully agreed. Moreover, from his stand- tising," contained this clause.34 Hartman
point, there was still another advantage. had crossed the congressional hurdle.
Fixed-fee contracts, unlike lump sum, He had still to convince his superiors that
could be let on the basis of "guess- fixed-fee contracting was unavoidable.
timates." When the fixed-fee measure entered
Toward the end of May, at Woodring's the legislative mill, the Hogan committee
request, the chairmen of the Military turned its attention to another aspect of
Affairs Committees, Senator Sheppard the problem—the capacity of industry.
and Congressman Andrew J. May, in- Through the AGC the committee learned
troduced twin bills to authorize use of how many construction firms were avail-
negotiated contracts in this country. able and how much work they could
Although the old law of 1861 permitted handle. According to information fur-
waiver of advertising in emergencies, nished by Managing Director Harding,
Secretary Baker had been roundly criti- the nation had approximately 112,000
cized for invoking that authority in 1917. contracting enterprises. Nearly 80,000
This time the War Department sought functioned as subcontractors, while
congressional approval beforehand. The 17,000 more were small general con-
bills made good progress at first. The tractors whose business had amounted
House took only three days to act on to less than $25,000 in 1939. Some
the proposal. But when the matter came 10,000 firms were in the $25,000 to
before the Senate on 10 June, a hitch $100,000 bracket and 5,000 were in the
developed, as Senator McKellar offered
an amendment to outlaw "what is 33
86 Cong. Rec. 7841, 7843.
known as the cost-plus system of con- 34
(1) Folder: Nat Def Expediting. Public Law,
tracting." Reminded "how much trouble 703, 2 Jul 40, 76th Cong. OCE Legal Lib. (2) Ltr,
Woodring to Sheppard, 13 Jun 40. SW Secret Files,
32
ENR, June 20, 1940, p. 51. 851-990. (3) 54 Stat. 712.
FIRST STEPS TOWARD MOBILIZATION 121
Source: Report of the AGC to Constr Advisory Comm, ANMB, Jun 40, sub: Constr Workers in the
Continental U.S. USW Files, 134 Constr.
and Southwest. Furthermore, many start with a minimum of plans, but for
skilled craftsmen had enrolled with WPA later ones thorough preparations could
and might be unwilling to give up their and should be made. The committee
relief status to take temporary defense recommended that $15 million be
jobs. Considered from the standpoint of granted at once for architectural and
productivity, the outlook was hardly engineering services and that $35 million
brighter. Throughout most of the in- more be added later. In this way, they
dustry, hand methods still prevailed. maintained, six months could be saved
Union workmen were accustomed to a on the Army's long-term projects and
30-hour and nonunion to a 40-hour one year cut from mobilization sched-
week. Under the circumstances, shortages ules.39 The proposal was an excellent
were almost certain to develop. Con- one. Unfortunately, Assistant Secretary
tractors, pressed for speed, would com- Johnson did not act upon it.
pete for trained workmen. Wages would While accepting the committee's help,
spiral and efficiency decline. Although Colonel Hartman was consulting men
he offered no solution, Hogan recom- more familiar with emergency construc-
mended that some means be found to tion. During June various leaders of the
prevent local shortages. "Otherwise," old Construction Division of the Army
he warned, "we will only be repeating showed up at the Munitions Building.
conditions that existed during the last Some came to volunteer their services,
World War, which were notorious."37 among them General "Puck" Marshall.
The committee also considered re- Others came at Hartman's invitation. A
quirements for architects and engineers. telephone call to Whitson brought both
At Hogan's suggestion, professional socie- him and Gunby hurrying to the Capital,
ties began canvassing their members, where they were joined by Gabriel R.
115,000 in all, to find out how many Solomon and Frank E. Lamphere,
would be free to take emergency assign- Gunby's successors in the old Engineer-
ments. The information was to be of ing Branch, W. A. Rogers of Bates &
great value. The immediate problem, Rogers, and several more who had
however, was one of time. Reporting to agreed to come to help their wartime
the Munitions Board on the outlook for buddy, "Baldy" Hartman, get started.
defense construction, the committee listed Though most of them were now too old
lack of detailed plans as "the principal for active duty, these veterans were to
bottleneck."38 To fit typical blueprints serve their country again, this time in a
to the sites, to lay out roads and utilities, different capacity. Forming an unofficial
and to complete contract and working advisory board, they were soon furnish-
drawings would, they said, take 20,000 ing valuable suggestions as to how to
engineers, architects, and draftsmen a run the program.40
full year. Early projects would have to
39
Ltr, Hogan to ANMB, 10 Jun 40. USW Files,
37
Ltr, Hogan to ANMB, 17 Jul 40. ANMB 334 134 Constr.
40
Comm Members and Min. (1) Interv with Mrs. Pagan, 8 Mar 57; Gunby,
38
Rpt, Constr Adv Comm ANMB to ANMB, 15 Aug 56; Ferdinand J. C. Dresser, 2 Apr 57.
10 Jun 40, sub: Contract Drawings and Technical (2) H. W. Loving, History of the Construction
Pers. USW Files, 134 Constr. Division, OQMG (Apr 41). Loving Papers.
FIRST STEPS TOWARD MOBILIZATION 123
Much that Hartman did or attempted struction, Real Estate, and Repairs and
to do in the late spring and early sum- Utilities—and four independent sections
mer of 1940 reflected the World War 1 —Legal, Administrative, Labor, and
experience. In 1917 the Army had had Funds and Estimates. Manning the
to use wood stave piping. With that division were 14 officers and 1,470
fact in mind, he persuaded the foundries civilians. Field operations were under
to start casting two thousand miles of the supervision of some 75 constructing
iron pipe. He did this on his own initia- quartermasters and 8 Vicinity offices.
tive and with no funds in hand. Similar Field employees totaled 2,921. The or-
moves which needed War Department ganization that had performed creditably
backing failed. Knowing that centralized for many years now required consid-
procurement had worked well before, erable strengthening. Needed were large
he asked Generals Moore and Marshall numbers of officers—Hartman put the
to help him obtain $50,000,000 from the total at 3,500—and a host of civilians.
Reconstruction Finance Corporation Needed, too, was an administrative
(RFC) for a lumber stockpile. They framework capable of quick expansion.42
turned him down. Recalling that con- Recalling his struggles to bolster the
fused and slow-moving audits had occa- Construction Division, Hartman said,
43
sionally handicapped the earlier effort, "We in effect started from scratch."
he appealed to Johnson for money to On 15 June he reorganized his office
develop an accounting system for fixed- along the lines of the World War I
44
fee contracts. This, too, met refusal. To division. With the help of two execu-
obviate the overcrowding and frequent tives, Major Nurse and Maj. Mortimer
moves that had plagued the wartime B. Birdseye, Hartman planned to direct
division, he proposed to erect temporary the defense program through eleven
offices on the parking lot behind the branches, eight of which would be new.
Munitions Building. As Gregory recalled (Chart 3) Heading the older units were
it, General Moore just "pooh-poohed" long-time members of the division: Major
the idea.41 It was with this kind of help Violante, Construction-Lump Sum (for-
from above that Hartman set out to merly New Construction); Colonel Val-
build an emergency organization. liant, Real Estate; and Major White,
Repairs and Utilities. Mr. Bayer was a
Creating an Organization logical choice for the Funds and Esti-
mates assignment. To head the Legal
The Construction Division was un- Branch, Hartman picked Maj. Homer
equal to the task that confronted it. The 42
(1) Rpt, Constr Div to TQMG, 26 Nov 41, sub:
organization Hartman had inherited Rpt on the Activities of the Constr Div, July 1, 1940, to
from his predecessor was geared to the November 1, 1941, pp. 90, 92. Cited hereinafter as,
programs of the past. On the eve of the Rpt, Activities of Constr Div, Jul 40-Nov 41. (2)
Statement of Gen Hartman, 5 Jul 55, p. 6. (3)
defense effort the Washington office Data prepared in EHD, List of Assignments of
consisted of three branches—New Con- Constr Os.
43
Truman Comm Hearings, Part 7, p. 2049.
41 44
(1) Statement of Gen Hartman, 5 Jul 55, pp. 6, (1) Constr Div OQMG Office Order 29A, 15
7-8, 18. (2) Verbatim Rpt, Meeting with Gregory Jun 40. QM 020 (Constr) 1921-40. (2) Constr Div
and Hastings, p. 9. OQMG, Orgn Chart, 7 Oct 40. EHD Files.
FIRST STEPS TOWARD MOBILIZATION 125
staff would have to double in size. By offer jobs to some 40,000 persons in the
early summer dozens of jobs were waiting months to come.46 Finding so many
for engineers, architects, draftsmen, qualified people was to be immensely
lawyers, real estate men, and con- difficult.
sultants of various sorts. The field had Public indifference, red tape, and
countless openings. Scores of projects failure of top officials to appreciate
would soon be starting up and every what he was up against hampered Hart-
one of any size had to have a construct- man's efforts. The mobilization of 1940
ing quartermaster along with a crew of evoked no such patriotic response as
assistants. The proposed changeover to had the declaration of war in 1917.
fixed-fee contracts would create work Throughout the country an atmosphere
for a host of new employees, for these of business-as-usual prevailed. And the
agreements, unlike fixed-price, de- construction business was, at long last,
manded meticulous government super- beginning to boom. Since a full colonel
vision. Since the Army would, in effect, received about $6,000 in 1940 and Civil
be paying the contractors' bills, the Service pay rates were correspondingly
Comptroller General would insist on a low, men needed a strong sense of civic
thorough scrutiny of all expenditures. duty to leave prospering firms or high-
In order to safeguard the public interest, salaried jobs and take service with the
Hartman planned to put auditors, ac- Constructing Quartermaster General.
countants, inspectors, timekeepers, and Some were willing to make the sacrifice.
materials checkers on Quartermaster But many of those who offered to help
payrolls at fixed-fee projects. Together, 46
Rpt, Activities of Constr Div, Jul 40-Nov 41, pp.
the home office and the field would 90-92.
FIRST STEPS TOWARD MOBILIZATION 127
found their way barred by rules suited made decisions and issued orders. That
rather to peacetime conditions than to a was the Army system. To keep within
crisis that was bordering on war. The it would not be easy. Of the 824 Quar-
Army stuck, for the most part, to the termaster Regulars on active duty in
letter of its regulations. The Civil Serv- June 1940, barely more than 100 were
ice Commission was slow to change its experienced in construction work. The
procedures. With adequate topside sup- division had no Reserve of its own, and
port, Hartman might have surmounted although the parent corps had a sizable
some of these obstacles. Such support one of 6,249 officers, few of them were
was not forthcoming. engineers or builders. Colonel Hartman
A drive for recruits was under way considered three methods of getting
before the fall of France. Late in May additional officers: one, obtaining Regu-
Hartman summoned Major Thomas, lars from other branches of the Army;
then constructing quartermaster at Hill two, tapping the Reserves of other
Field, Utah, back to Washington to help. branches; and, three, commissioning men
A short time later August G. Sperl, from civil life. The first held little prom-
another alumnus of the wartime division, ise. An early request to General Schley
was called down from New York. He for the loan of fifty officers was refused
arrived to find Major Thomas run on the grounds that the Corps of Engi-
ragged. Applications from contractors neers was already stretched too thin,
were pouring in and there was as yet and the Chief of Staff declined to inter-
no one else to handle them. The entire cede on the Quartermaster's behalf. Of
division was swamped with work. Re- the remaining possibilities, the second
porting to Hartman, Sperl got orders to method offered easiest access to large
start organizing. Men were needed at numbers of officers; the third, the surest
once. It was up to him to get them. means of obtaining competent pro-
Assured of Hartman's backing, Sperl fessionals.48
rounded up some more old-timers and Begun in May, the quest for Reservists
got down to business. Hard-pressed was at first unsuccessful. The Quarter-
though he was, Major Thomas found master General and the Assistant Chief
time to give advice and direction. In of Staff, G-1, were unable to provide
mid-June the call went out to professional lists of Reserve officers qualified for
societies, contracting firms, and colleges construction assignments. Neither could
and universities: "Send us men." Con- the corps area commanders. Moreover,
sidering the temper of the times, the not until Congress acted, as it did four
response was good. During the next few months later, could Reservists be forced
weeks, some 1,600 construction men to come on active duty. Drawing on his
offered their services.47 own acquaintance among construction
Military custom decreed that positions men, Hartman lined up a number of
of authority be held by officers. As a experienced officers but then had diffi-
rule, only men in the chain of command culty getting them appointed. Other
47 48
(1) Loving, History of the Constr Div. (2) Sperl (1) Report of the Secretary of War to the President,
Interv, 18 Jun 56. (3) Statement of Maj Maurice W. 1940, pp. 26, 41. (2) Groves Interv, 19 Jun 56. (3)
Cochran, QMC, 28 May 41. Opns Br Files, Confs. Groves Comments, IV, 2-3.
128 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
branches had prior right to many of invite those with construction experience
these men, a right they were unwilling to apply to The Quartermaster General.
to surrender. The Adjutant General The plan was to have qualified Reserv-
ruled that men past fifty would not be ists called to duty not by The Adjutant
called to active service. The Surgeon General but by the corps area com-
General listed flat feet, false teeth, glasses, manders, who would then detail or
high blood pressure, and overweight as transfer the men to the Quartermaster
grounds for rejection. Yet because the Corps. Hartman would thus be able to
depression years, with their crippling get around some of the difficulties that
effect on the industry, had produced delayed appointments by the War De-
few construction specialists, most of the partment. The commanders were co-
men who were best equipped to do the operative. Soon Sperl was working night
job at hand were of the older genera- and day poring over the papers of some
tion. To make matters worse, The Adju- 6,000 applicants. Meanwhile, Gregory
tant General barred members of the persuaded Marshall to give him priority
inactive Reserve, a group that included on all Reservists, regardless of branch.
many outstanding professionals who had Hartman might now enlist any member
been too busy with civilian work to take of the active Reserve who could pass a
time for training. Deprived of men he physical examination and was willing
badly wanted, Hartman asked to have to serve. Although a large percentage
the rules relaxed. He argued that age, of the volunteers were not full-fledged
physical condition, and military experi- construction men, the arrangement with
ence had little bearing on the suitability the corps areas did enable the division
of officers for desk jobs. Still, The Ad- to obtain a number of highly qualified
jutant and Surgeon Generals refused to officers whose subsequent record of per-
take men who might be unacquainted formance was outstanding. It also saved
with military customs or who might valuable time that would have been
later claim pensions and disability pay. lost in awaiting action by The Adjutant
Even when men turned up who met the General.50
War Department's requirements, it took Even with the influx of Reservists,
a long time for their orders to go through. the demand for officers far exceeded the
Flooded with emergency requests, The supply. In mid-July 1940 the Construc-
Adjutant General's Office was fast be- tion Division had 200 vacancies—10 for
coming an almost impassable bottle- colonels, 50 for lieutenant colonels, 105
neck.49 for majors, and 35 for captains—and
On 22 June Hartman appealed to 700 more openings were about to ma-
the corps areas for help. In a radiogram terialize. Writing to The Adjutant Gen-
he asked the nine commanding generals eral on the 18th, General Gregory
to circularize all Reserve officers and indicated that it might soon be neces-
sary to commission men from civil life.
49
(1) Memo, OQMG for TAG, 20 May 40. QM 50
210.312 1940. (2) Statement of Gen Hartman, 5 Jul (1) Ltr, Hartman to TAG, 22 Jun 40. QM
55, P.7. (3) Memo, Maj Sidney P. Simpson, OASW, 326.21. (2) Statement of Gen Hartman, 5 Jul 55, p.
for ASW, 19 Sep 40. QM 022 (Constr Div). (4) Rpt, 17. (3) Statement of Maj Cochran, 28 May 41.
Activities of Constr Div, Jul 40-Nov 41, p. 89. (4) Ltr, Gregory to TAG, 19 Jul 40. QM 326.21.
FIRST STEPS TOWARD MOBILIZATION 129
bond and put them in complete charge PWA, which was going out of existence.
57
of projects. But this was not to be, for Meanwhile, the professional societies
the President opposed the plan. On 9 kept a steady stream of applications
July the White House asked Acting coming. On the whole, the new civilians
Secretary Johnson to tell appointing were well suited for their tasks. As a
officers "that no employments should be group the new officers left more to be
made under this exemption until after desired. The supply of qualified Reserv-
consultation is had with the Civil Service ists had run out all too soon. Unable to
Commission to ascertain its ability to obtain officers from other sources, Hart-
handle the recruiting problems in- man dipped more deeply into the Re-
volved."58 Two days later Stimson gave serve. With the big push in construction
Gregory his orders. Hartman was not about to begin, he took the only ex-
to go outside the Civil Service structure pedient course accepting men who were
without the commission's leave. The available without quibbling over their
legislation may nevertheless have served qualifications. One of Loving's assistants
to strengthen Hartman's hand, for the afterward estimated that only four out
Commission now displayed a somewhat of every ten new officers had the neces-
greater willingness to relax its regula- sary background. This lack of experience
tions. Personnel for the Washington was in part offset by training. Major
office no longer had to come from lists Thomas established a school for Con-
of eligibles. Although employment in structing Quartermasters, which Re-
the field continued slow, appointments servists had to attend before they went
to Hartman's immediate staff began to the field.60
going through more rapidly.59 By late summer Hartman and his
The construction ranks swelled grad- colleagues had put together a serviceable
ually, and by August 1940 the small organization. In the months to come
central office was filled to overflowing. they would direct their efforts toward
Reinforcements were coming from all expanding and perfecting it.
parts of the country. Many competent
technicians responded to the call of Site Selection
old-timers like Colonel Whitson, who
worked zealously to round up qualified As Chief of Construction, Hartman
men. Some of the newcomers persuaded had a vital interest in the location of
friends and associates to join them, and facilities to house, train, and supply the
these, in turn, persuaded others. A expanding Army. If mobilization objec-
sizable group of experts transferred from tives were to be met—if a citizen army
57
Statement of Gen Hartman, 5 Jul 55, p. 7. were to be quickly raised, the Air Corps
58
Ltr, Admin Asst to the President to Acting SW, speedily enlarged, and a munitions in-
9 Jul 40. QM 230.14 (Policies, Precedents, etc.) dustry created within a year or eighteen
1940-42.
59
(1) Memo, Stimson for Gregory, 11 Jul 40.
60
(2) CSC Circ Ltr 2959, 18 Jul 40. Both in QM 230.14 (1) Loving, Hist of the Constr Div. (2) Intervs
(Policies, Precedents, etc.) 1940-42. (3) CSC Circ with Col Elmer E. Kirkpatrick, Jr., and Mr. Gavin
Ltr 2990, 13 Aug 40. 4330 (Nat Def) Part 1. (4) Hadden, 4 Apr 51; Sperl Interv, 18 Jun 56; Thomas
Notes of Conf in OCofS, 2 Aug 40. OCS, Misc Interv, 27 Dec 55. (3) Memo, Hartman for John J.
Confs, 5 May-25 Sep 40. McCloy, OASW, 2 Dec 40. QM 210.312.
FIRST STEPS TOWARD MOBILIZATION 131
approved the plan on 6 June, and on patch; no one questioned that. But,
the 13th, the same day that funds became according to General Moore, the Staff
available, Arnold convened a site board was "somewhat embarrassed by the
composed entirely of air officers. After a lack of detail furnished." While advising
cursory investigation, the board recom- Marshall to accept the board's selections,
mended new flying schools at the the G-4 warned: "A great deal of basic
municipal airports at Montgomery, information had to be taken for granted
Alabama, and Stockton, California, old in the hurry to institute these projects.
Ellington Field (a World War I flying The system followed is eventually certain
field near Houston), and an unimproved to result in the selection of some localities
site at San Angelo, Texas. They sug- which may be regretted at a later date."
gested placing a fifth school near Selma, On 3 July Moore and Marshall agreed
Alabama.63 Arnold promptly sent the that sites for Air Corps projects should
board's report to the General Staff, be picked by War Department boards,
64
where it got a mixed reception. The appointed by the General Staff.
Air Corps had acted with great dis- By this time Arnold had formed
63 64
(1) 1st Ind, 28 May 40, on DS, Moore for Memo, Moore for Marshall, 28 Jun 40, and
Arnold, 24 May 40. G-4/30552-4. (2) Craven and Concurrence thereon. AG 580 (7-12-40) (1) Sec 1
Cate, Men and Planes, pp. 131-32. (Misc).
FIRST STEPS TOWARD MOBILIZATION 133
another board to select locations for the Hampshire, and Spokane, Washington,
tactical units to be pulled out of Max- promised to improve their fields. Fort
well, Barksdale, and Moffett Fields and Wayne, Indiana, agreed to sponsor a
for the additional combat groups author- housing project for officers and their
ized by the supplemental appropriation families. With so many inviting pros-
of 26 June. The Air Corps board was pects, the boards had little trouble
short-lived. On 12 July General Moore filling their quotas. During the first
named three War Department site week in August they recommended no
boards, one for the East, one for the fewer than six sites to the War Depart-
South, and one for the Pacific coast. ment. Even so, General Arnold was
Each had a Quartermaster representa- sharply critical of their progress. Dis-
tive and an airman along with a General playing characteristic impatience, he
Staff officer who served as president. began early in August to demand more
Barely a week passed before the boards speed. On the 6th The Adjutant General
were out inspecting municipal airports. wired the boards to expedite their
Acting on instructions from G-4, the work, but when Arnold continued to
members checked each place to see complain, G-4 countered with the al-
what technical facilities, what utilities, legation that such lags as were occurring
and how many acres of land were avail- could be traced to the Air Corps itself.66
able and what additional construction Lt. Col. Vincent Meyer, the Acting
would be necessary. They also rioted Assistant Chief of Staff, G-4, writing to
the distance to population centers and General Moore, who had recently be-
surveyed housing, recreation, and public come Marshall's Deputy, explained:
transportation facilities. Finally, they
ascertained whether the field could be The greatest delay in all of this procedure
of getting out the construction orders for the
leased and on what terms.65 Air Corps stations is the inability of G-4 to
Finding fields for the Air Corps get accurate data as to what units are
proved to be a relatively simple task. going where. ... it has been nec-
News that the War Department planned essary to change every program that
to develop civil airports brought an we have so far issued that relates to the
Air Corps . , because of inaccurate
enthusiastic response from hundreds of or inadequate information from the office of
cities. The site boards were warmly the Chief of the Air Corps.67
received everywhere they went. Most of
the cities they visited offered to lease Arnold's protests thus served not only
municipal fields for one dollar a year to put more pressure on the boards but
and to extend water and power lines. also to spotlight bottlenecks in his own
Many pledged land adjacent to the office. By 17 August the Air Corps and
airports. Some went still further. The the General Staff had agreed on a tenta-
city of Albuquerque promised to build tive station list, and in mid-September
two new runways. Manchester, New
65 66
(1) Craven and Cate, Men and Planes, p. 134. (1) See 686 Part 1 for the following fields:
(2) Memo, Moore for TAG, 12 Jul 40. G-4/31809. Kirkland, Geiger, Grenier, Baer, Gowen, Harding,
(3) Memo, G-3 for TAG, 15 Jul 40. AG 580 (7-12- Paine, and Morris. (2) G-4/31809.
67
40) (1) Sec 1 (Misc). Memo, Meyer for Moore, 8 Aug 40. G-4/31809.
134 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
directives went out for construction at and the industrialists who would run
68
twenty-four fields. By selecting munici- the plants.70
pal airports, the Army had saved consid- As plans matured for a government-
erable time and expense and, at the owned, privately operated munitions
same time, satisfied demands of twenty- industry, the question—where to build
four cities for defense projects. It had —required a definite answer. On 25
also avoided the multiplicity of problems June Acting Secretary Johnson appointed
that attended the location of facilities a 6-man War Department Site Com-
which were to be built from the ground mittee. Three of its members, including
up. the chairman, Col. Harry K. Ruther-
Of the thirty-five manufacturing ford, director of the Planning Branch,
plants in the first industrial program, OASW, were Ordnance officers. A repre-
all but six were to be on new sites. Thus sentative of the Air Corps, a General
the War Department had to find twenty- Staff officer, and Colonel Hartman
nine tracts for its munitions projects.69 completed the membership. Johnson
The Army's industrial services, prin- asked the committee to establish criteria
cipally Ordnance and Chemical Warfare, for choosing plant sites. His instructions
had long been studying problems of were: disperse plants so that an attack
plant location and knew in general will not seriously cripple production;
where they wanted to put new produc- keep out of highly developed industrial
tion and what factors they wished to areas; and pay close attention to the
consider in picking individual sites. The technical, production, and transportation
Ordnance Department had in 1938 and requirements of individual plants.71
1939 actually chosen sites for two smoke- Rutherford and his colleagues promptly
less powder plants, one near Charles- set to work.
town, Indiana, the other, at Radford, Within two weeks they had drawn
Virginia. Also exemplifying this type the boundaries of the new munitions
of planning were surveys conducted by industry. As long ago as 1915 the War
the Chemical Warfare Service, seeking College Division of the General Staff
inland locations for manufacturing war had recommended that "as a general
chemicals and equipment. But selection military principle, no supply depot,
of plant sites was not left to the using arsenal, or manufacturing plant of any
services alone. Final decision in every considerable size . . . should be
case awaited concurrence of other in- established or maintained east of the
terested parties, the President, the Appalachian Mountains, west of the
NDAC, the Assistant Secretary of War,
70
(1) Compl Rpt, Indiana OW, 6 Nov 42, pp. 15,
5. EHD Files. (2) Memo, OASW for Moore, 1 Apr
68 40. G—4/30552 1939-40. (3) H Comm on Appns,
(1) Craven and Cate, Men and Planes, pp. 134-
75th Cong, 3d sess, Hearings on Military Establishment
35. (2) 686-K. (3) G-4/30552-4. Appropriation Bill, 1939, p. 385. (4) Memo, OCofOrd
69
Based on Constr Div OQMG, Constr Progress for OUSW, 26 May 41. USW Files, Legis—H and S
Rpt 15, 9 Apr 41, pp. 72-73, 78. EHD Files. Issued Investigating Comm 1.
71
periodically, Construction Progress Reports are Ltr, Johnson to Rutherford, 25 Jun 40. EHD
cited hereinafter as Constr PR's. Files.
FIRST STEPS TOWARD MOBILIZATION 135
controlling reasons for approving plant shell loading plant required over 22,200
sites."77 The commission acted too late. acres and Kankakee, 20,000.78
By December sites for nearly all the Despite the fact that the Quarter-
early munitions projects had been chosen. master Corps played no major role in
The War Department's refusal to selecting industrial sites, places picked
adopt the Advisory Commission's views by the using services generally met con-
left the using services in control. Pro- struction standards reasonably well.
duction and transportation thus became There were engineering problems, to be
the decisive factors in the location of sure. Subsurface rock and poor natural
industrial projects. The early ammonia drainage threatened to complicate the
plants, Morgantown and Ohio River, building of the Indiana Ordnance
were near the coal fields of West Virginia Works. Unfavorable terrain spelled
and Kentucky, where coke, the key trouble ahead at the New River bag
ingredient, was readily available. Since loading plant. The difficulty of removing
oleum was the chief component of three large pipelines that ran beneath
TNT, the first plants for the manu- the Kankakee-Elwood tract caused Gen-
facture of that explosive, Kankakee, eral Harris to remark that the Joliet,
Weldon Spring, and Plum Brook, were Illinois, site was "the greatest mistake
near the heavy acid industries of Chicago, we made."79 Yet, serious errors were
St. Louis, and Cleveland. Smokeless relatively few. Level, well-drained sites,
powder factories, which required large having access to adequate labor and
quantities of water, were alongside rivers. transportation, were essential to both
Radford was on the New River, the builder and user. Because the new
Alabama Ordnance Works was on the munitions industry would be centered
Coosa, and the Indiana plant was on in the rich Midwestern agricultural and
the Ohio. The location of TNT and manufacturing region, most of the
powder factories determined the location Quartermaster's troubles were in acquir-
of loading plants. For example, Elwood, ing the land rather than in building on
a shell loader, adjoined Kankakee, and it.
New River, a bag loader, was seven Just as Ordnance and Chemical War-
miles from Radford. Because a good fare decided questions of plant location,
deal of manpower would be needed in so the General Staff controlled the
their operation, the original small arms choice of camp sites. In the late spring
ammunition plants were put just outside of 1940, as plans went forward for
St. Louis, Kansas City, and Denver. In mobilization, the Staff considered how
locating several types of facilities, safety to group and where to train a force of
was a vital consideration. Units for 1,200,000 men. General Marshall de-
making, loading, and storing explosives
78
had to be dispersed over large tracts so (1) Gustavus G. Williamson, Jr., Industrial
Site Selection (MS), pp. 6-24. EHD Files. (2)
that an explosion would not trigger a Constr Div OQMG, Real Estate Branch Progress
chain reaction. Hence, the Ravenna Report, 21 Jul 41, pp. 15-16. Issued periodically, Real
Estate Branch Progress Reports are cited hereinafter
as Real Estate PR's. EHD Files.
79
Min of Mtg in Gen Harris' Office, 12 Feb 41, p.
77
Minutes of the NDAC, pp. 38, 49, 2, 112, 122. 12.
138 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
cided to set up divisional camps and Armored divisions. The big permanent
cantonments and to build a network of posts—Fort Bragg, North Carolina, with
reception and training centers. Troops 122,000 acres, Fort Benning, Georgia,
would be trained in all nine corps areas, with nearly 98,000, Fort Lewis, Washing-
and divisions would be placed so that ton, with 62,500, and Fort Knox,
they could readily form corps and Kentucky, with 33,500—were obvious
armies. Adhering closely to the Protec- choices as sites for the Regulars. Also
tive Mobilization Plan, Marshall pro- selected as a matter of course were Fort
posed to save time and money by Jackson, South Carolina, Fort Riley,
expanding old posts before establishing Kansas, and Fort Ord, California, each
new ones and, if additional stations were of which possessed some 20,000 acres
needed, to build on federal- and state- and well-developed transportation and
owned land. Having affirmed this policy, utilities systems. Fort Devens, Massa-
he left the rest to G-3 and G-4. Re- chusetts, Fort Houston, Texas, and Fort
sponsible for molding draftees, Guards- Custer, Michigan—posts which held di-
men, and Regulars into an effective visions in World War 1 and had since
fighting force, Brig. Gen. Frank M. shrunk, but which could again expand
Andrews, the Assistant Chief of Staff, —were also earmarked for the Regulars,
G-3, was interested primarily in sites as was Fort Bliss, a small station in
that offered training advantages. Such western Texas with practically unlimited
features as large acreage, varied terrain, room for growth. Only one new reserva-
streams for bridging exercises, and ob- tion, a 40,000-acre tract near Leon,
servation points for artillery practice Iowa, which Congress had approved
were high on his list of requirements. for acquisition in 1936, figured in plans
It was G-4's prerogative to veto any for the Regular divisions.81 Locating
site that was unacceptable from the reception centers for inductees was an
constructor's standpoint. General Moore even less complicated task. "We must
reviewed Andrews' selections until early have a certain amount of distribution
August, when another Engineer officer, for these reception centers," one member
Col. Eugene Reybold, took over the. of the General Staff explained. "We
80
G-4 post. can't ship these men long distances
Deciding where to concentrate the to ... their processing, because
Regular Army divisions and where to some may be rejected and have to be
build the reception centers was rela- sent home."82 But because the reception
tively easy. General Andrews planned centers were small—the largest was to
to apportion the nine Regular Infantry
divisions among the four existing armies 81
(1) Notes of Conf in ODCofS, 5 Jul 40. OCS,
and to pick the best available places for Notes of Confs to 26 Sep 40. (2) G-4/32439. (3)
training the two Cavalry and two new Memo, Hartman for Moore, 24 Jun 40. QM 652
(PMP). (4) Rpt, Activities of Constr Div, Jul 40-
Nov 41, pp. 168, 146, 155, 145. (5) Real Estate PR
80
(1) Memo, Moore for Marshall, 28 May 40. 38, 15 Nov 41, pp. 64, 30, 52. EHD Files. (6) Pro-
G-4/31753- (2) G-4/31735. (3) Testimony of Brig ceedings, Bd of Officers on Land Acquisition,
Gen Harry A. Twaddle, G-3, 22, 23 Apr 41. In Seventh Corps Area, 2 Aug 40. QM 601.1 (7th CA).
82
Truman Comm Hearings, Part 1, pp. 191-93, 197, Gen Twaddle's Testimony, 23 Apr 41. In
210-12. Truman Comm Hearings, Part 1, p. 217.
FIRST STEPS TOWARD MOBILIZATION 139
hold only 3,000 men—Andrews had no Hartman the list of stations for the
trouble finding spots for them at posts Guard together with a questionnaire.
throughout the country.83 Moore wished to know what utilities
Only when he had to choose sites for there were at each location, where tents
National Guard camps and for unit would serve, where barracks would be
and replacement training centers did necessary, and how much it would cost
the G-3 run into real difficulty. Stations to house the divisions. An authoritative
for the Guardsmen and centers for answer would require on-the-spot sur-
trainees had been selected several years veying, and Hartman had no money
before. Attached to the Protective Mo- for that. The most that he could do was
bilization Plan was a list of places where to compile data on hand in his office
the eighteen National Guard divisions and in the National Guard Bureau.
would assemble upon the outbreak of Even this meager information indicated
war. Some of the Guardsmen were to that some of the places were unfit not
go to big reservations like Benning and only for construction but for training as
Lewis, but since posts of that size were well.85 Meantime, Capt. Leslie R.
too few even for the Regulars, the Groves, an Engineer officer attached to
General Staff had been forced to fall G-3, had raised objections to the PMP
back on smaller forts, summer training list. On 12 June he wrote and General
grounds belonging to the States, and Andrews signed a memorandum asking
sites used in 1917. The planners had G-4 if the stations in the plan were "in
thought of these places as concentration such a state as to permit full use in the
points where troops would spend thirty contemplated manner by the scheduled
to sixty days in preparation for shipment time."86 Hartman, replying to Moore's
overseas, not as camps where divisions questionnaire on 24 June, also stressed
would train for one year. Also annexed the need for thoroughgoing site investiga-
to the PMP was a blueprint for a system tions. At least six of the proposed loca-
of training centers, but these facilities, tions were likely to cause trouble, he
like the camps, were designed to meet a warned. Camp Blanding, Florida, was
war situation in which units and replace- wooded and probably swampy. Fort
ments would move rapidly to the right- Eustis, Virginia, abounded in marshes
ing front.84 That numerous shifts in and streams. Fort Huachuca, Arizona,
location became necessary was an early was too hilly for motorized units. Camps
sign of weakness in the mobilization San Luis Obispo, California, and Hulen,
plans. Texas, were too small to train divisions.
Construction men were the first to Fort Clark, a second Texas post, was
challenge the sites named in the PMP. ten miles from the nearest railroad.
On 20 May, after conferring with the Information on some of the other Guard
Chief of Staff, General Moore sent camps was so sketchy that Hartman
83 85
Constr PR 15, 9 Apr 41, pp. 24-27. (1) Notes of Conf in OCofS, 20 May 40. OCS,
84
(1) War Dept, Protective Mobilization Plan, Misc Confs, 20 May-25 Sep 40. (2) Memo, Moore
1939, and Annex 2. AG 381 (10-31-38) (Misc) G-M. for TQMG, 20 May 40. G-4/31735 Sec 1.
86
(2) Gen Twaddle's Testimony, 22, 23 Apr 41. In Memo, Andrews for Moore, 12 Jun 40. Opns
Truman Comm Hearings, Part 1, pp. 189-91, 218-19. Br Files, Camp Sites.
140 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
did not know what to expect. He urged people were more sympathetic to local
Moore to take the only practical course, problems and more easily approached
to run an "actual physical survey and than that remote and impersonal entity,
study on the ground of the sites under the War Department. Businessmen, poli-
consideration. "87 ticians, Guardsmen, and others who
Moore had the sites surveyed but not sought to influence the choice of camp
by the Construction Division. To Hart- sites now besieged corps area head-
man's astonishment, the assignment went quarters. Though some of the petitioners
to the corps area commanders. Quarter- were disappointed, a number got what
master protests were in vain. "I had they wanted. When the Chamber of
never considered the Corps Area Com- Commerce of Brownwood, Texas, offered
manders as being responsible for any to lease a sizable tract at a nominal rent
of the work until I received a peremptory and to provide water, electricity, and
order to permit them to select the sites natural gas at low rates, the Army, on
for the camps . . . . I did not the advice of Eighth Corps Area head-
believe it was the intention of the War quarters, accepted. Local interest groups
Department until General Moore in- likewise succeeded in bringing projects
sisted that it be done," Hartman wrote.88 to Spartanburg, South Carolina, Macon,
What followed confirmed his misgivings. Georgia, and Chattanooga, Tennessee.
One commander completed the "in- In some localities, Guard commanders
vestigation" of a site nearly 500 miles were also influential. Illustrative of the
from his headquarters twenty-four hours part they played is the case of Camp
after the War Department asked for a Blanding. In 1939 Brig. Gen. Vivian B.
report. Other commanders sent staff Collins, adjutant general of Florida, had
officers or went themselves to take the chosen a 27,000-acre tract in Clay County
lay of the land. Several, adopting more to replace Camp Foster, a Guard reser-
formal methods, convened site boards. vation transferred to the Navy. Situated
In no case was much attention paid to on Kingsley Lake and lush with pal-
construction factors. Even when Quarter- mettos, oaks, and vines, the place was a
master and Engineer officers visited the landscape architect's dream. The climate
sites, their examinations were necessarily was salubrious. Nearby was a 66,000-acre
perfunctory, since no time was available ranch, available for lease. Envisioning a
for detailed surveys and tests. The corps splendid camp, Collins late in 1939 began
area reports seldom mentioned engi- to develop the site. An enthusiastic sup-
neering features. A number of sites were porter of the project was Lt. Gen. Stanley
rejected but not because they would be D. Embick, commander of the Fourth
difficult to build on.89 Corps Area. Named for the Floridian
When authority was decentralized, the who headed the National Guard Bureau,
political pot began to boil. Corps area Camp Blanding soon found a place on
87
Memo, Hartman for Moore, 24 Jun 40. QM the PMP list. When in June 1940 con-
652 (PMP). struction men began to talk of swamps
88
89
Statement of Gen Hartman, 5 Jul 55, p. 3. and timber, Generals Moore and An-
(1) AG 680.1 (7-11-40) (1) Sec 2. (2) Memo
and Incls, Opns Br for Chief Constr Div, 12 Apr 41.
drews flew to Atlanta to consult General
Opns Br Files, Misc Papers. Embick, who assured them that Blanding
FIRST STEPS TOWARD MOBILIZATION 141
would make a superb division camp. A the seventeen preferred sites named in
visit to the site dissolved any lingering PMP only seven remained by late July.
doubts they may have had. Further pro- On the 31st General Marshall approved
tests from the Quartermaster Corps were the revised list of National Guard camps.92
unavailing. The Blanding episode was This was the first of many such lists that
not unique. The story of San Luis Obispo he was to accept before the Construction
followed much the same outline, and the Division gained a voice in selection.
fine hand of the state adjutants was else- Viewed purely from a military angle,
where visible.90 From the sidelines Hart- the ground forces sites were well chosen.
man watched, dismayed, while corps area While stations would be scattered through
commanders demonstrated what he re- some thirty states, most of the training
garded as "their lack of understanding would be in the South. Geographic dis-
and their lack of ability to select a proper tribution of the division posts matched
camp site."91 General Andrews' requirements and Gen-
As reports came in from the corps eral Strong's as well. Clusters of camps
area commanders, General Andrews re- and cantonments reflected the G-3 plan
vised the list of Guard camps again and to organize and train nine corps under
again. With the discovery that Fort the existing armies. The heaviest troop
Eustis had no adequate maneuver area, concentrations would be in the eastern
plans for sending a division there went portion of the country, where in 1940
by the board. Terrain unsuitable for the danger of attack seemed greatest; yet
training ruled out Camp Hulen. Their no corner of the United States would be
isolation eliminated Forts Clark and Hua- without protection. Reception centers
chuca. Other changes originated not in were conveniently placed to funnel re-
the corps areas but in Washington. Plans cruits from populous areas to training
for stationing Guardsmen at Knox and establishments. Most of the unit and re-
Benning fell by the way when Andrews placement training centers likewise ap-
assigned those posts to the newly created peared to be ideally located. Some, like
Armored Force. At the request of General the Signal center at Fort Monmouth
Strong, who as head of WPD had care and the Engineer center at Fort Belvoir,
of the Army's strategic deployment, G—3 were at the long-time homes of their
substituted sites in New Jersey, Pennsyl- branches and services, where excellent
vania, and Massachusetts for locations in facilities were already available. Others,
Georgia, Louisiana, and South Carolina. like the Field Artillery post at Fort Ethan
Pressure for a camp in the vicinity of the Alien, in the hills of western Vermont,
Capital caused Andrews to shift the 29th and the Coast Artillery station at Camp
Division from the Sabine River area of Davis, in the Onslow Bay area of North
Louisiana to Fort Meade, Maryland. Of
90 92
(1) G-4/31375 Secs 1, 2. (2) QM 652 vol I for (1) G—4/31375. (2) Memo and Incls, Opns Br
Camps Bowie, Croft, and Blanding. (3) OCS 14586- for Chief Constr Div, 12 Apr 41. Opns Br Files,
16. (4) AG 680.1 (7-11-40) (1) Sec 2. (5) Summary Misc Papers. (3) Gen Twaddle's Testimony, 22
prepared by Constr Div (Mar 41), sub: Events Apr 41. In Truman Comm Hearings, Part 1, pp.
Leading Up to the Use of Camp Blanding. Opns 190-91. (4) Memo, Strong for Andrews, 15 Jul 40.
Br Files, Misc Papers. (6) G-4/32267-8. (5) Incl with Memo, Andrews for Marshall, 30 Jul 40.
91
Statement of Gen Hartman, 5 Jul 55, p. 9. Last two in 6—4/31948.
142 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
Carolina, were highly suitable for spe- their discovery that a stream which fur-
cialist training. nished water to the few thousand Guards-
That a number of these sites would be men who camped there every summer
hellishly difficult to build on was soon was inadequate for 20,000 men the year
unmistakably clear. Preliminary reports round. News from some other projects
from the field were full of complaints was almost equally as black. The terrain
from construction men. On a trip to at Devens was rugged, and beds of rock
Florida in early August, Colonel Reybold lay just beneath the sandy surface. Camp
and Major Groves, now a member of Davis was partly bog. A heavy stand of
Gregory's staff, were alarmed at Bland- hardwood timber covered the site of
ing's poor topography. A short time later, Camp Forrest, Tennessee. Hilly ground
surveyors found that portions of the at the Spartanburg tract, the future
Blanding site were twenty-four feet below Camp Croft, made extensive grading
the level of Kingsley Lake. Word from there inevitable. Prospects at several more
Quartermaster officers in California con- locations were far from promising. By
firmed Hartman's suspicions that San the time the heads of the War Depart-
Luis Obispo was too small for a war- ment realized how troublesome construc-
strength division. More disturbing was tion at many of these places was to be,
FIRST STEPS TOWARD MOBILIZATION 143
the opportunity for corrective action had coastal forts, orders to boost the storage
passed.93 Only once did the General Staff capacity at four large depots, orders to
abandon a site, and then it did so re- house the increase in the Regular Army,
luctantly and only after engineers had orders to build five 1,000-man and five
demonstrated that building costs would 500-man reception centers, and orders to
be prohibitive.94 provide facilities which would enable
In August 1941 Hartman told a Senate Regular peace-strength divisions to con-
investigating committee, "I never knew centrate at nine permanent stations. All
until the directive came to me where [a] this was merely the beginning. By mid-
camp was to be."95 What was true of July Quartermaster officers were thinking
camps was essentially true of other proj- in terms of a one and one-half billion
ects. But if higher-ups in the War De- dollar program.96
partment did not feel the need for Hart- By translating the early directives
man's help in selecting sites, they never- quickly into going projects, Hartman
theless held him accountable for the hoped to stay ahead of the game. With
speed and cost of construction. the first emergency orders, the drive was
on. A new sense of urgency gripped the
Mounting Pressure Construction Division. The staff went on
a two-shift basis. The office stayed open
While others chose building sites, Hart- seven days a week.97 Pressure on the field
man tried to keep abreast of a large and increased, as Hartman, still enjoined from
growing program. By early summer con- fixed-fee contracting, tried other means
struction was in full swing at most of the of stepping up production. Constructing
air bases and depots begun the year be- Quartermasters began receiving "pep
fore, and new work was starting to flow letters" from Washington. "The necessity
in. During June directives for some forty for completing this work at the earliest
jobs totaled over $24 million. Seventy possible date is most essential," read one
directives, carrying well over $22 million broadside from Major Violante, "and
in construction funds, appeared in July. necessary steps will be taken to expedite
In a steady stream they came—orders to construction in every way. This cannot
begin two dozen Air training and tactical be too strongly emphasized."98 For the
stations, orders to expand Springfield first time in many years, project heads
Armory and Picatinny and Edgewood were free to make important changes in
Arsenals, orders to expand the bomb standard plans and to substitute locally
loading plant at the Savanna Ordnance available materials for those in the specifi-
Depot, orders to put in more barracks at cations. Where sites had been chosen,
96
(1) Constr Div OQMG, List of Directives, 15
93
(1) Memo, Groves for Gregory, 12 Aug 40. Mar 41. (2) List, Constr Div OQMG, 30 Sep 41,
Opns Br Files, Rpts of Insp, Div Comments on. (2) sub: Status of AC Projects at Time of Transfer to CE.
G-4/32267-8. (3) QM 671 (San Luis Obispo) I. Both in EHD Files. (3) Ltr, Gregory to TAG, 19
(4) QM 600.94 (Cp Devens). (5) QM 333.1 (Cp Jul 40. QM 326.21.
97
Davis). (6) QM 333.1 (Cp Forrest) I. (7) QM 652 Thomas Interv, 27 Dec 55; Sperl Interv, 18 Jun
(Cp Croft) I. 56.98
94
For a detailed discussion of this case, see below, Ltr, Lump Sum Br to CQM Holabird QM
p. 207. Depot, Baltimore, Md., 10 Jul 40. QM 652 (Ft Meade)
95
Truman Committee Hearings, Part 7, p. 2048. I; and similar letters in QM 652 for various projects.
144 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
than it has so far."106 The magazine was contractors saved on overhead, since they
scarcely out before small contractors were did not have to maintain organization
appealing to their congressmen for help. and equipment for all types of construc-
On the 17th a member of the House tion. With fixed-fee contracts, the story
Ways and Means Committee brought was likely to be different. Here the extent
the article to Woodring's attention. of subcontracting helped determine the
Terming an alliance with big business size of the fee. Principal contractors bene-
"unwise" and "inequitable," he urged fited by subletting as little work as pos-
that smaller firms be given an important sible. The Navy had been using fixed-fee
107
part in the defense effort. The News- agreements for nearly a year, and, re-
Record attempted to set matters straight. portedly, its jobs had no subcontracts.
Its next issue carried the statement: Specialty interests feared that the Army's
The new defense legislation extends the mammoth program was about to go the
authority of both Army and Navy to use way of the Navy's smaller one.109
negotiated contracts in the continental On 9 July a delegation called on John-
United States. It thus is clear that the large son. Representing the national associ-
majority of government contract work will ations of master plumbers and electrical,
be on this basis. Whether only the large con-
tracting firms will benefit remains to be seen. heating, piping, and air conditioning con-
However, as work increases in volume it tractors, this group spoke for 30,000 firms
seems reasonable that the smaller firms will employing more than 350,000 workmen.
get their chance, and even before that some In answer to their demand for a share of
of them no doubt will be given subcontracts the program, Johnson stated that The
by the large companies successful in getting
negotiated jobs.108 Quartermaster General was only just be-
ginning to block out the new contract
By this time small contractors were clos- procedure. He suggested they prepare a
ing ranks. memorandum outlining their position.
The heating, plumbing, and electrical The memo was ready the next day. Pre-
contractors were particularly concerned. sented to Stimson by the associations'
Comprising an important segment of the attorney, O. R. McGuire, it recognized
industry, these specialty firms normally the urgent need for fixed-fee contracts.
received a portion of every building con- Nevertheless, the writers argued, if the
tract. Through agreements with trade War Department did nothing to prevent
unions and materialmen, they had long them, prime contractors would perform
ago established subletting of their spe- all the work themselves. Proposing to
cialties as standard construction practice. save the government time and money,
Under fixed-price contracts, this system the associations asked that fixed-fee con-
was profitable all the way around. Spe- tractors be prohibited by a clause in their
cialty firms usually managed to do the
work cheaper than anybody else. General 109
(1) William Haber, Industrial Relations in the
Building Industry (Cambridge: Harvard University
Press, 1930), pp. 57-60. (2) John T. Dunlop and
106
ENR, June 13, 1940, p. 11. Arthur D. Hill, The Wage Adjustment Board, Wartime
107
Ltr, Rep John W. McCormack (Mass.) to Stabilization in the Building and Construction Industry
Woodring, 17 Jun 40. QM 600.1 (CPFF—Misc (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1950), p. 10.
Corresp) I. (3) Incl with Ltr, O. R. McGuire, Wash., D.C., to
108
ENR, June 20, 1940, p. 51. Stimson, 10 Jul 40. QM 600.1 (CPFF) I.
146 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
agreements from doing specialized con- general contractor received a fixed fee
struction unless they had at least two based on an understanding that his or-
years' experience in such work. McGuire ganization would perform the major part
and his clients attracted quite a following. of the work and later find that he had by
Companies that specialized in wood- subcontracts turned over to others a
working, painting, masonry, steel erec- major part of the work for which he had
tion, and sheet metal work joined in the been especially selected and paid a fee."111
protest. Suppliers and union leaders In Hartman's opinion, the agreement as
joined, too. From California, the Tech- written promised the specialists a fair
nical Committee of Specialty Contractors deal. He called attention to the clause
advised Colonel Hartman to adopt a guaranteeing the contractor full reim-
contractual safeguard. Otherwise, they bursement for all payments to subcon-
warned, principals would set up their tractors. He also revealed that the As-
own specialty departments, buy unneces- sistant Secretary's office was reviewing a
sary machinery, and, perforce, do the form for fixed-fee subcontracts. The spe-
work with unskilled labor.110 cialty men received further assurance.
It was not Hartman's intention to ex- With William H. Harrison, chief of
clude the specialty firms; but neither did NDAC's new Construction Section, Hart-
he intend to make subcontracts manda- man hammered out a statement of policy,
tory. When McGuire contended that which the Hogan committee unanimously
112
fixed-fee contractors ought to be pre- endorsed. On 30 July Harrison an-
vented from doing any work that could nounced:
be done at less cost to the government Underlying the whole defense construc-
by others, Hartman readily agreed. But tion program and particularly those projects
when McGuire demanded that the con- handled on a cost-plus-a-fixed-fee basis is the
tract form be altered to require subletting intention that the work not only shall be
of specialty items, Hartman demurred. done soundly, expeditiously, and economi-
cally, but that it shall be done with due re-
"Work may be performed by experienced gard to the generally accepted methods and
specialized subcontractors when it is in procedures currently followed in the con-
the interest of the Government to do so, struction industry.113
and not otherwise," he said; how its
interests would in each case best be served The statement had the desired effect.
The protests subsided, as subcontractors
should be left for the government to
settled back to await the flood of emer-
decide. Hartman meant to settle the
question at the time of negotiation, before gency orders.
the contractor was chosen and the fee Not one to be diverted from a course
he thought was right, Hartman mean-
was fixed. "Otherwise," he explained,
"we might have a situation where the 111
Memo, Hartman for Harrison, 6 Aug 40. QM
110
(1) Ltr, with Incl, McGuire to Stimson, 10 Jul 600. 1 (CPFF—Policy) I.
112
40. QM 600.1 (CPFF) I. (2) Ltr, Hogan to Dillon, (1) Ltr, Hartman to A. S. Whitmore, 29 Jul 40.
17 Jul 40. ANMB 334 Comm Members and Min. (3) QM 600.1 (CPFF) I. (2) Memo, Harrison for Hart-
Ltr, A. S. Whitmore, San Francisco, Cal., to Hart- man, 31 Jul 40. QM 600.1 (CPFF—Policy) I. (3)
man, 25 Jul 40. QM 600.1 (CPFF) I. (4) Journeymen Ltr, Hogan to Dillon, 5 Aug 40. ANMB-MB 203.4-
Plumbers and Steam Fitters Journal, September 1940, 3.1 Constr, etc.
113
P.5. Quoted in The Constructor, August 1940, p. 11.
FIRST STEPS TOWARD MOBILIZATION 147
able, "tentative deficits" were being in- in plans would probably defeat selective
curred. On 10 September Colonel Rey- service. That settled the matter. On 12
bold gave this action the Staff's blessing.September Reybold gave Hartman the
Meanwhile, on -the 9th, the President bad news. While the induction of draftees
signed the second supplemental defense might later be postponed, the Guard di-
122
appropriation bill, which carried approxi- visions would come in on schedule.
mately $5.4 billion for the War and Navy Signed by the President on 16 Sep-
Departments. This measure provided tember 1940, the Selective Service Act
$201,109,030 for command construction, focused attention on the critical problem
including $128,107,115 for the Guard of the camps. Under the draft law, no
camps and, on the industrial side, an men could be conscripted until "shelter,
additional $325 million for expediting sanitary facilities, water supplies, heating
production. It also gave The Quarter- and lighting arrangements, medical care,
master General contracting authority in and hospital accommodations" had been
the amount of $14 million to be applied provided for them.123 On the 19th General
to construction work and made available Marshall announced that a similar policy
$6,524,336 to the Chief of Engineers for would govern the calling of the Guard.
work on seacoast defenses.121 "We are following the progress of shelter
Even before Congress voted to call the more exactingly than any other one
Guard, G-3 announced a formal schedule item," he told the House Appropriations
for expanding the Army. Four National Committee. "So long as the international
Guard divisions were to enter federal situation permits, we will set the dates
service on 16 September, to be followed for the induction of the National Guard
by six more on 15 October, four on 15 and the trainees on the basis of completion
November, and four on 15 December. of shelter." Asked if enough building
Meanwhile, beginning with 75,000 se- funds were on hand, the Chief of Staff
lectees on 15 October, conscription would replied that they were not, and he added,
124
proceed at a rate designed to bring the "Every day counts." Marshall pointed
total number of draftees in the Army to out that the third supplemental defense
400,000 by 15 January. Both Reybold appropriation bill, then under consider-
and Hartman despaired of meeting these ation, contained a total of $367,293,902
dates. Immediately after passage of the for ground and air projects. A breakdown
National Guard Act, they asked the Chief of this figure showed $29.5 million to
of Staff to revise the schedule to allow repay the loan from the President,
more time for construction. General $8,774,000 for training areas, $19 million
Marshall listened sympathetically to their
122
proposal, but with the fate of the Burke- (1) Memo, G-3 for Marshall, 14 Aug 40. (2)
Memo, Reybold for Marshall, 20 Aug 40. Both in
Wadsworth bill still in doubt, he hesi- G-4/31453-18. (3) Memo, Reybold for G—1, 28 Aug
tated to take a step that might prejudice 40. G-4/31048. (4) Biennial Report of the Chief of
its chances. While Marshall pondered Staff, July 1, 1941. In Report of the Secretary of War to
the President, 1941 (Washington, 1941), p. 52. (5)
the question, word came that a change Memo, Reybold for TQMG, 12 Sep 40. G-4/31453-
18.123
121
(1) Notes of Conf in OCofS, 30 Aug 40. OCS, 54 Stat. 885.
124
Misc Confs, 20 May-25 Sep 40. (2) Ltr, Nurse to H Subcomm of the Comm on Appns, 76th Cong,
TAG, 31 Aug 40, and 1st Ind, 10 Sep 40. QM 600. 1 3d sess, Hearings, Third Supplemental National Defense
(Misc) 1940. (3) 54 Stat. 872. Appropriation Bill for 1941, p. 40.
FIRST STEPS TOWARD MOBILIZATION 151
for facilities to increase the Air Corps had not been asked for all that would be
to fifty-four combat groups, and necessary. Questioned on 19 September
$310,019,902 for shelter. Because wages as to whether the latest estimate for tent
and prices were rising sharply, this last camps would hold good, General Hart-
estimate allowed $450 per man for can- man replied, "The estimate of $320 was
tonments and $320 per man for tent made about three weeks ago, and within
camps. The committee acted at once to the last week lumber has jumped from
128
remedy the lack of funds. Extracting the $6 to $8 per thousand feet." Testifying
sums for shelter, airfields, and training before a Senate committee ten days later,
areas from the third supplemental, it General Marshall said, "We are not at
sponsored a joint resolution which quickly all certain that the funds provided for
passed both Houses and received the shelter are sufficient. It is impossible to
125
Thus,
President's
as General
signatureMarshall
on 24 September.
noted, the say at this moment whether they are or
not. If they do prove insufficient, we will
bulk of the money for camp construction request the necessary additional funds
became available "as the leaves were when Congress convenes in January."129
beginning to fall."126 General Hartman was in a precarious
With passage of the third supple- position. Time was short. Winter with
mental early in October, Congress com- its bad construction weather loomed
pleted the current round of defense ap- ahead. Unsuitable sites, inadequate engi-
propriations. Approved on the 8th, this neering data, and uncertain markets were
act made available approximately $ 1 bil- but some of the factors that threatened
lion to the Army and Navy. Included delay. If induction dates were to be met,
were substantial sums for military con- the Construction Division would have to
struction. The Quartermaster General do a job of unusual difficulty with un-
got nearly $65 million in building funds— precedented speed. But speed meant
$33,717,489formaintenance, $1,729,357 money. Building funds were insufficient
for the repair of hospitals, and $29.5 to pay for the program even if rigid
million to pay back the loan from the economy were practiced. To complete
President's kitty. The sum of $122,850 the camps on schedule and to keep within
went to the Chief of Engineers for the available funds was impossible. But
modernizing seacoast fortifications. For that was Hartman's assignment—an as-
expediting production, there was a total signment he reportedly accepted only
of $178 million in cash and contract "because of the constant reiteration by
authority, part of which was for building Moore that, if he did not, the work would
government-owned aircraft plants.127 be assigned to the Corps of Engineers
Congress had granted every request made and that would be the end of the Con-
130
to it for construction funds. But Congress struction Quartermaster."
125 128
(1) Ibid., pp. 33-34, 57-58. (2) Gen Marshall's H Subcomm of the Comm on Appns, 76th
Testimony, 30 Sep 40. In S Subcomm of the Comm Cong, 3d sess, Hearings on Third Supplemental National
on Appns, 76th Cong, 3d sess, Hearings on H R 10572, Defense Appropriation Bill for 1941, p. 58.
129
p. 1. (3) 54 Stat. 958. S Subcomm of the Comm on Appns, 76th
126
Biennial Report of the Chief of Staff, 1941, in Cong, 3d sess, Hearings on H R 10572, p. 7.
130
Report of the Secretary of War to the President, 1941, Gen Groves Comments on Second Draft, MS,
P.52. Construction in the United States, IV, 4. Cited
127
54 Stat. 965. hereinafter as Groves Second Draft Comments.
CHAPTER V
street involving exactly the same trades, pressure days is the heat any hotter and
the process was again repeated."4 Under- the pressure any greater in Washington
lying much of the slowness with which than in the Construction Division of the
most peacetime projects started was the Quartermaster Corps," wrote colum-
law requiring competitive bids. Not nist Jerry Kluttz early in October.6 To
until plans were firm, sites available, and members of the Hartman team the
minimum wage rates fixed could the description seemed apt. It was hectic,
machinery for advertised lettings go one man recalled. Another likened the
into motion. division to a madhouse. The still rela-
With the emergency of 1940 "time tively puny force was nearly snowed
is of the essence" became the watchword under with work. Mail arrived by the
and speed became the "paramount truckload. One small section of the En-
consideration." But, before it could rally gineering Branch soon had a backlog
to these slogans, the Construction Divi- of 1,100 unanswered letters. Calls
sion first had to free itself from the swamped the switchboard. The halls
shackles of peacetime procedures. This teemed with visitors, as contractors,
it attempted to do and with considerable materialmen, equipment dealers, and a
success. The Act of July 2, 1940, the good many others beat a path to the
negotiation statute, cut through the men with a billion dollars to spend. Only
tangle of competitive red tape. An un- by unremitting effort was the division
7
derstanding between Brigham and of- able to keep abreast of it all.
ficials in the Labor Department put an In the Munitions Building space was
end to duplicate predeterminations; wage at a premium. With scores of new em-
rates were henceforth determined for a ployees already at work and more ar-
given locality and applied to all jobs riving daily, the division had to utilize
undertaken there during a 90-day pe- every available inch. Even storerooms
riod. Legislation urged by Colonel served as offices, and some areas were so
Valliant and enacted on 9 October 1940 jam-packed that people had to climb over
permitted construction to begin before desks in order to move about. Hartman,
property titles had been proved valid.5 who had been battling for larger quarters
Removing these procedural obstacles since spring, attributed these cramped
helped clear the way for action. Still conditions to "a total lack of apprecia-
there remained the task of starting a tion by the Space Procurement Officer
billion-dollar program almost overnight. of the War Department and General
8
The sudden surge of directives trans- Gregory of the office space needed."
formed the central office into a hive of Gregory was at length won over. "It
frantic activity. "Nowhere in these high- seemed to me," he later said, "that
4 6
Rpt, Brigham to Bennett, 30 Sep 40. EHD Files. Washington Daily News, October 7, 1940, p. 14.
5 7
(1) Ibid. (2) Memo of Understanding, Dept of (1) Intervs with Col Simon Jacobson, 7 Jun 55;
Labor Office of the Solicitor for Bennett, 28 Sep 40. Henry J. Klein, 29 May 57; Gen Dreyer, 27 Feb
OCE Legal Div Lib, Labor Wage and Hour Deci- 59. (2) Ltr, Gavin Hadden to EHD, 22 May 53. (3)
sions. (3) Draft of Ltr, Woodring (RDV) to Chrm Answers to Questionnaire, Col Violante to EHD, 25
H Judiciary Comm (Jun 40), and notations thereon. Sep 57.
8
QM 601.1 I. (4) 54 Stat. 1083. Statement of Gen Hartman, 5 Jul 55, pp. 7-8.
154 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
indirectly paid in taxes. Fixed-fee con- made similar changes, adjusting specifi-
tractors were exempt from certain federal cations to productive capacity whenever
levies, including transportation, com- possible. As a second step, appeals for
munications, and manufacturers' excise help were broadcast to industry. The
taxes. Moreover, Hartman resisted col- response was gratifying. The Southern
lection of state and local taxes from these Pine Association formed a special war
contractors, maintaining that the burden committee to co-operate with the Army.
would fall on the United States. Of The Lehigh Portland Cement Company
twenty-two states imposing sales, use, placed its nationwide organization at
and similar taxes, eighteen granted full the division's disposal to assist with pro-
or partial exemptions, while four con- curement. Meanwhile, Hartman was
17
tinued to exact payment. Although banking heavily on a third expedient,
savings on these items amounted to a centralized purchasing, to help stabilize
considerable sum, they were negligible lumber prices and keep his projects sup-
compared with savings possible on ma- plied. Colonel Jacobson waited only for
terials and labor. the necessary funds before swinging into
As the Army, the Navy, and other action.18
federal agencies got defense construction Even more troubling than the ma-
under way and private industry began terials outlook was the specter of the
expanding for war production, the de- silk-shirted construction worker of World
mand for building materials rose rapidly. War I. Nothing, as far as national policy
Scarcities developed, deliveries slowed, was concerned, prevented contractors from
and prices started to climb. Hartman going into the labor market and bidding
took steps to combat shortages and high as high as they wished, for the adminis-
costs. First, he tailored requirements tration made no attempt to control wages
to fit supplies. When the lumber industry on a nationwide basis until after Pearl
revealed that it had on hand huge quan- Harbor. A spiral seemed inevitable un-
tities of 10-foot joists—a short, nonstand- less Hartman himself could control wages.
ard length which had been stockpiled Practical considerations compelled him
as culls—he ordered structural blue- to make the attempt. Slim construction
prints altered to take the shorter studs. budgets made no provisions for wage
In the Engineering Branch, Lamphere boosts. Furthermore, lump sum con-
tractors, trying to keep within a pre-
17
(1) Draft of Ltr, SW to the Speaker, H R (n.d.).
arranged price, would be deprived of
QM 600.1 (Misc) 1940. (2) 54 Stat. 873. (3) Memo, workers if fixed-fee contractors "snow-
Jones for FF Br, 1 Oct 40. QM 600.1 (Ins Risk). (4) balled" wages. Hartman sought to pre-
Ltr of Instr, Hartman to CQM's, 5 Nov 40. QM
600.1 (CPFF—Policy) I. (5) Constr Div OQMG
vent unnecessary increases by placing a
CPFF Ltr 13, 23 Oct 40. EHD Files. (6) Incl with ceiling on wages. What he did was to
Ltr, JAGO to Rep Robert L. Doughton, 2 Mar 42. declare the minimum Bacon-Davis rates
OCE Legal Div Lib. States granting exemptions
were: Arizona, Arkansas, Colorado, Illinois, Indiana,
set by the Department of Labor to be
Iowa, Kansas, Michigan, Mississippi, Missouri,
New Mexico, North Carolina, Ohio, Oklahoma,
18
South Dakota, Utah, Washington, and West Virginia. (1) Dreyer Interv, 27 Feb 59; Sperl Interv, 18
Those enforcing payment were: Alabama, California, Jun 56. (2) Col Fred G. Sherrill, Lumber in the War
North Dakota, and Wyoming. (MS), I, p. 5. EHD Files.
LAUNCHING DEFENSE CONSTRUCTION 157
the maximum. Fixed-fee contractors who a week and eight hours a day for any
paid higher rates without his approval one man, and at least two shifts a day on
in writing would do so at their own ex- straight time. This would permit stag-
pense. He thus retained the final, even gering the crews so as to permit work
if he did not possess the initial, say on every day of the week with two shifts
19
wage rates. and completing the job in time for the
21
There remained the question of pre- troops to move in." Loving instructed
mium pay. Most agreements between his field officers whenever possible to
contractors and the building trades schedule work to eliminate premiums.22
unions called for time and a half or Only within certain limits was
double time for work in excess of so Hartman free to chart his course, for he
many hours a week and on Saturdays, had to comply with directives of The
Sundays, and holidays. Labor had in- Quartermaster General, the Chief of
sisted on these provisions in order to Staff, and the Assistant Secretary of War
shorten the work week, and contractors and to respect the overall policies of the
normally scheduled construction to avoid President. These men viewed construc-
paying the almost prohibitive rates. tion from somewhat different angles. To
In addition, unions sometimes demanded General Gregory it was but one of several
bonus rates and special concessions for duties. In construction matters he usually
shift work. With time the vital factor followed the lead of his superiors. Gen-
in defense, many of Hartman's projects eral Marshall's supervision of the pro-
would be working six or seven days a gram was, with rare exceptions, exer-
week on multiple shifts. If labor costs cised through Generals Moore and
were not to be excessive, he had to find Reybold. As a rule, the General Staff
a way to escape the usual heavy penal- considered construction from the user's
ties. Major Jones pointed the way to a standpoint rather than from the builder's.
solution, by calling attention to the fact Judge Patterson, as business head of the
that the law required only one premium War Department, looked upon con-
payment, time and a half for work in struction as a most important trust. He
excess of eight hours in any one day. was anxious to do his job honestly and
With this in mind, Brigham devised a well and to avoid any taint of scandal.
plan he thought fair both to labor and Roosevelt approached construction ques-
the War Department.20 "We feel," he tions in a spirit compounded of New Deal
explained to an official of the Carpen- liberalism, political realism, and grave
ters' Brotherhood, "that due to the concern for national security. Alongside
emergency . . . the men should be the regular authorities there arose in
willing to work on a basis of forty hours mid-1940 a new group—advisers, co-
ordinators, and inspectors, agencies and
19
individuals—who were to have great
CPFF Form 1, approved by the ASW, 12 Jul 40,
art. IX, par. 2.
impact upon the building program.
20
(1) Memo, Bennett for Brigham, 20 Sep 40.
EHD Files. (2) Memo prepared by Jones, sub: Notes
21
on Hours of Labor, 12 Sep 40. OCE Legal Div Lib, Memo, Brigham for H. W. Blumenberg, 21 Sep
Instr Re CPFF, I. (3) Incl with Memo, Brigham for 40. OCE LR Br, Cp Edwards, Gen Corresp.
22
Bennett, 9 Oct 40. QM 600.1 (Labor-Gen). Constr Div OQMG FF Ltr 2 (n.d.). EHD Files.
158 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
serve "to reduce unemployment and ages of skilled mechanics would force
otherwise strengthen the human fiber of suspension of the 40-hour rule. Whether
our Nation," they viewed site selection as the policy on premium wage rates would
a vehicle for social good. Moreover, they be applicable to construction remained
35
insisted on limiting working hours to to be seen.
forty a week until unemployment disap- As the election campaign gathered
peared. If, in emergencies, projects momentum, the President renewed the
worked more than forty hours or on pledge he had given in May, that there
Saturdays, Sundays, and holidays, over- would be no "cancellation of the great
time and premium rates would be obliga- social gains" made under the New Deal.
tory. Discrimination because of "age, At dedication ceremonies for the Chicka-
sex, race, or color" would be taboo, the mauga Dam on Labor Day, he declared,
commissioners declared. Finally, work- "We understand now what we did not
men's health and safety would be a grave understand in 1917 and 1918—that
concern and adequate workers' housing the building up of the Army and
would be a must. Sent by the President Navy . . . ought not to result in
to Congress with a message of indorse- a waste of our natural resources and at
ment on 13 September, the statement the same time ought not to break down
henceforth stood as administration the gains of labor or the maintenance of
33
policy. a living wage." That same day he told
To Hartman the statement was a a gathering at the opening of the Great
mixed blessing. By affirming the need Smoky Mountains National Park: "We
for negotiated awards, the commission need not swap the gain of better living
underpinned his position. In the wake of for the gain of better defense. I propose
the President's message, Patterson re- that we retain the one and gain the
laxed restrictions on CPFF agreements other."36 This theme recurred in the
to permit their use "in all cases where the speeches he delivered during the re-
37
accomplishment of the national defense maining weeks of the campaign. In
program may be expedited or aided vain did the War and Navy Depart-
34
thereby." Furthermore, the commis- ments argue against a policy promising
sion's criteria for selecting contractors "all things to all men—adequate na-
were almost identical to some Hartman tional defense, full employment, higher
had adopted earlier as a guide for the living standards, the recovery of business,
Construction Advisory Committee. and the consolidation of labor's New
Nevertheless, from the construction Deal gains, in short, both guns and but-
standpoint, several of the labor principles ter."38
were impractical. Even before the state-
ment became public, Secretary Stimson 35
(1) Notes of Conf in OCofS, 23 Aug 40. OCS,
had informed the President that short- Misc Confs, 20 May-25 Sep 40. (2) Memo, Brigham
for Bennett, 7 Oct 40. QM 600.1 (Labor-Gen).
36
Public Papers and Addresses of Franklin D. Roosevelt,
33
(1) Minutes of the NDAC, pp. 82-83. (2)HDoc 1940, pp. 237, 363, 374.
37
No. 950, 76th Cong, 3d sess, 13 Sep 40, National 38
Ibid., pp. 412, 493-94, 520, 547, 549-50.
Defense Contracts. William L. Langer and S. Everett Gleason, The
34
Incl (n.d.), with Memo, Schulz for Gregory, 9 Undeclared War, 1940-1941 (New York: Harper and
Oct 40. QM 400.13 (Without Advertising) 1940-42. Brothers, 1953), p. 182.
162 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
At the same time that he refused to As time went on, Taylor's prediction
sacrifice the New Deal on the altar of seemed increasingly likely to come true.
national security, the President extolled Besieged by numerous and ofttimes con-
the progress of defense preparations. flicting demands, Hartman could not
Branding as false his opponent's allega- satisfy everyone. But he could and did
tion "that the rearming of America is forge ahead, providing plans, acquiring
slow," he declared, "We are going full land, and placing construction quickly
speed ahead." One of the few military under contract.
programs then well started and, as such,
one of the prime targets visible to the Engineering
opposition, the Army's construction ef-
fort came in for a share of Republican The work of converting appropria-
criticism and Democratic praise. GOP tions into finished construction began
standard-bearer Wendell L. Willkie in the Engineering Branch. To this,
charged that new camps would not be his largest unit, General Hartman gave
ready when troops moved in, and on the task of establishing the common
30 October Roosevelt countered: yardsticks or standards of design that
I cannot help but feel that the most in- would govern almost every feature of the
excusable, most unpatriotic misstatement of program—buildings, roads, runways,
fact about our Army—a misstatement cal- docks, power plants, trackage, drainage,
culated to worry mothers of the Nation—is water supply and sewerage systems,
the brazen charge that the men called to plumbing, lighting, heating, fire protec-
training will not be properly housed.
The plain fact is that construction on Army tion, installed equipment, and the like. It
housing is far ahead of schedule to meet all was Lamphere's duty, as chief of Engi-
needs, and that by January fifth, next, there neering, first to consider the War Depart-
will be complete and adequate housing in ment's policies, the users' requirements,
this Nation for nine hundred and thirty the money allotted, the time allowed, the
thousand soldiers.
And so I feel that, very simply and very condition of materials markets, the availa-
honestly, I can give assurance to the mothers bility of labor, and the cost of main-
and fathers of America that each and every tenance and, then, with these factors
one of their boys in training will be well in mind, to develop blueprints, specifi-
housed . . . ,39 cations, bills of materials, estimates, and
It fell to the Construction Division to layouts for projects of virtually every
redeem the President's promise. type. These plans would go to jobs
A few days after the passage of the throughout the country. Although Con-
Selective Service Act, Representative structing Quartermasters would have
Edward T. Taylor told Hartman, "What- considerable leeway in adapting stand-
ever you do, you will be criticized."40 ards to local conditions, Hartman in-
Public Papers and Addresses, 1940, pp. 500, 151, sisted that fundamental changes be
39
517. See also: Memos, Lt Col R. H. Brennan, OCofS, cleared with Washington. He thus pre-
for SGS, 2, 4 Oct 40. OCS, Notes on Confs, 26 Sep 40;
Samuel I. Rosenman, Working With Roosevelt (New
served the system of centralized design
York: Harper and Brothers, 1952), pp. 243-44. most construction men thought proper.41
40
H Subcomm of the Comm on Appns, 76th Cong,
41
3d sess, Hearings on Third Supplemental National Defense OQMG Office Order 29A, 15 Jun 40. QM 020
Appropriation Bill JOT 1941, p. 59. (Constr).
LAUNCHING DEFENSE CONSTRUCTION 163
an able highway engineer who had been landscaping, and all such nonessential
with Lamphere on the Pennsylvania features were out for the duration—or
Turnpike project, took over the planning so he said at the beginning. While recog-
of transportation systems. Maj. Robert nizing that munitions plants, depots, and
B. Field, who had retired in 1938 after communications systems would have to
more than twenty years as a construction be at least semipermanent, Moore in-
officer, returned as Walters' assistant. A sisted that there be no embellishments.44
Reservist who headed a nationwide Describing to Congressman John Taber
building costs service, Maj. Everard H. what the new Ordnance works would be
Boeckh, came in as chief of the Esti- like, General Wesson said on 25 July:
mating Section. And there were many, "We will have simple but durable plants.
many more. In fact, some four hundred We figure that this emergency is not
men responded to the call. Small wonder here today and gone tomorrow, and that
that Lamphere likened the growth of the these facilities should be built on a basis
Engineering Branch to an explosion.43 that would make them available for the
Just as private architects and engi- next twenty years." Pointedly he added,
neers first consult their clients, so "There are to be no high-fallutin' gar-
Lamphere started with War Department goyles on these buildings."45
policies. Very early in the program, on Translating Moore's broad policies
27 May 1940, General Marshall an- into detailed plans and specifications
nounced that G-4 would be the arbiter was the Construction Division's respon-
on construction matters. During the sibility. Too vast and too complex for
next few weeks, General Moore laid down Lamphere's group to tackle alone, the
principles to govern emergency work. job was shared with private firms hired
Emphasizing the need for speed first, under negotiated contracts. Industrialists
economy second, and serviceability last, provided many of the basic designs for
he prescribed these rules: hold con- munitions plants. Nearly every project
struction to the minimum; make maxi- of any size, whether a plant, camp, air-
mum use of existing buildings; and erect field, or depot, had its own architect-
no permanent structures where tem- engineer to fit standard plans and layouts
poraries will suffice. At new stations to the site, design utilities and road nets,
hospitals would be temporary, but at and supervise construction. Concerns
old-line posts permanent barracks would specializing in particular fields of engi-
serve as wards. Wherever possible, Regu- neering occasionally acted as consultants.
lars would double up to make room for For example, two nationally known
Guardsmen and selectees. Additional firms of sanitary engineers, Metcalf &
housing would be of mobilization type, Eddy of Boston and Greeley & Hansen
tent camps in the South and cantonments
44
in the North. Both buildings and utilities (1) Memo, SGS for G-4, 27 May 40. G-4/31751.
would have a five-year life. Moore cut Arms andLtrServs,
(2) WD AG 705 (6-5-40) M-D-M to Chiefs
7 Jun 40. G-4/31757. (3) WD Ltr
requirements to the bone. Family quar- AG 600.12 (6-15-40) M-D-M, 15 Jun 40. G-4/
ters, garages, swimming pools, painting, 45
H Subcomm of the Comm on Appns, 76th Cong,
3d sess, Hearings ... on the Second Supplemental
43
Lamphere Interv, 26 Jun 56. National Defense Appropriation Bill for 1941, p. 203.
166 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
of Chicago, reviewed plans for sewerage the like—were harder to execute, for
and sewage disposal at fifty camps and they required much original design.
airfields and advised architect-engineers Challenging though they sometimes were,
how best to handle this important aspect these purely technical jobs were well
of design. All this help notwithstanding, within the staff's capabilities. To the
the Engineering Branch carried a heavy men in the crowded drafting rooms, the
load, doing much of the planning itself major stumbling block was the necessity
46
and overseeing the rest. of doing everything so fast. Meanwhile,
When Lamphere took over in July, their superiors grappled with problems
Major Walters was one jump ahead of of another sort.
the directives, which were starting to During the fall of 1940, as it drew les-
trickle in. Since March, when Hartman sons from military operations abroad,
had begun his salvage operation, the the General Staff continually reorganized
mobilization drawings had come a long the Army. Construction suffered in the
way. At the Fort Myer warehouse, a process. Looking back on the early
group of forty men, headed by Major months of defense preparations, Nurse
Field, had redrawn most of the 700 reflected: "One of the principal delays
series plans. Some technical difficulties in getting off to as early a start as we de-
had yet to be ironed out. One particu- sired on cantonment construction was
larly thorny problem involved heating due to G-3 being unable to arrive at
and steam distribution systems for mo- a definite table of organization. It was
47
bilization hospitals, the largest of which constantly being changed." The size
would include some eighty buildings of the infantry company, the basic unit
connected by 100-foot corridors. Paint around which most of the camps were
shops in motor vehicle repair buildings designed, was not firmly fixed until
posed another tough problem: the ques- construction was under way. Original
tion here was how to minimize fire orders from G-4, issued in June, en-
hazards in these large wooden structures. visaged a company of 125 men, and
Serious complications sprang from the Lamphere planned accordingly. He laid
creation of the Armored Force, which put cantonments in blocks consisting of
needed wider roads and more water two 63-man barracks plus a mess hall,
than older branches, and radically dif- a recreation building, and a supply room
ferent layouts as well. By midsummer of appropriate size; he left space for a
requests were coming in for extras— third barracks should the need for one
guest houses, service clubs, dental clinics, arise. When, on 1 October, G-3 set the
and field houses—which Moore had company's war strength at 217, he had
recently authorized or indicated he to redo the layouts to make room for a
might authorize soon. Orders of this
kind were comparatively easy to fill, 46
(1) Intervs with Gen Dreyer, 27 Feb 59; W. R.
since standard details could often be Deininger, 13 Mar 59; S. Sandier, 5 Mar 59. (2)
incorporated into the blueprints. A flock Ltr, Groves to OCMH, 22 Jul 55. EHD Files. (3)
of orders for Air Corps structures— Memo, Anderson for Violante, 11 Oct 40. QM
600.1 (Mobl). (4) ENR, October 23, 1941, pp.
hangars, repair shops, parachute drying 112-14.
towers, bombsight storage buildings, and 47
Ltr, Nurse to OCMH, 9 Mar 55. EHD Files.
LAUNCHING DEFENSE CONSTRUCTION 167
fourth barracks and larger messing, recre- as design contractors. Engineers from
ation, and supply facilities. So late were other large industrial concerns, after a
decisions on the makeup of the new tank period of training at Army arsenals, also
companies, and so scant the information planned production units. Lamphere
as to what they would require, that he furnished blueprints for magazines, ware-
could complete no typical diagrams of houses, shops, administration buildings,
armored division camps during 1940. workers' housing, transportation systems,
These instances were by no means unique. and utilities. The using service and the
October marked the publication of 35 Quartermaster Corps supervised the
new tables of organization and equip- operation jointly. All plans were subject
ment; November, of 379; and December, to review by the Construction Division,
of 30. Tables for units of thirteen types but, in order to expedite the work,
did not appear until January 1941.48 Hartman told his field officers to start
Once requirements were clear, plan- building first and get his O.K. later.
ning of camps and cantonments pro- Control by the using service was much
ceeded fairly smoothly, for the Army more rigid. No plan could go to an Ord-
was on familiar ground; the design of nance project until the Wilmington sub-
49
munitions plants was vastly more com- office had approved it. "We are dealing
plicated. Structures had to accommodate with smokeless powder, with high ex-
complex processes and specialized ma- plosives of all types," Campbell ex-
chinery. Roads, railroads, utilities, shops, plained. "We are all in fear and trem-
and laboratories had to be on a par with bling" lest the plants "blow up on us
those at other large plants in heavy in- due to poor workmanship or poor knowl-
dustry. Designs for storage magazines edge or lack of 'know-how'."50 Cumbrous
reflected the ever-present danger of ex- though the system was, it produced re-
plosion. Security against sabotage was sults. By November Lamphere could
always a consideration. Plans on hand start work on standard designs for in-
at the beginning of the emergency were dustrial plants.51
inadequate. On becoming assistant chief Although they were then regarded as
of the Industrial Service, Facilities, in the least difficult, technically, of all
June 1940, Lt. Col. Levin H. Campbell defense projects, the new Air Corps
found that the Ordnance Department installations produced many headaches.
had very little in the way of factory lay- Under the regulations, General Arnold's
outs, equipment diagrams, and building office could set functional requirements,
specifications. The situation called into make initial estimates, and recommend
being a three-way partnership of using layouts. Actually, the airmen were dab-
service, Quartermaster, and industry.
The half dozen companies with exper- 49
(1) Ltr, Campbell to OCMH, 10 Mar 55. EHD
ience in munitions manufacture served Files. (2) Notes of Conf, Hartman, Campbell,
Harrison, et al., 13 Aug 40. QM 095 (Hercules
Powder Co.). (3) Ltr, Constr Div to CQM St. Louis
48
(1) WD Ltr AG 600.12 (6-15-40) M-D-M, 15 OP, 2 Nov 40. 635 (St. Louis OP) Part 1.
50
Jun 40. G-4/31751. (2) Answers to Questionnaire, Campbell's Testimony, 26 Feb 41. In May
Violante to EHD, 25 Sep 57. (3) Dreyer Interv, Comm Hearings, Part I, p. 187.
51
27 Feb 59. (4) T/O 7-17, 1 Oct 40. (5) List of T/O's, Ltr, Constr Div to CQM Iowa OP, 5 Nov 40.
1 Jan 41. 635 (Iowa OP) I.
168 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
bling in design and had been for years. than temporary construction. The Sur-
Col. Frank M. Kennedy, chief of Arnold's geon General, Maj. Gen. James C.
Buildings and Grounds Division and Magee, also opposed the plan at first,
himself a graduate engineer, insisted on but, pressed by Moore, he at length gave
furnishing plans to the Quartermaster in. Announced on 7 June 1940, the policy
Corps. The Construction Division tried drew immediate protests from the field.
to go along with Kennedy's ideas but Nevertheless, G-4 held to the decision
could not always do so. Some of his de- for nearly four months.53 Finally, on 20
signs, according to Leisenring, had a September, Magee appealed to Moore's
safety factor of zero. Others, supposedly successor in G-4, Colonel Reybold.
for temporary structures, incorporated Calling attention to "the patent im-
many permanent features and carried practicability of providing appropriate
estimates reflecting funds available hospitalization in this way," he asked
54
rather than funds required: one drawing that the policy be revoked. Reybold
for an administration building came agreed, and on the 26th ordered the
bearing a price tag of $13,260; Lam- building of temporary hospitals at per-
phere's men figured the cost at $77,000. manent Army posts. Much time and en-
Referred to the General Staff, plans of gineering effort had been wasted. Sud-
this sort usually met a quick death at den jumps in requirements were a further
the hands of G-4. Efforts by the Air vexation. As the troop distribution
Corps to freeze specifications for runway changed, many hospitals had to expand.
pavements before service tests were run One planned for Fort Custer grew from
were blocked by Colonel Reybold. Al- 350 to 750 beds; one for Fort Bragg,
though helpful at times, Kennedy's from 200 to 2,000. To make matters
incursions into design frequently cost the worse, in September the General Staff
Engineering Branch a good deal of lost directed Hartman to redesign all hos-
52
motion. pitals so that they could later be en-
55
Station hospitals proved to be a larged by 20 percent.
hornet's nest. Part of the trouble stemmed Difficulties notwithstanding, the En-
from General Moore's policy of using gineering Branch delivered the goods.
permanent barracks as wards, a policy By fall its catalogue of standard blue-
adopted over General Hartman's ob- prints listed barracks for 25, 45, and 63
jections. Barracks, Hartman had pointed 53
out, were seldom near permanent sta- (1) Memo, Hartman for G-4, 28 May 40.
G-4/31757. (2) Ltr, SGO to TAG, 29 May 40. (3)
tion hospitals, which housed labora- Memo, Constr Sec G-4 for Moore, 5 Jun 40. Both in
tories, clinics, and operating rooms. QM 632 (Dispensaries) 1941. (4) Clarence Mc-
Besides, conversion would cost far more Kittrick Smith, The Medical Department: Hospitaliza-
tion and Evacuation, Zone of Interior, UNITED STATES
ARMY IN WORLD WAR II (Washington, 1956),
52
(1) AR 95-5, 8 Jun 40. (2) Ritchie Interv, 26 pp. 15-18. Cited hereinafter as Smith, Hospitalization
Apr 56; Leisenring Interv, 5 Jun 57. (3) Ltr, CQM and Evacuation.
54
Mitchel Fld to OQMG, 8 May 40, and Inds. 600.1 Memo, Magee for Reybold, 20 Sep 40. G—4/
(Mitchel Fld) Part 1. (4) Ltr, OQMG to TAG, 5 31757.
55
Sep 40, and Inds. AG 600.12 (1-23-36) (1) (sec. (1) WD Ltr AG 600.12 (9-25-40) M-D to Arms
1-D Constr Program). (5) D/S, Reybold to TQMG, and Servs, 26 Sep 40. 600.12A Part 9. (2) Smith,
9 Sep 40. G-4/30552-4. (6) Ltr, OCofAC to TAG, 1 Hospitalization and Evacuation, pp. 13-14, 18. (3)
Nov 40, and Inds. 686 (Airfields) Part 5. QM 632 Cp Custer and Ft Bragg.
LAUNCHING DEFENSE CONSTRUCTION 169
men, mess halls with seating capacities notable being the absence of a layout for
of up to 1,000, hospitals ranging in size armored camps. But, by and large,
from 25 to 2,000 beds, dispensaries, planning was well and quickly done.
guard houses, cold storage plants, fire Once he had established engineering
stations, control towers, telephone ex- standards, Lamphere faced an exacting
changes, freight terminals, and nu- task in getting them accepted. Interest
merous other structures. Specifications in the Quartermaster plans was wide-
were available for everything from flag- spread and intense. Producers and sup-
poles to 500,000-gallon gasoline storage pliers of building materials had a great
and distribution systems. Layouts for deal at stake. According to the estimators'
most types of ground and air stations rule of thumb, fifty cents of every con-
were in the hands of Constructing Quar- struction dollar would go for materials.
termasters. To be sure, a number of the How orders totaling roughly half a bil-
plans left something to be desired. lion would be apportioned among the
Thoroughness had necessarily been sac- materials industries depended on Quar-
rificed to speed. In the rush to send draw- termaster plans. The various construc-
ings to the field, some details had gone tion trades would also be affected, car-
unchecked. Lack of funds had occasion- penters benefiting if wood were speci-
ally dictated the choice of inferior ma- fied, bricklayers, if masonry. Congress,
terials; for example, the 55-pound roof- too, was naturally attentive. In addition,
ing paper specified for the 700 series a number of prominent persons were
buildings was the lightest and cheapest intent upon enhancing the beauty and
on the market. There were, moreover, amenities of the camps. Among them
several gaps in the plans, one of the most was Mrs. Roosevelt. All these groups
170 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
watched developments closely. It was manded work for its members. Congress-
a rare engineering decision that failed men, at the urging of constituents, asked
to call forth comment from one or more the War Department to reconsider. Ad-
of them. vocates of sturdier construction appeared
Howls of protest greeted the announce- in some quarters of the Army. Lt. Gen.
ment that the Army would build tem- Hugh A. Drum of the Second Corps
porary frame housing. Manufacturers Area strongly recommended that more
of excluded products promptly attacked durable materials than wood be used
the 700 series. The Clay Products As- in his command. Major Groves entered
sociation of the Southwest warned a plea for heavier roofing and higher
against "spending Federal funds in a grade screening. Dissatisfaction spread.
frenzy of excitement and haste, as was Before long, Captain Dreyer was spend-
regrettably done during the World War," ing much of his time listening to people
in other words, against building camps who visited Lamphere's office to ad-
of perishable wood, suggesting instead vocate changes in plans.57
the "calm, wise, and business-like" pro- As the program unfolded, suggestions
cedure of "investing" in permanent build- multiplied. Senator Rufus C. Holman of
ings of brick and tile.56 Makers of con-
crete blocks, cement siding, structural 57
(1) QM 652 1922-40. (2) QM 600.1 (Prefabs)
steel, asbestos sheeting, and prefabricated 1937-41. (3) Lamphere Interv, 26 Jun 56; Leisenring
buildings took up the cry for less restric- Interv, 5 Jun 57; Dreyer Interv, 27 Feb 59. (4) Ltr,
Stimson to Rep Hatton W. Sumners, 26 Aug 40.
tive designs. The bricklayers union de- SW Files, Constr Work, 251-650. (5) Ltr, Drum
to TAG, 30 Jul 40. QM 600.1 (2d CA Tng Cps)
56
Ltr, Clay Products Assn. of the Southwest to 1937. (6) Memo, Groves for Gregory, 3 Aug 40. Opns
Sen Tom Connally, 5 Jul 40. QM 652 1922-40. Br Files, Rpts of Insp.
LAUNCHING DEFENSE CONSTRUCTION 171
Oregon, protesting plans for a steel arch frightful clamor when steel men bid
hangar, argued the advantages of timber against them.60
trusses. Mrs. Roosevelt recommended To outsiders who challenged its build-
that the streets of the camps be curved. ing plans, the War Department pre-
Major Groves, after a visit to Fort Ben- sented a united front. Secretary Stimson
ning one hot summer day, when water answered advocates of permanent hous-
consumption exceeded 180 gallons per ing by explaining that camps had to be
man, wished to up water allowances designed for economy and for speed of
and make provision for possible future erection, and he gave two reasons why
increases in camp populations. Like barracks of brick, tile, and concrete
many proposals Lamphere received, these blocks were out of the question. First,
were impractical. Because the new hang- durable materials would cost half again
ars were huge affairs, 275 feet across and as much as wood; and, second, their
90 feet high, timber framing would cost use would add 10 to 15 percent to the
much more than steel. Curved streets, time needed for construction. Judge Pat-
however attractive, would be longer, and terson told makers of prefabs that mobili-
therefore more costly and less quickly zation buildings would be cheaper to con-
traversed, than the straight, right-angled struct and to maintain than portables.
roads that had characterized military Hartman offered additional reasons for
camps since Roman times.58 After study- rejecting durable materials and prefabs.
ing Groves' suggestion for more ample Concrete would be too damp. Prefabs
water supplies, Hartman reminded were not available in large quantities and
Gregory: "This office is constantly la- would be difficult to transport. New plans
boring under demand of higher authority and specifications would be necessary and
to keep costs to a minimum . . . . it would take six weeks to prepare them.
Though we invariably provide a quite Refusals to make changes in the plans
liberal average to provide for any nom- were softened by assurances that nearly
inal increase, we could not well defend every product would find a market in the
an expenditure of many thousands of program. General Gregory promised sup-
dollars to provide a supply for an unan- pliers of brick, tile, and steel that their
ticipated increase of population."59 Now materials would be in brisk demand for
and then a suggestion turned up that depots, munitions plants, and Air Corps
seemed worth trying. Manufacturers technical buildings.61 These arguments
of steel siding and window sash who fell on deaf ears. The protests continued.
contended they could beat the price of The commotion eventually caught
competing wood products got a chance the attention of NDAC. As a champion
to prove it. But occasional changes of of the view that all should share the
this kind did little to quiet the general
60
uproar. In fact, lumber men raised a Dreyer Interv, 27 Feb 59; Interv with Everard
H. Boeckh, 21 Jun 59.
61
(1) Ltr, Stimson to Sen Elbert D. Thomas, 28
58
(1) CE 411.1 (Lumber) I. (2) Lamphere Interv, Aug 40. G-4/31932. (2) Ltr, ASW to Green Lumber
26 Jun 56. (3) Memo, Groves for Gregory, 3 Aug 40. Co., Laurel, Miss., c. 20 Jul 40. QM 600.1 (Prefab
Opns Br Files, Rpts of Insp. Bldgs) 1937. (3) Memo, Hartman for G-4, 19 Jul 40.
59
Memo, Hartman for Gregory, 12 Aug 40. Opns G-4/31409. (4) Ltr, Gregory to Sen Tom Connally,
Br Files, Rpts of Insp. 31 Jul 40. QM 652 1922-40.
172 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
benefits of the defense program, the com- in order to reduce maintenance costs."63
mission could not ignore charges that the Col. Stephen J. Chamberlin, chief of the
Army was excluding certain products. Construction Section, G-4, held the
Concern lest orders be unduly con- same opinion.64 The Painting and Decor-
centrated led Harrison to hire one of ating Contractors of America and the
the country's leading architect-engineers, Brotherhood of Painters, Decorators, and
Holabird & Root of Chicago, to make a Paperhangers asked NDAC to intercede.
comprehensive review of the 700 series In an appeal to Harrison, George S.
plans. On 18 September Holabird & Stuart of the contractors' association
Root submitted a report, praising the maintained that no building was com-
Quartermaster drawings but suggesting plete without paint. Paint, he wrote,
the possibility of alternate designs based made a building habitable, beautified it,
on such materials as terra cotta, cinder made it sanitary, protected it from in-
blocks, concrete, and asbestos. They sects and termites, dampproofed it, and,
also recommended preserving the to some extent, rendered it resistant to
natural beauty of the sites. Major Nurse fire. On a sentimental note, he added,
hastened to remind the field that typical "It will be a forlorn contrast for our boys
layouts should follow contours of the to be brought from their painted and
land and that trees left standing would decorated homes and offices to Govern-
camouflage camps and improve their ment buildings that are neither pro-
appearance. The commission had acted tected nor beautified with paint."65
too late to effect further changes at jobs Harrison urged the Army to paint. And
scheduled for completion in 1940 or so did Mrs. Roosevelt. With no funds
early 1941. Time did not permit prepara- to pay for such a project, G-4 asked
tion of new designs for projects already Hartman to see about painting the
under way. Hartman and Harrison agreed camps with WPA labor. But before the
that, for the time being, construction had Army could take any action, the Presi-
to proceed on the basis of existing dent intervened. On an inspection of
plans.62 Camp Meade, Maryland, he said he
Painting interests benefited by the only wanted the buildings painted. Assured
major change made after 1 September. of Roosevelt's backing, the General
General Moore originally excluded paint Staff decided to let contractors do the
from the cantonment plans in order to job using skilled workmen. On 4 No-
help reduce requests to Congress. His vember Reybold instructed Hartman to
dictum provoked emphatic protests. include painting in all contracts for
Hartman advised Gregory that "tem- temporary buildings. This directive re-
porary construction should be given sulted in the largest order for exterior
protective painting as soon as erected paint in the history of the paint industry,
62 63
(1) Notes of Conf in Harrison's office on 18 Sep Memo, Hartman for Gregory, 20 Aug 40. Opns
40, dated 24 Sep 40. QM 652 (Canton Constr) 1941. Br Files, Rpts of Insp.
64
(2) Ltr, Nurse to Architect-Engineers, 28 Sep 40. Memo, Chamberlin for Col Mallon, 8 Jul 40.
QM 652 (Cp McClellan). (3) Memo, Harrison for G-4/31751.
65
Patterson, 16 Oct 40. Madigan Files, 101.1 (Canton Ltr, Stuart to Harrison, 1 Oct 40. Madigan
Design & Constr). Files, 101.1 (Canton Design & Constr).
LAUNCHING DEFENSE CONSTRUCTION 173
945,062 gallons, and a deficit of $11 to through three redesigns), Hartman ap-
$12 million for the Construction Divi- pealed to G-4. The result was a "freeze
sion.66 order." Declaring most changes un-
The most serious challenge to Quar- necessary, the General Staff on 22
termaster designs came from within the August decreed no further revision of
War Department itself. In a situation the standards without G-4 approval.
where every day counted, Hartman had Typical plans and layouts were to go,
told Lamphere to complete standards without further ado, to be adapted in
quickly and rush them to the field. Such the field.67
minor adjustments as were needed could Heavy responsibilities devolved on
be made locally. This arrangement, Constructing Quartermasters. Super-
however expeditious, was unwelcome intending development of detailed lay-
to the chiefs of the using services, and outs, reviewing work of architect-
particularly to Arnold and Magee, who engineers, and helping to plan utilities
were reluctant to let their field repre- systems and design footings for typical
sentatives settle questions of layout and structures were but some of their tech-
design. The Surgeon General forced the nical duties. Hartman directed his field
issue early in the program by insisting officers to use initiative. When, in their
on numerous changes in standards for judgment, changes in the standards
mobilization hospitals, plans his of- would speed completion, save money,
fice had helped prepare and had once or improve the finished product, they
approved. Blueprints were ready for were to act promptly, forwarding re-
mailing to the field, when Lt. Col. John vised plans to Washington as soon as
R. Hall, chief of the Surgeon's Hospital possible. At the same time, Hartman
Construction and Repair Division, de- expected Constructing Quartermasters
manded more toilets, storerooms, and to resist local pressures for changes that
offices. These changes took several weeks. might slow progress, increase costs, or
Hall next served notice that he would lower construction quality. He reminded
furnish a layout for each station hospital. them that they were answerable only to
68
Since no two of his layouts proved to be him. Seasoned construction officers—
alike, the Engineering Branch had the Regulars like Colonel Thomas, who
troublesome job of custom-designing left Washington in September to head
heating systems. The Air Corps' Colonel the Ogden and Vicinity office in Utah,
Kennedy followed Hall's example. As Lt. Col. Lawrence L. Simpson, the
delays developed (the Camp Custer veteran CQM at Fort Bragg, and Capt.
hospital waited a month for plans from Carl M. Sciple, the West Point careerist
Washington), and as confusion mounted at Springfield Armory—understood their
(the Orlando Air Base hospital went
67
66
(1) WD Ltr AG 600.12 (8-15-40) M-D to
(1) Memo, Constr Div OQMG for G-4, 17 Jan TSG, 17 Aug 40, and Inds. QM 600.1 (Designs).
41. Opns Br Files, Painting. (2) Lamphere Interv, (2) D/F, G-4 to TAG, 19 Aug 40. G-4/31840. (3)
26 Jun 56. (3) Rcd with Memo, Reybold for TAG, 2 G-4/31751. (4) WD Ltr AG 600.12 (8-19-40) M-D
Nov 40. G-4/31751. (4) WD Ltr AG 600.12 (11-4- to TQMG, 22 Aug 40. QM 600.1 (Mobl).
68
40) M-D-M to Arms and Svcs, 4 Nov 40. 600.12A OQMG Manual, Supplement to Guide for
Part 10. (5) Rpt, Activities of Constr Div, Jul 40-Nov CQM's, Rev 1940, Covering FF Projects, 27 Aug 40,
41, p. 62. (6) Truman Comm Hearings, Part 1, p. 175. pp. 1-2. EHD Files.
174 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
assignment and knew how to carry it mission, the Real Estate Branch num-
out. Inexperienced project officers had bered only two officers and seventeen
to learn by doing. civilians. The executive, Capt. Clinton
J. Harrold, had ably assisted Valliant
Real Estate in the 200,000-acre program of 1939.
Acquisition expert William F. Turton
Recalling the role of the Real Estate and leasing chief Edward T. Lindner,
Branch in the defense build-up, Colonel both veterans of the World War I Real
Valliant said, "No one could move until Estate Service, directed experienced
69
we got the land for them." The size staffs. But a mere handful of specialists
of the job was unprecedented. On 30 could not cope with the huge task ahead.
June 1940 the War Department owned In 1918 the Real Estate Service had
about two million acres of land, the needed 150 persons for a program far
accumulation of a century and a half smaller than the one now contemplated.
of gradual expansion. Needed at once On 10 June 1940 Valliant explained to
were eight million more—fourteen times Colonel Chamberlin how he proposed
the area acquired in World War I. New to muster an adequate force. He en-
Ordnance and Chemical Warfare plants visioned a nationwide network of agents.
required 263,000 acres; camps, firing Although the chief of Real Estate was
ranges, hospitals, and depots, over two the only man who could bind the War
and one-half million; airfields and bomb- Department on land transactions, corps
ing ranges, five and one-third million. area quartermasters had for many years
At scores of locations in some forty-two assisted in arranging leases and disposing
states the Army reached out for land.70 of surplus property. Their duties would
The Real Estate Branch was under enor- now include some purchasing negotia-
mous pressure for speed. Colonel Burns, tions. CQM's would also serve as agents.
concerned primarily with industrial pre- Meanwhile, Valliant planned to expand
paredness, warned Valliant, "If you the Real Estate Branch as rapidly as he
delay this munitions program, you will could. Men from the central office would
be crucified for it";71 and Colonel handle the most complicated jobs. All
Chamberlin, speaking for the General agents would report directly to Washing-
Staff, told him "that no matter how fast ton, where Valliant and his top assist-
he worked, it would not be fast ants would stand ready to speed to any
72
enough." site where trouble threatened.73
In the late spring of 1940 Colonel After two decades of meager budgets,
Valliant made plans for expediting a the Real Estate Branch was suddenly
large-scale effort. His first big problem glutted with funds. Within a 4-month
was personnel. Mirroring its peacetime period, Valliant received some $52,600,-
69
000for land acquisition. During June
Valliant Interv, 11 Jun 56.
70
(1) Rpt, Activities of Constr Div, Jul 40-Nov 41,
73
p. 37. (2) Real Estate PR 33, 30 Sep 41. (1) Lt Col David B. Gideon, History of Military
71
Comments of Col Valliant, 24, 28 Mar 55. EHD Real Estate Program, 1939-1945 (MS), pp. 10, 13.
Files. EHD Files. Cited hereinafter as Gideon, Mil RE.
72
Memo, Chamberlin for Moore, 10 Jun 40. G—4/ (2) Memo, Hartman for Valliant, 25 Jun 40. QM
30881 Sec I. 601.1 (Misc) 1940.
LAUNCHING DEFENSE CONSTRUCTION 175
1940 Congress voted $8,239,824 for of transfer and to settle mineral and
76
ground and air reservations. In July grazing rights.
Ordnance turned over nearly $28,000,000 Valliant leased four hundred thousand
for plant sites. With passage of the Na- acres, mainly for maneuver areas, train-
tional Guard and Selective Service Acts ing grounds, landing fields, and tem-
in August and September, $16,374,885 porary additions to existing posts. One
74
became available for land. Valliant National Guard camp, Bowie, was on
found himself with an embarrassment a 90,000-acre site rented from the city of
of riches. "They just dumped the money Brownwood, Texas, for one dollar per
in my lap," he said later, "and I couldn't acre annually; and Camp Roberts, a
76
get rid of it all immediately." But im- replacement training center, occupied
pressive though the totals were, they gave the 37,000-acre Nacimiento Ranch near
little indication of program size, for most Paso Robles, California, leased from its
of the new acreage cost the army prac- owners for $125,000 a year. These were
tically nothing. exceptional cases. Most of the leaseholds
More than 6 million acres, over three- were smaller—25,000 acres or less; and
quarters of all the land required, came half of them contained fewer than 1 ,000
from the public domain. Four bombing acres apiece. From Valliant's viewpoint,
and gunnery ranges staked out on federal leasing offered marked advantages. First,
land were the largest in area of all de- lessors were, on the whole, a willing
fense projects: Choctawatchee in Florida group. Only once did he have to con-
covered 380,000 acres; Mojave Desert demn in order to lease. Second, for a
in California, 640,000; Wendover in short-term program, it was more eco-
Utah, 1.5 million; and Tonopah in Ne- nomical to lease than to buy. Rents paid
vada, 3.5 million. Smaller but still quite during 1940 ranged from 7 to 15 percent
extensive, 60,000 to 90,000 acres each, of appraised values. Third, leasing
were several camp sites carved from na- avoided conflicts with local authorities
tional forests. Transfer of these public over removal of properties from tax rolls.
lands to the War Department lightened Fourth, it eliminated the problem of
the burden on the Real Estate Branch eventually disposing of surplus land.
appreciably. Purchasing such vast tracts Finally, corps area quartermasters could
would almost certainly have meant up- do much of the work.77
rooting entire communities and dealing But leasing was often impossible.
with hundreds of owners. As it was, the During World War I Ordnance had
custodians, in most cases the Interior built a number of plants on leased land.
and Agriculture Departments, readily Subsequent forced sales of these valuable
agreed to release the lands, insisting only structures at junk prices had caused the
that the Army minimize damage to 76
improvements and take precautions (1) Real Estate PR, 21 Feb 41. (2) 601.4 SWD.
(3) Ltr, Harrold to QM Ninth Corps Area, 6 Nov
against forest fires. The Quartermaster 40. 601.1 (9th SvcC) I.
Corps had merely to arrange details 77
(1) Real Estate PR, 21 Feb 41, pp. 28-31. (2)
1st Ind, 22 Jan 41, on Ltr, QM Ninth Corps Area to
TQMG, 17 Jan 41. 601.1 (9th CA) II. (3) Ltr, RE
74
54 Stat. 350, 599, 628, 705, 872, 958, 1030. Br Constr Div OQMG to USW, 28 Feb 41. USW
75
Valliant Interv, 11 Jun 56. Files, 601 (Land Acquisition).
176 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
headlines on page one of the Joliet winter weather," read one appeal to
Herald-News hailed the decision to locate Vice President-elect Henry A. Wallace.
two plants, Kankakee and Elwood, in "Stock, machinery, and household goods
northeastern Illinois. According to the will have to be sacrificed. We are
paper, a boom was on the way. Farmers heart broken and desperate. Can't you
would be well paid for their land. Jobs help us?"86 "Tragic, if not stunning,"
would be plentiful and wages high. an Illinois group described the blow.87
Within six months to a year, the Herald- Many urged the Army to take waste
News prophesied, the population of Will lands instead of cultivated acreage. But
County would increase from 114,000 to the War Department argued military
154,000, and 8,000 new homes would necessity. In answer to a plea that he
go up in Joliet alone. In community spare an old homestead, Patterson wrote:
after community, optimism ran high. "I agree with you that it is hardly a
People on relief were jubilant at the pleasant thing to give up a home that
prospect of working again. Chambers one's family has occupied for nearly
of commerce looked forward to a period eighty years, but it is hardly a pleasant
of prosperity. But though many hoped thing to have to build an ammunition
to gain by the presence of military in- plant. Ours, unfortunately, is a world
stallations, other expected to lose. Taking in which such things are necessary."88
thousands of cultivated acres would pro- At the first signs of unrest, Colonel
duce a major upheaval. In the rich agri- Valliant hastened to the scene. Talking
cultural areas of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, to the owners, he was understanding but
and Missouri, 4,000 farm families would firm. While he sympathized with the
be uprooted. Whole villages faced ex- farmers and expressed sincere concern
tinction as the Army threatened to take for them, he made it clear that individual
the land on which they stood. Foreseeing interests must give way to the national
much hardship, these people refused to interest.89 Complimenting the Real Es-
give in without a fight.84 tate chief on a speech to an angry gath-
While townsfolk rejoiced at their good ering at Wilmington, Illinois, a judge of
fortune, the countryside was in a ferment. the State Court of Appeals said, "You
Farmers held mass meetings, drafted handled it beautifully and left those
petitions, and sought injunctions. Dele- 86
gations went to Washington. Men wired Ltr, Mabel L. Moore, West Burlington, Iowa, to
Henry A. Wallace, 8 Nov 40. 601.1 (Iowa OP) I.
their congressmen, and women wrote 87
Ltr, R. G. Richards et al., Wilmington, Ill., to
to Mrs. Roosevelt. The protests evoked Sen Scott W. Lucas, 25 Sep 40. 601.1 (Kankakee
85
a pathetic picture. "Some four hundred OW) I.
88
Ltr, Patterson to Mrs. C. E. Woolley, South
farm people will be thrown out in Iowa Bend, Ind., 2 Nov 40. QM 601.1 (Kingsbury OW)
1940-41.
84 89
(1) Joliet Herald-News, September 25, 1940. (2) (1) Memo, Valliant for Gregory, 29 Aug 40.
Comments of Col Valliant, 24, 28 Mar 55. 601.1 (Ravenna OW) I. (2) Ltr, Valliant to Miss
85
(1) Constr Div OQMG, RE Br, Annual Rpt, Bessie A. Lee, Anniston, Ala., 11 Dec 40. 601.1
FY 1941, p. 8. Gideon File, 6A3. (2) 601.1 Ravenna (Anniston OP) I. (3) Ltr, Mrs. Walter H. Miller,
OW, Kankakee OW, Anniston OD, Iowa OP, Middletown, Iowa, to the President, 14 Nov 40.
Jefferson Pr Grnd, Ft Knox, and others. (3) Memo, 601.1 (Iowa OP) I. (4) Ltr, R. Newton McDowell,
Groves for Gregory, 23 Sep 40. Opns Br Files, Kansas City, Mo., to . . ., 24 Oct 40. 601.1
Convention in Chicago. (Weldon Spring OW) I.
LAUNCHING DEFENSE CONSTRUCTION 179
farmers in a much better frame of mind some were as much as thirty times ap-
when they left the meeting than when praised values. Perhaps the greatest stim-
they came."90 Valliant made no ex- ulus to high prices was the Army's in-
travagant promises, but with natural sistence on immediate possession. One
humanity, he frequently succeeded in attorney reported sharp advances when
calming the farmers down. farmers began "to realize the enormity
What proved more difficult was of the task" of moving within thirty
bringing them to terms. Arriving at the days.91 Rumors that speed was all-im-
Army's newly selected sites, Quarter- portant and price was no object caused
master agents were met by demands for many owners to expect much more than
high prices. Some claims, though large, they had ever before dreamed their
were reasonable. Many sites, particularly properties were worth. Scalpers made
those for munitions projects, included a bad situation worse. Lashing out
prize agricultural land. Indeed, the fea- against the activities of "land option
tures that made for good industrial sharks," a Quartermaster spokesman
tracts—firm, level ground, ample water, said, "When the owner whose land we
and nearness to roads and railroads— take over attempts to move into the ad-
also made for profitable farms. But many joining area, he finds the prices there
asking prices were clearly out of line; have been skyrocketed and he is unable
90 91
Ltr, Judge Frank H. Hayes, Springfield, Ill., to Ltr, Charles S. Smith, Akron, Ohio, to Valliant,
Valliant, 25 Sep 40. 601.1 (Kankakee OW) I. 10 Sep 40. 601.1 (Ravenna OW) I.
180 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
to buy at a fair price."92 At several obliged to pay fair market value, no less
places Valliant cut costs by redrawing and no more.
site boundaries to avoid payment of The source of the trouble was soon
severance damages and exclude expen- clear. Valliant learned that NDAC had
sive buildings and commercial proper- asked the Attorney General for a ruling
ties. Generally, he told his agents to try in favor of disturbance damages and had
to satisfy the owners but to remember been refused. Correspondence on the
that Uncle Sam was not Santa Claus.93 subject between Chester Davis and pro-
Reviewing options taken in the field, fessors at the University of Illinois came
Valliant and Turton noted a startling to light. Reports from the field told a
development. Not only were valuations fuller story. From agents in Ohio, In-
high, but sums had frequently been diana, Illinois, Missouri, and Iowa came
added to cover "disturbance damages." word that Davis' top assistants, Arthur
A father was to get $2,000 for training C. Ringland and John B. Hutson, had
his blind daughter to find her way around been out talking to the farmers. Lists
a new farm. A congregation was to re- of disturbance factors, compiled by
ceive $1,000 for the trouble of relocating NDAC, were passing from hand to hand.
its church; the preacher, $695 for lost Indorsed by the Advisory Commission
salary. A dairyman had been promised were claims for the following: rent for
extra compensation for driving his cows family quarters until new farms could be
a few miles down the road—he said it found; storage for equipment; housing
disturbed their milk production. Though for livestock; decreased milk production
some claims were farfetched, others while herds adjusted to new surround-
94
stemmed from genuine hardship. "In ings; unused pasturage; unrealized bene-
almost every instance," one agent wrote, fits from fertilizing, plowing, and seeding;
"we are purchasing somebody's home, value of labor expended in moving; and
which means disruption of their family losses of various types, including those
life, moving immediately from the prem- sustained in forced sales of animals and
ises, disposing of large quantities of live- machinery. Representatives of the Farm
stock, farm machinery, feed, and other Bureau, the CIO Farmers Union, and
property, storing of household goods, the Farm Security Administration sup-
renting of new quarters for living, etc. ported these demands. At some projects,
All of these inconveniences are con- agents refused to countenance distur-
sidered by us."95 Whether losses were bance damages, but at others, pressure
real or fancied, there was no legal basis was so extreme that they allowed such
for such claims. The government was claims. Inclusion of disturbance items
was increasing option prices as much as
40 percent.96
92
Testimony of John J. O'Brien, 18 Mar 41. In
96
May Comm Hearings, Part 1, p. 252. (1) Memo, Constr Div OQMG for Patterson, 21
93
Gideon, Mil RE, p. 17. Mar 41. USW Files, 601 (Land Acquisition) (Dis-
94
Memo, Constr Div OQMG for Patterson, 21 turbance Damages). (2) Memo, Ringland for Rcd,
Mar 41. USW Files 601 (Land Acquisition) (Dis- 17 Oct 40. 601.1 (Kankakee OW) I. (3) Memo,
turbance Damages). Turton for Valliant, 21 Oct 40. 601. 1 (Elwood OP) I.
95
Ltr, A. J. Cockrell, Burlington, Iowa, to Valliant, (4) Memo, Chief RE Br to Chief Constr Div OQMG,
6 Dec 40. 601.1 (Iowa OP) I. 11Apr 41. Opns Br Files, House Investigation.
LAUNCHING DEFENSE CONSTRUCTION 181
Valliant took what steps he could to conclusions might be less than option
force prices down. He returned options prices would b e . . . dangerous."
containing disturbance items, unsigned. He nevertheless agreed to see the job
Valuations up to $90 an acre he usually through. In reappraising the site, Wagner
let go unchallenged, since time did not set prices at "the highest level of value
permit careful investigation of every which . . . could, in any circum-
parcel; but he checked larger claims stances, be justified."98 But Valliant
against assessments. He used various feared that these prices would be unac-
means to bring the owners around. His ceptable and established new ones aver-
agents tried persuasion and take-it-or- aging 18.5 percent above Wagner's ap-
leave-it offers. His policy was to "give praisals. Cockrell was able to renegotiate
the farmers a break," and whenever his options on this new basis, thereby
possible to let them graze cattle, cut cutting $650,000 to $700,000 from the
timber, harvest crops, and salvage im- cost of acquisition and possibly prevent-
provements after the government took ing unfortunate incidents.99
possession. Nevertheless, some owners Disappointed and worried farmers
remained obdurate. At fourteen proj- took their troubles to NDAC's Agri-
ects Valliant condemned all or part of cultural Division, bombarding Davis with
the site. Among the larger tracts taken complaints. Visits from delegations, long-
in this way were 1,678 acres for the Utah distance calls, and numerous letters
General Depot, 2,080 acres for the Den- impelled the veteran farm leader to in-
ver Ordnance Plant, 16,246 acres for vestigate. Since many of the early protests
the Fort Dix target range, and 31,600 were from the Kankakee-Elwood area,
100
acres for expansion of Fort Jackson. A he began there. By 17 October his
tense situation at the Ordnance project assistant, Ringland, had completed a re-
near Burlington, Iowa, received more port. Criticizing Raymond E. Herman,
delicate handling. Options on this site, the Chicago broker in charge of acqui-
taken by A. J. Cockrell, a local realtor sition, Ringland wrote: "A number have
working under a brokerage arrangement, complained that they were informed in
showed an overall cost of $4 million, a ruthless manner, 'You might as well
double the amount originally estimated. stop that plowing because the Govern-
Farmers in the area, having just lost a ment is going to take possession in thirty
furious fight to keep the Army out, were days.' This caused a great deal of emo-
in an ugly mood. Warned that riots tional distress and misunderstandings that
might occur if the government con- still exist." He went on to deplore Val-
demned, Valliant hired John J. Wagner liant's use of city men and Herman's
of Cedar Rapids to make an independent dealings with tenants. Calling the tenant
appraisal.97 From Burlington, Wagner
reported "that even a slight hint that our 98
Ltr, Wagner to Valliant, 13 Dec 40. 601.1.
(Iowa OP) I.
97 99
(1) Valliant's Testimony, 15 Jan 41, Exhibit B, (1) Memo, RE Br for Constr Div, 17 Feb 41.
p. 36, with Memo, TIG for USW, 19 Feb 41. IG USW Files, 601 (Land Acq). (2) Memo, RE Br for
333.9 (Jefferson Pr Grnd). (2) Valliant Interv, 11 Jun Constr Div, 4 Feb 41. 601.1 (Iowa OP) I.
100
56. (3) Real Estate PR, 21 Feb 41, pp. 26-27, 21-22, Ltr, Hutson to May, n.d., and Incls. In May
13-14. (4) 601.1 (Iowa OP) I. Comm Hearings, Part 1, pp. 252-57.
182 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
"the forgotten man," he explained: that purchase prices will include dis-
In all cases the broker has been dealing turbance damages.102 On 5 November
only with the owner, informing him that the Patterson issued a statement. The Quar-
tenant must look to the owner for the settle- termaster General would try "to secure
ment of his rights. In the purchase price, how- the good will of the community to the
ever, it has been the general practice to be maximum extent possible, consistent with
generous and to include ... an addi-
tional amount to compensate the tenant. fair prices and the availability of the
But this leaves it to the owner to decide how land at the time and in the location
much he will pass on to the tenant, and in needed," and "to cause the least hard-
some cases compensation for the tenant has ship and inconvenience." Patterson made
been forgotten completely or is quite in- no mention of brokers or disturbance
adequate . . . . Some tenants, know-
ing their rights, are ready to file suit to re- damages. In fact, he did little more than
cover adequate damages from the owner. set the War Department's seal on Colonel
103
Such action would cloud the title and make Valliant's policies.
for delay in the settlement of the project. Renewing the attack, Davis concen-
Ringland concluded by recommending, trated his fire against the brokers. Under
one, that the Army safeguard tenants' mounting pressure, Patterson turned to
interests, two, that it recognize dis- The Quartermaster General for advice.
turbance factors, and, three, that federal Early in December Gregory replied with
appraisers replace private realtors.101 a defense of the brokerage arrangement.
The first point was quickly settled. On While conceding that city brokers might
18 October Ringland, Hutson, and be unfamiliar with farm problems, he
Turton agreed to a procedure that would pointed out that they almost invariably
protect the tenants. Before taking an hired local men to help them. He went
option, Quartermaster agents would in- on to state that the brokerage system
sist that owner and tenant come to an had saved money by cutting overhead
agreement. The tenant would be paid costs from the 8 percent averaged by
his share directly, not through the owner government departments to 5 percent.
as before. But there was no accord on He further argued that because private
points two and three. On 23 October realtors did "not have to conform to
and again on the 25th, Davis brought established and sometimes time-consum-
these questions before the Advisory Com- ing practices of the Government," they
mission. With his colleagues' approval, could work more swiftly than federal
he called a conference of representatives agents. Gregory nevertheless gave ground.
from various federal land agencies and "Hereafter," he wrote, "this office will
laid his case before them. Upholding make increased use of the facilities of
Davis' views, the conferees advised the other Government agencies and will not
War Department in effect: dismiss the resort to special agents on a commis-
brokers, turn the projects over to us, and sion basis except in a very exceptional
thus ensure that owners and tenants 102
will receive sympathetic treatment and (1) Memo, Turton for Valliant, 21 Oct 40.
601.1 (Elwood OP) I. (2) Minutes of the NDAC, pp.
104, 107. (3) Incl with Ltr, Hutson to May.
101 103
Memo, Ringland for Rcd, 17 Oct 40. 601.1 Memo, Patterson for TQMG, 5 Nov 40. QM
(Kankakee OW) I. 601.1 (Misc) 1940.
LAUNCHING DEFENSE CONSTRUCTION 183
case, in which case your office will first and the Real Estate Branch went back
107
be consulted." Gregory's answer failed to rejecting damage claims.
to satisfy Patterson, who was begin- While he referred to Davis as "my bete
ning to worry on another score—that noire," Valliant had other critics to
the brokerage contracts might fall content with. Ordnance was dissatisfied
within the definition of cost-plus-a-per- with his progress. According to the com-
centage. On 26 December he prohibited manding officer, contractors at Kankakee
further use of brokers without his express had waited three weeks while the Real
104
approval. At the same time he ex- Estate Branch trifled with options. A
plained to Davis that "if real estate spokesman for General Wesson main-
agents were used on future projects the tained that slowness in obtaining land
fee would be fixed and not related to the had held up the Iowa shell loading
105
purchase price of the land." When, in plant one month. Valliant denied de-
late December, Valliant wished to hire laying construction at any project and
a private realtor for the Plum Brook stated that many difficulties were trace-
Ordnance Plant in Ohio, Patterson able to Ordnance itself. Declaring that
agreed on condition that the broker the Real Estate Branch was often the
receive a lump sum agreed to in ad- last to learn of impending projects, he
vance.106 cited the Wolf Creek plant at Milan,
Having won a partial victory in the Tennessee, as an example. Ordnance
matter of the brokers, Davis returned first requested authority to build the
to the subject of disturbance damages. plant on 14 November, but Valliant
For a time Colonel Valliant gave in to heard nothing of the matter until 27 De-
some extent, directing his agents to allow cember, when he got orders to acquire the
for tangible damages though not to tract. In the six weeks that elapsed before
itemize them in the options. Pressing he learned of Ordnance's intentions, he
his advantage, Davis next demanded might have completed preliminary
that the War Department earmark part work.108
of its next appropriation for disturbance Despite the hue and cry that accom-
payments. Valliant opposed the plan. panied acquisition, Valliant's record was
Asked for an opinion, the Attorney Gen- a creditable one. By late December 1940
eral again pointed out that Davis was on
107
shaky legal ground and suggested another (1) Incl with Ltr, Ringland to Turton, 26 Dec
approach—give the Department of Agri- 40. 601.1 I. (2) Ltr, Valliant to Ostendorf-Morris Co.,
Cleveland, Ohio, 7 Jan 41. 601.1 (Plum Brook OW)
culture relief funds to assist in the re- I. (3) Ltr, Davis to Patterson, 29 Jan 41. (4) Ltr, Asst
location of needy families. The result Atty Gen to Patterson, 27 Feb 41. (5) Ltr, Patterson
was that the farm security agency took to Davis, 6 Mar 41. Last three in USW Files, 601
(Land Acquisition). (6) Memo, RE Br for Chief
over the handling of disturbance cases Constr Div OQMG, 11 Apr 41. Opns Br Files, H
Investigation.
104 108
(1) Memo, Gregory for Patterson, 4 Dec 40. (2) (1) Valliant Interv, 11 Jun 56. (2) Memo,
Memo, Patterson for Gregory, 26 Dec 40. Both in OCofOrd Industrial Serv Faci) for TQMG, 6 Nov 40.
601.1 I. 601.1 (Kankakee OW) I. (3) Memo, Valliant for
105
Incl with Ltr, Hutson to May. Hartman, 29 Nov 40. 601.1 (Weldon Spring OW) I.
106
(1) Memo, Gregory for Patterson, 30 Dec 40. (4) Tel Conv, Maj Thomas (Ord) and Groves, 31
(2) Memo, Gregory for Patterson, 31 Dec 40, and Dec 40. Opns Br Files, Burlington OP. (5) Memo,
approval thereon. Both in 601.1 I. Valliant for Patterson, 31 Dec 40. 601.1 I.
184 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
ards. To qualify, a firm would have to work. On the 17th the members made
offer a strong, going organization backed their first recommendation—for the ar-
by the capital, experience, and key chitect-engineer contract at Springfield
personnel to complete a given project Armory. During the next few weeks
in the least possible time. Work per- they were immersed in hiring a staff of
formed over the past five years would fifteen, analyzing a continuing flood of
be an important factor; no concern could applications, and nominating contractors
qualify unless its recent volume of busi- for a handful of secondary projects, most
ness was more or less commensurate with of which were arsenal roundouts. A good
the estimated cost of the job at hand. deal of their time was taken up by com-
Current commitments would also carry pany officials who came to solicit con-
weight, for Hartman wished to prevent tracts. After talking to these visitors, the
contractors from accepting more work committee made "a very rough attempt at
than they could handle. Ideally, the firm grading them as to size, personality, and
selected would be able to grasp the re- energy." Chairman Harvey emphasized:
quirements of the project, provide an ade- "We do not reject anybody. . . .
quate force of seasoned, competent men, Every contractor—'most every contractor
anticipate problems, distinguish between at least—is qualified for something if
essentials and refinements, attain maxi- the right job should turn up."112 The
mum speed and efficiency, achieve un- real work of selection had yet to begin.
broken progress, and faithfully fulfill Since the earliest command construc-
the contract. Determined to maintain tion contracts were lump sum, they lay
absolute impartiality, Hartman made outside the committee's jurisdiction. And
it a fixed rule that representations on while the new munitions plants were
behalf of applicants by congressmen and fixed-fee propositions, Quartermaster
others would receive no weight what- participation in awarding these con-
ever. He made but one concession to tracts awaited settlement of differences
politics: other things being equal, he with Ordnance.
would draw contractors from the section In June, about the time the first de-
of the country in which the project was fense construction funds became avail-
located and preferably from the same able, the War Department had informed
state. As a matter of sound policy, he NDAC of "an internal problem between
intended to spread the work among as the Quartermaster Corps and the Ord-
many firms as possible. Except in unusual nance Division as to who should have
circumstances, the principle would apply: supervision over the building of plants."
one contract to a contractor.111 The dispute had arisen over the contract
In mid-July, the newly created Con- for the new smokeless powder factory
struction Advisory Committee got to at Charlestown, Indiana, the initial proj-
ect in the industrial preparedness pro-
111
(1) Memo, Hartman for Admin Div OQMG, 18
gram.113 Without a by-your-leave to
Jul 40. QM 400.13 (Mun Program—FY 1941). (2) Hartman, General Wesson was proceed-
Memo by Constr Adv Comm, 31 Jan 41, pp. 4-6.
112
EHD Files. (3) Final Rpt, Constr Adv Comm, 15 Testimony of Forrest S. Harvey, 12 Feb 41. In
Mar 42, pp. 3-5. EHD Files. (4) Statement of Gen May Comm Hearings, Part 1, p. 2.
113
Hartman, 5 Jul 55, p. 12. Minutes of the NDAC, p. 38.
186 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
Late in August the floodgates opened. for preferential treatment. "Political pres-
Upon passage of the National Guard sure from members of Congress to award
Act, the Construction Advisory Com- work to their constituents was a strenuous
mittee was deluged with work. During problem," General Hartman related.
the next month and a half, the com- "Furthermore, the White House almost
mittee nominated firms for sixty fixed-fee daily called on the telephone in reference
contracts, the bulk of which were for to work for specified firms."125 Observing
troop housing. Then, as the pace of camp that the placement of emergency con-
selections slackened, there came a surge tracts "was too big a thing for the poli-
of industrial jobs, followed by waves of ticians not to get mixed up in it," Dresser
replacement training centers, general exclaimed: "They were on our necks.
hospitals, and depots. Before the year Believe me, the heat was terrific."126
was out, Harvey, Blossom, and Dresser There was also plenty of heat on con-
had helped choose more than 140 con- gressmen and the President. Many,
tractors. Only rarely, as when Ordnance many firms were soliciting their help in
suggested a firm favored by one of its landing defense contracts, and as one
operators, did Hartman proceed without Representative pointed out to Harvey,
consulting the committee. The advisory "Of course, we have to run for office
127
group came into the picture when Loving and you do not." In dealing with
or Lamphere called for nominations. political requests, the Construction Di-
Guided primarily by data in their files, vision proceeded tactfully but resisted
the members first selected a number of pork-barrel contracting. Hartman in-
firms, perhaps as many as ten. A quick variably suggested that congressmen ask
investigation followed. Dun & Brad- their constituents to file formal applica-
street furnished financial reports; the tions with the Construction Advisory
Bureau of Contract Information, per- Committee. At his direction, a letter
formance ratings. Telephone inquiries went to all leading contractors, outlining
went to trade associations and profes- the method of selection and emphasizing
sional societies. Prospective contractors that there were no strings to pull. With
came in for questioning. After narrowing Patterson's help, he publicized the policy
the field to the three it believed best of giving local concerns first considera-
qualified, the committee recommended tion, a policy legislators heartily ap-
them in order of preference to General proved. A meeting at which Quarter-
Hartman. The branch chief concerned— master officers briefed congressional
Loving or Lamphere—reviewed the rec- leaders served further to clarify mis-
ommendations and made a tentative understandings. Gradually the pressure
selection. He then cleared his choice eased. Attempts to sway the committee
with Patterson's office and with NDAC, became increasingly rare.128
sending the contractor's name to 125
Statement of Gen Hartman, 5 Jul 55, p. 13.
Hartman for final approval.124 126
127
Dresser Interv, 2 Apr 57.
At first the Construction Advisory May Comm Hearings, Part I, p. 53.
128
(1) Circ, OQMG to various contractors, 15 Aug
Committee was besieged by demands 40. EHD Files. (2) Memo, Schulz for Gregory, 13
124
(1) Constr Adv Comm, Recommendations Sep 40, and related corresp. QM 600.1 (CPFF)
Book. EHD Files, (2) Memo, Constr Div OQMG (Policy) I. (3) QM 600.1 (CPFF) (Misc Corresp)
for USW, 11 Apr 41. QM 600.1 (CPFF) 1941, II. 1939-40.
LAUNCHING DEFENSE CONSTRUCTION 189
an impossible feat for most. Personality and leave the little people struggling
was another limiting factor. Some repu- to get along out in the cold."135 In the
table and well-to-do firms were passed face of numerous protests, Patterson
over because their key officials were too tightened enforcement of the local pref-
old and lacking in drive to cope with erence rule. On 13 September he told
crash deadlines. The advisory com- Hartman to get his permission before
mittee hoped to find the right contractor selecting any more out-of-state con-
for every job, but, as Harvey pointed out, cerns. Another of Hartman's informal
there was no scientific way of doing this. spread-the-work rules became War De-
"It is entirely a matter of judgment," partment policy in November, when
he said, "as to who will serve the Govern- Patterson directed him to choose no con-
ment best."132 tractor for a second job if other compe-
Determined to take no chances that tent firms were available and, when
might jeopardize success, the committee repeat contracts were necessary, to select
sought top-grade talent for the initial only organizations that had completed
camp projects. In states, such as Califor- previous assignments in a highly com-
nia, Texas, Illinois, Pennsylvania, and mendable way.136
New York, which abounded in first rate Meanwhile the advisory committee
contractors, they had no difficulty pick- found ways to broaden the basis of
ing local outfits. But in some areas of eligibility. During September it began
intensive camp construction, particu- performing "shotgun marriages," nam-
larly in the South, they encountered ing several medium-sized concerns to
a shortage of qualified concerns. As a act as joint venturers. Two Atlanta
result, a number of early projects went to firms teamed up to build Camp Stewart,
distant firms with wide experience and Georgia, and two companies from Mem-
ample resources.133 Harvey defended the phis undertook construction at Camp
selection of Starrett Brothers and Eken Forrest, Tennessee. To make these com-
of New York as constructors for binations doubly strong, the committee
Camp Blanding, Florida, stating that pooled specialists—utilities experts,
"$10,000,000 to be done in three months earthmovers, and the like—with general
looked like a whale of a job, and we were contractors. "What we needed," said
scared to death to put anybody on it Dresser, "was reserve power, so that
134
but pretty big contractors." Although one thing going wrong wouldn't upset
137
the committee justified choices of this the whole job." Still there was much
kind, local interests complained bitterly. risk involved, for if the partners proved
One Alabama congressman upbraided to be incompatible, the project was sure
the War Department for pursuing a to suffer. The committee went as far
policy which seemed "to take care of the with this method as it dared, employing
big people, make the big still bigger, it during 1940 on some thirty-eight con-
132
Harvey's Testimony, 12, 13 Feb 41. In May
135
Comm Hearings, Part 1, pp. 8, 13, 44, 2, 27. May Comm Hearings, Part 1, p. 50.
133 136
OQMG, Constr Contracts Awarded or Ap- (1) Memo, Schulz for TQMG, 13 Sep 40. QM
proved, 12 Nov 41. 600.1 (CPFF) (Policy) I. (2) Final Rpt, Constr Adv
134
Harvey's Testimony, 25 Apr 41. In Truman Comm, 15 Mar 42, p. 3. EHD Files.
137
Comm Hearings, Part 1, p. 335. Dresser Interv, 2 Apr 57.
LAUNCHING DEFENSE CONSTRUCTION 191
tracts, including two dozen for camp and construction of these installations
construction and engineering work.138 the Army had to rely almost entirely
The Assignment of Claims Act, approved on a few industrial specialists centered
on 9 October, altered the situation more in the metropolitan areas of Cleveland,
profoundly. Under its provisions, a con- Detroit, Chicago, Los Angeles, Boston,
tractor could, to use Harvey's expres- and New York and the engineering de-
sion, "hock his contract at the bank and partments of such corporations as Du
borrow money on it."139 Many competent Pont and Hercules.
firms whose limited assets had heretofore To make certain completed plants
barred them from consideration were would be acceptable to operators, the
now in the running for camp contracts. Construction Division usually followed
The magnitude of industrial projects their recommendations. For example,
and the complexity of the manufacturing at the suggestion of the Proctor & Gamble
processes involved precluded wide dis- Defense Corporation, the committee se-
tribution of munitions work. True, the lected the H. K. Ferguson Company of
Quartermaster Corps succeeded, to some Cleveland to design the Wolf Creek
extent, in awarding the less challenging shell loading plant near Milan, Ten-
loading and small arms ammunition nessee, and to act in combination with
plants to regional concerns and to com- a local road builder as constructor. Oc-
binations of local firms with companies casionally, Quartermaster contracts went
of national reputation. In cases of this to the operator himself. In September,
kind, the committee exercised utmost when the time came to place agreements
care. Reviewing the selection of four for the shell loading plant at Elwood,
constructors for the Hoosier Ordnance Illinois, Ordnance requested that the
Plant, Harvey said: "As to a camp if you operator, Sanderson & Porter, also serve
make a mistake it is not so terribly vital, as architect-engineer and builder.
but as to an ammunition plant it is ex- Hartman agreed and thus bypassed the
tremely vital that it be handled properly. advisory committee—a circumstance
For that reason we thought we should which later had the unanticipated re-
get all of the powerful companies we sult of clearing Mr. Blossom of any
could find that were not already en- connection with the award to his
gaged in that type of work."140 Enlisting own company. Similarly, Day &
contractors for Ordnance chemical and Zimmermann of Philadelphia, who
explosives works was the hardest task were to operate another shell loader,
of all. Because there had been no proj- the Iowa Ordnance Plant, were named,
ects of the kind in the United States since in this case by the committee, to design
World War I, only a handful of experi- the installation. Hard pressed to find
enced men were available. For design industrial engineers, and generally at
the insistence of the using service, the
138
Constr Adv Comm, Recommendations Book. division accepted several firms for second
EHD Files. or third contracts. Smith, Hinchman
139
(1) 54 Stat. 1029. (2) May Comm Hearings, and Grylls, especially qualified by their
Part 1, p. 16. (3) OQMG Circ Ltr 92, 7 Nov 40.
OCE Legal Div Lib. long experience with plants in the Detroit
140
May Comm Hearings, Part 1, p. 3. area, designed two of the early small
192 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
the jobs were necessarily vague. Loving construction. Contractors would re-
and the others usually knew what types ceive a fee for their services and reim-
of buildings were to be built, how much bursement for virtually all expenditures
money was budgeted for a project, the except interest, off-site overhead, and
number of men to be housed at a given company officials' salaries. The govern-
camp, and the planned daily output of ment reserved the right to terminate the
147
a particular munitions plant. Beyond this, contracts at any time and for any cause.
they had little specific information. In the A noteworthy feature of the fixed-fee
absence of detailed site surveys, they construction agreement was a provision
knew almost nothing "as to the actual that bound the contractors to lease their
extent of utilities to be constructed or the equipment to the government. Rents
conditions under which the work would would follow a schedule prepared by
be undertaken, that is, whether rock Loving and endorsed by the AGC. Be-
would be encountered, or quicksand and cause contractors were supposed to de-
water, or good clay."146 Contractors rive profits solely from their fees, the
would find out what was what only after schedule was designed to reimburse them
they took over the projects. As far as for the costs of ownership only, that is,
difficulty and extent of work was con- for insurance, taxes, and depreciation.
cerned, the Construction Division of- To protect its equity in leased equip-
fered them a blind bargain. ment, the Construction Division inserted
Agreement on terms was more or less a recapture clause into the contracts.
a routine affair, since the contracts fol- This clause provided that title would
lowed standard forms. Among other pass to the government when accrued
things, building contractors agreed to rentals equaled the value of a machine
start work immediately, maintain a re- plus one percent for each month used.
sponsible resident manager at the site, Upon completion of a project, the govern-
use the best available labor and ma- ment would have the right to recapture
terials, incorporate into the project any additional pieces of equipment by paying
materials furnished by the government, the difference between accrued rentals
keep complete records and accounts which and value, plus the one percent per
would be open to inspection at all times, month.148
take advantage of all discounts, rebates, In their talks with contractors, Loving
and salvages, and do everything neces- and Lamphere tried to reach under-
sary to complete the job in an acceptable standings on matters not covered by
manner and with all possible speed. Un- written agreements. They questioned
der the terms of their contracts, archi- each constructor as to how he would
tect-engineers pledged to run surveys, equip and organize his project, how many
draw maps, make layouts, prepare es- key men he would assign, what parts
timates, adapt standard plans to the 147
sites, design structures for which no (1) CPFF Form 1, approved by the ASW,
12 Jul 40. (2) CPFF Form, Architect-Engineer
typical drawings existed, and supervise Svcs (1940).
148
(1) CPFF Form 1, approved by the ASW, 12
146
Jul 40, art. II, par. 2. (2) Constr Div OQMG,
Loving's Testimony, 25 Apr 41. In Truman Contractors Equip Rental Schedule, Jul 40. 481
Comm Hearings, Part 1, p. 342. Part 1.
194 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
of the work he would sublet, and whether construction work must not exceed 10
he would run an open or a closed shop. percent of estimated cost. On 28 June
They asked each architect-engineer who 1940 Congress reduced the allowance
his top men on the job would be, how for construction services to 7 percent.
large a staff he expected to hire, whether Two months later it adopted a 6-percent
he would farm out any of the planning to limitation on constructors' fees, which
other professional concerns, and how he remained in effect throughout the war.
proposed to co-ordinate his work with Although Congress insisted that fees
that of the constructor. They also tried be set at the time of award and adjusted
to familiarize contractors with the prob- only when there was a substantial change
lems ahead. For example, Loving told in the scope of the contract, it prescribed
151
representatives of Starrett Brothers and no formula for determining them.
Eken, "You undoubtedly know and Shortly after Loving joined the di-
realize that there is tremendous pressure vision, Hartman told him to be guided
being brought from all localities to uti- by a schedule of minimum construction
lize . . . local talent . . . ." fees developed by the Hogan committee
He advised the New York firm to give and approved by ANMB. This schedule
Florida men "first consideration" for established a graduated scale, the fee
subcontracts at Camp Blanding.149 But, percentage decreasing as the estimated
because they recognized that contrac- cost increased. (Table 5) Thus, a one-
tors must be free to make decisions on million-dollar contract would pay at
the job, the negotiators did not ask for least 5.24 percent, while the minimum
solemn commitments on such questions. for a 20-million-dollar job would come
Nor did they try to dictate methods and to 2.5 percent. As the Hogan group
procedures. "As a matter of fact," pointed out, cost was only one measure
Loving explained, "we selected these of a project's scope. Recognizing that
men because we had confidence in their some projects would require a longer
experience and ability to organize the time to complete, greater resources, and
job, and we didn't feel it incumbent more highly specialized management
upon us to tell them exactly what they than others, Hartman and Loving
should do. We felt we were hiring them adopted a scale of maximum fees, rang-
150
to tell us what to do." ing up to 20 percent higher than the
Negotiations frequently hinged on ANMB minimums. Meanwhile, after
questions of fee. The upward limits were consulting the American Society of Civil
prescribed by law. The Act of August 7, Engineers and studying the general fee
1939, permanently established the maxi- practices of federal, state, and municipal
mum payment for architect-engineer agencies, Hartman drew up a schedule
services at 6 percent of estimated cost. for architect-engineers. (Table 6) These
This statute also provided that fees for fees were average rather than minimum.
Lamphere was to pay more for compli-
149
Transcript of Negotiations Between Reps of cated work and less for simple, but to
Constr Div and Starrett Bros and Eken, 8 Sep 40.
Opns Br Files, Confs. 151
150
20 May 1941. In Truman Comm Hearings, (1) 53 Stat. 1239. (2) 54 Stat. 676. (3) 54 Stat.
Part 4, p. 1004. 881.
LAUNCHING DEFENSE CONSTRUCTION 195
Source: Memo, Hogan Comm, 19 Jun 40, sub: FF Constr Contract. ANMB 334 Comm Members and Min.
keep within 20 percent of the scheduled all equipment, procure all materials,
152
fees. finance all costs, and perform all work
Before making an offer, Quartermaster not normally subcontracted. For any-
negotiators considered the type of proj- thing short of complete service, Loving
ect involved and the extent of the services made appropriate reductions. Lamphere
to be rendered by the contractor. In used a similar procedure in appraising
figuring compensation for relatively sim- professional services. He, too, set fatter
ple, short-term jobs, such as camps and fees for tougher jobs and paid maximum
hospitals, Loving adhered rather closely rates only to architect-engineers who did
to the minimum schedule for construc- complete design, made all surveys and
tion work. His offers for TNT, smokeless investigations, helped place orders and
powder, and other complex manufac- subcontracts, and supervised construc-
turing plants approached maximum tion.153
rates. Projects of intermediate difficulty, Contractors displayed mixed reactions
such as depots, arsenals, and ammuni- to Construction Division proposals. Some
tion plants, commanded fees about mid- were "satisfied thoroughly," but many
way between the minimum and maxi- protested that their fees were too low. A
mum scales. The amount of responsi- number pointed out that profits on de-
bility a contractor would assume weighed fense work would compare unfavorably
heavily in Loving's computations. He with earnings on ordinary commercial
gave the top fee for a project of any given ventures.154 Offered $268,298, or 3.5
type and cost to contractors who would percent, for the Blanding job, Andrew
render "complete service." Thus the 153
(1) Loving's Testimony, 25 Apr 41. In Truman
largest fees, in terms of percentage, went Comm Hearings, Part 1, pp. 348-49. (2) Rpt, Ac-
to contractors who agreed to furnish tivities of Constr Div, Jul 40-Nov 41, pp. 74-75. (3)
OCE, Contract Negotiation Manual (Rev 1943),
pp. 7-8. EHD Files.
152 154
(1) Loving, Hist of FF Br, p. 10. (2) Rpt, Loving's Testimony, 25 Apr 41. In Truman
Activities of Constr Div, Jul 40-Jul 41, p. 106. Comm Hearings, Part 1, pp. 349-51.
196 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
J. Eken said, "Well, I don't consider gineers were far more attractive to those
3.5 percent a very luscious fee. On the with less impressive qualifications. In
other hand, we are down here not just fact, there were plenty of firms willing
for business but also we sincerely want to work for smaller profits. But Hartman
to do our part." He accepted the propo- was not looking for cut-rate talent. He
sition but reminded Loving, "I still say realized that efficient contractors were
that is a darned low fee."155 Others were worth their hire, that money spent for
less amenable than the president of good management was never wasted.
Starrett Brothers and Eken. "We have in His attitude was summed up in a state-
several instances had to talk to them ment of the Hogan committee:
rather plainly," Loving disclosed, "that
The Government as owner is far less in-
we thought they were making their con- terested in the amount of the fee paid to
tribution to national defense, toward pre- these agencies than in the savings that can
serving the market for free enterprise be effected in the actual work by proper de-
as we have known it in the past."156 sign and proper supervision. These amounts
Although contractors frequently com- far outweigh the combined fees on any
work . . . . Furthermore, competi-
plained that the Construction Division tion in fees does not necessarily produce the
drove hard bargains, they nevertheless best and most trustworthy engineer or con-
accepted its offers. tractor. Partners 157cannot be selected on a
In choosing the cream of the building competitive basis.
industry, Hartman selected contractors
Although prominent, gilt-edge con-
who normally set a high price on their
services. Fees barely acceptable to top- cerns were the mainstay of defense con-
struction, little fellows also had a part.
notch constructors and architect-en-
During the early months of the program,
155 fixed-price contracts made the talents
Transcript of Negotiations between Reps of
Constr Div and Starrett Bros and Eken, 8 Sep 40.
156 157
25 Apr 41. In Truman Comm Hearings, Part 1, Ltr, Hogan Comm to Patterson, 30 Jan 41.
p.350. 600.1 Part 8.
LAUNCHING DEFENSE CONSTRUCTION 197
Source: Memos and Incls, BOWD for Chiefs Estimating Agencies, 23 and 26 Sep 40. AG 111(9-24-38) (1) Sec 3.
reflected Marshall's anxiety over the low day appropriations became available,
state of the country's defenses. With the Hartman had from one week to three
Army numbering about 270,000 men, months to ready camps for the Guard
a big increase in personnel was impera- divisions. (Table 7) He also had to ac-
tive. Slashing Hartman's estimate, commodate 132 nondivisional militia
Marshall allowed but two or three months units of battalion size or under—22 of
for camp construction instead of three or them in September, 9 in October, 54 in
four. Going still further, he resorted to November, and 47 in December. The
a risky expedient. To hasten the calling schedule for inducting the draftees in-
of the Guard, he decided to place some troduced additional complications. Be-
units in temporary tent camps pending tween 15 October and 15 January the
3
completion of winter quarters. fall quota of 400,000 selectees would go
The original timetable for housing into Regular Army and Guard units.
Guardsmen and selectees was a construc- Regulars and Guardsmen could rough it
tion man's nightmare. The schedule for for a time, using field tents and latrines.
the Guard camps was particularly rig- But, Congress made it clear, draftees
orous. Counting from 9 September, the could not. Snug barracks, toilets, showers,
heating, and electric lights would have
3
(1) Memo, G-3 for CofS, 14 Aug 40. (2) Ltr and to be available when they arrived. In
Incls, BOWD to Chiefs of Estimating Agencies, 26
Aug 40. Both in AG 111 (9-24-38) (1) Sec 3. (3) other words, camps would have to be
Memo, G-4 for G—1, 28 Aug 40. G-4/31948. virtually completed. The plan for in-
200 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
ducting the spring quota of selectees generals, Marshall wrote question marks
would force the Quartermaster Corps beside entry dates for some of the Guard
to build under most adverse conditions. divisions. Still, pressure on Hartman did
To be called between 1 April and 15 not abate. He could not safely assume
June 1941, the 400,000 men of this that Marshall would postpone calls to
second levy would, with few exceptions, any Guard divisions. Nor could he get
go directly to replacement training cen- additional time to prepare housing for
ters. Slated to begin in October and the draftees. Reybold, knowing it would
November, construction of these centers be difficult and costly for a contractor
would span the winter months when first to build for a peace strength division
outdoor work normally was suspended.4 of 13,000 Guardsmen and then, after
Although Marshall eased induction these troops moved in, to work for
schedules slightly, he made no corre- several months expanding facilities to
sponding changes in construction dead- take the 5,000 draftees who would bring
lines. The Selective Service Act provided the division to war strength, ruled out
that the first "goldfish bowl" drawing such "piecemeal construction." The date
would not take place until 16 October Guardsmen were slated to arrive was,
1940 and the first draftees would not in most instances, the completion date
report before 15 November. Marshall for the entire camp.5
revised the schedule for the fall quota Despite the extreme demands made
of selectees accordingly. (Table 8) Reports upon him, General Hartman appeared
from corps areas indicated that lack of
5
shelter might delay certain Guard induc- (1) Watson, Chief of Staff, p. 204. (2) Notes
tions. On advice from the commanding of Confs in OCofS, 29, 30 Aug 40. (3) Notes of Conf
in Office DCofS, 6 Sep 40. Both in OCS, Misc Confs,
20 May to 25 Sep 40. (4) Memo, SGS for G-4, 30
4
Memo, G-3 for Marshall, 14 Aug 40. G-4/31453- Aug 40. G-4/31948. (5) Memo, Reybold for Mar-
shall, 30 Aug 40. G-4/31735-1.
THE FIRST CAMPS 201
SCQM's could be added and, if need be, the organization included some who were
whole new lettered sections formed. not so well qualified. The general short-
Hartman gave the Fixed Fee Branch a age of construction specialists prevented
critical assignment. It would direct all Loving from filling all openings with
fixed-fee forces in the field. It would experienced men.
serve as his principal inspection agency. Much depended on Quartermaster
Most important, it would be accountable forces in the field. On fixed-fee projects
for the progress, quality, and cost of the position of Constructing Quarter-
every fixed-fee project.8 master was a demanding one. Limited
Like Whitson in 1917, Loving as- only by general instructions from Wash-
sembled an organization of experienced ington, the CQM was responsible for the
construction men. Totaling about one conduct of his job. He dealt with local
hundred persons by 1 November, his staff commanders, coordinated efforts of the
included but one Quartermaster Regu- constructor and architect-engineer, ap-
lar, Captain Kirkpatrick. The others proved all purchases and subcontracts,
came from civil life. Robert L. Totten and had charge of reimbursing con-
was a prominent civil and mining en- tractors for their expenditures. He had to
gineer. Francis J. O'Brien had been a submit regular progress reports to Hart-
top engineer in the Tennessee Valley man and advise him immediately if
Authority. Lacy Moore had been en- normal purchasing procedures seemed
gineer of construction for the Southern likely to break down or other troubles
Railway System. Frank R. Creedon had threatened. He had to employ every
been assistant regional PWA director means to complete the project within the
in New York City. Sperl, who became funds and time allotted. To carry out his
Loving's principal troubleshooter, had assignment, the CQM needed a compe-
served in a similar capacity in World tent staff of commissioned officers and a
War I. Of the officers, all except large number of trained employees.9
Kirkpatrick had come from the Reserve Among Hartman's CQM's, Reservists
Corps or had received direct commis- outnumbered Regulars five to one. Ex-
sions. Before joining Loving, Capt. cept for a dozen or so retained at central
Robert L. Richardson was an equipment headquarters, virtually all of his career
dealer and designer, Maj. Maurice W. officers were in the field. The ablest and
Cochran was a successful highway en- most experienced headed Vicinity of-
gineer and contractor, and Maj. Chester fices or directed key jobs. The rest had
J. Clark was an industrial construction charge of lesser projects or served as
man who had superintended plant proj- assistants. Other Quartermaster Regu-
ects for General Motors and U. S. Rub- lars, experts in supply and transporta-
ber. Highly qualified men occupied tion with some background in post
many subordinate positions. Of course, maintenance, served as construction
officers. Ordnance officers became Con-
8
(1) OQMG Office Order 29A, 15 Jun 40. QM
9
020 (Constr). (2) Tab, Constr Div OQMG, 1 Nov OQMG Manual, Supplement to Guide for
40, sub: Civ Pers, Washington and Vicinity. Opns CQM's, Rev 1940, Covering FF Projects, 27 Aug 40.
Br Files, Pers. EHD Files.
204 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
Source: Memo, OQMG Constr Div for Admin Div, 14 Dec 40. QM 326.21—Assignment of Reserve Officers for Active Duty.
Civil Service rule that employees must the best architectural, engineering, and
be drawn from lists of eligibles. These construction firms available, he gave
lists yielded few persons with the re- them a large measure of independence.
quired skills. Repeated complaints from Constructing Quartermasters got orders
the field at length caused Gregory to "to go the contractor's way, so long as
appeal to Commissioner Arthur S. Flem- fundamental laws are not violated and
ming, who agreed to relax the rule; but the Government's interests are pro-
district offices of the Civil Service, pre- tected." In a circular to the field,
sumably misled by the vague language Kirkpatrick summed up the attitude of
of the commission's directives, refused the Construction Division:
to change their methods. When Con- The contractors selected to cooperate with
structing Quartermasters continued to the Government and contribute their re-
complain, Gregory asked the commission sources, experience, and skill toward the ac-
to step aside and let Hartman do his complishment of the projects include in their
own hiring. Flemming refused but made organizations men of unquestionable in-
concessions. He agreed to send a special tegrity and patriotism. Their success in the
commercial world establishes their abilities.
representative to every new project with Their judgment along the lines of their quali-
orders to fill all jobs immediately with or fications is entitled to the highest of faith and
without benefit of Civil Service registers. credit. The monetary compensation they will
He also agreed that a Constructing receive is comparatively modest as indicated
Quartermaster might, in the absence of a by the fees allowed. The general intent of
the special legislation, the negotiations there-
special representative, hire whomever he under, and the contracts is clearly that the
wished with assurance of the commission's contractors shall be made whole for their
eventual approval. Put into practice late out-of-pocket expenditures . . . . A n y
in September, the new system virtually action which conforms 13to such general intent
eliminated delays in hiring. But it could is entitled to approval.
not supply a full, competent staff for Although fixed-fee agreements gave
every project. The nationwide shortage Hartman "power of the purse" over
of experienced personnel, the compara- his contractors, he did not wish to use
tively low level of government salaries, that power to dictate working methods
the lack of adequate housing near proj- to leading architect-engineers and con-
ect sites, the brief duration of most con- structors.
struction jobs—these difficulties severely
12
handicapped the work. Preliminary Work at Camp Sites
Hartman entrusted the main work of
construction not to the Quartermaster Contractors took on their assignments,
field but to contractors. Having hired determined to succeed. The AGC pledged
its members to do all that was asked of
12
them and more.14 Company officials
(1) CSC Circ Ltr 2990, 15 Aug 40. EHD Files.
(2) OQMG Circ Ltr 69, 16 Sep 40. EHD files. (3) 13
Ltr, Flemming to Patterson, 24 Sep 40. (4) CSC OQMG Constr Div FF Ltr 5, 7 Oct 40. See
Circ Ltr 3045, 26 Sep 40. Last two in Opns Br Files, also Constr Div OQMG, Supplemental Guide for
Pers, Dec 40-Apr 41. (5) Memo, Maj S. P. Simpson, CQM's, 27 Aug 40, p. 4; Constr Div OQMG FF
OASW, for ASW, 12 Nov 40. Madigan Files, 100.3 Ltrs 1, 24 Sep 40, and 9, 15 Oct 40.
14
FF Br, Constr Div—Orgn. The Constructor, July 1940, p. 51.
206 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
RAILROAD BRIDGE OVER BIG PINEY RIVER, CAMP LEONARD WOOD, MISSOURI
The only practical solution was to extend They demanded authority to approve
the camp in a straight line for three and or disapprove layouts, and General
one-half miles along the bottom of the Moore gave it to them. Hartman pro-
slope. To cite another example, at San tested strongly but in vain. Henceforth,
Luis Obispo, California, where a hilly commanders had the power to overrule
reservation hugged the Coastal Range, professional engineers and construction
regimental areas had to be scattered to officers. Some commanders used this
take advantage of stretches of relatively power to insist on layouts which offered
flat ground. Even this arrangement re- minor training advantages, enhanced
quired removal of two million cubic the beauty of the camps, or favored
yards of earth.21 Finally, there was the long-range interests of the National
problem of military commanders versus Guard, but which ignored sound en-
construction specialists. gineering principles. At Meade, Edwards,
By the late summer of 1940 corps area Forrest, Blanding, and several other key
commanders had become virtual dic- projects, plans imposed by corps area
tators in matters of layout. In June commanders greatly increased construc-
General Moore had decided that, in tion costs and hindered progress.22
order to save time, questions of layout Major Groves, making his rounds of
would be settled on the spot. Accord- the projects, was struck not so much by
ingly, Hartman told his Constructing the commanders' neglect of engineering
Quartermasters to confer with local factors as by their inability to appreciate
commanders and try to satisfy their re- end-use requirements. At Camp Shelby,
quirements. As soon as a tentative lay- Mississippi, he saw a layout which placed
out was ready, construction would be- units a long way from maneuver areas.
gin. The plan would then come to the If this plan went through, many hours of
Construction Division for review and training time would be lost in moving
approval. Under this arrangement, com- men back and forth. At Camp Bowie,
manders had their way much of the Texas, he learned that, for no apparent
time, for Regular major and lieutenant reason, the warehouse area was to be
generals headed corps areas, while cap- outside the camp proper. At Fort Ord,
tains, majors, and lieutenant colonels, California, he found that the layout
many of them Reservists, served as allowed almost no room for expansion.
Constructing Quartermasters. Still the The same was true of other projects in
corps area commanders were dissatisfied. the Ninth Corps Area. In fact, some bat-
talion areas at San Luis Obispo were so
21 small that buildings already authorized
(1) Rpt, Slaughter, Saville & Blackburn, Inc.,
to Chief Constr Div OQMG, 13 Jan 41, Analysis of
22
Deficiencies on Lump Sum and FF Contracts for (1) WD Ltr AG 600.12 (6-15-40) M-D-M,
Constr, pp. 5-6, 11-12. EHD Files. Cited hereinafter 15 Jun 40, sub: WD Constr Policy. G-4/31751. (2)
as Slaughter, Saville & Blackburn Rpt. (2) Rpt, Memo, Moore for Hartman, 15 Jul 40. 652 (Ft
Constr Div OQMG, n.d., Explanation of Increased Knox) I. (3) Ltr, Constr Div to CQM Ft Lewis, 10
Costs at Indiantown Gap. Opns Br Files, Loose Jul 40. 652 (Ft Lewis) I. (4) TWX, TAG to CG
Papers. (3) Memo, TIG for CofS, 18 Nov 40. Opns Ninth Corps Area, 25 Jul 40. 652 (Ft Ord) I. (5)
Br Files, IG Rpts. (4) Ltr, CQM Cp San Luis Memo, Lump Sum Br for Hartman, 3 Oct 40, and
Obispo to TQMG, 19 Feb 41. 600.94 (San Luis notation thereon. Opns Br Files, Rpts of Insp. (6)
Obispo). Statement of Gen Hartman, 5 Jul 55, p. 9.
210 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
could not be squeezed into them. Largely layouts. Camps designed in the summer
because of Groves' efforts these mistakes and fall of 1940 functioned effectively
were corrected before construction be- as training centers throughout the war.
gan. That such mistakes occurred at all Some of them served as models in sub-
was, in his opinion, a strong argument for sequent planning. Produced by engi-
centralized control.23 neers of the J. B. McCrary Corporation,
Handicapped as they were, the Quar- who had only the typical for an Infantry
termaster Corps and its engineering con- brigade to guide them, the layout for
tractors did a commendable job with Camp Stewart, Georgia, influenced the
design of later antiaircraft firing centers.
23
(1) Memos, Groves for Gregory, 9 Sep 40, 12 The armored division camp at Fort
Aug 40, 1 Oct 40, 30 Aug 40. Opns Br Files, Rpts of Benning, laid out by the CQM, Lt. Col.
Insp. (2) Groves Comments, VI, 3-4. (3) Memo, James R. Alfonte, with the help of tank
Groves for Gregory, 28 Oct 40. Opns Br Files,
Convention in Chicago. (4) Ltr, Groves to OCMH, 22 corps officers, became the prototype for
Jul 55. projects of its kind. Frequently cited as
THE FIRST GAMPS 211
the ideal layout, the plan for Camp had authority to approve minor changes,
Robinson, Arkansas, became a widely but they had to clear major ones by tele-
used model. Black & Veatch, the archi- phone or telegraph with Washington.
tect-engineers, had laid out Camp Pike Hartman warned architect-engineers to
at the same location during World War forget perfection. Their principal goal,
I. Noteworthy features of their plan for as he defined it, was not quality but
25
Robinson included a compact arrange- speed.
ment of regimental areas; short roads That much sound planning could be
and utilities lines; a centrally located accomplished swiftly was demonstrated
storage depot; and an unusually good at Camp Edwards by the firm of Charles
concept for landscaping and site develop- T. Main. Colonel Gunby, a director of
ment. Other first-rate plans, particularly the company, was the project's chief
those for Bowie, Custer, and Shelby, engineer. On 12 September, the same
helped point the way to solutions of trou- day the contract was signed, he moved
blesome layout problems.24 to the site with his key men and set up
Once they had layouts under way, offices in barracks belonging to the
architect-engineers fell to work on struc- Massachusetts National Guard. He ra-
tural plans and blueprints. It was a big pidly increased his staff to 300 men.
undertaking. Camp Edwards, a can- Pushing work at top speed, he made a
tonment, had 1,400 buildings. Including few desirable changes in Quartermaster
tent frames, Camp Livingston had nearly typicals; for example, he relocated hot
9,000. And buildings were but part of air ducts to reduce fuel requirements and
the job. Architect-engineers also had to redesigned foundations to cut down on
plan water, gas, and electric lines; sani- excavation. He turned the revised typi-
tary sewers and sewage disposal plants; cals over to the Walsh Construction
and streets, roads, and railroads. Only Company, whose draftsmen assembled
by adhering closely to the Quartermaster all details for a given building on a sin-
typicals could they possibly accomplish gle sheet. After checking these sheets,
all this work within the allotted time. Gunby sent them to his blueprint de-
Hartman's orders to them emphasized partment, which worked around the
this fact. In adapting standard plans clock to supply construction foremen
to the locale, they were to recommend with working drawings. To expedite
changes that would expedite construc- planning of communications and utilities
tion, but to avoid drastic, wholesale re- systems, he called in expert consultants.
visions. Such alterations as were neces- So rapid was Gunby's progress that work-
sary had to be made quickly. CQM's men started pouring foundations on 18
September. Moreover, his plans were
24
(1) Memo, Groves for Chief Engrg Br, 10 May
41. Opns Br Files, Cps & Cantons, (2) Truman
25
Comm Rpt 480, Part 2, p. 15. (3) Rpt, OTIG to (1) Rpt, Activities of Constr Div, Jul 40-Nov 41,
TIG, 21 Oct 40. Opns Br Files, IG Rpts. (4) Memo, pp. 148, 164. (2) Circ, Constr Div OQMG, 28 Sep
Groves for Gregory, 31 Oct 40. Opns Br Files, Con- 40, Exterior Utilities. EHD Files. (3) Ltr, Nurse to
vention in Chicago. (5) Black & Veatch, Cp Robin- CQM Cp Forrest, 27 Sep 40, sub: Instrs and Data
son, Ark., Landscape Development Plan, Nov 40. for A-E's. 652 (Cp Forrest) Part 1. (4) Constr Div
Opns Br Files, Land Dev Plan. OQMG CPFF Ltrs 1, 24 Sep 40, and 9, 16 Oct 40.
212 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
so well suited for defense construction were soon keeping pace with construc-
27
that the Army later reproduced them tors.
26
for use at other projects. Inexperienced Constructing Quarter-
For many architect-engineers the going masters, like architect-engineers un-
was hard at first. Some started their versed in emergency methods, were apt
projects with insufficient knowledge of to make mistakes. In the interest of
what they were to do. At Camp Shelby speed, project officers had assumed an
the firm of Lockwood-Greene, confused important role in planning. How far
as to its duties, made a weak beginning. typicals would be altered was largely up
Sent to investigate, Sperl found a small to them. It was a test of their firmness
group reproducing Quartermaster typi- and good judgment, for local command-
cals, while construction forces marked ers besieged them with demands for
time waiting for layouts and working better facilities and architect-engineers
drawings. No member of the firm was attempted to embellish the Quarter-
there to take charge. When Sperl ex- master's simple designs. Awed by the
plained what needed to be done, three commanders' rank, impressed by the
officials of Lockwood-Greene hastened engineers' professional standing, uncer-
to the scene, bringing reinforcements tain of their own authority, many of the
with them. The building contractor, the new construction officers failed to en-
J. A. Jones Construction Company, force mobilization standards strictly. An
pitched in and helped the engineers. elaborate road net at Camp Bowie and
Soon the job was humming. At other costly utilities lines at Fort Riley were
projects the story was much the same. conspicuous instances of overdesign.28
The work was more complicated and At Camps Livingston and Claiborne,
extensive than the architect-engineers Hartman's temporary designs under-
had anticipated. For example, Koch & went such radical changes that, in
Fowler arrived at Camp Bowie believing the words of one inspector, there
that architectural work had been vir- remained "nothing of a temporary
tually completed by Lamphere and his nature about the camps, except the
aides only to find that, because of a de-
cision to heat with Texas natural gas
instead of coal, building plans had to 27
be revised. In their early phases, proj- (1) TWX, Gregory to CQM Cp Shelby, 21
Sep 40. 652 (Cp Shelby) I. (2) Sperl Interv, 18 Jun
ects were frequently delayed for lack of 56; Kirkpatrick Interv, 4 Apr 51. (3) Memo, Groves
plans, but such delays were usually of for Gregory, 1 Oct 40. QM 333.1 1939-40. (4) Ltr,
short duration. Displaying the abilities Maj John A. Hunt, IGD, to OTIG, 5 Oct 40. G-
4/31735 Sec II. (5) Compl Rpt, Gp Bowie, pp. 2,
that had won them their contracts, ar- B1-B2. (6) Memo, FF Br for Hartman, 29 Oct 40.
chitect-engineers quickly mastered the QM 600.914.
28
techniques of emergency design and (1) Ltr, Lump Sum Br to CQM Cp Bowie, 21
Dec 40. 652 (Gp Bowie) I. (2) Ltr, ZCQM Chicago
to TQMG, 28 Jan 41. 652 (Cp Grant) I. (3) Compl
Rpt, Cp Callan, 30 Aug 41, p. 9. (4) Memo, TIG
26
(1) Compl Rpt, F. M. Gunby, 4 Jun 41, A-E's for CofS, 23 Oct 40. Opns Br Files, IG Rpts. (5) Ltr,
Rpt on Gp Edwards. (2) Memo, Tatlow for Rcd, 9 Long-Manhattan-Watson, Ft Riley, Kans., to H
Nov 40. QM 333.1 (Cp Edwards) 1940. (3) Ltr, Comm on Mil Affs, 31 May 41. Opns Br Files, Loose
Walsh Constr Go. to Sperl, 13 Aug 56. EHD Files. papers.
THE FIRST CAMPS 213
tentage . . . ."29 Countless other construction materials were particularly
deviations occurred. Fortunately most critical. The quantities were huge and
of them were slight. Given the speed of the need was immediate. Most impor-
the program and the inexperience of tant of all building materials was lum-
many Constructing Quartermasters, ber. Cement, plumbing and electrical
there was little Hartman could do to supplies, and fixed equipment for heating
improve control over planning in the plants, kitchens, laundries, and bakeries
field. also bulked large. A host of other ma-
While waiting for plans, construction terials—roofing, pipe, sand, gravel, glass,
contractors prepared to build. Skeleton nails, paint, and so forth—went into the
staffs from their home offices got pre- building of a camp. Much depended on
liminaries under way. Personnel men timely procurement. A shortage of any
interviewed applicants, surveyed workers' item might upset completion schedules.
housing, and arranged transportation to A failure in the lumber supply would be
and from the projects. Superintendents calamitous.
formed crews to clear and drain the land, Conditions in the lumber market
stake out supply roads, and erect tem- threatened serious trouble. A shortage
porary office buildings, storage sheds, and seemed inevitable unless mills increased
timekeepers' shacks. Project managers production. In September 1940 Hart-
checked the facilities of nearby railroads man aired his view of the situation in an
and the condition of neighboring high- exchange with Representative Louis
ways. At some isolated projects, gangs Ludlow:
started putting in spur tracks and access
Mr. Ludlow. . . . Do you have dif-
roads. As contractors sent out calls for ficulty in obtaining lumber, especially in the
workers and orders for materials, two South?
questions were uppermost in their minds: General Hartman. There is some difficulty.
would supplies of labor, materials, and The normal production of lumber on a one-
equipment be adequate and would hir- shift basis is about 51,000,000 feet a week.
We will require something like 550,000,000
ings and deliveries keep pace with re- or 600,000,000 feet in the next 60 days. We
quirements. are having a meeting with the mill owners
in an endeavor to have them speed up their
Lumber and Other Materials production by going 31
either on a two-shift or
a three-shift basis.
"The essence of the preparedness Although records for 1939 showed an
program," according to the NDAC, was output of more than 23 billion feet board
"the getting of an adequate supply of measure (FBM) of softwood lumber, the
materials of the proper quality in the highest since 1929, Hartman's concern
shortest space of time."30 In the early was well founded. The industry had
stages of mobilization, requirements for slumped during the first half of 1940.
Now, in addition to the Construction
29
Memo, Constr Div Opns Br Housing Sec Unit B
for Chief Housing Sec, 14 Feb 41. QM 333.1 (Cp 31
Claiborne) 1940. H Subcomm of the Comm on Appns, 76th
30
H Doc 950, 76th Cong, 3d sess, 13 Sep 40, Cong, 3d sess, Hearings on Third Supplemental National
National Defense Contracts, p. 1. Defense Appropriation Bill for 1941, p. 59.
214 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
Division, a dozen federal agencies were The Edwards purchase taught some
calling for lumber. Concentration of valuable lessons. On 11 September
camps in the South tended to exclude Jacobson opened bids on 34 million
products of the other great softwood board feet for the Massachusetts can-
region, the Pacific Northwest, and to tonment and found that the best offers
throw the burden chiefly on Southern averaged out to $41.40 per thousand.
mills. Scarcity, of course, meant high The next day he asked successful bidders
prices. Softwoods had averaged $20.57 to start shipping at once. Soon Edwards
per thousand board feet during 1939. was swamped with lumber. Madigan,
By September 1940 they were bringing visiting the project at the end of the
as much as $40 per thousand, and prices month, saw 250 freight cars backed up
32
promised to go even higher. on sidings between Providence and Fal-
It was in this unstable market that mouth, collecting demurrage charges.
Hartman launched what was to be one The contractor, who had three shifts
of the biggest procurement operations unloading fifty to sixty carloads a day,
of the war—centralized purchasing of could not keep pace with incoming ship-
lumber. He did so with the backing of ments. Huge piles of lumber, spotted
Donald Nelson, who agreed that central throughout the project, were creating
control was necessary to steady prices a fire hazard. The Constructing Quar-
and to give priority to jobs with early termaster reported another difficulty:
completion dates. The plan was this: part of the millwork was the wrong
Colonel Jacobson, as chief of Procure- size. Before renewing the experiment,
ment and Expediting (P&E), would Hartman and Jacobson wanted to have
solicit offers on the total footage for a more accurate bills of materials and
project, reserve the lumber with low delivery schedules.34
bidders, and tell the contractor where By the beginning of October they were
to buy. Until the system was functioning ready to try again. Early that month
smoothly, most contractors would con- Jacobson invited bids on lumber for four
tinue to procure their own lumber, more cantonments: 21,491,420 board
but prices paid would be subject to feet for Indiantown Gap; 30,100,700
Jacobson's approval. Denied funds for for Meade; 32,246,000 for Devens; and
an earlier start, Hartman had to intro- 38,259,791 for Forrest. The response
duce centralized purchasing while con- was overwhelming: more than a quarter
struction was in progress. Proceeding million separate prices bid. To tabulate
with necessary caution, he chose Camp and analyze these bids was an appalling
Edwards for the initial trial.33 task. Borrowing thirty accountants that
32
(1) Historical Statistics of the United States, 1789- 34
1945, p. 125. (2) Memo, Constr Div OQMG for (1) Table, Constr Div OQMG (n.d.), Lumber
Nelson, 25 Jan 41. 411.1 (Lumber) II. Awards, Totals, and Average Prices (Rev to 31 Jan
33
(1) Memo, NDAC, Hiram S. Brown, for Nelson, 41). Opns Br Files, Lumber. Cited hereinafter as
9 Jan 41. WPB-PD File, 411.33 Constr Projs Mil- Table of Lumber Awards to 31 Jan 41. (2) QM 411.1
Jun 40-41. (2) Ltr, CQM Cp Edwards to Sec C, FF (Cp Edwards) 1940. (3) Memo, Madigan for
Br, 9 Sep 40. QM 411.1 (Cp Edwards) 1940. (3) Gregory, 30 Sep 40. Madigan Files, Cp Edwards.
Telg, TQMG to CQM Ft Bragg, 17 Sep 40. QM (4) Memo, Groves for Gregory, 11 Oct 40. Opns Br
411.1 (Ft Bragg) 1940-41. Files, Rpts of Insp. (5) Jacobson Interv, 7 Jun 55.
THE FIRST CAMPS 215
Koke was about to send to the field, It was Nelson who decided what the
Jacobson set them to work. Twenty future course would be. His interest was
typists helped them, and even then it broader than the military program: if
took ten days to tally all the bids. By the procurement for camps upset lumber
time the successful bidders received word, prices, the cost of all defense construction
stocks on which they had based their would go up. In his opinion centralized
bids were depleted. As far as prices went, purchasing offered the best hope for a
the results were encouraging: $40.40 per stable market. After talking to Hartman
thousand board feet for Devens; $39.65 and Loving, Nelson agreed to let con-
for Indiantown Gap; $38.42 for Meade; tractors buy lumber for four more proj-
and $36.97 for Forrest. But clearly the ects. But there he drew the line. He
purchasing procedure would not serve. asked that P&E make all other pur-
Hartman had either to devise a new chases. Quoting the prices Jacobson had
method or to turn back procurement to paid so far, Nelson maintained that a
the contractors.35 downward trend already was apparent.
Many favored the latter course. Most As for difficulties with bidding pro-
contractors were opposed to having the cedures, they could be surmounted. He
Army buy lumber for them. All the big suggested inviting future bids on one
concerns had their own purchasing de- project at a time.37
partments and regular sources of supply. Jacobson found a better solution to
Nearly every project manager felt he the bidding problem. A long-time supply
could do the job better than someone officer whose specialty was clothing, he
in Washington. Loving was among those remembered auctions held after World
who questioned the wisdom of continuing War I to sell off surplus wool. Each buyer
centralized purchasing. In his opinion, at these sales received a wooden paddle
"the responsible contractors of the South with a number on it. As each lot of wool
and West had a better idea as to where went on the block, those who wished
lumber could be secured than anyone to bid held up their paddles. The auc-
in the Construction Division during the tioneer's assistants passed among them,
latter months of 1940." General Gregory collecting slips on which bidders had
was another who took a dim view of written their number and price. Clerks
Hartman's lumber venture. He was "not then tabulated the offers and award went
enthusiastic," Jacobson said wryly. Put- to the highest bidder. Jacobson saw he
ting it bluntly, one of Nelson's associates could use the same scheme in buying
stated that centralized buying of lumber lumber, only bidding would be down
"did not have proper support by the instead of up. With the help of Walter T.
Quartermaster Corps."36 Deadrick, one of his assistants, and
35
Walter Parlour of the Southern Pine
(1) Table of Lumber Awards to 31 Jan 41. (2)
Sherrill, Lumber in the War, ch. I, pp. 2-3. (3)
37
Maj. Gen. Eugene Reybold, "They Deliver the (1) Ltr, Nelson to Hartman, 23 Oct 40. (2)
Woods," The Timberman, June 1943, pp. 10, 12. Memo, Nelson for Hartman, 18 Oct 40. Both in QM
36
(1) Ltr, Loving to EHD, 6 Aug 55. (2) Jacobson 411.1 (Lumber) 1940. (3) Telgs, Gregory to CQM
Interv, 7 Jun 55. (3) Memo, NDAC Industrial Pine Cp, 19, 21 Oct 40. QM 411.1 (Pine Cp) 1940.
Materials Div, J. W. Watzak, Jr., for W. A. Harri- (4) Ltr, Hartman to Nelson, 25 Oct 40. QM 411.1
man, 11 Jan 41. 411.1 (Lumber) II. (Lumber) 1940.
216 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
Association, Jacobson planned a series protests against this policy prompted
of auctions or "lumber buys" at points Gregory to relieve him from P&E on
throughout the country. Introduced 28 November. Defaults on lumber con-
during November 1940, the new pro- tracts were to be a problem for some
39
cedure was an immediate success. Pur- time.
chasing costs dropped to almost nothing. Maj. Milton E. Wilson, who replaced
Purchasing time was greatly reduced. Jacobson in late November, took over
With adoption of the auction method, a going concern. Since its establishment
opposition to centralized procurement five months before, the P&E Branch had
38
began melting away. grown to an organization of sixty people.
Jacobson had two more battles to Adoption of the auction method had
fight, one against inaccurate require- been a giant step forward. Centralized
ments, the other against delinquent procurement seemed to be turning out
suppliers. He would win the first but well. Lumber prices were steadily de-
lose the second. In ordering lumber, he clining. P&E paid an average of $39.06
had to rely on quantity surveys prepared per thousand board feet during October,
by the Engineering Branch. He bought $37.18 during November, and $35.81
what Lamphere told him, no more, no during December. Increased production,
less. As reports came in from the field, as mills switched to two and three shifts,
it became clear that the quantities had undoubtedly contributed to the down-
been greatly underestimated. By mid- ward trend. Nevertheless, its proponents
October Camp Edwards was short eight gave the bulk of the credit to centralized
million board feet. Soon other projects procurement.40 Under Major Wilson's
were calling for large additional ship- direction, P&E would attain undisputed
ments. Instructing contractors to buy leadership among federal lumber agen-
what they needed in the open market, cies. The pioneer work performed by
Jacobson appealed to Lamphere, who Colonel Jacobson contributed materially
put Major Boeckh on the problem. to this success.
Boeckh discovered that in figuring re- The record of the P&E Branch told
quirements the Engineering Branch had an incomplete story of lumber in the
erred 15 to 20 percent by failing to allow early months of defense construction.
for form lumber, scaffolding, and waste. During 1940 thirty-eight projects figured
The mistake was quickly rectified. Mean- in P&E's purchases. Contractors re-
while, Jacobson failed to prevent sup-
pliers from defaulting on their contracts. 39
(1) Jacobson Interv, 7 Jun 55; Boeckh Interv,
Most of the mills and lumber yards 21Jun 59. (a) Ltr, Nat Lumber Mfgrs Assn to
NDAC, 19 Oct 40, and Incls. QM 411.1 (Cp Ed-
which had received awards from P&E wards) 1940. (3) Telg, Gregory to CQM Pine Cp
were fulfilling their commitments, but and other FF projects, 9 Nov 40. QM 411.1 (Pine
a few were not. Jacobson took a tough Cp) 1940. (4) QM 411.1 (Lumber) 1940. (5) QM
411.1 (Indiantown Gap) 1940-41. (6) QM
line with the delinquents, holding them 411.1 (Gp Devens) 1940-43. (7) Ltr, Jacobson to
to the terms of their agreements. Strong authors,
40
23 Jun 55.
(1) Table of Lumber Awards to 31 Jan 41. (a)
Memo, Watzak for Harriman, 11 Jan 41. (3) Memo,
38
(1) Jacobson Interv, 7 Jun 55. (a) Sherrill, Constr Div OQMG for Nelson, 25 Jan 41. 411.1
Lumber in the War, ch. I, pp. 3-6. (Lumber) II.
THE FIRST CAMPS 217
months, that proper drying has been required for the camp and cantonment
45
impossible." projects. Filling this requirement was a
Although lumber was the most serious difficult thing to do. Principal contrac-
bottleneck, it was not the only one. Hard- tors could furnish only a fraction of the
to-get items included hospital and kitchen needed equipment. Big general con-
equipment, sheet metal, furnaces, and tracting firms seldom maintained ex-
stoves. Production problems lay at the tensive plants. A few bought equipment
bottom of most of these shortages. Manu- for each new project and sold it when
facturers were unable to meet the sudden the job was over. Most relied on rented
demand for noncommercial sizes. Scar- machinery. To purchase the necessary
cities of aluminum and stainless steel equipment was out of the question.
restricted output of several items. Even Hartman had no funds for this purpose.
when industry could produce, mis- Moreover, manufacturers could not
understandings as to who was buying promise early deliveries and dealers were
what occasionally upset delivery sched- reluctant to sell irreplaceable stocks. In
ules. Along with the Construction Di- these circumstances, Hartman had but
vision and its contractors, depot Quar- one recourse—to rent from distributors,
termasters, post commanders, and the dealers, small contractors, and other
Surgeon General were purchasing for third parties.
the program. This situation inevitably Adopting a method that had proved
produced confusion and delay. To make successful in World War I, he agreed to
matters worse, a number of contractors reimburse contractors for the cost of
placed orders with jobbers who promised leasing third-party equipment. The fixed-
early delivery dates but failed to meet fee contract set forth the conditions that
them. Answers to questionnaires cir- would apply. Equipment must "be neces-
culated by the AGC indicated the extent sary for the proper and economical
to which materials shortages were af- prosecution of the work." It must be
fecting the program. Fifty-seven percent "in sound and workable condition."
of the contractors included in a poll of Agreements for third-party rentals must
15 November reported deliveries behind follow a form prescribed by the Secretary
schedule. A poll taken ten weeks later of War. They must include the same
showed 65 percent delayed for lack of recapture clause as the principal con-
one material or another.46 tract. Rental rates and other terms must
meet the approval of the contracting
Construction Equipment officer.47 In his instructions to the field,
Between fifty and sixty million dollars' Hartman made Constructing Quarter-
worth of construction equipment was masters responsible for approving valua-
45
tions and rental rates. He promised a
Ltr, Constr Div OQMG to Nelson, 25 Jan 41. schedule of allowable rents and a stand-
411.1 II.
46
(1) Memo, Wilson for Opns Br, 9 Apr 41. Opns ard form of agreement at an early date.
Br Files, Questions and Answers for Truman Comm. Meanwhile, he told contractors to get
(2) FF Ltr 6, 24 Sep 40. EHD Files. (3) FF Ltr 30,
10 Dec 40. EHD Files. (4) Memo, Chief Constr 47
Div for Groves, 29 Jan 41. Opns Br Files, Projects FF Form 1, approved by ASW, 12 Jul 40, art.
Behind Schedule. II, par. 1c.
THE FIRST CAMPS 219
Army's bargaining position all the more ber, he announced: "We are having
51
precarious. Although Hartman as- difficulty with the recapture clause in
sured owners that they would receive equipment rental. Throw it away." He
fair treatment, many refused to rent went on to explain:
on his terms. Some offered to lease equip- Take the man who owns a $10,000 shovel
ment only in blocks which included ob- or special equipment. He is not interested
solete and useless items. Others de- in selling that equipment. He cannot buy
manded subcontracts. Those who bid any more now. The shovel people are three
on a recapture basis generally set valua- months behind on deliveries. If you are in
tions high enough so that recapture would a hurry, take one bid. Use your judgment
and get a fair price. Speed is the essential
bring them a tidy profit. thing. This money is being spent for winter
Quartermaster officers, trying des- construction. It costs money to go to war,
perately to speed construction, occa- boys. Two or three weeks on a training
sionally joined owners and contractors schedule of men may be a serious proposi-
tion.53
in opposing recapture. Insistence on a
provision that inflated rents, discouraged In discarding recapture, Cochran gained
bidders, and might, in the end, put many a temporary advantage for his projects
small contractors out of business seemed but blunted Richardson's drive to stand-
unwise to them. One Constructing Quar- ardize rental agreements.
termaster favored striking the recapture Despite complications, renting got
clause from the agreement. Another results. Fixed-fee contractors succeeded
promised to release equipment before in leasing large amounts of equipment.
it reached the recapture stage. A third To illustrate, Walsh at Edwards leased
permitted owners to jack up valuations 1,132 items; Starrett Brothers and Eken
as much as 60 percent above retail list at Blanding, 2,500. True, renting created
prices, thus insuring that recapture, if problems for which there were no easy
it occurred at all, would be highly profit- solutions. True, too, its cost was high.
able. Major Cochran of the Fixed Fee Nevertheless, it offered the quickest
Branch threw caution to the winds and method of assembling equipment and
openly scrapped the provision. Cochran, the best means of controlling distribu-
whose section oversaw seventeen proj- tion during a period of shortage.54
ects, including such important camps
as Edwards, Meade, San Luis Obispo, Labor
Indiantown Gap, and Devens, boasted
of his ability to cut red tape.52 At a Completing the camps on schedule
meeting with subordinates on 11 Novem- depended heavily on the achievement
of three major objectives in regard to
51
Navy Department, Bureau of Yards and Docks, labor. First, every project had to have
Building the Navy's Bases in World War II (Washington,
1947), I, 104. 53
52
(1) Transcript of Verbal Rpt, CQM Cp Edwards Min of Mtg, Cochran and CQM Reps, 11 Nov
to FF Br, 21 Oct 40. 600.914 (Cp Edwards) I. (a) 40. Quoted in 2d Ind, CQM Cp Grant to OQMG,
Ltr, L. B. McLeod to Starrett Bros and Eken, 8 Jan 14 Jan 41, on Ltr, CQM Cp Grant to OQMG, 19
41. 481 (Cp Blanding) I. (3) QM 481 (Cp San Luis Dec 40. 481 (Gp Grant) I.
54
Obispo) 1940-41. (4) Statement of Maj Cochran, 28 Ltr, Constr Div OQMG to Truman Comm, 11
May 41. Opns Br Files, Confs. Jun 41. 481 Part 1.
THE FIRST CAMPS 221
enough workmen. Second, production from 5,380 to 396,255. (Table 10) Al-
had to be continuous. Last, and to some though some were paid by WPA and
extent least, came considerations of cost. some directly by the Army, the vast
Hours of work, wage rates, and efficiency majority of these workers were con-
had to be watched carefully so that tractors' employees. Project forces grew
neither time nor money would be wasted. with impressive speed. Camp Edwards,
Attaining these objectives was primarily which started out with 165 men shortly
the contractor's responsibility and was after Labor Day, attained its peak em-
in fact an important part of the service ployment of 18,800 early in November.
for which he received his fee. Neverthe- By December there were some 9,000 men
less, the Construction Division was ul- on the payroll at Camp Robinson, 13,800
timately accountable for completion of at Blanding, 14,900 at Claiborne, and
the program and for its cost. When 19,000 at Forrest. Where did all these
progress and costs were affected, and workers come from? A nationwide survey
only then, the division took an active in the summer of 1940 turned up only
role in labor relations and management. 366,000 unemployed workmen with any
56
The group within the Construction skill in the building trades.
Division most active in labor matters As far as the Construction Division
was the Labor Relations Section of the was concerned, a contractor's recruiting
Administrative Branch. Established in methods were his own affair. He might
August 1940, the section had the duties advertise, post notices, get in touch with
of obtaining wage rates from the Depart- employment agencies, and choose among
ment of Labor and making certain that applicants who presented themselves at
contractors paid at least these rates, as the gate; or he might call upon union
required by the Bacon-Davis Act. In business agents to send him men. Gen-
addition, it supervised labor, dealt with eral contractors in the South and South-
labor representatives, and co-operated west, still largely open shop territory,
with interested federal agencies. Head- preferred the first method; those in other
ing the organization was Leslie E. sections of the country, the second. For
Brigham, a former professor of hydraulics big contractors in the North, the East,
who was identified neither with the un- and the Pacific coastal area, relations
ions nor with industry. The "old profes- with labor had come increasingly to
sor," as he styled himself, considered his mean relations with the building trades
mission threefold: "facilitating the great- unions of the American Federation of
est possible speed in construction; pro- Labor. Efforts of the CIO to organize
viding the greatest possible economy both construction workers had met with little
in money and manpower; [and] getting
the job done with the least possible fric- 56
(1) Table, prepared by the Bureau of Labor
tion and dispute."56 Statistics, Dept of Labor, Average Employment on
Selected Mil Constr Projects, Monthly, By Geo-
Between July 1940 and the end of graphical Area. EHD Files, (2) Richard J. Purcell,
the year, the number of men employed Labor Policies of the National Defense Advisory
on military construction projects rose Commission and the Office of Production Manage-
ment, May 1940 to April 1942 (WPB Spec Study 23,
31 Oct 1946), pp. 67-68. Cited hereinafter as Purcell,
55
Rpt, Brigham to Bennett, 30 Sep 40. EHD Files. Labor Policies.
222 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
success. Affiliated with AFL were nine- fense-employment exchange was not dif-
teen autonomous craft organizations, ficult," President William Green of the
each with its own officers, initiation fees, AFL explained in 1941, "for our inter-
dues, working rules, and regulations. national unions already serve their mem-
Holding them together was the Building bership as Nation-wide employment of-
58
Trades Department, AFL, headed since fices." A link with the United States
August 1939 by John P. Coyne. For the Employment Service (USES) strength-
year 1939 the building trades unions ened the unions' position as referral
reported a combined average member- agencies. When the defense program
ship of 822,593.57 With hundreds of began, nearly six million unemployed
thousands of defense jobs open, the unions were enrolled with USES. The NDAC
could not afford to be inactive. The wanted this roll used "as far as possible"
preparedness program presented them in filling defense jobs.59 During the
with a challenge and an opportunity. summer of 1940 the unions worked out
The circumstances dictated an organizing agreements with USES: unemployed
drive which would bring pressure on members would register at USES of-
both the contractors and the Construc- fices, which would try to "preserve the
tion Division. established union placement channels."60
Eager to assume responsibility for Potential rivals thus became partners.
referring workers to defense projects, the But arrangements with USES did not
unions professed to have not only the automatically assure AFL that all con-
men required but also the machinery struction workers would be channeled
for referring these men when and where
they were needed. "To set up within our 58
building-trades department a great de- Statement of William Green, 14 Jul 41. In H
Select Comm Investigating Nat Def Migration, 77th
Cong, 1st sess, Hearings, Part 16, p. 6414. Cited
57
Report of Proceedings to the Thirty-Fourth Annual hereinafter as Nat Def Migration Hearings.
59
Convention of the Building and Construction Trades (1) Purcell, Labor Policies, p. 68. (2) H Doc 950,
Department, American Federation of Labor, November 76th Cong, 3d sess, 13 Sep 40, pp. 2-3.
60
1940, p. 167. Cited hereinafter as Bldg Trades Dept, Nat Def Migration Hearings, Part 16, pp. 6415-
Proceedings, Nov 1940. 16.
THE FIRST CAMPS 223
through its unions. Only when a con- ployment. Of the 78 principal con-
tractor agreed to employ union members tractors on these projects, only 30 had
exclusively would USES clear all workers regularly operated closed or preferential
61
for a project through AFL locals. shops before the defense program began.
Hiring at defense projects came in- That 50 were operating such shops in
creasingly under union control. In a March 1941 was indicative of the unions'
strong position to begin with, the unions progress during the early months of the
fought to extend their influence. Strikes emergency.63
and threats to strike, refusals by union Military construction projects at-
members to work with nonmembers— tracted hordes of applicants. As contract
all the usual pressures were brought to awards became public, as calls went out
bear.62 Benefiting from policies of the for workers through newspapers and
Roosevelt administration and from the radio, as "caravans" of sound trucks
emergency situation, the AFL advanced toured the countryside broadcasting of-
toward its goal of unionizing all military fers of employment, thousands flocked
construction jobs. A study of 78 repre- to the job sites. Sperl, detailing the suc-
sentative fixed-fee projects, made in cess of caravans in recruiting workmen
March 1941, revealed that only 6 were in rural Mississippi and Kentucky, said
operating strictly on an open shop basis. in his clipped way: "Got thousands—
Twenty-two required workers in some barefoot and like-a-that—but thou-
crafts to belong to unions. Thirteen sands—old jeans, no shoes, needed hair-
operated as preferential shops, which cuts—but got them in working."64 Con-
meant that union members received first siderable interstate migration occurred.
call on jobs and nonmembers had to join Fort Bragg in North Carolina drew labor
a union after they were hired. Thirty- from South Carolina and Georgia; Camp
seven projects, nearly half the total, Jackson in South Carolina, from North
operated as closed shops, which meant Carolina and Georgia. Maryland, Ohio,
that a man had to be a union member and Louisiana reported a large influx of
before he was even considered for em- people from nearby states. There were
many more applicants than jobs. At
61
(1) Testimony of James Doarn, Missouri State Camp Edwards, 9,000 men were turned
Employment Serv, 26 Nov 41. In Nat Def Migration away; at Shelby, 11,000; at Meade,
Hearings, Part 23, pp. 8896-99. (2) Rpt of William L. 29,000; and at Bragg, 36,000. All the
Hutcheson, President, Proceedings of the Twenty-Fourth
General Convention of the United Brotherhood of Carpenters other big projects had similar surpluses.65
and Joiners of America, December 9-16, 1940, p. 42. Whether in a densely populated area
Cited hereinafter as Carpenters and Joiners Proceed-
ings, Dec 40. (3) Incl, 8 Feb 41, with Ltr, Pres Int
63
Brotherhood of Electrical Workers to OQMG, 10 Incls with Memo, Statistical Unit Labor Rel
Feb 41. 600.1 (Wolf Creek OP) (Labor). Sec Constr Div OQMG for Chief Labor Rel Sec, 28
62
(1) Table, prep by EHD, Work Stoppages on Apr 41. OCE LRBr Files.
64
Mil Constr Jobs, Jun 40-Dec 40. EHD Files. (2) Ltr, Sperl Interv, 18 Jun 56.
65
Sen H. C. Lodge, Jr., to TQMG, 25 Oct 40. 600.1 (1) Statement of Fred R. Rauch, Acting Commr,
(Cp Edwards) (Labor) I. (3) Memo, Groves for WPA, 6 Dec 1940. In Nat Def Migration Hearings,
Hartman, 7 Nov 40. 600.1 (Indiantown Gap) (Labor) Part 9, pp. 3626-27. (2) Ltrs, CQM's at various
I. (4) Ltr, CQM Cp Lee to TQMG, 10 Nov 40. projects to Rep John H. Tolan, Chm H Select Comm
600.1 (Cp Lee) (Labor) I. (5) Carpenters and to Investigate the Interstate Migration of Destitute
Joiners Proceedings, Dec 40, p. 42. Citizens, Mar 41. OCE LRBr Files.
224 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
sension, as organizers from New York within projects or collect dues during
told local workmen to pay up or get off working hours. Union organizers were
the job and Floridians damned the barred from job sites. But, Gregory em-
Yankees and their unions. Morale suf- phasized, "Activities of these people off
fered, and production fell.67 By late the reservation are no concern of this
73
October the job, reportedly, was "pro- office." One fortunate effect of this
gressing 25 percent slower than it should hands-off policy was that Brigham was
due to interference of union activities."68 spared involvement in controversies over
Efforts to remedy the situation were the unions. Problems of wages and hours
largely unsuccessful. To Maj. Leander demanded his full attention.
Larson, the CQM, the reason for this Strong monetary inducements were
failure was obvious. He questioned necessary to draw skilled workers to jobs
whether any other closed shop con- which were otherwise unattractive. Camp
tractor would have fared better at projects offered only a few months' em-
Blanding.69 Dresser, reviewing the record ployment. Most were far from centers of
of the Construction Advisory Committee, population. Furthermore, miserable
termed the selection of a New York con- living conditions often prevailed in the
cern for work in Florida as "one of our vicinity of the sites. Conditions in the
70
chief mistakes." little town of Tullahoma, near Camp
Taking a neutral position on the ques- Forrest, Tennessee, illustrated the sort
tion of union control, the Construction of thing a workman might find. At
Division made no attempt to dictate Tullahoma, whose normal population
policy to either the contractors or the was 5,100, an influx of 15,000 construc-
unions. Hartman refused to "dictate or tion workers created "a health hazard
74
express any preference or negotiate in any almost beyond description." "Many
way to see that the job was made either employees live in crackerbox shelters
union or open shop."71 He left the de- built on small broken-down trucks and
cision to the contractor. Moreover, he automobiles," an inspector reported.
made no attempt to interfere in union "Many house owners in the town rent
affairs. "You will appreciate," Gregory bunk space in basements. In some cases,
wrote Senator Lodge, "that the rules men spend the night in sheltered door-
under which the unions operate are en- ways."75 Another visitor observed streets
tirely a matter within their own juris- littered with garbage and human ex-
72
diction." Unions could not set up offices crement. The Constructing Quarter-
master, fearing an outbreak of typhoid
67
(1) Ltr, Starrett Bros and Eken to Truman or smallpox, ordered mass vaccinations
Comm, 23 May 41. Opns Br Files, Loose Papers. (2)
OCE LRBr Files, Cp Blanding to 2/11/41.
and had garbage removed and streets
68
Ltr, 1st Lt. R. C. Haas to Lt. E. C. Parks, Jr.,
25 Oct 40. 600.1 (Cp Blanding) (Labor) I.
69
Incl with Ltr, Larson to Gregory, 4 Jan 41. QM 73
652 (Cp Blanding) 1941. Telg, Gregory to CQM Ft Warren, 3 Dec 40.
70
71
Dresser Interv, 2 Apr 57. 600.1
74
(Ft Warren) (Labor) I.
Ltr, CQM Cp Lee to TQMG, 10 Nov 40. 600.1 Ltr, Carey to Harrison, 30 Nov 40. WPB-PD
(Cp Lee) (Labor) I. File,
75
411.33 Constr Projs—Mil—Jun 40-41.
72
Ltr, Gregory to Lodge, 9 Nov 40. 600.1 (Cp Rpt, Maj Hunt, IGD, to TIG, 11 Dec 40. QM
Edwards) (Labor) I. 333.1 (Cp Forrest) 1940-41.
226 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
76
cleaned at government expense. To be ridiculous" wage rates established by
sure, communities larger than Tullahoma the Department of Labor.79
provided better accommodations, but Much trouble resulted from the Labor
workers still had to expect high prices, Department's practice of confining its
overcrowding, and other inconveniences. wage rate studies to the immediate vi-
The maximum wage rates that cinity of the projects. On many jobs in
Hartman authorized fixed-fee contrac- small towns or rural areas, the depart-
tors to pay—the minimum Bacon-Davis ment's rates were too low to attract
rates set by the Department of Labor— craftsmen from distant places. At
had less appeal for craftsmen than for Edwards, for example, the department
unskilled workers. Early reports from the "set up wage scales, which, while entirely
field disclosed widespread difficulties in pertinent to existing local conditions,
recruiting artisans. The CQM at Bragg where an occasional summer cottage
complained that his project was not at- was the limit of construction operations,
tracting enough skilled workmen. The offered no attraction whatsoever to out-
CQM at McClellan despaired of getting side labor." Skilled workmen in Boston
adequate numbers of craftsmen at Labor were naturally unwilling to go to Cape
Department rates. Sheet metal workers Cod for less money than they could earn
protested the wage at Fort Riley. Brick- at home.80 Additional complications arose
layers spurned the pay at Camp Shelby whenever the Labor Department es-
77
as "too low." At Camp Edwards, on tablished higher rates for a new project
the southern end of Cape Cod, the situ- than those being paid on a going job
ation was critical. On 28 September nearby. Then, workers rapidly deserted
Madigan telephoned Hartman from the old project for the new. Pointing to
Boston: "You have about 900 carpenters, these difficulties, Coyne, Hillman, and
930 to be exact, at Camp Edwards. others with prolabor views argued that
You can use about 1,000 or 1,500 Hartman ought to abandon his attempt
more . . . . We have got to get to "freeze the minimum wages into
81
something done about carpenter rates maximum wages."
if you are going to get that camp fin- The Construction Division's solution
ished."78 The CQM at Edwards, like to the problem was less drastic. Where
others in his predicament, blamed the Labor Department rates clearly lacked
lack of carpenters on "inadequate and sufficient drawing power, it authorized
contractors to pay higher rates. Anxious
to avoid unnecessary increases, it waited
76
(1) Ltr, OCQM Cp Forrest to Brigham, 15 Nov until a contractor complained about
40. OCE, LRBr Files, Cp Forrest. (2) Groves Com-
ments, IV, 8.
shortages of workmen before considering
77
(1) Telg, CQM Ft Bragg to TQMG, 17 Sep 40. new rates for his project. Then, it weighed
600.1 (Ft Bragg) (Labor) V. (2) Memo, Brigham for his recommendations carefully. If he
FF Br, 30 Sep 40. 600.1 (Ft McClellan) (Labor) I.
(3) Incls, 27 Sep 40 with Memo, Brigham for Violante,
79
2 Oct 40. 600.1 (Ft Riley) (Labor) I. (4) Ltr, Kirk- Memo, Cochran for Loving, 2 Nov 40. 600.914
patrick to CQM Cp Shelby, 30 Sep 40. 600.1 (Cp (Cp Edwards) I.
80
Shelby) (Labor) I. Ibid.
78 81
Tel Conv, Madigan and Hartman, 28 Sep 40. Memo, Simpson for Patterson, 16 Oct 40.
OCE LRBr Files, Cp Edwards, Gen Corresp. Madigan Files, 102 Labor.
THE FIRST CAMPS 227
87 90
89
Notes of Conf, Coyne, Brandwen, et al., 15 Oct Tel Conv,
Résumé of Brigham andNoxon
Tel Convs, Blumenberg,
and H. 18
G.Oct 40.
Wray
40. Ohly Files, Labor-Constr—"Notes on Hours of and Hadden, 17 Oct 40. OCE LRBr Files, Ft Meade,
Labor" or "The QM Crisis." Gen.
88
(1) Memo, Simpson for Patterson, 16 Oct 40.
Madigan Files, 102 Labor. (2) Memos, Patterson for OCE91
LRBr Files, Ft Meade, Gen.
Gregory, 19, 22 Oct 40. OCE LRBr Files, ASW. (3) (1) Tel Conv, Brigham and Coyne, 21 Oct 40.
Ltr, Hartman to CQM's, 24 Oct 40. 600.1 (Labor) (2) Notes of Conf, Brigham and Blumenberg, 23
(Eight-Hour Law) 1940. Oct 40. Both in OCE LRBr Files, Ft Meade, Gen.
THE FIRST GAMPS 229
On 26 October the Journal told its eight hours a day, as required by law.
readers: Strict regulations governed Saturday,
It is apprehended that the cantonments Sunday, and holiday premiums. Al-
will not be completed on schedule, in spite though Constructing Quartermasters
of the urgency with which the constructing could authorize up to time and a half
Quartermasters have been pressing the work. on weekends and holidays if the situa-
If this be so, the fathers and mothers of
the young men not provided with proper tion was urgent and the rate was "es-
housing should place the blame where it tablished local custom," final approval
belongs, upon the Labor Unions, which put of all such premiums rested upon a con-
extra compensation above responsibility to tract change order rather than upon a
the lads called to protect them and their simple authorization. All double time
country.92 had to have Hartman's sanction. But
95
The article's emotionalism and antilabor even under these rules, the bill for over-
tone alarmed Judge Patterson.93 On 9 time would be huge.
November, after rejecting the idea of a Construction officers faced a dilemma.
letter to the Journal, he released to the To work weekends at premium rates
newspapers a statement of the War De- would mean deficit spending. To sus-
partment's labor policy, the same policy pend work on Saturdays and Sundays
handed down by NDAC. Praising Ameri- would delay mobilization. On 23 Oc-
can workers for their patriotism and tober Hartman had made his position
co-operation, he assured them that clear: for each weekend worked, pre-
existing "standards as to wages, hours of miums would total about $100,000 at
work and overtime . . . must be Meade and $200,000 at Edwards; the
maintained if the defense program is to expense would be heavy at nearly every
go effectively forward." He dismissed project. Meeting deadlines would mean
the strike at Meade as unimportant, as- spending money.96 Constructing Quar-
cribing it to "a temporary misunder- termasters were, on the whole, more
standing of the policy of the War De- cautious than their chief. Many of them
partment as to overtime pay" and as- hesitated to authorize premium work.
serting that it had not affected the camp's The CQM at Forrest closed down his
completion schedule.94 project over the long Armistice Day
Convinced that the local practices weekend rather than pay $114,000 in
formula was no longer open to question, premiums. He thus lost three days of
Brigham did what he could to limit over- good construction weather which he
time. Twice during November, on the could not redeem at any price. Such
97
4th and on the 30th, he warned CQM's shutdowns were fairly common. Not
that only one overtime payment would be
automatic—time and a half for over
95
(1) Ltrs, Hartman to CQM's, 4, 30 Nov 40. OCE
92
Army-Navy Journal, LXXVII, No. 8 (October Legal Div Lib, FF Ltrs. (2) Note, Brigham to EHD,
26, 1940), p. 213. Jul 49.
93 96
Memo, Simpson for Patterson, 4 Nov 40. Ohly
97
Ltr, Hartman to TAG, 23 Oct 40. G-4/32220.
Files, Labor-Constr—Policies & Problems 1. (1) Memo, Huntington Thom, OASW, for
94
WD Press Release, 9 Nov 40, sub: WD Labor Patterson (Nov 40). OCE Legal Div Files, USW. (2)
Policy on Cantonment Constr. Ohly Files, Labor- Ltr, CQM Cp Forrest to TQMG, 11 Nov 40. 600.1
Constr—Policies & Problems 1. (Cp Forrest) (Labor) I.
230 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
until late November, when CQM's re- Patterson's staff presented a gloomy
ceived new instructions—"work over- picture:
time whenever it becomes necessary to At present the government is being asked
complete your project on time"—was to make all the concessions and there is much
98
a 7-day week the norm. less reason for us to do this in the case of the
As labor costs soared higher, the Building Trades than in many other indus-
thinking in Patterson's office changed. tries where wage scales for laborers and
mechanics are appreciably lower. All of the
First John H. Ohly, one of Simpson's people in the War Department with whom
assistants, and then Simpson himself I have discussed matters have demonstrated
swung around toward the Quarter- their desire and efforts to be just and equita-
master view." "There is no place for ble in treating labor problems on construc-
penalty provisions in defense contracts," tion work. At the same time there is unanimity
of feeling that at present the government has
Simpson wrote to Coyne on 11 Novem- hold of the smaller end of the stick.103
ber.100 At the Building Trades Conven-
tion at New Orleans three days later, While many of the labor troubles
Simpson tried to talk union leaders into that beset camp construction were in-
giving up peacetime privileges. He re- herent in the program's size and speed,
turned from the meeting convinced that some might have been averted had the
"no immediate agreement" was possi- Army and the unions been able to agree.
ble.101 When talks resumed in Washing- But the Roosevelt administration's at-
ton a short time later, spokesmen for the titude doomed efforts to arrange a fair
unions said they would accept a universal settlement. Addressing the Building
time and a half rate for over forty hours Trades Convention, Coyne said of the
a week—an arrangement under which NDAC:
labor would have sacrificed little if any- The work of this Commission and its
thing; but they refused even to consider accomplishments are exemplified by the
surrendering premiums, whether time conditions which apply on national defense
and a half or double time, for Saturday, projects and the recognition given to the
building and construction trades organiza-
Sunday, and holiday work. Taking the tions on the many defense projects now under
unions' side, Hillman argued that labor construction in different sections of the Coun-
had a right to "such excess gravy" try. Also the recognition by the Government
because the jobs were temporary and of the 40-hour work week and the payment
102
away from home. Summing up the of overtime rates for work performed on
Saturday, Sundays, and holidays is in itself
situation, C. Huntington Thorn of an accomplishment that cannot be mini-
98
mized. This is the first time that the Govern-
Ltr, FF Br to CQM Cp Forrest, 23 Nov 40. ment, under similar circumstances, has ever
600.1 (Gp Forrest) (Labor) I.
99
(1) Memo, Ohly for Simpson, 23 Oct 40. (2)
accorded such recognition to the building and
Memo, Simpson for Hillman, 12 Nov 40. Both in construction trades unions.104
Ohly Files, Labor-Constr—Policies & Problems 2.
100
Memo, Simpson for Coyne, 11 Nov 40. Ohly Asking the unions to give up any of the
Files, Labor-Constr—Policies & Problems 2.
101 103
Memo, Simpson for Coyne, 16 Nov 40. Ohly Draft Memo, Thom for Patterson (n.d.), sub:
Files, Labor-Constr—Policies & Problems 2. Status of NDAC Labor Policy. OCE LRBr Files,
102
Draft Memo, Thom for Patterson (n.d.), sub: USW.
104
Work in Excess of 40 Hours a Week or on Saturdays, Bldg Trades Dept, Proceedings, November 1940,
Sundays or Holidays. OCE LRBr Files, USW. p.223.
THE FIRST CAMPS 231
ground they had gained was asking a and Bowie were not far behind. A study
great deal. Reaching an agreement with of thirty-two representative projects re-
them would take time and patient bar- vealed an average of four men on non-
gaining. reimbursable salaries, the equivalent of
105
two full-time executives, per project.
Management and Supervision Along with company officials and top
managerial personnel went groups of
To complete the camps on schedule trusted employees who formed the back-
with the labor, equipment, and materials bone of project organizations. Nonethe-
available, contractors needed not only less, few firms, if any, regularly employed
experience but adaptability as well. Or- enough key men for jobs as large and
dinarily money, not time, mattered most difficult as the camps and cantonments.
in construction. Jobs were planned in General Hartman put but two re-
minute detail and carried out in a way strictions on hiring key personnel. First,
calculated to hold down cost and promote he placed a ceiling of $9,000 per year
profits. Contractors assumed full control on reimbursable salaries. Second, he
of their projects and conducted opera- insisted that appointments be subject to
tions as they thought best. With the CQM approval. He was interested in
emergency, the Army made exceptional making sure that projects were well
demands upon its contractors—excep- staffed rather than in controlling salaries.
tional in that it asked them to produce Kirkpatrick told CQM's to bear "in
at several times their normal rate, with- mind that to complete these projects in
out the usual well-laid plans, and, to the time required, a high calibre type of
some extent, without their usual inde- personnel must be employed by the
pendence. Few camp contractors had contractor and, in order to secure that
faced such a challenge before. type of personnel, the contractor must of
Chosen primarily for their managerial necessity pay a substantial salary." He
strength, fixed-fee contractors felt obliged justified salaries in excess of previous
to staff their projects well. At virtually earnings by pointing to the long hours
every job, firm members or other top required, and the short duration of the
executives assumed direction of the work. jobs. He emphasized that many of the
These men, unlike their subordinates, men would have to maintain two resi-
whose salaries the government agreed dences.106 CQM approval became more
to pay, took their earnings out of profits. or less routine; contractors generally set
How many such men participated and salaries and filled posts without inter-
how much time they spent at the site ference. Salaries averaged approximately
varied from job to job. Thirteen execu- 20 percent above the employees' previous
tives of the Consolidated Engineering
Company helped direct the Camp Meade 105
Data prepared by Constr Div OQMG (Apr 41),
project, eight of them devoting between sub: List of Resident Officers of A-Es and Con-
50 and 90 percent of their time to the tractors Showing percentage of Time Spent on
work. Although Meade had the heaviest Project on Nonreimbursable Basis. Opns Br Files,
Gen Addl Data.
concentration of executive talent, 106
OQMG Constr Div, FF Ltr 5, 7 Oct 40. EHD
Wolters, Knox, Riley, Eustis, McClellan, Files.
232 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
earnings, an increase the Army con- followed at each area, in turn, first by
sidered "equitable, if not insufficient."107 masons and carpenters and then by
In the race to complete the camps by electricians, plumbers, and painters. Es-
Christmas, contractors faced a severe timates put the time required to build
test. Speed called for radical departures a division camp by this method at one
from custom. Ordinarily construction year. Clearly, faster methods had to be
was scheduled in logical sequence. First, devised. Major Larson endorsed a popu-
land was cleared, drained, and graded. lar solution to the problem when he
Next, roads and utilities were put in. wrote, "On a ninety-day program, all
Only when easy access to building sites phases of construction must be carried
had been provided did structural work on simultaneously."108
begin. Contractors usually divided large Contractors wasted little time on pre-
housing projects into areas. Excavating liminaries. Most abandoned their cus-
crews dug foundations in one area and tomary procedure and began everything
then moved on to another. They were at once. Carpenters, usually among the
107 108
Testimony of Maj Garrison H.Davidson, 20 Ltr, Larson to Gregory, 21 Dec 40. 600.94 (Cp
May 41. In Truman Comm Hearings, Part 4, p. 1014. Blanding).
THE FIRST CAMPS 233
233
last to begin, started work almost im- reasonably stable surfaces. The work
mediately. Whatever else might remain progressed slowly. Without roads, con-
undone, contractors intended to have tractors devised novel methods of de-
housing completed when troops arrived. livering materials to building sites. Some
Dunn and Hodgson, given thirty-four used tractors to drag supply-laden sleds
days to prepare a division tent camp at through the mud. Some rigged skips of
McClellan, found it "necessary to waive buckets or baskets on aerial ropeways.
and disregard a normal plan of good Some laid corduroy roads. Costly and
109
construction scheduling." Starrett inefficient though these expedients were,
Brothers and Eken, acting on advice contractors had no choice but to try
from Major Larson, gave structures them.
priority over grading and drainage at Most contractors attempted to hasten
Blanding. At Riley, Long-Manhattan- construction through liberal use of man-
Watson began barracks and roads at power. At eleven camps and canton-
the same time. Many contractors started ments, average peak employment during
building operations throughout an entire the last three months of 1940 was
111
project instead of in a single area. At 11,212. A study begun in December
several job sites conditions precluded an 1940 revealed overtime operations at all
immediate start on barracks, hospitals, and extra shifts "at a considerable num-
and other buildings, but nowhere was ber" of 50 fixed-fee and 136 lump sum
structural work long deferred.110 projects. These practices were costly—
Knowing work would be slow until at times inordinately so. In hiring masses
roads were in, contractors pushed grading of men, contractors took a large percent-
and surfacing work, but unfavorable age of incompetents and thus paved the
weather conditions hampered their way for high turnover and low produc-
efforts. Unusually heavy rains trans- tion rates. Overtime meant premium
formed unfinished roads into seas of wages; extra shifts, low efficiency. More-
fluid muck. The situation was particu- over, a shortage of experienced foremen
larly bad at sites with poor natural made it hard to get an honest day's work
drainage, such as Blanding and Forrest, from labor. Although large numbers of
and at those with viscous clay soil, such men working long hours undoubtedly
as Meade. As trucks, graders, and bull- helped speed construction, output per
dozers sank into the ooze, contractors man per hour was far below usual peace-
brought in draglines. They spread thou- time standards.112
sands of tons of gravel, crushed stone, Leading contractors tried still other
slag, and tailings in attempts to provide ways of saving time. The Walsh Con-
struction Company, unable to recruit
109
enough skilled labor, sped carpentry
Ltr, CQM Cp McClellan to TQMG, 2 Feb 41. work at Edwards by a mass-production
652 (Ft McClellan) II.
110
(1) Opns Br Files, QM-CO, Cp Blanding. (2)
111
Ltr, Long-Manhattan-Watson to H Comm on Mil Table, prepared by Bureau of Labor Statistics,
Affs, 31 May 41. Opns Br Files. (3) Memo, TIG for Dept of Labor, Average Employment on Selected
CofS, 5 Dec 40. Opns Br Files, IG Rpts. (4) Ltr, Mil Constr Projs, Monthly, By Geographical Area.
Constr Div OQMG to G-4, 6 Jun 41. QM 600.1 EHD Files.
112
(Defects). Slaughter, Saville & Blackburn Rpt, pp. 10-13.
234 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
staff examined all shipments of materials regional finance office. Because the Chief
and checked them against invoices, kept of Finance made his officers audit all
the time worked by each employee and vouchers themselves, Constructing Quar-
checked it against the contractor's pay- termasters had to send supporting papers
roll, and investigated each claim against along with requests for payment. There
the contractor before he made payment. were delays and more delays, as bottle-
Hence, when he presented his vouchers necks developed in field auditors' de-
for reimbursement, the auditor could partments, tons of paper moved from the
quickly verify them and submit them for projects to the finance offices, and a
approval by the CQM, who would, in second, seemingly superfluous, audit was
119
turn, send them on to the nearest Army performed.
finance office for payment. In their ad- How to streamline the audit and still
ministration of this audit-reimbursement maintain adequate safeguards was a
machinery, CQM's tried both to curb controversial question. The procedure
expenditures and avoid delays—a two- recommended by Kelly and Koke and
fold objective not easily attained.118 approved by the Comptroller General
To set up the audit machinery and get involved meticulous checks and double
it to running smoothly was in itself a big checks. Every timekeeper or materials
undertaking. Nowhere was the shortage checker employed by the contractors
of trained men more acute than in ac- had a counterpart on the field auditors'
counting. Koke, wishing to appoint top staffs. This system, however sound in
professionals to field auditor's posts, theory, proved impractical under emer-
discovered that such men were hard to gency conditions. Duplication had to
recruit. At many projects, construction be curtailed. There were two ways to do
was well under way before auditors it. First, the government could reduce
turned up. Meanwhile, unpaid bills ac- the auditing detail, using spot checks
cumulated. When auditors finally ar- instead of preauditing every transaction;
rived, they faced a backlog of old work or, second, it could persist in making a
and a steadily increasing volume of new. complete check but ask contractors to
Shortages of timekeepers, bookkeepers, discontinue their timekeeping and in-
shipping clerks, and materials checkers spections and accept field auditors' re-
further complicated the auditing task. cords. Used successfully in World War I,
Contractors, similarly handicapped by the second method had many staunch
personnel shortages, were sometimes slow advocates. Koke nevertheless insisted
in submitting vouchers for reimburse- the first method was the only acceptable
ment and frequently neglected to furnish one. He felt the purpose of the audit
sufficient evidence to support their claims. would be lost if the government helped
To make matters worse, projects were keep contractors' records. By early Oc-
often hundreds of miles from the nearest tober he had instituted spot checks at
119
(1) Memo, Constr Div OQMG for Rcd (Apr
118
(1) Constr Div OQMG, Manual for Field 41), sub: Delays in Payments and Reimbursements.
Auditors on CPFF Contracts, 6 Sep 40. EHD Files, Opns Br Files, Delays. (2) Opns Br Files, IG Rpts.
(2) Ltr, Kelly to authors, 1 May 59. (3) Replies to (3) Memo, Lt Col B. B. Somervell for Gregory,
Questionnaire, Koke to EHD, 25 May 59. 9 Dec 40. EHD Files.
THE FIRST CAMPS 237
quired."125 CQM's were indeed uncer- and to supply the extra push needed to
tain. Their orders, like Hartman's, were reach construction goals.
to meet all deadlines and stay within
allotted funds. Attempts to carry out Nearing the Goal
these conflicting instructions frequently
took the form of alternating pressures and By November 1940 the program had
restrictions on contractors. reached its critical stage. Winter was
That delays developed and mistakes closing in; time was running out; and
occurred was understandable. Haste, pressure was increasing with each pass-
inexperience, and inadequate funds were ing day. Military leaders were more and
explanation enough. It was up to the more uneasy about progress at the camp
Washington office to remove obstacles sites. The Quartermaster organization,
hastily put together and woefully under-
125
Memo, Reybold for Gregory, 21 Oct 40. QM manned, was under an almost intolerable
600.1 (Misc.) 1940. strain. Climaxing twenty years of un-
240 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
14th, Groves assumed his new rank and sary.137 Mindful "that the world situa-
duties. Recalling the situation that con- tion did not permit any delay in getting
fronted him, he said: our troops into training," Groves bent
every effort toward early completion
During the first week that I was on duty of the camps.138
there, I could not walk out of my office down Perhaps the most important of his early
the corridor to Hartman's office without
being literally assailed by the officers or innovations was a more practical method
civilian engineers with liaison responsibility of scheduling construction. Acting on in-
for the various camps. It is no exaggeration structions from G-4, Hartman had given
to state that during this period decisions in- each contractor the final completion date
volving up to $5,000,000 were made at the for his project at the time of negotiations.
rate of one about every 100 feet of corridor
walked. Usually four or five men would keep Because the Army did not intend to send
trailing me to take the place of the man who troops into camp until construction forces
had first gotten hold of me. The reason for had moved out, contractors were free to
this, I believe, was that they had been com- schedule their operations as they saw fit.
pletely overwhelmed with the decisions that On 23 November Groves announced a
they had to make and that they had not been new policy. Henceforth, contractors
able to obtain any decisions or advice or even
to see their single superior, Mr. Loving, on would co-ordinate their plans with the
their direct problems.136 scheduled dates of troop arrivals. Barracks
and mess halls would have top priority,
The new chief had his work cut out for and so would hospital wings for first
him. arrivals. Soldiers would move into fin-
With Hartman's advice and approval, ished portions of the camps while builders
139
Groves made a number of changes. In completed the remainder. By "chang-
rapid succession, he took the following ing policy in the middle of construction,"
steps: installed a telephone for each of Groves hoped to keep pace with induc-
140
the SCQM's and told them the sky was tion schedules.
the limit on calls; demanded weekly Unlike Loving, who, as chief negotia-
progress reports from the CQM's; set a
time limit of one week for processing 137
(1) Telg, FF Br to CQM's, 14 Nov 40. EHD
reimbursement vouchers; sent an ex- Files. (2) Ltr, Constr Div to CQM's, 22 Nov 40.
pediter to every project reporting a QM 600.1 (CPFF Policy) I. (3) Ltr, FF Br to CQM's,
23 Nov 40. 107 (Progress Schedules). (4) Notes for
shortage of lumber; and held four regional Discussion, Mtgs of Contractors, A-E's, and CQM's,
conferences of architect-engineers, con- 25 Nov 40, at Washington, D.C., 27 Nov 40, at
tractors, and CQM's. Above all, he em- Atlanta, Ga., 2 Dec 40, at St Louis, Mo., and 5 Dec
40, at Los Angeles, Cal., prepared by FF Br. EHD
phasized the importance of meeting con- Files. (5) Ltr, FF Br to CQM Cp Forrest, 23 Nov 40.
struction deadlines. He told contractors 600.1 (Cp Forrest) (Labor) I. (6) Notes of Conf held
to hire special equipment, pay premium at Washington, D.C., 25 Nov 40. WPB-PD File,
411.33 Constr Proj—Mil—Jun 40-41. (7) Constr
prices for quick deliveries, and take Div OQMG, FF Ltr 27, 3 Dec 40. EHD Files.
whatever shortcuts they deemed neces- 138
139
Groves Comments, V, 4.
Memo, FF Br to all CQM's, 23 Nov 40. 652
(Indiantown Gap).
140
Testimony of Col Groves, 30 Apr 41. In
136
Groves Comments, X, 12a. Truman Comm Hearings, Part 2, p. 571.
THE FIRST CAMPS 243
tor, could seldom leave Washington, under arms, and revised mobilization
Groves spent one-third of his time on schedules were being met. General
the road. During his first month in the Hartman estimated that the housing
Fixed Fee Branch, he inspected a dozen program originally assigned to him, the
projects in the East, South, and West. barracks, kitchens, storehouses, and es-
These visits sometimes led to sweeping sential hospitals for two million men—
changes. At San Luis Obispo, he re- not the innumerable extras added later—
lieved the CQM. At Roberts, he ordered was approximately 95 percent complete.
preparation of a new layout. At Forrest, Finishing the camps and cantonments
he fired six thousand workers, eliminated was, in his opinion, only a matter of
27 percent of the buildings, and ex- weeks.143 Colonel Groves was also op-
tended the completion date.141 His ener- timistic. On 10 December he told
getic leadership produced results. Carey, Madigan, "I think it is going much
visiting Camp Forrest a week after better. I have gotten so I can sleep at
144
Groves had been there, found conditions night." Years later, Groves reflected:
much improved. "The reduced forces "Actually, the great crisis where the
are now much better spread out, and the Army was really in danger of being over-
organization is going about its work with whelmed, beside which all other crises
a pep and confidence woefully lacking were insignificant, was the situation at
in the past," he told Harrison. "The the time I joined General Hartman in
net result will be that this work, in my November of 1940."145 By mid-Decem-
judgment, will meet the revised dates ber, he maintained, the crisis was past.146
set up by Colonel Groves, and at a very How did the heads of the War Depart-
substantial saving in the total cost."142 ment, Secretary Stimson and General
By the second week of December, Marshall, view the performance of the
construction officers felt the worst was Quartermaster Corps? The answer be-
over. More than half a million men were came clear as the long struggle over the
construction function reached its de-
141
(1) List, Constr Div (19 Dec 40), sub: Insp nouement.
Trips Made by Col Groves From Jul 22 Through Dec
19. Opns Br Files, Gen. (2) Tel Conv, Groves and
143
CQM San Luis Obispo, 6 Dec 40. Opns Br Files, Statement of Gen Hartman, 5 Jul 55, p. 17.
144
San Luis Obispo. (3) Notes of Conf at San Miguel, Tel Conv, Groves and Madigan, 10 Dec 40.
Calif., 3 Dec 40. Opns Br Files, Cp Roberts. Opns Br Files, Ord.
142 145
Memo, Carey for Harrison, 22 Dec 40. WPB- Groves Comments, X, 12a.
146
PD File, 411.33 Constr Proj—Mil—Jun 40-41. Groves Interv, 19 Jun 56.
CHAPTER VII
BONNEVILLE DAM
next budget with newsmen in November "And oysters?" a reporter asked. "And
1940, he stated: oysters," said the President.4
While they still had plenty of work to
Now, of course, you have to remember this, do, the Engineers were in a precarious
that if the Congressmen from a portion of
Chesapeake Bay wanted such and such a position. A $133 million backlog of au-
creek deepened from four to six feet, so that thorized projects and an unexpended
the oyster boats could get in and out more balance of $380,258,000, which General
handily, we probably would have all kinds Schley reported in mid-1940, were residue
of briefs up here to prove it was a matter from better years. An appropriation of
vital to national defense. Almost everything
in the way of public works, some people try $172,800,000, approved on 24 June 1940,
to tie in with national defense. Now, I am was for projects already on the books.
trying to lay down a very strict rule that Few, if any, new jobs were in sight. The
national defense means actually national defense,
primarily munitions, and not things like
highways. 4
Public Papers and Addresses, 1940, pp. 582-83.
246 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
stream of civil projects was drying up. ing the Construction Division from the
As the civil workload diminished, the Quartermaster Corps. Construction ap-
Engineer Department would face drastic peared to be heading down the same
cuts in personnel—a prospect Schley road it had followed in World War 1—a
viewed with serious apprehension. Be- road that led to trouble for the Corps of
6
cause the Corps had too few Regulars to Engineers.
cope with its expanding military func- General Schley had a battle on his
tions, he foresaw no difficulty in finding hands to preserve his organization and
new assignments for surplus officers. But forestall formation of a separate corps.
surplus employees would have to go. The It was a battle the Engineers could not
civilian organization, the backbone of afford to lose.
the Engineer Department, was in danger
of being crippled.5 Growth of the Engineer Mission
To make matters worse, the Engineers' On 10 June 1940 the newly formed
old adversaries were rallying again. Sur- Hogan committee made its initial report
rounding Hartman were veterans of the to the Army and Navy Munitions Board.
Construction Division of the Army, most Calling attention to the limited size of
of whom were still intensely loyal to their Hartman's technical staff, the committee
wartime outfit and its chief. Cold- recommended that construction for the
shouldered by Quartermaster Regulars, Ordnance Department be done by the
General "Puck" Marshall was neverthe- Engineers. Otherwise, the committee re-
less much in evidence, the center of a vealed, half of the Corps' 6,000 civilian
devoted group of oldtimers who wished engineers would face dismissal. The re-
to resurrect the separate construction port continued: "We would further
corps of World War I. A brigadier general recommend that the Corps of Engineers
in the Reserve Corps, Marshall was a be consulted in regard to their ability
possible candidate for chief of an inde- to undertake the preparation of ad-
pendent Construction Division. In the ditional plans and drawings . . . ,
late spring of 1940 members of his group rather than to attempt at this late date to
tried unsuccessfully to enlist the support organize a new and independent engi-
of the Hogan committee. Overtures to neering force for the purpose as was done
Colonel Hartman were rebuffed. But with in the last war."7 While the report was
the return of Benedict Crowell to the in preparation, Hogan and his colleagues
War Department, the outlook changed. solicited advice from the Engineers but
As one of Stimson's closest advisers, had little contact with the Quartermaster
Crowell was highly influential. The years Corps. The report produced no tangible
had not dimmed his enthusiasm for a results.8 Even so, the committee's stand
separate construction corps. Shortly after strengthened the Engineer position.
he assumed his new duties, the General 6
(1) Answers to Questionnaire, Hogan to authors,
Staff had before it a proposal for divorc- 2 Aug 57. (2) Pagan Interv, 8 Mar 57. (3) Memo,
Moore for Marshall, 9 Jul 40. G-4/31344-1.
5 7
(1) Presidential Message, 24 May 40. In 86 Rpt, Hogan Comm to ANMB, 10 Jun 40. ANMB
Cong. Rec. 6513. (2) Annual Report of the Chief of En- 334, Comm Members and Min.
8
gineers, U.S. Army, 1940, Part 1, vol. 1, pp. 20, 14. (3) Answers to Questionnaire, Hogan to authors,
Incl with Ltr, Schley to EHD, 5 Sep 53. 2 Aug 57.
THE REORGANIZATION OF LATE 1940 247
While the Hogan committee took the Chief in 1937, General Schley had done
lead in advocating a change, General his best to convince top military leaders
Schley limited his activities to missionary that Engineer officers were "naturals for
work. Visiting appointees to key posts in G-4" and other positions of broad re-
the new defense setup, he told them about sponsibility. On 30 June 1940 six Engi-
his organization, its record and its capa- neer officers, including General Moore,
bilities. After one such interview, he re- were serving with the General Staff and
minded Knudsen: "I called on you a few seven, among them Colonel Schulz, were
days ago to give you a brief outline of the on duty with the Assistant Secretary. The
construction work which is normally done Inspector General, Maj. Gen. Virgil L.
by the Corps of Engineers of the Army Peterson, was also a member of the Corps.
and to explain that the reduction in ap- However impartial they wished to be,
propriations for that purpose in the cur- these men still tended to think as Engi-
rent fiscal year makes it possible for us to neers. As for the industry, one important
take on some national defense construc- segment, the heavy construction con-
tion not already undertaken by other tractors, generally favored the Engineers.
agencies."9 The delicacy of Schley's po- "The Corps, for several years, had been
sition was illustrated by a story he later progressively doing more of its construc-
told. Among the men to whom he talked tion work by contract and less by hired
11
was Harrison. When, a short time after labor," Schley explained. Moreover, dis-
their conversation, the two men met by satisfaction among contractors with Sea-
accident, Harrison asked Schley what he man's handling of the Panama and
was trying to do—pressure him, Harrison, Alaska projects in 1939 and the coolness
into giving Quartermaster construction of many construction men toward "Puck"
to the Engineers. Schley answered that Marshall reacted in the Engineers' favor.
since the Engineers would fall within If the Engineers had important allies,
Harrison's purview an explanation of they also had determined opponents.
their duties and potential had seemed in Hartman was not one to give up a single
order.10 project without a fight. Nor did he lack
In his quest for additional projects, support. Chairman Morris Sheppard of
General Schley was sure to have strong the Senate Military Affairs Committee
support. The Engineers' strength on was in accord with the Quartermaster
Capitol Hill was a well-known fact. The position and so were a number of other
preference of the Chief of Staff and As- legislators. Two sizable groups within the
sistant Secretary Johnson for the Engi- industry—the building construction con-
neers was plainly apparent. What some tractors and the American Society of
failed to appreciate was the number of Civil Engineers—were generally pro-
Engineer officers who held high-level Quartermaster. Moreover, proponents of
posts in the War Department and the a separate corps were certain to resist a
number of friends the Corps had within transfer of defense work to Schley's
the industry. Since his appointment as organization, for it would hurt their own
9
chances of success.
Ltr, Schley to Knudsen, 10 Jul 40. 334 (NDAC)
1940.
10 11
Schley Interv, 26 Oct 55. Incl with Ltr, Schley to EHD, 5 Sep 53.
248 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
During June and July the Engineers ployees of nondefense agencies. The Corps
made slight gains. First, the Corps re- of Engineers fell within the second, non-
ceived approximately $10 million for defense, category. Protesting that many
fortifications. This money, which covered power and navigation projects and all
projects in the United States, Panama, fortifications work could "be properly
and the Insular Departments, was to go described only as defense," Lorence asked
primarily for seacoast defenses.12 Second, that the Engineers be reclassified. The
General DeWitt obtained permission to Secretary's office refused on the grounds
have Engineer troops build two landing that "the Engineer Department as a
fields in the Alaska panhandle. Earlier whole cannot be termed a national de-
plans had contemplated construction of fense agency, particularly with reference
these airstrips by the Civil Aeronautics to its river and harbor work."15 While
Authority.13 Third, General Schley per- Schley's organization seemed headed
suaded Assistant Secretary Johnson to let downhill, Hartman's was coming up. De-
the Corps build a plant at Cincinnati to clining an offer of technical assistance
produce metal mirrors for antiaircraft from Interior Secretary Ickes, Stimson
searchlights—an Engineer responsibility. noted on 2 August: "The Quartermaster
The President allotted $520,000 for the General has greatly augmented the engi-
purpose from the appropriation for expe- neering personnel of his department and
diting production. At Hartman's in- expects to handle satisfactorily with his
sistence, the Quartermaster Corps main- own force the routine design work in-
16
tained a measure of control. The Engineer volved."
officer in charge of the project was the Meanwhile, something was stirring in
CQM and reported to the Construction Congress. On 24 July, at hearings of the
Division.14 These additions to the Engi- House Subcommittee on Military Ap-
neer program, however welcome, were propriations, a significant exchange took
too small to be consequential. place between Representative John Taber
Writing to Secretary Stimson on 23 and General Gregory:
July, Maj. Walter E. Lorence of OCE Mr. Taber. Would you not be a good deal
indicated that districts and divisions were better off if you turned most of that construc-
feeling the pinch. The Civil Service Com- tion of barracks and storehouses, and things
mission had recently classified all federal of that sort, over to the Engineers?
agencies as defense or nondefense. Those General Gregory. I do not think so; no.
Mr. Taber. Give them that job.
in the first category enjoyed important General Gregory. We have a construction
advantages: they could refuse to let their division which we feel is fully adequate to
employees transfer to other government meet the current construction problems. It
departments and they could draft em- has been operating for the last 20 years very
satisfactorily.17
12
OCE Annual Rpt, Mil, FY 1940, pp. 73-74.
13
Karl C. Dod, The Corps of Engineers: The War 15
Against Japan, UNITED STATES ARMY IN Ltr, Lorence to SW, 23 Jul 40, and 1st Ind, 7
WORLD WAR II (Washington, D.C., 1966), p. 19. Aug 40. 4330 (Nat Def) Part 2.
14 16
(1) Elaine A. Nelson, The Construction of the Ltr, Stimson to Ickes, 2 Aug 40. G-4/31872.
17
War Department Metal Mirror Plants (MS), pp. H Subcomm of the Comm on Appns, 76th Cong,
5-6. EHD Files. (2) Memo, TQMG for ASW, 25 Jul 3d sess, Hearings on Second Supplemental National
40. SW Secret Files, 991-1100. Defense Appropriation Bill for 1941, p. 148.
THE REORGANIZATION OF LATE 1940 249
posal. On 19 August he notified the the Quartermaster's side against the Engi-
Senate that he would move to suspend neers. At the September meeting of his
the rules for the purpose of amending executive committee, Managing Director
the appropriation bill as follows: "The Harding explained:
Secretary of War may allocate to the On the question of the amendment to the
Corps of Engineers any of the construc- last appropriation bill, the heat was terrible
tion works required to carry out the here. But I consulted with the President,
national-defense program and may trans- Mr. Zachry, and we felt that there was only
fer to that agency the funds necessary for one course for us to follow and that was to
be neutral. A great many of our members
the execution of the works so allocated."24 are doing work for the Army and a great
As one senator remarked, the proposed many are doing work for the Engineer Corps.
amendment was "slight in verbiage but In addition to that, it was a family fight and
25
rather important in consequence." we felt very definitely that it should be han-
After reading McKellar's proposal in dled inside the Army. . . . We knew
that the Assistant Secretary of War, who is
the Congressional Record, Hartman went in charge of the construction program, and
to Secretary Stimson, who was sympa- the Chief of Staff, General Marshall, were in
thetic but said his hands were tied. Stim- sympathy with this legislation; that they had
son explained that in his absence Schley recommended to the Congress that this legis-
and Schulz had brought in a letter favor- lation be passed and, therefore, it would be
very ungracious for us to tell them that they
ing the amendment and Patterson had weren't running the Army right.
signed it. With Hartman present, Stimson
called the Assistant Secretary into his Harding had received assurances that the
office and inquired why he had signed. Engineers would do the work by contract
Patterson replied that the two Engineer rather than by day labor.27 Unlike the
officers had "very forcibly presented the general contractors, the specialty group
matter as one in the national defense," opposed the amendment, but their pro-
and that inasmuch as he had been in tests came too late to affect the outcome.28
office only two weeks, he "necessarily With no time to rally effective support,
had to take the recommendations of Hartman resorted to a stratagem. "Steps
senior officers such as General Schley, the were taken," he related, "to have the
Chief of Engineers, and Colonel Schulz, Senate change the wording of the bill in
one of his own assistants." Because Patter- any manner possible so that it would be
son had acted in good faith, Stimson was thrown into conference, at which time I
unwilling to ask that the amendment be hoped that we could present our side of
stricken from the bill. But it was Hart- the case and show the lack of need for
man's understanding that any steps taken such a law."29
by the Quartermaster Corps to kill the On 29 August, as the second supple-
provision would meet with the Secre- mental moved toward a vote in the upper
tary's approval.26 house, Senator McKellar offered the
Hartman was at a disadvantage. For 27
Min of Mtg, Exec Comm of AGC, 16 Sep 40,
the first time, the AGC refused to take pp. 5-6. AGC Files.
28
Ltr, O. R. McGuire to Chm S Comm on Com-
24
86 Cong. Rec. 10470. merce, 5 Sep 40. Rcds of U.S. Senate, Rcd Gp 46, H
25
86 Cong. Rec. 11633. R9972.
26 29
Statement of Gen Hartman, 5 Jul 55, p. 14. Statement of Gen Hartman, 5 Jul 55, p. 15.
THE REORGANIZATION OF LATE 1940 251
amendment on behalf of the Appropri- ported in disagreement by the conference
ations Committee. Four words had been committee, the amendment still had to
added to the text—the Engineers could clear the House of Representatives.33
be assigned construction work "in their The final hurdle was quickly crossed.
usual line." Little was said on the Senate When the Joint Conference Committee
floor. The only comment came from reported the bill to the House on 5 Sep-
Senator Arthur H. Vandenberg, who tember, Representative Woodrum sug-
called attention to the long-standing gested two changes in the amendment—
controversy between the construction that the new authority be limited to 30
services. "This is the first time that the June 1942 and that the phrase "in their
Quartermaster Corps has lost," he said, usual line" be eliminated. In answer to
"and the first time the Corps of Engineers objections against the rider, Woodrum
has won." A routine question by Senator emphasized that General Marshall had
Wallace H. White, Jr., a reply by Senator expressed his complete approval of the
McKellar, and that was all there was to amendment when he appeared before
it. The Senate agreed to the amendment.30 the conferees. There were no further
The House and Senate conferees met questions. The House approved the bill
to consider the bill early in September. as amended, with the changes Woodrum
Reports reaching Hartman indicated that had proposed, on 6 September 1940; the
all but one of the conferees had agreed Senate agreed to the House version the
to eliminate the rider and that the Chief following day; and on 9 September the
of Staff had then been called to testify.31 President signed the bill.34
One of the conferees, Representative Clif- A week before this bill became law,
ton A. Woodrum of Virginia, summarized the Destroyer-Base Agreement was signed
Marshall's testimony: at Washington. In exchange for fifty
General Marshall very emphatically en- overage warships, Great Britain granted
dorsed this provision. He pointed out the the United States the right to establish
fact that it in no way was an effort to tread bases in the Bahamas, Trinidad, Jamaica,
upon the prerogatives of the Quartermaster Antigua, St. Lucia, and British Guiana
General, that the Quartermaster General and, as a "gift" to the American people,
of the Army customarily was geared up to
do a construction total of about $10,000,000 added leaseholds in Newfoundland and
a year, that under the defense program that Bermuda. Anticipating approval of the
figure had been skyrocketed to something McKellar amendment, General Marshall
like half a billion dollars, and that he did on 6 September assigned construction at
not have the set-up to do this work, whereas these bases to the Corps of Engineers.
they had in many places over the country
district engineers of the Army all set up and By the 25th Schley's office had completed
ready to go, especially qualified to do this a rough estimate based on plans of the
work, and they could32 go right into the General Staff. The cost would be up-
program immediately. wards of $200 million. An immediate
Although Marshall made a deep impres- allotment of $25 million from the Presi-
sion, the issue remained in doubt. Re- dent's emergency fund enabled the Engi-
30 33
86 Cong. Rec. 11200. 86 Cong. Rec. 11554.
31 34
Statement of Gen Hartman, 5 Jul 55, p. 15. (1) 86 Cong. Rec. 11560, 11631-11634 (2) 54
32
86 Cong. Rec. 11560. Stat. 875.
252 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
neers to make an early start. An order gains. They had a substantial program
from Marshall that $1 75 million be made and more work was in prospect. Many
available before the end of the fiscal year of their new projects, civil as well as
for work in the British possessions indi- military, were vital to defense. The Civil
35
cated the urgency of the task. Service Commission recognized the Corps
The Engineer program assumed new as a defense agency and placed the Engi-
dimensions as the Corps received ad- neer Department and all of its employees
ditional funds and fresh responsibilities. in the protected category.37 But General
Under the supplemental defense ap- Schley could not rest easy. He still had
propriation acts of 9 September and 8 to contend with the faction that favored
October 1940, the Engineers got $6.7 a separate construction corps.
million for seacoast fortifications. The
First Supplemental Civil Functions Ap- A Separate Corps?
propriation Act for 1941, approved on
9 October 1940, carried some $13 million By September 1940 Benedict Crowell
for navigation improvements, flood con- was deep in plans for reorganizing the
trol work, and enlargement of the power War Department. Working with Arthur
plant at Bonneville Dam. This same act E. Palmer, a young attorney from Stim-
appropriated $40 million for airport con- son's law firm, he reviewed the existing
struction by the Civil Aeronautics Au- setup in the light of his World War I
thority. The Department of Commerce experience. A strong assistant secretary,
viewed this as the beginning of a large- centralized control over all Army pro-
scale effort which would cost $500 million curement, and close ties with industry
and include 3, 100 airfields. By agreement were among his principal objectives. De-
between Secretary Jesse H. Jones and scribing Crowell's plan for an indepen-
Secretary Stimson, the Engineer Depart- dent Construction Division, another of
ment would perform extensive survey and Stimson's assistants, John J. McCloy,
construction work for CAA. An act of said: "[He] felt that a separate agency
17 October 1940 further enlarged the should be set up ... and that it
Engineers' role in emergency construction should not be exclusively under
by authorizing twenty-two new rivers the direction of the Quartermaster
and harbors projects in the interest of General. . . . He placed a great
national defense. By early November the deal of stress on the use of officials from
Corps was in line for yet another assign- the construction industry and he did feel
ment—supervision of all WPA projects that civilian control of it was essential."38
at military and civilian airfields.36 Crowell intended to re-establish the Con-
The Engineers had made impressive struction Division of the Army and place
it under Patterson.
35
(1) Langer and Gleason, Challenge to Isolation, While Crowell's construction plan was
pp. 766-69. (2) David Latt, Engineers in the British-
Owned Bases, 1940-1943 (MS), pp. 3-7. EHD Files. taking shape, a fundamental weakness in
36
(1) 54 Stat. 872, 965, 1030. (2) Ltr, Asst Secy of the Quartermaster organization was be-
Commerce to ASW, 23 Aug 40, and Incl. WPD
37
4239 to 18 Incl. (3) Ltr, Stimson to Jones, 21 Oct CSC Circ Ltr 2896, Suppl 7, 20 Sep 40. 4330
40. 321.7. (4) 54 Stat. 895. (5) Memo, Sup Div G-4 for Part 1, Ser 1-30.
38
Reybold, 5 Nov 40. 600.1-425. Ltr, McCloy to authors, 13 Aug 57.
THE REORGANIZATION OF LATE 1940 253
coming apparent. As early as 19 Sep- pressure."42 This attitude was contagious.
tember 1940 Maj. Sidney P. Simpson of Unsatisfactory progress and rising costs
Patterson's staff had concluded that were generally ascribed to bungling by
shortages of personnel, particularly of the Quartermaster Corps. Stimson and
officers, lay at the root of Hartman's Patterson became more and more con-
difficulties. A study of the Construction cerned. After Armistice Day events
Division had convinced Simpson that the moved rapidly toward a showdown.
organizational machinery was sound and On 12 November, in a confidential
that all would go well if only enough memorandum to Patterson, Major Simp-
qualified men could be found to run it. son recommended removing the Con-
But enough such men could not be found. struction Division from the Quarter-
Throughout the fall of 1940 Hartman master Corps and placing it directly
had to struggle along with two to three under the Assistant Secretary. An investi-
hundred fewer officers than he needed.39 gation of the division's persistent shortage
Moreover, numbers told an incomplete of officers had convinced Simpson that
story, for, as Hartman pointed out, the such a step was "basic to the effective
Division had "to take any officer even carrying out of the construction pro-
with remote construction experience in gram." Under the existing arrangement,
40
order to get the jobs . . . staffed." Hartman was unable to select and assign
The makeup of his civilian staff reflected his own personnel. Moreover, Gregory's
this same expediency. The lack of quali- insistence that "all papers to or from the
fied personnel was unquestionably Hart- Construction Division" be routed through
man's crudest handicap. his office was delaying orders for sorely
Some of his critics failed to recognize needed officers. Before the personnel
this fact. Madigan and Harrison seemed problem could be solved, Simpson be-
to think that the crying need was for lieved the division would have to be freed
better management. They displayed from the "straight-jacket organizational
growing impatience with Quartermaster set-up in the Quartermaster Corps."
systems of cost control, job planning, and Citing the precedent of World War I,
progress reporting. When Hartman con- he argued the necessity of "relieving
tinually disregarded their advice, they what is fundamentally a civilian under-
came to view him as "a complete road taking from the dead hand of orthodox
block."41 Hogan agreed with them. He military organization." Having learned
attributed confusion in the program "to from Crowell that the Secretary's office
Hartman's ignorance of the principles of was studying a plan for a separate corps,
delegation of authority . . . , his Simpson suggested that Patterson sit back
lack of judgment and vacillation under and await developments. The Assistant
39
Secretary passed the memo on to Madi-
(1) Memo, Simpson for Patterson, 19 Sep 40. gan for comment.43
QM 022 (Constr Div) Confidential. (2) QM 326.21
42
QMGO, Asgmt for Active Duty, 1940. Answers to Questionnaire, Hogan to authors, 2
40
Memo, Hartman for McCloy, 2 Dec 40. QM Aug 57.
43
210.312-1940. (1) Memo, Simpson for Patterson, 12 Nov 40,
41
Madigan Interv, 18 Jun 56. See also Madigan and Incl. (2) Memo, Patterson for Madigan, 12
Files, 101.1 (Canton Design and Constr) and 100.3 Nov 40, Both in Madigan Files, 100.3 (FF BrCon-
(FF Br Constr Div—Orgn). str Div—Orgn).
254 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
lowing day he explained his reasons: man takes no suggestions," said Moore.
The construction under the Air Corps "No planning in his office or in the field,"
Expansion Program so far has gone forward Reybold declared. Harrison had some
without any delays that could have been words of appreciation. "Hartman and
avoided . . . . his six top men are faced with the hardest
I am convinced that if, in the midst of this job in the Army," he said. "They are
program, decision is made to take all of this
construction work out from under The Quar- getting a lot done and well done, but,"
termaster General and place it under he agreed, "there could be great im-
52
the Corps of Engineers the amount of con- provement." Marshall asked each man,
fusion that would accrue would result in in turn, whether Hartman ought to go.
chaos for weeks and fatal delay when these All replied yes. The Chief of Staff rose,
Air Corps new stations are so badly needed
for early occupancy. shook hands all around, and thanked
each man for coming. Whether he in-
If a transfer took place, he wanted to tended to follow their advice, he did not
confine it to projects not yet well under- say.53
way. He also wanted assurance that jobs Within a short time after this con-
costing $ 1 million or more would be done ference, an effort was under way to side-
by fixed-fee contract.50 Kennedy's oppo- track Hartman. Whether because, as
sition was ineffective. On the 18th, after some believed, Marshall was reluctant to
a second conference with Moore and act or because, as others reported, Greg-
Reybold, General Marshall ordered that ory fought stubbornly for Hartman, the
construction at all Air Corps stations, strategy had changed. A search was on
except those in Panama, go over to the for a man who could go in as Deputy
Engineers without delay. On 19 Novem- Chief of Construction and assume au-
ber Reybold issued the directive.51 thority. Groves was Gregory's choice for
That same day, Marshall held a con- the deputy's job, and Hartman agreed to
ference in his office to discuss the Quarter- take him. 54 "It had been or was about
master construction effort. Among those to be announced that I was appointed
present were Madigan, Harrison, Hogan, as Deputy to Hartman," Groves remi-
Moore, and Reybold. No Quartermaster nisced. "When I first joined the Con-
officer attended. Madigan set the tone of struction Division on November 14th, I
the meeting. After expounding his ideas was designated Chief of the Fixed Fee
on estimates, schedules, and progress re- Branch. A short time later I took over all
ports, he told the others, "Take it from operations and had already assumed
one who came up from waterboy that many of the prerogatives of Deputy
you can't reorganize a job by keeping Chief."55 This arrangement did not long
the same superintendent." Hogan,
Moore, and Reybold joined in an in- 52
Notes of Conf in OCofS, 19 Nov 40. OCS, Notes
dictment of Hartman. "Hartman does on Confs, 26 Sep 40—.
53
too much himself," Hogan said. "Hart- (1) Ibid. (2) Answers to Questionnaire, Hogan
to authors, 2 Aug 57. (3) Memo, Madigan for Patter-
son, 19 Nov 40.
50 54
Memo, Kennedy for Moore, 15 Nov 40. G-4/ (1) Groves Comments, V, 2-3. (2) Madigan
31343. Interv, 18 Jun 56; Burns Interv, 24 May 56; Groves
51
D/S, G-4 to TAG, 19 Nov 40, and record Interv, 19 Jun 56.
55
thereon. 6-4/31324. Groves Second Draft Comments, VII, 5.
256 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
in the field sensed that Somervell, "a would issue orders to his regional repre-
much bigger fish" than Hartman, had sentatives, who would, in turn, direct the
taken over the construction duties of The Constructing Quartermasters. At each
Quartermaster General.75 Questioned level of authority, the responsible officer
about this later, General Gregory said: would have his own advisers. Policy
My policy has always been if anybody is matters would be decided in Washing-
placed in charge of a job, let him do it. I ton; local problems would be settled on
don't try to run it for them. So if he was put the spot. Up-to-date management meth-
in charge of Construction Division, he was ods and good public relations completed
in charge of Construction Division, although Somervell's organizational formula.78
I expected if anything went wrong and I
said to correct it, I wanted it corrected. As On 16 December 1940, his fifth day in
far as his demanding anything like that office, Somervell reorganized the Con-
[a blank check], I don't think that is true. struction Division. (Chart 6} He reduced
Hartman's eleven branches to five—Ad-
Somervell hardly needed a carte blanche
ministrative, Accounts, Engineering,
agreement, such was the high-level sup-
Operations, and Real Estate. Adminis-
port he could count on. He had, as
trative absorbed personnel functions
Gregory put it, "a pipeline to General
which had been in the Executive Office.
Marshall" and could "go around Moore
76 Accounts took in the former Funds and
and Reybold and get what he wanted."
Estimates and Accounting and Auditing
He enjoyed Stimson's admiration and
Branches. Engineering annexed the
respect. Most important, he had the con-
Liaison and Legal Branches and con-
fidence of Hopkins and the President.
tracting groups from other sections of the
The door to the White House was always
office. Operations incorporated the
open to him and those with whom he
77 former Fixed Fee, Lump Sum, Procure-
dealt were not likely to forget it.
ment and Expediting, and Repairs and
Somervell knew what he wanted in the
Utilities Branches. Of all Hartman's
way of an organization. He favored a
branches, only Real Estate remained un-
type of setup known as line and staff and
changed. Somervell added two new sec-
characterized by a high degree of de-
tions to the Executive Office; the first,
centralization, a minimum number of
Control, was to be a management unit,
bosses, and a sharp distinction between
preparing statistics and reports and co-
those who gave orders and those who
ordinating the work of the various
advised. Applied to the Quartermaster
branches; the second, Public Relations,
structure, line and staff principles sug-
was to place the construction story before
gested three levels of authority—Con- 79
the public. Details of the new organi-
struction Division, regional offices, and
zation were left for later. Further changes
project offices. The Chief of Construction
would take place after the branch chiefs
75
had conferred. With the program at a
Thomas Interv, 27 Dec 55. 78
76
Verbatim Rpt, Meeting with Gregory and (1) John D. Millett, The Works Progress Adminis-
Hastings. tration in New York City (Chicago: Public Administra-
77
(1) Stimson Diary, 19 Dec 40, 2 Jan 41. (2) tion Service, 1938), p. 67ff. (2) Incl, n.d., with
Intervs with Pirnie and Voorhees, 14 Jan 58; Gen Constr Div Ltr 361, 22 Jul 41. EHD Files.
79
Groves, 19 Jun 56; Brig. Gen. Clarence Renshaw, OQMG Office Order 137, 14 Dec 40. Opns Br
13 Feb 59. Files, Orgn and Consolidation.
262 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
critical stage, Somervell believed "the Robinson, CE, another alumnus of the
reorganization should be one of evolution New York City relief agency. The public
rather than revolution." From his office relations assignment fell to George S.
came the reminder: "The Construction Holmes, veteran newspaperman and
Division is a going concern in the midst former Washington correspondent for the
of a huge program. Our efforts should Scripps-Howard chain. As his deputy and
strive to help this living organization run executive officer, Somervell chose an old
more efficiently, more smoothly with a friend and fellow Engineer officer, Lt.
bit more speed."80 Col. Wilhelm D. Styer. Most of these
Of the old branch chiefs, only two men were relatively young and promis-
retained their positions. Groves headed ing. Except for Holmes and Valliant,
Operations and Valliant continued as none had reached his forty-eighth birth-
chief of Real Estate. Other top posts day. Younger later rose to be a brigadier
went to newcomers. Lt. Col. James W. general; Leavey and Robinson, to be
Younger, QMC, recently of the Assistant major generals; Styer and Groves, to be
Secretary's office, took over the Adminis- lieutenant generals. Significantly, Somer-
trative Branch. Lt. Col. Walter A. vell's staff included four Engineer officers.
Pashley, QMC, holder of a Master's This group began almost at once to
degree in Business Administration from transform the Construction Division.
Harvard University, became head of the Branch chiefs soon were busy with plans
Accounts Branch. Engineering went to for internal reorganization and before
Lt. Col. Edmond H. Leavey, CE, former long were shifting units from one office
deputy administrator of the New York to another, seeking additional space, and
City WPA, Control, to Capt. Clinton F. studying personnel requirements. On 20
80
December Somervell inaugurated a series
Memo, Office Chief Constr Div OQMG for
Chief Admin Br, 18 Dec 40. Opns Br Files, Office of weekly staff conferences. A short time
Memos, 12/19/40-4/30/41. later Holmes issued his first press release.
THE REORGANIZATION OF LATE 1940 263
By the end of the month Robinson was viously done in Washington. The ZCQM
ready to begin publishing a weekly would supervise and control all CQM's
progress report.81 Meanwhile, the new within his territory; make frequent in-
Chief of Construction pushed on toward spections of projects; award advertised
his next objective, establishment of contracts for $500,000 or less without
regional offices. consulting Washington; represent The
Within a week of Somervell's coming, Quartermaster General in dealing with
rumors of impending change had begun respective corps area commanders; and,
to circulate. The press carried reports in fact, relieve the chief of the Con-
that building work would soon go to the struction Division of "any problems
corps areas. Old construction hands came which are susceptible of proper solution
83
forward with advice and encouragement. locally." Somervell called the zones the
On 17 December Somervell acknowl- "backbone" of his organization. "The
edged that he wished to make a change Zone Quartermasters must function," he
but said that details were still uncertain. told his staff. "If they don't, we won't."84
Behind the scenes he worked to clear the Nevertheless, Somervell, like Hartman,
way for territorial zones. He instructed recognized the need for strong centralized
Styer to draft an order setting forth the control over design, contract negotiations,
authority and responsibilities of the zones. and other advisory and directive func-
He told Younger to decide whether the tions. Such functions remained in his own
new offices should be established by law, office.
Army Regulation, or official instructions. The nine newly appointed zone con-
He asked Groves to recommend men who structing quartermasters who reported to
could serve as Zone Constructing General Gregory early in January had
82
Quartermasters. By Christmas, all was been singled out by Groves as the best
in readiness. men available. Three came from CQM
A War Department Circular of 30 De- and Vicinity offices, the archetypes, if
cember 1940 established nine territorial such there were, of the zones. Five came
construction zones having the same from important projects, where they had
boundaries and headquarters as the nine made excellent records as CQM's. All
corps areas. (Map 2) Heading each zone were Quartermaster Regulars and career
would be a Zone Constructing Quarter- construction officers. When the group
master (ZCQM), responsible to The had assembled, Gregory announced their
Quartermaster General. The zone offices assignments. Maj. Ralph G. Richards
would be miniature Construction Di- would head the First Zone; Lt. Col.
visions, doing much of the work pre- Murdock A. McFadden, the Second;
Maj. Joseph H. Burgheim, the Third;
81
(1) Opns Br Files, Office Memos, Dec 40-Apr 41. Col. Henry L. Green, the Fourth; Maj.
Opns Br Files, Pers, Dec 40-Apr 41. (2) Min, Constr Benjamin F. Vandervoort, the Fifth; and
Div Staff Mtg, 20 Dec 40. EHD Files. (3) Memo,
Holmes for PubRelO OQMG, 31 Dec 40. (4) Con- Capt. Everett C. Hayden, the Sixth.
str Div OQMG, Constr Progress Charts 1, 2 Jan 41.
82
Maj. Morton E. Townes, Lt. Col. Edwin
(1) Ltr, Somervell to CG Seventh Corps Area,
83
17 Dec 40, and related correspondence in QM WD Circular 158, Sec 1.
84
323.362. (2) Opns Br Files, Territorial Zones; and Notes, Conf on Orgn of Constr Div, attended by
Pers, Dec 40-Apr41. members of Constr Div, 22 Feb 41. EHD Files.
THE REORGANIZATION OF LATE 1940 265
V. Dunstan, and Lt. Col. Edward M. the background. Others resigned or trans-
George were named to Zones Seven, ferred out. Koke left in mid-December,
Eight, and Nine, respectively. After three following a disagreement with Somervell
days of conferences, the Zone Construct- over auditing procedures.89 Violante was
ing Quartermasters left to take up their relieved at his own request early in Jan-
duties in the field.85 uary, after informing Somervell that he
Aware that no organization, however "was not in tune with his administra-
streamlined, was better than the men tion."90 Some twenty Constructing
who composed it, Somervell gave con- Quartermasters were ousted from their
siderable thought to personnel. He set projects. Scores of lesser figures were
exacting standards. His subordinate offi- struck down by what some called the
cers would have to be aggressive leaders, "Somervell blitz." Yet the number af-
capable of hard work and sound judg- fected was comparatively small; a ma-
ment; his civilian advisers, eminent pro- jority of Hartman's people continued in
fessionals, top men in their fields. His their jobs. "That we have not had more
staff would include "operators" with im- poor ones, I think, is a question of luck,
86
portant industrial connections. Somer- to a considerable extent," Somervell com-
vell put a premium on youth and drive. mented, "and also the good judgment of
Given "an enthusiastic younger man" the people who picked them out."91
and "an older, more experienced person The need for more officers sparked a
who has lost some of his steam," he recruiting drive. The search led naturally
generally preferred the former.87 Go- to the Corps of Engineers. Two days after
getters, crack executives, and prominent Christmas, Styer asked the Chief's office
consultants—these were the men who for the loan of several Regulars, but the
would henceforth run the program. Any- Engineers, also short of officers, refused.
one who failed to measure up would have "This source of supply," Styer concluded,
to go. Once convinced that a man was "cannot be considered at the present
unsuited for his job, Somervell intended time."92 Somervell was not so easily dis-
to act fast. "I will not talk . . . ," couraged. At his prompting, Gregory on
he told Reybold. "I will just move."88 30 December appealed to Schley for
A personnel shakeup accompanied the three officers to fill key positions in the
reorganization. Key members of Hart- Construction Division. Gregory's letter,
man's team received less important posts. reinforced by an appeal from Somervell
Birdseye became Styer's assistant; Nurse, to Marshall, turned the trick. Early in
Leavey's executive. Men like Bayer and January two Engineers, Maj. Hugh J.
Leisenring, who had been prominent in Casey and Capt. Edmund K. Daley,
the division's affairs, found themselves in joined Colonel Leavey, and a third, Capt.
85
Garrison H. Davidson, joined Colonel
WD Press Release, 6 Jan 41, Nine ZCQM's
89
Appointed. EHD Files. Incl with Ltr, Koke to authors, 25 May 59.
86 90
Memo, Somervell to Br Chiefs, 21 Jan 41. Answers to Questionnaire, Violante to authors,
Opns Br Files, Gen—16 Dec 40-2 Jun 41. 2591Sep 57.
87
Memo, Somervell for Control Sec, 2 Apr 41. Transcript, Conf on Constr Div, conducted by
Opns Br Files, Management Engrg Unit. Somervell, 29 Jan 41, p. 74. EHD Files.
88 92
Tel Conv, Somervell and Reybold, 18 Dec 40. Memo, Styer for Younger, 28 Dec 40. Opns Br
Opns Br Files, Wallace. Files, Pers, Dec 40-Apr 41.
266 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
Groves. Schley made the loan on one cepted full-time employment with the
condition—Gregory had to agree to re- Engineering Branch were George E.
lease the three officers in June.93 Bergstrom, president of the American
The hunt fanned out in many direc- Institute of Architects; Frederick H.
tions. Gregory asked The Surgeon Gen- Fowler, president of the American So-
eral and the Chief of Ordnance to lend ciety of Civil Engineers; Warren H.
officers who could help design hospitals McBryde, past president of the American
and industrial plants. Somervell re- Society of Mechanical Engineers; Albert
quested twenty West Point graduates of D. Taylor, president of the American
the class of 1941. Styer meanwhile tried Society of Landscape Architects; and
to borrow officers from other divisions in Leonard C. Urquhart, professor of struc-
Gregory's office. A search of Retired and tural engineering at Cornell. Discussing
Reserve lists yielded many good possi- these appointments, Groves wrote:
bilities. Members of the Construction Di- The reason for selecting these prominent
vision were constantly on the lookout for men was not so much for the expected ac-
prospects. A chance meeting with an old complishments, but rather to have a group
acquaintance or a letter from a fellow in whom the professional men and profes-
officer was often enough to start negoti- sional societies, as well as the public, would
have full confidence. Somervell hoped, and
ations. While some of these schemes came his hopes were fulfilled, that this would im-
to naught, others bore fruit. The list of prove the public attitude toward the Con-
officers on construction duty grew steadily struction Division.95
longer. Many of the men Somervell
Besides the distinguished men who be-
brought in did excellent work; most,
came regular employees, there were some
though by no means all, proved compe-
who agreed to act as consultants.
tent.94
Rudolph W. Van Norden and Malcolm
Somervell set out to acquire a staff of
Pirnie, both well-known engineers, put
outstanding civilians and in this he suc-
their knowledge and experience at Somer-
ceeded. The list of prominent men who
vell's disposal. Richmond H. Shreve,
came to work for the Construction Di-
whose firm, Shreve, Lamb & Harmon,
vision read like a roster of "who's who"
had designed the Empire State and other
in engineering and allied professions.
large buildings, advised on architectural
Alonzo J. Hammond, president of the
matters. Among others who served on a
American Engineering Council, joined
part-time basis were Earnest Boyce, pro-
the Construction Advisory Committee.
fessor of sanitary engineering at the Uni-
Henry A. Stix, vice president and comp-
versity of Kansas; John G. Eadie, mem-
troller of the Associated Gas and Electric
ber of Eadie, Freund and Campbell,
Company, agreed to manage the di-
consulting engineers of New York City;
vision's finances. Among those who ac-
George B. Hills, an authority on the
(1) Ltr, Gregory to Schley, 30 Dec 40. Opns Br design of docks and terminals; Alfred L.
93
Files, Pers, Dec 40-Apr 41. (2) Schley Interv, 26 Jaros, an expert on installation of me-
Oct 55; Reybold Interv, 12 Mar 59. (3) Verbatim
Rpt, Meeting with Gregory and Hastings. (4) Ltr, chanical equipment; and Charles R.
OCE to TAG, 2 Jan 41. Opns Br Files, Misc Papers. Velzy, works superintendent of the
94
Opns Br Files, Pers, Dec 40-Apr 41, and May 41- 95
Jan 42. Groves Comments, VI, 2.
THE REORGANIZATION OF LATE 1940 267
bold, 27 Nov 40. G-4/32249. (3) Memo, Nurse for contracts and approximately $80 million.
Tompkins, 2 Dec 40, and Incl. 686 (Airfields) Part 1. Roughly 20 jobs, some primarily housing
102
Ltr, Nurse to CQM's, 30 Nov 40. QM 600.1
104
(Bowman Fld). (1) Incl with Ltr, Schley to EHD, 5 Sep 53. (2)
103
(1) Ltr, Dist Engr Los Angeles to OCE, 6 Dec Memo, G-1 for OCE, 7 Dec 40. 210.3-1534. (3)
40. (2) 1st Ind, 7 Dec 40, on Ltr, North Atlantic Div Hansen, Transfer of AC Constr to CE, pp. 28, 31-32.
to Dist Engr, Providence, R.I., 3 Dec 40. (3) OCE (4) Annual Report Covering Military Activities of
Memo (Finance 86) (Fld Pers 26), 9 Dec 40. All in the Corps of Engineers for the Fiscal Year Ending
686 (Airfields) Part 1. June 30, 1941, p. 24.
THE REORGANIZATION OF LATE 1940 271
projects and most near completion, con- TABLE 11—COST OF AIR CORPS PROJECTS
tinued under the Quartermaster Corps.
By 1 April 1941 the transfer was over and Projects by Type Estimated Cost
done with.105
During and after the changeover, the Total. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 2 8 6 , 6 7 4 , 0 0 0
Corps of Engineers and the Quarter- Tactical stations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 1 5 5 , 9 1 3 , 0 0 0
master Corps maintained close liaison. Pilot s c h o o l s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26,612,000
Somervell placed the facilities of his office Technical s c h o o l s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28,577,000
at General Robins' disposal. Sheafs of Air Corps d e p o t s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31,572,000
Quartermaster circulars, manuals, re- Experimental d e p o t s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6,800,000
ports, and standard drawings and specifi- Aircraft assembly plants. . . . . . . . . . . 37,200,000
cations went to OCE for distribution to
the field. Colonel Leavey's staff continued Source: Ltr, OCE to BOB, 28 Mar 41. 686 (Airfields) Part 9.
by using WPA, and by reviving "the Army millions. Reports from his in-
American Army principle of extempor- spectors indicated that attempts to rush
izing facilities in the field." General completion had inspired reckless spend-
2
Marshall agreed to try the plan. ing. Overtime, duplicate purchases, and
Two days before he presented this "other costly procedures" were prevalent.
proposal, Reybold agreed to a new sched- Peterson proposed to put a stop to all this.
ule for housing the National Guard. Since Soon after learning of the new induction
late November he had been debating schedule, he wrote General Marshall,
camp completion dates with Col. Harry "This postponement . . . materi-
L. Twaddle, the new Assistant Chief of ally increases the time available for com-
Staff, G-3. By 1 December, the two men pletion of the various construction proj-
had agreed on induction dates for all ects . . . and, in my opinion,
Guard units except those slated for In- should permit their completion in an
diantown Gap, Forrest, and Wood. In orderly and economical manner." He
Reybold's opinion the first of these three went on to suggest that General Gregory
camps could not be finished until Febru- be ordered to "eliminate all unnecessary
5
ary, the others not until April. Twaddle expenditures."
insisted that all be ready in January. Peterson became the proponent of a
The two men settled their differences on new scheme for saving money. Twaddle
5 December. Next day they issued a new had recently recommended that Guard
timetable: Camp Robinson in December; units inducted after mid-February remain
Camps Edwards, Claiborne, Shelby, and at peace strength until June. Selectees
San Luis Obispo in January; and Camps earmarked for these units would not go
Forrest, Meade, Blanding, and Indian- directly to the Guard camps as originally
town Gap in February. With the excep- intended, but instead would receive thir-
tion of Camp Leonard Wood, now listed teen weeks of basic training at replace-
for 1 April, the remaining projects in the ment training centers before joining the
original Guard program would be ready Guardsmen. This plan, if approved by
by the end of January.3 Committed to the Chief of Staff, would affect three
the new schedule, Reybold wrote to divisions and a number of separate regi-
Gregory, "It is vitally important that ments slated for Blanding, Dix, Indian-
the accommodations be completed on the town Gap, Forrest, and Wood. While
dates specified."4 Marshall deliberated, Peterson discovered
The postponement of induction dates that these projects were working overtime
led Inspector General Peterson to de- in an effort to complete by March ac-
mand stricter economy. Unnecessary commodations which, under Twaddle's
haste, he maintained, was costing the plan, would not be fully occupied until
June. The replacement training centers
2
Memo, Reybold for Marshall, 7 Dec 40, and were also going full speed. The Inspector
concurrence thereon. G-4/32243.
3
(1) G-4/31948. (2) WD Ltr AG 325 (12-5-40)
General warned Marshall that using ex-
M-C-M to All Army and Corps Area Commanders, pensive methods to complete buildings
6 Dec 40, sub: Induction Dates for NG Units, and
Incl. 325.37 Part 1.
4 5
Memo, Reybold for Gregory, 6 Dec 40. G- Memo, Peterson for Marshall, 13 Dec 40. G-
4/31948. 4/3I948.
COMPLETING THE CAMPS 275
which would stand vacant for several have to be gone back over again
months could "only result in just and it would probably cost more than the
unfavorable criticism of the War De- payment of overtime to complete the
7
partment." Anticipating Marshall's ap- entire facility at one time."
proval of Twaddle's proposal, Peterson Colonel Groves, who carried major
recommended that The Quartermaster responsibility for the camp projects, was
General wait until spring to house se- also against Peterson's proposal. He had
lectees at Guard camps.6 already adopted some of the suggested
G-4 considered Peterson's plan ill- methods to save time but doubted they
advised. Acting in Reybold's absence, could save money. Groves shared with
Colonel Chamberlin commented on the civilian engineers the opinion "that it
scheme. To postpone construction for costs more money to bring troops into
selectees, Chamberlin maintained, the your camp before the camp is com-
8
Army would have to follow one of two pleted." Moreover, he contended, since
courses. First, it could ask each contractor premium pay was necessary to hold labor
to complete a section of his camp large at defense jobs, any attempt to reduce
enough to house the peace-strength units. costs by cutting overtime would deprive
Guardsmen would take over the finished the projects of essential workers and thus
sections, with pairs of half-strength units delay construction for peace-strength
occupying quarters intended eventually units as well as for selectees.9 General
for single units at full strength. Then the Moore soon joined Groves in opposing
contractor would complete the camp. the Inspector's plan.
When selectees arrived, each unit would On 19 December, in a memorandum
jump to full strength and move to its for Marshall, Moore attacked Peterson's
permanent area. Second, the Army could position, warning that the Army must
ask a contractor to build throughout an focus on its objective—"the mobilization
entire camp, leaving out every other and training of our troops in the least
barracks, omitting parts of the hospital, practicable time." Noting that Congress
and in general completing enough of the had appropriated almost one billion
camp to enable peace-strength units to dollars for expediting production of mu-
move into their permanent areas. Later nitions and airplanes, he stated:
on, the contractor could retrace his steps, Under such circumstances I think we are
putting in the buildings he had skipped justified in incurring additional expense in
before. Chamberlin opposed both courses. "expediting production" of shelter for troops
He said of the first: "This method would in spite of "hell and high water" (particu-
entirely defeat the principle of mobili- larly the latter), so that we may have a
zation. Each unit when it comes in should trained force ready at the earliest practicable
date.
be put in its own area so that it can Although we may be subject to some
organize that area ... to receive
the additional men in orderly fashion"; 7
Memo, Chamberlin for Moore, 18 Dec 40.
and of the second: "Since the area would G-4/31981 Sec 1.
8
Testimony of W. C. Roberts, Proj Engr at Ft
Meade, Md, 29 Apr 41. In Truman Comm Hearings,
6
Memo, Peterson for Marshall, 17 Dec 40. Opns Part 2, p. 465.
9
Br Files, Insp Rpts. Memo, Chamberlin for Moore, 18 Dec 40.
276 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
economy minded criticism for pushing con- construction deficit remained, this atti-
struction at additional expense under ad- tude would prevail.
verse winter conditions, we would be subject
to more justified criticism if we permit
"logistical" financial considerations to govern Additional Funds
under the present situation.
Besides, he said, carrying out Peterson's Wiping out the deficit was high on
plan would be difficult if not impossible. Somervell's agenda. When he took over
Agreeing with his deputy, Marshall pen- the Construction Division, the known
ciled "O.K., GCM" on Moore's memo- deficit stood at about $150 million. This
10
randum. figure he suspected was too low. "I do
Although Peterson's scheme fell not believe they can finish the camps for
through, it did serve to underline the that," he told Reybold. "I am just a
necessity for thrift. On 20 December little worried about it . . . . I do
Somervell asked camp CQM's to justify not want to embarrass you and the Secre-
their use of crash methods.11 A short time tary by running up and saying we need
15
later he felt called upon to defend con- more million dollars." On 13 December
tinued use of overtime at Indiantown he told architect-engineers to re-estimate,
Gap. "It will not be possible," he told this time correctly, the final costs of their
Reybold, "to stop working overtime at projects. The result was startling. The
present without seriously jeopardizing the new estimates indicated that approxi-
12
work." Hard pressed for funds, Somer- mately $337 million would be necessary
vell endorsed every means of reducing to complete the program. Somervell
expenditures short of slowing inductions. added $25 million for contingencies,
He encouraged contractors to cut pay- putting the total deficit at $362 million.16
rolls and to hold construction to es- Having decided how much to ask, he
sentials. He cut out unnecessary over- prepared to make a strong bid for early
time. He substituted gravel roads for passage of a deficiency appropriation.
concrete and asphalt. He eliminated tie On 3 January he presented the bill to
rods, exterior paint, floor seals, and skirt- the Chief of Staff. Marshall was per-
ing from building plans. He postponed turbed. The Secretary, he explained, had
landscaping and fine grading. He denied understood that the deficit would be $150
requests for additional buildings.13 In million. "If he had that impression," said
January he warned his branch chiefs: Somervell, "he was wrong. We can't
"Nothing aside from crookedness will build for any less than this sum. These
subject this office to criticism as will estimates cannot be pared." Marshall
exorbitant costs. Dementia dollaritis must interjected, "I understand that. What I
14
be stamped out." As long as the big want to do is to get the matter straight
10
before the Budget." Stimson had already
Memo, Moore for Marshall, 19 Dec 40, and
notation thereon. AG 600.12 (1-23-36) Ser 1E.
11 15
Memo, Somervell for Marshall, 20 Dec 40. Tel Conv, Somervell and Reybold, 18 Dec 40.
Opns Br Files, Insp Rpts. Opns Br Files, Gp Wallace.
12 16
Memo, Somervell for Reybold, 30 Dec 40. Opns (1) TWX, Gregory to CQM's, 13 Dec 40. Opns
Br Files, Indiantown Gap. Br Files, Future Policies—Cp Constr. (2) Ltr, Groves
13
Opns Br Files, Economy. to CQM's, 13 Dec 40. Opns Br Files, Estimates. (3)
14
Memo, Somervell for Br Chiefs Constr Div, 21 Incl (31 Dec 40), with Memo, Harrison for Knudsen,
Jan 41. Opns Br Files, Gen—16 Dec 40-2 Jun 41. 3 Jan 41. Madigan Files, 101.4 Estimates—Costs.
COMPLETING THE CAMPS 277
22
requested the smaller sum. Should he ask seemed "inexcusable." "But," he told
for the balance now or later? After some one man, "we have to explain it and so
discussion Marshall and Somervell de- does t h e President . . . . That's
cided to tell the "whole story." They why we are so anxious to have this
would put in for $362,000,000. "How- meeting and get our explanation as to
ever," the Chief of Staff remarked, "I just what can be said other than 'we are
am also concerned with the diplomatic sorry to have spent more money than
17
way to handle this matter." we have.' "23 The conference took place
The administration would have to be on 29 December. A short time later the
ready with an explanation. That much President had his answer. The "honest"
was generally agreed. But opinions dif- statement gave three major causes for
fered as to what the explanation ought the overrun. It attributed 25 to 35 percent
to be. Hartman had wished to stress the to increased costs of labor and materials,
reduction of his original estimate by 50 or 60 percent to additional require-
General Moore, the lack of advance infor- ments, and 15 to 25 percent to changes in
mation about camp sites, and union de- plans and underestimation of costs. These
mands for higher wages. Stimson wished percentages were approximate. Precise
to emphasize advancing materials and figures were not yet available and, in-
labor costs and the adversities of winter deed, might never be.24
weather. Reybold attributed most of the A somewhat different appraisal came
increase to haste.18 Somervell listed hastily from Slaughter, Saville & Blackburn,
prepared layouts, changes in plans, rising Inc., of Richmond, an engineering firm
prices and wages, unskilled workmen, hired by Somervell to make an inde-
overtime, speed, and bad weather. pendent study. On 30 December General
"Then," he added, "some of the esti- Gregory wired Constructing Quarter-
mates were just plain dumb."19 In the masters, asking them to forward plans,
midst of all this conjecture, the President layouts, and cost data to the Virginia
asked for an " honest-to-God" statement firm.25 Forty-four fixed-fee and fifty-eight
of the reasons for the overrun.20 lump sum projects sent replies. This infor-
A word from Roosevelt and the Con- mation formed the basis of a 66-page
struction. Division set to work. Picking report submitted to Somervell on 13
up the telephone, Groves summoned to January. After comparing the original
Washington contractors whose projects estimate with the actual costs of labor,
showed a deficit. Costs, he declared, had materials, buildings, and utilities, and
gone "sky high."21 The size of the overrun after analyzing an imposing array of
figures, Slaughter, Saville & Blackburn
17
Min, Conf in OCofS, 3 Jan 41, attended by concluded that "the reasons for the de-
Marshall, Somervell, Reybold, and Col Haislip.
G-4/32243. ficiency are speed of action in preparation
18
(1) 1st Ind, 2 Dec 40, on Ltr, TAGO to TQMG,
22
16 Nov 40. (2) Ltr, Stimson to Roosevelt, 13 Dec 40. Tel Conv, Groves and L. E. Dixon, Los Angeles,
Both in QM 600.1 (Funds) IX. (3) WD Ltr AG Calif., 27 Dec 40. Opns Br Files, San Luis Obispo.
23
600.12 (2-7-40) M-D-M, 16 Dec 40. 600.1 Part 8. Tel Conv, Groves and Kier, Los Angeles, Calif.,
19
Min of Conf in OCofS, 3 Jan 41. 27 Dec 40. Opns Br Files, San Diego Corresp.
20 24
Memo, DCofS (Maj Gen William Bryden) for Memo, Reybold for Marshall, 15 Jan 41, and
TQMG, 26 Dec 40. G-4/32243. Incl, n.d. G-4/32243.
21 25
Tel Conv, Groves and Mr. Meade, Ft Warren, TWX, Gregory to CQM's, 30 Dec 40. 652 (Cp
Wyo., 28 Dec 40. Opns Br Files, Ft Warren Corresp. Croft) I.
278 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
of the original estimates before sites were he reduced the deficiency fund to
selected and the speed of construction $338,880,000 and the fund for main-
required of the field forces." Costs of tenance to $19,835,000. The request to
utilities and labor bulked large, but Congress would be some $36 million less
neither rises in prices nor changes in than Somervell felt he required.30
plans could account for a substantial The Budget Director promised the
26
portion of the deficit. These findings money for 1 March. The question was
did not go unchallenged. On discovering whether the Construction Division could
that many of the figures given the Rich- keep going until then. Ten days before
27
mond firm were "well-nigh valueless," the Budget hearing, at his conference
Groves concluded that "the Slaughter, with General Marshall, Somervell had
Saville & Blackburn report is based on estimated that funds on hand would last
uncertain data and hypotheses and that until the end of January. He now prom-
the figures it gives cannot be relied upon ised to hold out one month longer. While
for comparative purposes—nor indeed for Somervell was making this commitment,
any other useful purposes."28 Groves' Groves, who was also present, grew "very
31
criticism notwithstanding, Somervell be- uncomfortable." He later told a mem-
lieved the report told "the general story" ber of the Budget staff: "I was signalling
and drew heavily upon it in defending frantically. If you'd watched me up there,
29
the deficit. you'd have seen me shaking my head
The day Slaughter, Saville & Black- most vigorously when General Somervell
burn submitted their report, Somervell was agreeing to March 1." It appeared
appeared before the Budget to ask for to Groves that appropriations for con-
approximately $535 million in construc- struction would again be too little and
32
tion money. Over and above the $362 too late.
million, he wanted $32.6 million for By early February the known deficit
maintenance and repairs and something for troop projects had climbed beyond
in the neighborhood of $140 million for the $360 million mark. Architect-engi-
land and for such additional items as neers were admitting that their previous
chapels, ice plants, recreational facilities, calculations had been optimistic. Bland-
repair shops, and access roads. Asked to ing, Forrest, and Shelby showed a com-
guarantee that these funds would be suffi- bined increase of $19 million over
cient, he refused. The Budget Director December estimates. As other projects
thereupon struck out the allowance for swelled the total, Groves complained,
contingencies and cut the maintenance 30
item by almost forty percent, and (1) Tel Conv, Col Kobb and Col Groves, 14
Jan 41. Opns Br Files, Cp Robinson. (2) Opns Br
Files, Budget. (3) Memo, NDAC, J. V. Dunn for
26
Slaughter, Saville & Blackburn Rpt. Harrison, 15 Jan 41, and Incl, 13 Jan 41. WPB-PD
27
Memo, Hadden for Groves, 30 Jan 41. Opns Br File, 411.33 Const Proj—Mil, Jun 40-41. (4) H
Files, Cp Robinson. Subcomm of the Comm on Appns, 77th Cong, 1st
28
Memo, Groves for Somervell, 31 Jan 41. Opns sess, Hearings on the Fourth Supplemental National
Br Files, Cp Robinson. Defense Appropriation Bill for 1941, p. 2.
29 31
Somervell's Testimony, 12 Feb 41. In H Sub- Tel Conv, Groves and Col Waite, BOB, 20 Feb
comm of the Comm on Appns, 77th Cong, 1st sess, 41. Opns Br Files, Budget.
32
Hearings on Fourth Supplemental National Defense Appro- Tel Conv, Groves and Col Clarke, BOB, 4 Apr
priation Bill for 1941, p. 21. 41. Opns Br Files, Budget.
COMPLETING THE CAMPS 279
"These engineers are fine engineers, I which the House passed on 27 February,
must say. The thing that makes me so was something of a disappointment.
mad is that . . . the estimate of De- Not until 3 March did the bill come
cember 15 was just a joke, apparently, before the Senate Subcommittee. This
to them."33 While he shared Groves' dis- time Somervell had little opportunity to
satisfaction, Somervell hoped to turn the express his views. Having read the lengthy
new estimates to advantage. On 11 Feb- testimony taken by the House group, the
ruary, the day before Congress began Senators did not wish to have the deficit
hearings on the fourth supplemental ap- explained again. They were less con-
propriation bill, he asked for restoration cerned with the reasons for the overrun
of the contingency fund, arguing that the than with the failure to foresee it. "I am
34
money was needed at once. His not complaining so much about the ex-
eleventh-hour appeal failed. The War penditure of funds," one committee mem-
Department would defend a deficit of ber said, "and I do not think that Con-
$338,880,000. gress is. We have all become calloused
Hearings before the Subcommittee on to that, . . . but it is rather amaz-
Deficiencies of the House Appropriations ing that the original estimates could have
Committee began on the morning of 12 varied as much as the amount that was
February, with a company of distin- really necessary to complete the jobs."36
guished officers on hand, among them "In our usual search for economy,"
Marshall and Gregory. The spotlight General Moore testified, "the original
centered, however, on the chief of the estimates were made dangerously low
Construction Division. Somervell, who . . . . There was some argument
had but two weeks before exchanged the about it, but I kept it low with the hope
oak leaves of a lieutenant colonel for a that . . . the quartermaster and
brigadier general's stars, was the principal people in the field would be able to
witness. He presented the case expertly. observe economies, but my hopes were
His detailed explanation of the overrun dashed to the ground."37 Somervell, who
seemed frank and reasonable. His replies knew the latest estimate was likewise
to leading questions were at once adroit founded on false hopes, had no chance
and witty. The subcommittee agreed to to say so. Most of the Senators' queries
the request turned in by the Bureau of were directed to General Moore. Somer-
the Budget. But, although Somervell vell found himself confined largely to
twice introduced the subject, he could routine subjects. On 6 March the Com-
not persuade the group to add $25 million mittee on Appropriations reported the
for contingencies.35 The committee bill, Army sections of the bill favorably and
without change. The measure passed the
33
Senate on 10 March and on the 17th
Tel Conv, Groves and Harrison, 11 Feb 41. Opns the President signed it.38
Br Files, Budget.
34
Memo, OQMG for Moore, 11 Feb 41. 600.1
36
Part 8. S Subcomm of the Comm on Appns, 77th Cong,
35
H Subcomm of the Comm on Appns, 77th 1st sess, Hearings on H R 3617, p. 10.
37
Cong, 1st sess, Hearings on the Fourth Supplemental Ibid.,p.5.
38
National Defense Appropriation Bill for 1941, pp. 1-126, (1) Ibid., pp. 1-30, passim. (2) 87 Cong. Rec.
passim. 2138. (3) 55 Stat. 34.
280 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
The appropriation eased but did not officers. Recalled to duty as a lieutenant
end the Construction Division's financial colonel, former CE Regular Thomas
troubles. Final solution of the budgetary F. Farrell gave up his post as chief engi-
problem came only after completion of neer of the New York Department of
the projects. Public Works to become Groves' exec-
utive. Lt. Col. Garrison H. Davidson,
Winter Construction CE, became Groves' special assistant.
George F. Lewis, formerly an Engineer
To those engaged in camp construc- lieutenant colonel, took charge of Repairs
tion—contractors, engineers, and work- and Utilities. Four of the Quartermaster's
men—the winter of 1940-41 was a time West Point careerists also joined Groves'
of unusual challenges and strenuous team; Maj. Kester L. Hastings, Capt.
effort. It was a time of mud, high winds, Clarence Renshaw, Capt. Howard H.
frozen ground, and stalled equipment; of Reed, and Capt. Carl M. Sciple. With
urgent demands, unremitting pressure, these four, plus Lewis, Davidson, Kirk-
long hours of work, and increased per- patrick, W. A. Davis, and Groves him-
sonal hazards. It was also a period of self, the branch now had nine Academy
changing schedules, critical shortages, graduates. To fill longstanding needs,
and maddening delays. Few construction Groves created two new sections. The
men had experienced anything like it first, headed by Lloyd A. Blanchard,
before. One engineer declared, "There inaugurated a program of accident pre-
is no work in the world as hard as build- vention; the second, under George E.
ing a cantonment under the conditions Huy, maintained a uniform system of
imposed."39 But if the difficulties were cost accounting. The improved organi-
great, great too was the accomplishment. zation enabled Groves to give the pro-
During the winter months, the camp gram better direction and to help the
projects were virtually completed. field surmount numerous obstacles.
At the center of the effort to complete The winter of 1940-41 was unusually
the camps was the Operations Branch. severe. Contrary to the hopes of con-
(Chart 8) The December reorganization struction men it began early. While Sep-
had augmented both its duties and its tember and October had been ab-
staff. Among the persons assigned to normally dry in most parts of the country,
Colonel Groves at that time were Vio- November rainfall was above average in
lante's top assistants, including Winnie thirty-two states. Bad weather set in
W. Cox, an able administrator who had around Thanksgiving. Cloudbursts hit
been with the division since World War I, camps in Texas and Arkansas late in
Maj. Orville E. Davis, Capt. William A. November. During the next month steady
Davis, Capt. Donald Antes, Creedon, and rains settled over the states along the
Kirkpatrick. While Groves relied heavily lower Mississippi and the Gulf of Mexico.
upon such stalwarts as these, he strength- Meanwhile, in New England frosts were
ened his organization by bringing in more occurring nightly. Soon the ground began
to freeze, and by Christmas northern
39
Roberts' Testimony, 29 Apr 41. In Truman camps were blanketed with snow. Across
Comm Hearings, Part 2, p. 457. the continent, California was experienc-
282 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
45
ing the wettest December in living mem- possible." Nowhere were conditions
ory. The new year brought no improve- worse than in the North and East. There
ment. During January and February workmen battled snow, sleet, high winds,
storms swept the West, South, and Mid- and subnormal temperatures. By the first
west. In the North freezing temperatures of January the ground at Pine Camp,
prevailed and blizzards raged. Old-timers New York, had frozen to a depth of
avowed that this was the worst winter twenty-six inches. At Devens frost pene-
in many years. Official statistics con- trated to a depth of four feet. At Meade
firmed their view. Baton Rouge recorded intermittent freezes and thaws harassed
"its worst rainy season in ten years;"40 construction crews.46 Few projects es-
Los Angeles, its "heaviest and most con- caped the crippling effects of inclement
tinuous rainfall . . . i n forty-three weather.
years;"41 Topeka, the wettest winter "in The onset of winter found many jobs
42
the history of the Weather Bureau." in the midst of paving and grading. Un-
This weather was extremely unfavor- finished roads washed out at a number of
able to construction. In the South, where locations. Traffic in wet weather ruined
a majority of the camps were located, $200,000 worth of subgrade at Camp
rains turned unfinished projects into seas Bowie. Similar losses occurred at Robin-
of mud. Serious floods occurred at Wal- son, Claiborne, Livingston, and Wood.47
lace, Hulen, and Shelby.43 This story was Roadbuilding was everywhere a tough
repeated in the West and Midwest. At and expensive job. Prolonged rains forced
one point high waters threatened key contractors to plow out mud with heavy
projects in California and Missouri. On equipment and to lay down huge quan-
27 December the contractor at San Luis tities of rock and gravel. Where ther-
Obispo telephoned Groves: "We are com- mometers dropped below freezing,
pletely flooded out here. . . . We builders had to use heated concrete and
have had a whole season's rainfall in early-strength cement and to protect
about ten days. . . . It is still rain- freshly poured concrete for at least
ing."44 That same day one of Groves' seventy-two hours with straw, tarpaulins,
inspectors reported that prolonged rains and salamanders.
at Camp Leonard Wood had made field Winter was a period of low production.
work "hazardous and in some cases im- Bad weather cut deeply into construction
40 45
Compl Rpt, Cp Livingston, II, 155. Copy in Memo, Capt G. A. Rafferty for Groves, 27
EHD Files. Dec 40. QM 333.1 (Ft L. Wood) 1941.
41 46
Telg, Morrison-Knudsen Co., Inc., Paso Robles, (1) Ltr, W. S. Lozier, Inc., to CQM Pine Cp, 5
Calif., to Somervell, 16 Jan 41. 600.914 (Cp Roberts) Jan 41. 652 (Pine Cp) Part 1. (2) H Comm on Mil
I. Affs, Spec Subcomm 2, Draft of Interim Rpt, Aug 41,
42
Ltr, Long-Manhattan-Watson, Ft Riley, Kans., p. 10. EHD Files. (3) Ltr, Consolidated Engrg Co.,
to H Comm on Mil Affs, 31 May 41. Opns Br Files, Inc., to H Comm on Mil Affs, 29 May 41. Opns Br
Loose Papers. Files, Ft Meade.
43 47
(1) Memos, Peterson for Marshall, 5, 17 Dec 40. (1) Memo, Peterson for Marshall, 17 Dec 40.
Opns Br Files, Rpts of Insp. (2) Tel Conv, Reybold Opns Br Files, Rpts of Insp. (2) Memo, FF Br Sec C
and CG Eighth Corps Area, 2 Dec 40. G-4/31981. for Groves, 26 Nov 40. 652 (Cp Robinson) Part 1. (3)
(3) Tel Conv, Frink with Groves and Somervell, Memo, Peterson for Marshall, 9 Dec 40. EHD Files.
16 Dec 40. Opns Br Files, Gp Shelby. (4) Memo, Reybold for Marshall, 13 Dec 40. G—
44
Tel Conv, Groves and Dixon, Los Angeles, 4/3I735- (5) Ltr, IGD to TIG, 6 Feb 41. QM 333.1
Calif., 27 Dec 40. Opns Br Files, San Luis Obispo. (Ft L. Wood) 1941.
COMPLETING THE CAMPS 283
SCENE AT CAMP SAN LUIS OBISPO AFTER HEAVY DOWNPOUR, February 1941.
time. Meade lost 30 out of a total of but also the following day when they
116 possible working days; Bowie, 38 out steer clear of the job until the ground
49
of a total of 150. At the Presidio of dries out." Somervell gave another view
Monterey, operations were suspended on of labor's performance during this period:
16 days within a 2-month span. During I went to Devens, Edwards, Pine Camp,
a single week in December, Camp Madison Barracks, and Fort Ontario, and
48
Leonard Wood missed 4½ days. Oc- the blizzard followed me all around, so that
casionally, goldbricking prolonged lay- I had a good opportunity to see what was
offs. Writing from Camp Davis, Major going on. It was below zero at Pine Camp
Davidson complained, "Local labor is so and at Devens, and the men were out there
trying to do their work, and they were doing
spoiled by their unaccustomed income it, but obviously at a very much reduced
that they not only lose the rainy days efficiency.
I visited Fort Meade . . . , during
48
(1) Opns Br Files, Ft Meade. (2) Compl Rpt, Cp a moderate drizzle, where the mud was up
Bowie, p. 35. (3) Memo, Hastings for Robinson, to your knees, and where the workmen were
15 Apr 41. Opns Br Files, Proj Behind Schedule. (4)
49
Testimony of E. W. Dunn, 8 May 41. In Truman Memo, Davidson for Groves, 18 Feb 41. QM
Comm Hearings, Part 2, p. 662. 333.1 (Cp Davis) Jul-Dec 41.
284 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
trying to dig trenches, lay pipe, and things equipment from the elements, removing
of that kind, which they were doing at, I snow and mud, employing special tech-
50
should say, about 25 percent efficiency.
niques for cold weather construction, and
Increased cost was a corollary of replacing facilities damaged by storms,
lowered efficiency. To make up for lost bills for overtime and shift work brought
time, projects worked long hours and the cost of winter operations to a sizable
double shifts. The contractor at San Luis total. Bad weather increased project costs
Obispo operated 10 hours, 5 days a week, an average of 10 percent. Of thirty-four
and 8 hours on Saturdays during the contractors questioned by a congres-
winter months, thereby adding $600,000 sional committee, all but one reported
to the cost of his camp. Overtime and that costs had risen sharply as a result
multiple shifts increased the payroll at of winter conditions.51
Camp Leonard Wood by $1,839,690 be- 51
tween December and April. Coupled (1) Ltr, CQM Cp San Luis Obispo to TQMG,
19 Feb 41. 600.94 (Gp San Luis Obispo). (2) Incl
with the expense of sheltering men and with Ltr, Alvord, Burdick & Howson to CQM Ft L.
Wood, 10 Apr 41. 600.94 (Ft L. Wood). (3) Memo,
Boeckh for Casey, 19 Jul 41. QM 652 (Canton
50
Somervell's Testimony, 12 Feb 41. In H Comm Constr) 1941. (4) H Comm on Mil Affs, Sp Sub-
on Appns, Hearings on Fourth Supplemental National comm 2, Draft of Interim Rpt, Aug 41, p. 10. EHD
Defense Appropriation Bill for 1941, pp. 21-22. Files.
COMPLETING THE CAMPS 285
As costs rose, contractors came under may not be on hand."53 Deficit spend-
increasing financial strain. More money ing could continue until money from the
was being paid out and less was coming new supplemental appropriation became
in. Slow to begin with, reimbursements available late in March.
lagged further and further behind as ap- Shortages of materials and installed
propriated funds dwindled. By February equipment drew more complaints from
1941 contractors had more than $325 contractors than weather and money.
million tied up in Quartermaster projects. During the third week in January short-
Groves tried by various means to ease ages were listed as delaying factors by
their distress. He became adept at "trad- 45 percent of the projects; the weather,
ing dollars," transferring money from by 28 percent; and lack of funds, by only
projects which had funds to projects 2 percent. Progress reports submitted on
which were short. He put more pressure 7 February showed 42 percent held up
on the field auditors, urging them to for lack of supplies and equipment as
speed up reimbursements and place avail- against 22 percent for weather and less
able funds in contractors' hands as soon than 4 percent for funds. Both contractors
as possible. Lastly, he arranged for con- and CQM's consistently named scarcity
tractors to tap additional sources of capi- of critical items as the leading cause of
tal. Under the Act of October 9, 1940, delay.54 Somervell was skeptical of these
claims against the United States could reports. "I am wondering," he confided
be assigned to private financial insti- to Groves, "how much of this alleged
tutions. By invoking this law, Groves shortage is real and how much of it is
helped a number of contractors to bor- an alibi of the contractors for not getting
row. Among the first concerns to do so on with the work."55 No doubt there was
was Starrett Brothers and Eken, which some exaggeration. Nonetheless, some
obtained a loan of $915,000 by assigning shortages were truly desperate. On 7
the Blanding contract to the Manufac- March the contractor at Camp Wallace
turers Trust Company of New York in appealed to his CQM:
late December. Other firms followed We are now short of lumber with which to
suit.52 The situation could not go on complete the project. We, today, will have to
indefinitely. By early March Groves and lay off two hundred carpenters. This lum-
the contractors had reached the end of ber was purchased by the War Depart-
their financial tether. On the 4th Reybold ment . . . and has been dribbling in
promiscuously without any regard to our
notified Gregory that he could go ahead requirements. Today, we have structures
with construction "even though funds standing with [out] roof sheathing, others
without siding, and [on] others we have
52 nothing but the foundation sills, and on still
Data prepared by Constr Div, c. Apr 41, sub:
Delays in Payments and Reimbursements. Opns Br
others we have the foundation sills and first
Files, Questions and Answers by CAC, etc. (2) Tel
53
Conv, Groves and Col Waite, BOB, 18 Mar 41. Opns Reybold's penciled note on Memo, Chamberlin
Br Files, Budget. (3) Groves Comments, V,5. (4) 54 for Reybold, 4 Mar 41. G—4/30552-4 Sec 2.
54
Stat. 1029. (5) Agreement of Starrett Brothers and (1) Memos, Robinson for Somervell, 5, 18 Feb
Eken and Manufacturers Trust Co., 30 Dec 40, and 41. Opns Br Files, Proj Behind Schedule. (2) Opns Br
related docs. In Compl Rpt, Cp Blanding. (6) Ltr, Files, Delays.
55
OQMG to CQM Ft Riley, 3 Feb 41. 652 (Cp Riley) Memo, Somervell for Groves, 29 Jan 41. Opns Br
Files, Proj Behind Schedule.
286 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
floor joists. We have to rob materials from one
port did not comment on reasons for
building to do something with another, andthese troubles.57
56
it makes the progress very slow and costly.
Contractors were feeling the effects of
Items reportedly in short supply fell the priorities system. Established during
into three classes: those purchased by the summer of 1940, this system was ad-
Major Wilson's Procurement and Expe- ministered by NDAC until January 1941,
diting Section, those purchased by The when the newly established OPM took
Surgeon General, and those purchased it over. The two agencies' procedures
locally by contractors. Included in the were essentially the same. Both estab-
first category were lumber, millwork, lished a Critical List of materials. ANMB
boilers, furnaces, and equipment for issued priority ratings applicable to items
kitchens and laundries. Hospital equip- on these lists. Preference ratings, issued
ment was in the second category; sheet by purchasing officers whose projects had
metal, structural steel, plumbing and priorities, governed the sequence in which
electrical supplies, and hardware were suppliers filled orders. Although ANMB
in the third. An investigation ordered by had considerable freedom of action,
Groves in February indicated which items NDAC and OPM had final say on major
were critically short and some of the questions of policy. From the beginning,
reasons why. "With regard to lumber and military construction jobs rated low pri-
millwork," the investigator stated, "the orities, so low, in fact, as to be practically
shortages are not critical at the present meaningless. Because some key construc-
time, unless the contractor has delayed tion commodities, such as lumber, were
placing his orders through the Procure- not on the Critical List, and because
ment and Expediting Branch until he shortages of listed items, such as steel,
has run out of these materials." The did not become acute until late 1940,
same was true of furnaces and boilers. camp contractors for a time were able
The scarcity of kitchen equipment was to get along without priority assistance.
nothing more than a lack of luxury items, But by early 1941 they were calling for
such as puree mixers and potato peelers; help. Efforts during February to obtain
all stations had received essential items, higher priorities for camps met with little
such as refrigerators and stoves. The de- success. The best OPM would do was to
mand for laundry equipment had ex- grant an A-1-j priority, the same rating
ceeded production, but deliveries were assigned to naval vessels scheduled for
gradually coming through. The supply completion in several years.58 Recalling
of hospital equipment was gravely in- OPM's action, Groves denounced "the
adequate. The Surgeon General had viciousness of the priority system, par-
promised to report on the situation but ticularly with respect to the tremendous
so far had not done so. Among items
57
procured by contractors, serious shortages Memo, Opns Br Tempo Housing Sec for
Hastings, 24 Feb 41. Opns Br Files, Proj Behind
existed in structural steel, plumbing sup- Schedule.
plies, and electrical equipment. The re- 58
(1) Smith, The Army and Economic Mobilization,
pp. 507ff. (2) CPA, Industrial Mobilization for War,
pp. 68, 91-92, 96. (3) Memo, Hastings for Wilson,
56
Ltr, Nathan Wohlfeld, Galveston, Tex., to 14 Feb 41. 411.5 I. (4) Ltr, OPM to ANMB, 21 Feb
CQM Cp Wallace, 7 Mar 41. 600.914 (Cp Wallace). 41. 400.31 (Philippine Dept).
COMPLETING THE CAMPS 287
disadvantages under which military con- Shortages of skilled labor also ranked
struction had to operate."59 To improve high among delaying factors. Thirteen
the situation would require a long, hard percent of the projects needed additional
fight. craftsmen on 25 January. The figure
Major Wilson in P&E gave the projects stood at 11 percent on 7 February and
what help he could. He kept delivery at 10 percent two weeks later.63 Among
schedules for centrally procured items the trades most often listed as critical
under constant review and channeled were plumbers, steamfitters, electricians,
shipments to neediest sites. In January rod setters, and sheet metal workers. Al-
he created an expediting unit to investi- though the Construction Division occa-
gate each shortage reported from the sionally tried to alleviate these shortages
field and to try to find a cure. In Febru- by raising wage rates or authorizing over-
ary he established closer ties with the time, it did so only in extreme cases.
projects by placing a supply officer in For the most part it left the problem to
each of the nine zones. Throughout the contractors and the unions. While re-
early months of 1941 he exerted steady minding contractors "that full responsi-
pressure upon vendors to speed deliveries. bility for the employment and manage-
Wilson achieved a better distribution of ment of labor"64 rested with them, the
building supplies, but there was little or division notified the unions that they
nothing he could do toward solving basic "must accept some responsibility for en-
problems of production and priorities. deavoring to man these jobs."65
As long as demand exceeded output and Although they willingly took up the
Quartermaster projects had no prior challenge, the unions were unable to
claim upon supplies, some contractors satisfy demands for skilled workmen. Ap-
had to wait.60 Not until the program praising their effort, one contractor said:
neared completion did the percentage of "We have been trying to get additional
projects delayed for want of materials men through the local unions. We get
and equipment show a marked decline. a few each day, but almost the same
66
On 4 April Groves reported. "All re- number leave the job." Another re-
quirements for critical items have been ported that requests for 325 plumbers
met by actual delivery, but minor articles and steamfitters had brought only 172
cannot be delivered from the factories on workmen to his project. A third protested
time."61 As late as 2 May orders for that the union had certified 19 men as
kitchen, heating, and hospital equipment rod setters, although only 4 had any
and for structural steel and plumbing
fixtures were still outstanding.62
63
(1) Memo, Robinson for Somervell, 5 Feb 41.
Opns Br Files, Proj Behind Schedule. (2) Memos,
Robinson for Somervell, 18 Feb, 5 Mar 41. Opns Br
59
Groves Comments, V, 6. Files, Delays.
60 64
(1) Memos, Wilson for Groves, 27 Feb, 1 Mar 41. Memo, Labor Rel Sec for Chief Admin Br
Opns Br Files, Proj Behind Schedule. (2) Memo, Constr Div, 13 Mar 41. OCE Rec Retirement, Labor
Somervell for Nelson, 14 Jan 41. 411.1 II. (3) Ltr, Rel.
65
Constr Div to ZCQM 6, 26 Mar 41. QM 337 (ZCQM Tel Conv, Mitchell, Labor Rel Sec, and Lt
6) 1941. (4) Groves Comments, V, 5-6. Fuller, Atlanta, Ga., 13 Mar 41. OCE Legal Div
61
Min, Constr Div Staff Mtg, 4 Apr 41. EHD Files. Labor Rel Br Files, Lawson Gen Hospital.
62 66
Min, Constr Div Staff Mtg, 2 May 41. EHD Ltr, Nathan Wohlfeld, Galveston, Tex., to CQM
Files. Cp Wallace, 7 Mar 41. 600.914 (Cp Wallace).
288 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
experience in that trade.67 Project after Production suffered less from strikes
project echoed these complaints. Against than from union restrictions on output
the nationwide shortage the combined and resistance to timesaving methods
efforts of contractors and unions were and machines. Union rules designed to
of little avail. The program suffered spread work and maintain traditional
throughout from a scarcity of skilled methods were in force at many projects.
mechanics. Bricklayers continued their normal prac-
Strikes also had adverse effects. Be- tices of using only one hand and of be-
tween 17 March and 30 June 1941, the ginning a new course only when the
earliest period for which full information preceding course was complete. Plumbers
was available, twenty-two strikes oc- refused to install made-to-order pipe, in-
curred at troop projects. Twelve of these sisting that they do cutting and threading
walkouts involved jurisdictional disputes by hand at the site. Painters opposed
and protests of various sorts; they ac- use of spray guns; cement workers, use
counted for a total of 366 man-days lost. of finishing machines. Several crafts de-
The other ten, all involving wage dis- manded that skilled men perform un-
putes, accounted for a total of 9,230 skilled tasks. Although the Construction
man-days lost. Man-days lost because of Division occasionally succeeded in having
strikes were only a tiny fraction of total working rules suspended, restrictive prac-
man-days at the projects.68 Nevertheless, tices continued to prevail.70
effects of work stoppages could not be Belated and oft-changed plans pre-
measured solely by time lost. The report sented an added handicap to constructors.
on a 2-day strike at Camp Davis early in According to the Fuller Company, tardy
March was revealing: deliveries of specifications and layouts
Job operations were proceeding at full hindered the project at Fort Monmouth,
speed before the strike, and a high point of New Jersey, from start to finish. Long-
efficiency of operations had been reached. Manhattan-Watson gave "inadequate or
The strike killed the momentum of opera- delayed plans" as one reason for high
tions, and efficiency had to be developed costs and slow progress at Riley. Almost
again through weeks of hard effort. The loss
has been figured by comparison of percent- three months after work began at Devens,
ages of progress during month of February Coleman Brothers Corporation and John
with percentages of progress through month Bowen Company were still awaiting de-
71
of March. That comparison shows that 7 signs for several buildings. Plans con-
percent of progress was lost during March.69 70
(1) Memo, Hastings for Groves, 24 Mar 41. QM
333.1 Mar-Apr 1941. (2) Memo, Labor Rel Sec
67
(1) Ltr, CQM Ft Meade to Groves, 21 Feb 41. Admin Br for Groves, 19 Apr 41. QM 600. 1 (Labor)
OCE Legal Div Labor Rel Br Files, Ft Geo. G. (Gen). (3) 600.1 (Labor) for: Ft Custer, Ft Devens,
Meade. (2) Ltr, OZCQM 7 to OQMG, 19 Mar 41. Cp Forrest, Indiantown Gap, Ft Monmouth, Ft.
OCE Legal Div Labor Rel Br Files, Ft L. Wood. Riley, Cp Roberts, Stark Gen Hosp, and Ft L.
68
(1) OCE Legal Div Labor Rel Files, Work Wood. (4) Labor Rel Br Files for: Cp Barkeley, Ft
Stoppage Rpts, March 1941-45. (2) Brig. Gen. Belvoir, and Cp Edwards.
71
Brehon B. Somervell, "The Temporary Emergency (1) Ltr, George A. Fuller Co. to H Comm on
Construction Program," The Constructor, July 1941, Mil Affs, 16 Jun 41. (2) Ltr, Long-Manhattan-
p. 108. Watson to H Comm on Mil Affs, 31 May 41. Both in
69
Rpt, Constr Div, OQMG, 1941, sub: Analysis Opns Br Files, Loose Papers. (3) Ltr, Coleman Bros.
of Costs, Cp Davis. Opns Br Files, Cost Analysis of and Bowen Co. to Somervell, 8 Jan 41. 600.914
Bldgs. (Ft Devens) Part 1.
COMPLETING THE CAMPS 289
tractors had received were under con- mander determined the size, composition,
stant revision. So great was the confusion and arrival dates of various units and
at Camp Leonard Wood, where plans designated the buildings each unit would
were changing "all the time," that the occupy, he imposed a construction sched-
exasperated architect-engineer predicted ule on the contractor. Each time the
completion of the project "within about commander changed his plans, he com-
five years."72 So frequent were changes in pelled the contractor to do likewise.
the layout at San Luis Obispo that the Builders disliked this system because it
contractor "actually considered construc- denied them "the leeway that a con-
ting the buildings on skids so that their lo- tractor should have in order to prosecute
cation could be changed without delaying and expedite a job placed under his
the work."73 The difficulties increased in 76
care." Contractors were not the only
the weeks that followed. Interference by critics. "One item that has cost millions
troop commanders grew as the time of dollars," Captain Renshaw told
neared for occupying camps. Demands Groves, "has been the shifting of con-
for cheaper designs intensified as the struction forces from area to area to meet
deficit rose. The Engineering Branch, un- the changing requirements of Command-
able to cope with a mounting backlog of ing Officers." Citing the case of a con-
requests for new plans, fell further behind tractor ordered to rip equipment out of
in its work.74 one group of barracks and install it
Most disconcerting to contractors was in another group at the opposite end
military control of building schedules. of the camp, Renshaw commented,
By January the old scheme of final com- "The change in flow of materials . . .
pletion dates had all but disappeared. In created a confusion just as great as if the
its place was a system of "priority sched- Ford Manufacturing Company tried to
ules" calling for completion in successive finish the last car on the production line
stages. The contractor who had originally first."77
agreed to turn over a finished camp on a Illustrative of the workings of the pri-
given date now had to turn over housing orities system were events at Camp
for a few units at a time. At Camp Meade, Maryland. Late in September,
Roberts, for example, instructions to be when Hartman awarded Consolidated
ready for 178 men on 1 January, 2,882 Engineering of Baltimore a fixed-fee con-
on 15 February, 7,893 on 15 March, and tract for a cantonment for the 29th Di-
5,179 on 15 June superseded the com- vision, he assigned the project a com-
pletion date of 15 March.75 Priorities pletion date of 6 January 1941. Work
reflected induction dates. When a com- began on 9 October. Adhering to ortho-
dox methods, Consolidated divided the
72
Tel Conv, Maj Reed and Maj Townes, 27 Jan job into seven areas; appointed super-
41. 632 (Ft L. Wood). intendents, foremen, and pushers for each
73
Compl Rpt, Cp San Luis Obispo, 26 Mar 42, p.
8. area; and scheduled the work so that
74
Min, Constr Div Staff Mtg, 28 Feb 41. Opns
76
Br Files, Staff Mtgs-1941. Ltr, Nathan Wohlfeld, Galveston, Tex., to
75
Tel Conv, Groves and Capt J. T. Smoody, CQM CQM Cp Wallace, 7 Mar 41. 600.914 (Cp Wallace).
77
Nacimiento, Calif., 17 Dec 40. Opns Br Files, Cp Memo, Renshaw for Groves, 8 Mar 41. Opns
Roberts. Br Files, Economy.
290 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
considerable work remained on the ar- Again and again Somervell had to play
tillery area and the station hospital. In- for time. The Surgeon General eased the
ducted on 3 February the men of the pinch by extending hospital deadlines
29th Division remained at home stations and G-3 relaxed the schedules for oc-
for fifteen days, instead of the usual ten. cupying replacement centers. But the
Not until there was steam in the hospital Guard camps posed a tougher problem.
boiler did General Reckord order his Late in 1940 the General Staff had agreed
men into camp. Meade was completed to call no Guard units until Colonel
some months later at a cost of more than Groves had set dates for housing them.
$21 million. Among factors affecting its But calls to the Guard had to go out
cost and progress were the site, the layout, forty days in advance. With the uncer-
bad weather, labor troubles, and the loss tainty of winter operations, no one could
of the project engineer. Nevertheless, both possibly predict so far ahead how much
the architect-engineer and the Construct- construction would be in place on a
ing Quartermaster placed particular em- given date. Groves wrung a small con-
phasis on priority scheduling.83 Reviewing cession from G-3, a promise to hold
his experience at the project, W. C. newly inducted Guardsmen at home sta-
Roberts of the Greiner Company offered tions for fourteen days instead of the
the Army this advice: usual ten. But two weeks' grace on con-
In order to hold a contractor for the struction deadlines was seldom enough.
economy in that particular respect [building Time after time the General Staff had to
construction], he should be allowed to build cancel orders calling units to active duty.
his cantonment without interruption during Each cancellation further disrupted
the construction period. In other words, he mobilization and inconvenienced Guards-
should be held responsible for finishing all 85
of his buildings in the whole camp by just men waiting to begin their training.
one date, and he shouldn't, to obtain that The plight of the Guardsmen attracted
ultimate economy, be held responsible for wide notice. These men had arranged
finishing various portions of the regimental their affairs with the original dates in
areas prior to the general completion of the mind. Some had resigned from their jobs.
whole camp.84
Others had trained substitutes to do their
In view of the military situation, such a work. Lawyers and physicians had turned
procedure would, of course, have been their practices over to civilian colleagues.
impossible. Households had been broken up, homes
Despite heroic efforts by contractors, sublet, and dependents provided for.
the program made faltering progress. Postponements worked appreciable hard-
ship on the men and their families. Guard
83
(1) Ltr, Consolidated Engrg Co., Inc., to H
85
Comm on Mil Affairs, Sp Comm 2, 29 May 41. Opns (1) Memo, Hastings for Groves, 26 Feb 41.
Br Files, Ft Meade. (2) Testimony of W. C. Roberts, Opns Br Files, Grnd Tp Sec. (2) Data prepared in
Col H. L. Flynn, Gen Reckord, and Maj Noxon, 29 Constr Div OQMG, 1 Mar 41, Projs to Be Watched.
Apr, 5 May 1941. In Truman Comm Hearings, Part Opns Br Files, Data for Hearings on Deficiency Bill,
2, PP. 456,566-67,575,530.(3) Reckord Interv, 1941. (3) Memo, SGO for G-4, 14 Feb 41. G-
25 Nov 58. (4) Truman Comm Rpt 480, Part 2, p. 4/29135-9. (4) DS, G-4 to TAG, 29 Jan 41. G-
42, app. X. 4/31981 Sec 11. (5) G-4/31948. (6) WD Ltr AG
84
Roberts' Testimony, 29 Apr 41. In Truman 680. 1 (1-21-41) M-C to CG Sixth Corps Area,
Comm Hearings, Part 2, p. 465. 25 Jan 41. 325.37 Part 1.
292 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
officers, public officials, and others pro- projects, where discomfort awaited them.
tested the delay. Some advocated calling At Shelby troops quartered in undrained
the men immediately and quartering areas had to wade through water to get
them in public buildings until camps were to their tents. At Barkeley there were not
ready.86 In the face of mounting pressure enough latrines. At Blanding the men
for early inductions Assistant Secretary of the 31st Division underwent a painful
Patterson stated, "I have resolved that, ordeal.88 Representative Joe Starnes, an
unless the international situation becomes officer of this division, gave a firsthand
acutely critical, I shall postpone induc- account of conditions at the Florida
tion of National Guard units until the camp: "A regiment of 1,815menwas
War Department is prepared to safe- moved in with not a single kitchen,
guard the health and well-being of the latrine, or bathhouse available. This oc-
members of such units through the pro- curred in December in a pouring rain
vision of adequate shelter and sanitary and conditions were such that it was im-
facilities."87 Despite Patterson's deter- possible to use the straddle latrine. Only
mined stand, agitation served to hasten the grace of Almighty God prevented an
89
the calling of the Guard. epidemic."
A number of camps were occupied 88
(1) Tel Conv, Frink, Groves, and Somervell,
prematurely. Units went to unfinished 16 Dec 40. Opns Br Files, Cp Shelby. (2) Min,
Constr Div Staff Mtg, 21 Feb 41. EHD Files. (3) Ltr,
86
(1) Telg, Sen Ernest W. Gibson (Vt.) to Stimson, Rep Joe Starnes to Frink, 7 Jan 41.632 (LaGarde Gen
7 Dec 40. G-4/31948. (2) Tel Conv, CG Ninth Hosp)
89
I.
Corps Area and Reybold, 8 Jan 41. G-4/31948. H Subcomm of the Comm on Appns, 77th
87
Ltr, Patterson to Governor Culbert L. Olson, Gong, 1st sess, Hearings on Military Establishment
Sacramento, Calif., (9 Jan 41). G-4/31735 Sec 3. Appropriation Bill for 1942, Apr-May 41, p. 118.
COMPLETING THE GAMPS 293
Elsewhere epidemics did occur. Flu became unruly when the CQM at Shelby
struck Fort Lewis early in December. tried to stop them from stealing five
From there it traveled down the Pacific truckloads of materials. When soldiers
Coast, across the Southern States, and altered unfinished buildings, this same
up the east coast to New England. At CQM quarreled so bitterly with the di-
many camps there were also outbreaks vision commander that Groves sent Cap-
of measles. At one point San Luis Obispo tain Sciple to restore peace. Fresh ar-
reported 970 sick out of a total popu- rivals usually brought fresh troubles.
lation of 11,500. At Lewis the sick rate Colonel Styer tried to forestall shipment
for a time was more than 11 percent. of troops to half-completed camps—but
91
Fortunately, the Army was prepared, without much success.
having learned that flu epidemics go Once begun, movement of troops to
hand in hand with troop mobilizations construction projects continued. Between
and that newly inducted men who have 23 December and 5 March nine National
not acquired immunity almost always Guard divisions entered federal service.
come down with measles. Hospital beds The strength of the Army increased by
were waiting for most of the sick. At about 100,000 during January, by about
camps where the number of cases ex- 150,000 during February, and by nearly
ceeded expectations, barracks had to 200,000 during March. By 1 April it had
serve as wards.90 passed the 1-million mark.92 Meanwhile,
The presence of troops hindered con- construction went forward. In the midst
struction. Military traffic clogged roads of huge concentrations of troops builders
to building sites, blocking the flow of pushed toward completion.
supplies. Commanders drew labor from The coming of spring enabled con-
important jobs to make quarters more tractors to make a better showing. The
comfortable. Soldiers pilfered construc- number of projects on or ahead of sched-
tion materials and wrecked expensive ule rose steadily. A few camps continued
equipment. Workmen, arriving in the to lag but nevertheless met their troop
morning to find that their supplies had arrival dates.93 On 15 April 1941 Secre-
vanished during the night, waited in en- tary Stimson declared: "The status of
forced idleness until replacements came our construction is in such an advanced
in over congested roads. Under such
91
circumstances disputes were bound to oc- (1) Memo, Peterson for Marshall, 10 Dec 40.
Opns Br Files, Rpts of Insp. (2) TWX, CG Eighth
cur. The Constructing Quartermaster at Corps Area to TAG, 13 Dec 40. 652 (Cp Hulen) III.
Bowie had a hard time stopping troops (3) Ltr, CQM Ft McClellan to TQMG, 2 Feb 41.
from carrying off black top to pave their 652 (Ft McClellan) II. (4) Insp Rpt, Kirkpatrick for
Gregory, 4 Apr 41. QM 333.1 (Cp Bowie) 1940. (5)
company areas. Men of the 37th Division Tel Conv, Capt Shepherd and Col Green, 17 Jan
41. (6) Memo, Sciple for Groves, 19 Jan 41. Last
two in Opns Br Files, Cp Shelby. (7) Memo, Styer
90
(1) Notes of Conf, ODCofS, 10 Dec 40. OCS, for Moore, 24 Jan 41. Opns Br Files, Ft L. Wood.
92
Notes on Confs, Sep 26, 1940—. (2) Ltr, Dunn and Report of the Secretary of War . . . 1941,
Hodgson to CQM Ft McClellan, 1 Feb 41. 652 (Ft app., Chart 9, and app. B, Chart C.
93
McClellan) II. (3) Memo, Peterson for Marshall, (1) Rpt, Activities of Constr Div, Jul 40-Jul 41,
30 Apr 41. QM 333.1 (San Luis Obispo) 1941. (4) p. 6. (2) Memo, Hastings for Robinson, 15 Apr 41.
Notes, Conf of ZCQM's, OQMG, 7-10 Apr 41, pp. Opns Br Files, Proj Behind Schedule. (3) Min,
81-82. EHD Files. Constr Div Staff Mtgs, 21 Mar, 2 May 41. EHD Files.
294 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
condition that we can confidently assure ability of construction forces to meet im-
the country that all of the remaining men possible deadlines had made necessary
in our proposed military program will substantial changes in plans for expand-
find their quarters awaiting them ready ing the Army. Induction of Guardsmen
and completed for their occupancy." On and selectees for the Protective Mobili-
the 22d General Marshall stated, "We zation Force was not complete until two
94
have gotten over the hump." Two days to three months after the time originally
later Somervell announced, "The new set. (Charts 9 and 10) The program had
Army is housed."95 Remaining work went cost about double the figure initially
smoothly. Contractors made a fine record given to Congress. Referring to the origi-
at replacement training centers, finishing nal camp completion dates, General
all but one by mid-May. Of the 760 Hastings later said:
buildings that comprised the nine general In the general concept of the time required
hospitals, 665 were ready for occupancy to prepare, I don't think General Staff, or
in June. By the end of the fiscal year the Congress, or the President himself realized
program had met its goals.96 the amount of time it takes to do things—
The time and cost estimates made by to create the supplies, to build your facilities.
They thought . . . , "A million men
the General Staff in the summer of 1940 will spring into arms overnight." Months
had proved to be grossly erroneous. In- go into years to do these things. They always
94
have and they always will.97
Truman Comm Hearings, Part 1, pp. 7, 169.
95
WD Press Release, 24 Apr 41, sub: The Army Is Commenting on the time and money that
Housed. Opns Br Files, Cp Blanding Investigation
and Misc.
went into construction, General Cham-
96
(1) Min, Constr Div Staff Mtg, 23 May 41. EHD 97
Files. (2) Patterson's Testimony, 15 Jul 41. In Verbatim Rpt, Meeting with Gregory and
Truman Comm Hearings, Part 6, p. 1530. Hastings.
COMPLETING THE CAMPS 295
struction needed to complete the camps Files.Min, Conf of ZCQM's, 7-10 Apr 41, p. 90. EHD
106
Memo, Styer for Red, 18 Feb 41. Opns Br
101
87 Cong. Rec. 2899. Files, Insp Rpts.
102 107
Memo, Cost Unit Opns Br for Groves, 1 Feb OQMG Constr Div Ltr 123.
108
41, and Incl. Opns Br Files, Constr Costs and OQMG Constr Div Ltr 182, 29 Mar 41. EHD
Authorizations. Files.
298 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
ing that Somervell intended "to really June; and eleven, in July. By late August
have a cutoff date at each one of these fixed-fee contracts were still in force at
jobs," Harrison telephoned Groves: only four projects. At Aberdeen, Polk,
"That is the only way to handle it." and Knox, the Army extended the orig-
Groves agreed. "I learned that years inal contracts to cover major additions.
ago," he said, "after going to Boulder At San Luis Obispo the contractor stayed
Dam and seeing that after three years on to build a $3-million water supply
the payroll was still 1500 men."109 system—a dam across the Salinas River,
Closing out fixed-fee jobs went more a pumping station, a mile-long tunnel,
slowly than Somervell had hoped. At 45 and a 12-mile pipeline to bring water
camp and general hospital projects near- through the mountains.114
ing completion in March 1941, there were To shut down projects and terminate
85 fixed-fee architect-engineer and con- contracts was no simple undertaking.
struction contracts. By 15 April all but There were many details involved: trans-
seven of these contracts were still on the ferring police forces, fire departments,
books.110 Efforts to expedite the setting and maintenance crews to post juris-
of cutoff dates intensified. In mid-April diction; disposing of surplus materials,
Somervell notified the zones: "I, of salvaging scrap, and clearing away
course, do not want the jobs closed out debris; recapturing or releasing rented
prematurely, but I do want them stopped equipment; completing paperwork,
as soon as you have reached a logical bringing audits up to date, and clearing
111
stopping place." Early in May, when records of pending items such as un-
the number of closed-out contracts totaled claimed wages and unpaid bills; and
twenty, he asked Groves to bear down lastly, reaching final settlements with con-
on the field.112 Groves put more pressure tractors. While some of these were routine
on the CQM's and told contractors tasks, others proved troublesome. Re-
frankly, "We just have to get you boys curring false reports of buried nails and
off our payrolls."113 Knowing that many burned lumber needed refutation. Con-
of the firms would soon be taking on tractors' complaints that delays in the
new projects, he encouraged them to hold government's audit were preventing them
their organizations together, but not at from closing their books needed looking
the government's expense. He suggested into.115 Major problems arose in con-
instead a few weeks' vacation. The closing
out operation gathered speed. Eighteen
contracts ended in May; twenty-four, in 114
(1) Min, Conf of ZCQM's, 7-10 Apr 41, p. 91.
EHD Files. (2) Rpt, Hastings for Leavey, 19 Aug 41.
OCE Legal Div Files, Contract Progress. (3) OCE
109
Tel Conv, Harrison and Groves, 5 Mar 41. Legal Div Files, Aberdeen Pr Grnd. (4) QM 652 for:
Opns Br Files, Equip 1. Cp Polk and Ft Knox. (5) Compl Rpt, Cp San Luis
110
Rpt, Hastings for Leavey, 23 Jun 41. OCE Legal Obispo-Salinas River Proj, p. 14B.
115
Div Files, Contract Progress. (1) Opns Br Files, Questions and Answers,
111
Ltr, Somervell to ZCQM's, 15 Apr 41. 600.1 Truman Comm. (2) Memo, Unit B Temp Hous-
(ZCQM 1) (Labor). ing Sec Opns Br for Hastings, 31 Mar 41. Opns
112
Min, Constr Div Staff Mtg, 9 May 41. EHD Br Files, Delays. (3) Ltr, T. A. Loving and Co.
Files. to CQM Ft Bragg, 10 Jul 41. 652 (Ft Bragg) VI. (4)
113
Tel Conv, Groves and Wyatt C. Hedrick, Fort Min of Conf, OZCQM 7, 16 Sep 41. 652 (Ft L.
Worth, Tex., 7 Jun 41. Opns Br Files, A-E's. Wood) Part 2.
COMPLETING THE CAMPS 299
nection with recapturing equipment and struction units. WPA and CCC, both
settling contractors' claims. heavily engaged in defense work, were
Under its agreements with fixed-fee short of trucks and machinery. Here was
contractors and third-party renters, the an opportunity not only to get the needed
government could recapture leased equip- items but to get them cheap. After con-
ment when projects reached completion. sulting the Engineers, WPA, and CCC,
As the program neared its end, the ques- Somervell outlined a recapture policy.
tion arose—how much equipment to cap- Generally, he would take only late models
ture. The nationwide shortage was still which were in good repair and in which
critical, and the recently approved lend- the government's equity was 60 percent
lease program promised to make it even or more. He would capture no item until
worse. The Army needed large fleets of one of the interested agencies had spoken
equipment to maintain newly built in- for it. The zones would co-ordinate the
stallations and to equip Engineer con- effort, serving as clearinghouses for re-
300 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
118
quests and lists of items available, by troops in theaters of operations.
refereeing disputes among government "This actually saved the Army a tre-
agencies, and overseeing transfer of titles mendous amount of money," said Groves,
116
and funds. "and enabled it to have equipment which
Unlooked-for complications soon de- it otherwise could not have obtained even
veloped. Many pieces of equipment de- by throwing a tremendous additional
sired by the government were heavily burden on the manufacturers of con-
mortgaged and, thus, subject to prior struction equipment."119
liens. Some rental agreements contained Even more challenging than the prob-
loopholes which enabled the equipment lems of recapture were those of final
to escape. Some valuations were so in- settlement with fixed-fee contractors. As
flated that recapture was out of the ques- the program neared an end, claims piled
tion. These were relatively simple up rapidly. Contractors found many rea-
matters. The big headache was with the sons for asking higher fees. Their projects
owners. When they learned that their had cost far more than the estimates on
equipment would be captured, many which their fees were based. They had
complained. Some pleaded hardship, done much work not covered by the
maintaining that the loss of their equip- original contracts and had remained on
ment would force them out of business. the jobs long past the original completion
Others, outraged and indignant, quoted dates. Many had paid out sums for travel,
promises they had received from Quarter- entertainment, advertising, telephone
master officers that the recapture clause calls and telegrams, and legal and bank-
would be inoperative. Congressmen and ing services, expecting reimbursement,
AGC officials backed the owners' pro- only to have their vouchers disapproved.
tests. Nevertheless, Somervell refused to By February 1941, requests for ad-
yield, taking the position that a contract ditional payments were flooding the
was a contract and the owners ought to Legal Section of the Engineering Branch.
117
have known that when they signed. In handling this spate of claims, Major
Recapture went forward. By 1 June Jones, chief of Legal, relied heavily on
1941, the Army had taken over 44,554 the Contract Board. Established during
items of equipment valued at $ 12,890,097. the reorganization of December 1940 and
By the spring of 1942 the total value of having as its principal function the ne-
captured items had climbed to $30 mil- gotiation of contracts, the board con-
lion; by fall, to $70 million. The Army sisted of Loving, who was chairman,
put this equipment to good use in con- Tatlow, and Maj. Clyde M. Hadley of
struction and training and eventually the Judge Advocate General's Depart-
shipped the bulk of it overseas for use ment. Because Loving and Tatlow had
negotiated most of the contracts, they
116
(1) Memo, Farrell for Groves, 28 Mar 41.
118
Opns Br Files, Rental Equip. (2) Memo, Opns and (1) Memo, Somervell for Patterson, 21 Jun
Trg Sec OCE for Supply Sec, 26 Apr 41. 413.8 Part 41. (2) Memo, Robins for SOS, 31 Mar 42. Both in
9. (3) OQMG Constr Div Ltrs 154, 12 Mar; 248, 481 Part 1. (3) 1st Ind, 15 Sep 42, on Memo, SOS
12 May; and 318, 20 Jun 41. EHD Files. for CofEngrs, 11 Aug 42. 413.8 Part 13.
117 119
Opns Br Files Rental, Equip; and Equip 1. Groves Comments, IV, 7.
COMPLETING THE CAMPS 301
or the other of these boards. The Con- operate; dams with a total capacity of
tract Settlement Board had jurisdiction 4,000 acre-feet to tend; and water tanks
over cases involving $50,000 or less; its and reservoirs with a total capacity of
counterpart in Patterson's office handled 118,570,600 gallons to maintain. In ad-
larger claims and heard appeals from dition there were matters of fire pre-
decisions of the Quartermaster group. vention, pest control, sanitation, and
That most contractors considered the housekeeping. Vast though the under-
boards' decisions fair was evidenced by taking was, it received little attention
the fact that few went to court to obtain during 1940. Occupied fully with getting
additional concessions.123 the camps built, Hartman could do little
Months and sometimes years went by in the way of planning how to run them
124
before final settlements were reached with later on.
camp contractors. Meanwhile, the camps In December 1940, finding the Repairs
were fully operational as Army training and Utilities Section almost totally un-
centers. prepared to operate soon-to-be-completed
camps, Somervell swung into action.
Maintenance and Operation Money was the first consideration. Total-
ing approximately $60 million, the sums
With their roads, streets, and rail so far appropriated were inadequate for
terminals, their water, sewage, and elec- the purpose. On 20 December Somervell
tric systems, and their hospitals, laun- asked Groves to prepare new estimates;
dries, bakeries, cold storage buildings, by mid-January the battle for funds was
warehouses, fire stations, post offices, tele- under way. The second need was for
phone exchanges, clubs, and theaters, equipment. Plans took shape for trans-
the 46 new camps and cantonments re- ferring recaptured equipment to main-
sembled modern cities. There were, in tenance crews. The third requirement,
all, 700 miles of gaslines, 804 miles of competent administrators, would be most
railroad tracks and sidings, 1,500 miles difficult to fill. Experienced officers could
of sewers, 1,557 miles of roads, 2,000 not be spared for maintenance assign-
miles of water conduits, and 3,500 miles ments at all the big new posts.125
of electric cables to keep up at these Early in January Somervell hit upon
posts. There were nearly 46,000 furnaces, the idea of calling in city managers. On
boilers, and heaters to fire. There were the 8th he wrote to Groves: "I talked
sewage disposal plants with a combined this thing over last night with Mr. Loving
daily capacity of 86,729,866 gallons to and he seemed to think there are many
such people we can get . . . . people
123
(1) Memo, Somervell for Patterson, 29 Jun 41. who are tops in their professions."126 A
QM 334 (Contract Settlement Bd) 1942. (2) Memo,
124
Styer for Leavey, 26 Sep 41. OCE Legal Div Files, (1) Rpt, Activities of Constr Div, Jul 40-Jul 41,
Interpretations of CPFF Contract. (3) OUSW pp. 21-24. (2) OCE Office Dir Mil Constr R&U
Purchases and Contracts Gen Directive 72, 7 Nov 41. Div, History of Repairs and Utilities, 1939-1945, P-
(4) OQMG Office Order 273, 28 Nov 41. Last two in 10. Cited hereinafter as Hist of R&U, 1939-1945.
125
OCE Legal Div Library, Directives 1940-41. (5) (1) Min, Constr Div Staff Mtg, 20 Dec 40.EHD
Memo, SW, USW, and ASW for CofEngrs, 6 Jan Files. (2) See p. 278, above.
126
42. 3820 (Nat Def) Part 12. (6) OCE Memo 38, 9 Memo, Somervell for Groves, 8 Jan 41. Opns
Jan 42. EHD Files. Br Files, Camps and Cantons (M&O).
COMPLETING THE CAMPS 303
short time later he got in touch with days."127 With this assurance Somervell
Col. Clarence O. Sherrill, who had re- prepared to tell the corps areas that city
signed from the Corps of Engineers in managers were on the way.
1926 to become city manager of Cin- The news broke on the 29th, when
cinnati, a post he still held. Sherrill Groves announced to a meeting of corps
agreed to round up experienced city area quartermasters: "These camps are
managers and city engineers who would big cities, and . . . we should have
be willing to serve as majors and lieu- commissioned City Managers and City
tenant colonels in the Quartermaster Engineers, who have managerial ca-
Corps. These men would become utilities pacity." Fifty such officers would soon
officers on the staffs of corps area and be available, and, said Groves: "We
post quartermasters. Sherrill made rapid realize that when we send them out, that
progress. "We have got a surprising num- under present regulations, Post Com-
ber of acceptances," he told Groves on 127
Tel Conv, Groves and Sherrill, 28 Jan 41. Opns
28 January. "We will be ready in a few Br Files, Camps and Cantons (M&O).
304 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
manders or Post Quartermasters decide Meanwhile, on 23 January, the new
which Officer will be the Utility Officer, head of Repairs and Utilities, George F.
but we expect that when an experienced Lewis, had arrived on the scene. Son of
man of this character is sent there that the inventor of the Lewis machinegun,
he will be used for that purpose." This he was a 1914 West Point graduate, a
announcement brought a flurry of excite- classmate of Somervell. Commissioned in
ment. Brig. Gen. James L. Frink of the the Corps of Engineers, he had served
Fourth Corps Area was on his feet im- with the Punitive Expedition into Mexico
mediately. "Regardless of rank?" he ex- and with the First Division in France.
claimed. Groves replied that the new Resigning from the Army in 1919, he
men would be junior to the post quarter- afterward held positions as vice president
masters. In a moment Frink was back: and treasurer of the Anderson Rolled
"It should be thoroughly understood that, Gear Company; president and treasurer
when these boys come down in the Fourth of Foote, Pierson and Company, Inc.;
Corps Area, I am the boss." Several town commissioner and public safety di-
other corps area quartermasters ques- rector of Montclair, New Jersey; and
tioned whether men used to dealing with managing engineer of the J. G. White
city politicians would "play the game Engineering Corporation. With his mili-
the military way." At this point Somer- tary background and his wide experience
vell joined the discussion. "I do not know in management, engineering, and con-
how much experience any of you have struction, Lewis was particularly well
had in politics," he said, "but I have qualified for the job of reorganizing the
been exposed to- it for a considerable Army's repairs and utilities work.
period of time, and if you can get along While awaiting appointment as a lieu-
with a bunch of politicians—well, getting tenant colonel in the Quartermaster
along with a bunch of Army officers is Corps, Lewis looked into the existing
just 'duck soup'." After giving the as- setup. He found that repairs and utilities
sembled officers a few facts of political was commonly regarded as one of the
life, he went on to remonstrate: "Now, worst headaches in the Army. Although
I gathered from what General Frink said The Quartermaster General was legally
that we were trying to ram something responsible for all post maintenance, suc-
down your throats. Quite the contrary. cessive Chiefs of Staff had insisted that
What we are trying to do is to get the commanders on the ground have com-
best people we can find in these United plete control. As a result authority vested
States to do that job for you." At the in the corps areas, and post quarter-
end, the corps area men seemed molli- masters took their orders from station
fied.128 The following day Groves wrote commanders. Diverting maintenance
Sherrill that the corps area people were funds to pet projects of local military
"unanimous in their approval and ap- authorities was an almost universal prac-
preciation of the plan."129 tice. Because few enlisted specialists were
128
available and funds were seldom suffi-
Min, Conf of Corps Area QM's, 27-29 Jan 41, cient for hiring civilians, post quarter-
pp. 88-92. EHD Files.
129
Ltr, Groves to Sherrill, 30 Jan 41. Opns Br masters had to draw men from the line.
Files, Camps and Cantons (M&O). Gunners helped run sewage plants, in-
COMPLETING THE GAMPS 305
fantrymen fired furnaces, and tankers asked for men who had successfully
patched roofs and improved roads. Lewis managed cities of at least forty or fifty
noted other weaknesses. Budgetary con- thousand. Sherrill's list named many who
trols were lax and spending was un- did not fill the bill. One man, recom-
scientific. There were no uniform pro- mended for the rank of lieutenant colonel,
cedures of cost accounting, stock control, had managed a town of 4,700 since 1921;
or work load measurement; no regular another candidate for a lieutenant
inspections and reports; and no system- colonelcy had once run a town of 10,000
atic studies of personnel utilization. Tech- but had been out of work since 1934.
nical manuals and bulletins were few and Somervell let Sherrill know that he was
out of date. Complicating the mainte- "quite surprised to learn that so many of
nance task were the temporary character the individuals recommended were not
of the new camps and the speed of con- in fact eminently successful in private
struction. Already, some roofs were leak- life."133 Only fifteen of the fifty men
ing and some floors were beginning to Sherrill had named seemed qualified for
130
warp. commissions. Lewis regarded Sherrill's
One of Lewis' first assignments was to effort as a failure.134 "We were," said
work with Groves on the city manager Groves, "possibly a bit misled by Colonel
proposition. Unlooked-for complications Sherrill's initial optimism."135
endangered the plan. Word that city While reviewing applications for-
officials would receive direct commissions warded by Sherrill, Lewis combed the
prompted inquiries from congressmen. Army Reserve lists. For days he worked
Candidates appeared whose chief recom- in the Military Personnel Branch of
mendation was political backing. Groves Gregory's office, studying the files. His
made it clear that there would be no efforts were rewarding, for he turned up
patronage appointments. He told one thirty-three likely prospects, among them
congressman that the choice of city man- the city manager of Dallas, Texas, the
agers was up to Sherrill. He informed city engineers of Elyria, Ohio, and
another that no commissions were avail- Mamaroneck, New York, and the chief
able.181 Finally, he adopted a standard public works engineer of St. Paul, Minne-
reply: "We're anxious to get men who sota. There were also engineers and offi-
are city manager experienced, and these cials of telephone and electric companies.
men aren't, that's all."132 A more serious Called to active duty early in March,
difficulty arose when Sherrill submitted these Reservists went to the new camps
his recommendations. Somervell had and cantonments and to Repairs and
130
Utilities Branches in the zones.136 Pleased
(1) Extracts from Col Lewis' Diary, 1941. OCE
R&U Div Files, Org—Utilities Sec. (2) Hist of R&U,
with their performance, Lewis later
1939-45.
131
passim. 133
(1) Ltr, Groves to Rep Doughton, 4 Feb 41. Ltr, Somervell to Sherrill, 27 Mar 41. Opns Br
Opns Br Files, Camps and Cantons. (2) Tel Conv, Files, Corresp (Gen).
134
Groves and Rep McCormack's Secy, 7 Mar 41. Opns (1) Memo, Groves for Somervell, 5 Mar 41.
Br Files, Camps and Cantons (M&O). (3) Memo, Opns Br Files, Personnel. (2) Ltr, Lewis to OCMH, 8
Farrell for Groves, 26 Mar 41. Opns Br Files, Maj Mar 55.
135
Shepherd. Groves Comments, VI, 8.
132 136
Tel Conv, Groves and Mr. Gale, WD, 13 May Memo, Groves for Somervell, 5 Mar 41. Opns
41. Opns Br Files, Camps and Cantons. Br Files, Personnel.
306 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
wrote: "Our Army was dependent on our allotted by The Quartermaster General
reserve and National Guard forces for directly to the post utilities officers. The
trained and skilled personnel and they meaning of Lewis' proposal was clear—
should be given credit for the fine ma- local commanders would lose their
terial they supplied."137 power.139 If the plan was logical, it was
After receiving his commission on 11 also revolutionary.
February, Lewis concentrated on plans Opposition was not long in forming.
for reorganizing the Army's maintenance Among the first to resist was Gregory's
system. For the next few weeks his cal- deputy, Brig. Gen. Frank F. Scowden.
endar was crowded with appointments. Believing maintenance should remain un-
He called on William H. Harrison in der post quartermasters, Scowden pigeon-
the new Office of Production Manage- holed the plan.140 When Groves at length
ment and on Comdr. Thomas S. Combs went over Scowden's head, he found
in the Bureau of Yards and Docks. He Gregory "fully in sympathy" with Lewis'
consulted two vice presidents of the proposal. Gregory agreed to recommend
Western Union Telegraph Company and the change, but he reminded Somervell
the works manager of Standard Oil of that corps area commanders had always
New Jersey. He talked matters over with shown "great interest in the expenditure
members of G-4, the Bureau of the Bud- of repair and maintenance funds." Per-
get, and OQMG. After studying other haps, he said optimistically, the com-
maintenance setups, in both industry and manders now had "so many other prob-
government, Lewis took a closer look at lems that they may be glad to get rid of
his own. By early March he was ready this one."141 Gregory's hopes were short
to offer Somervell some concrete sug- lived. Word of the plan reached the corps
gestions.138 areas before it reached the General Staff.
Lewis proposed to bring all repairs and On 1 May the commanding general of
utilities under Construction Division con- the Fourth Corps Area asked General
trol. Post utilities officers would be ap- Marshall for a hearing.142 In reply Mar-
pointed and relieved, not by the corps shall pointed out that Gregory had as
area commanders, but by The Quarter- yet made no proposal but promised that
master General. The supervisory func- "all factors will be considered before any
tions exercised by the corps area quarter- change is made."143 The Construction
masters would be transferred to the zones. Division had a fight on its hands.
Estimates would be prepared by post On 9 May Gregory formally presented
utilities officers and zone Constructing
Quartermasters. Corps area and station 139
(1) Ibid. (2) Ltr, Gregory to TAG, 9 May 41,
commanders could concur or comment and Incl, Draft of Proposed Revision of AR 30-1760.
on these estimates but could not dis- G-4/33028.
140
Extracts from Col Lewis' Diary, 1941.
approve them. The bulk of the funds 141
Memo, Gregory for Somervell, 16 Apr 41. QM
appropriated for maintenance would be 600.3
142
(Misc) 1935.
Memo, Reybold for Marshall, 8 May 41. G-
4/32445-1.
137 143
Ltr, Lewis to OCMH, 8 Mar 55. Ltr, Marshall to CG Fourth Corps Area, 15
138
Extracts from Col Lewis' Diary, 1941. May 41. G-4/32445-1.
COMPLETING THE CAMPS 307
his recommendations to the General Staff. nance duties of the corps areas. At the
He cast his plea for their acceptance in same time, local military authorities
compelling terms. "There is little doubt," would retain a measure of control, for
he wrote, "but that the efficient and utilities officers would report to station
economical operation and maintenance commanders and zone Constructing
of posts and stations in the expanded Quartermasters would be responsible for
Army will be seriously impaired if these repairs and utilities to corps area com-
recommended changes are not made manders. General Marshall accepted the
144
promptly." Gregory's letter went to compromise and ordered a new regu-
G-4, where the task of reviewing it fell lation printed. With its publication on
to Colonel Chamberlin, who was acting 23 June, Lewis assumed full control of
in General Reybold's absence. Chamber- the technical end of repairs and utilities.
lin's reaction was unfavorable. He saw Commanders still had final say as to
the advantages of letting The Quarter- what jobs to do and when, but the Con-
master General furnish expert personnel struction Division decided how.147
but balked at curbing the powers of local The new arrangement enabled Lewis
commanders. As he saw it, the question to replace the old housekeeping service
was whether command or staff ought to with a vigorous and effective manage-
exercise authority. The answer was im- ment organization. Specialization, mod-
plicit in his recommendations. The ernization, and standardization were key-
Quartermaster General should redraw notes of his policy. Engineers, scientists,
his proposal. Local commanders should and trained mechanics took over oper-
retain their authority. Corps area com- ation of the Army's physical plant. Lewis'
manders should be consulted before any own staff included such experts as Jean
change was made. General Marshall con- L. Vincenz, commissioner of Public
145
curred. Somervell had lost the first Works and City Engineer of Fresno,
round. California, and Louis C. McCabe of the
The Quartermaster forces were not Illinois Geological Survey, an authority
ready to admit defeat. Late in May on solid fuels. Through an intensive re-
Groves and Lewis undertook missionary cruiting drive, he obtained qualified men
work among members of the General for key field positions from utility com-
Staff. On 12 June Somervell and General panies, municipalities, and universities.
146
Moore framed a compromise plan. A countrywide training program offered
Under it, The Quartermaster General instruction in fire fighting, plumbing,
would assign utilities officers to the posts; sewage plant operation, and many other
the zones would take over the mainte- specialties. Introduction of up-to-date
management techniques—quarterly bud-
144
gets, cost accounting, work order systems,
Ltr, Gregory to TAG, 9 May 41. G-4/33028.
145
(1) Memo, Chamberlin for Moore, 22 May 41. and the like—eliminated guesswork and
(2) Memo, Chamberlin for Marshall, 29 May 41. placed the maintenance operation on a
Both in G-4/33028. (3) 1st Ind AG 600.1 (5-9-41) business basis. Monthly reports and fre-
PC, 7 Jun 41, on Ltr, Gregory to TAG, 9 May 41.
QM 600.3 (Misc) 1935.
146 147
Extracts from Col Lewis' Diary, 1941. WD Circ 121, Sec 1, 23 Jun 41.
308 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
forts to more immediate problems, early in December, Davis said, "It was
Somervell gave the munitions program possible undue emphasis was given in
considerable thought and study. making these recommendations to the
He quickly identified the source of wishes of industrial management com-
some of the trouble. In his initial report pared with other factors which appear
to General Gregory on 9 December, he important to the Commission."9 Ord-
noted that "the number of agencies in- nance took a different view. "The Coun-
volved" in the munitions program had try was faced with war," General
"introduced complications." Too many Campbell afterward explained. "Ord-
discordant voices were calling the tune. nance was responsible for getting muni-
As a result, confusion attended site tions in the hands of troops in sufficient
selection, planning, design, and super- quantity and on time. No one else was."10
vision. While agreeing that the using Not a party to decisions affecting plant
services "must, of course, be consulted," locations, the Construction Division could
Somervell wished to streamline pro- only wait until Ordnance and NDAC
cedures and expedite decisions; and he composed their differences.
felt the Construction Division ought to Further examples of snags which de-
have a larger role.7 As he probed more layed commencement of construction
deeply into the workings of the program, were offered by the small arms ammuni-
he found little reason for altering these tion plants—the most notable laggards
views. among Ordnance projects. The decision
Disputes over plant locations were to build three such plants came early
delaying the start of several Ordnance in October 1940. Hartman succeeded
projects. One such dispute involved the in awarding the construction contract
second anhydrous ammonia plant. In for one of them, the Lake City Ordnance
October Ordnance and its operator, the Plant at Kansas City, Missouri, late in
Allied Chemical and Dye Corporation, November; construction began two days
had proposed a site near South Point, after Somervell took over. Earlier, though,
Ohio. But Commissioners Davis and the directive for this contract had waited
Hillman of NDAC held out for another for more than five weeks, while Ordnance
location, near the depressed community reviewed planned capacity and site boun-
of Carbondale, Illinois. When Somervell daries.11 The division was involved to a
joined Gregory in December, the issue degree in delays at the second project,
was deadlocked. Similar disagreements the St. Louis Ordnance Plant. Nego-
were blocking construction of the New tiations with the two firms selected to
River and Hoosier bag loading plants and act as joint venturers, the Fruin-Colnon
the Plum Brook explosives works.8 The Contracting Company and the Massman
delays seemed likely to continue. At a
meeting of the Advisory Commission 9
Minutes of the NDAC, p. 120.
10
Comments of Gen Campbell on Constr MS, VIII,
7
Memo, Somervell for Gregory, 9 Dec 40. EHD 52.11
Files. (1) Memo, Reybold for Patterson, 3 Oct 40.
8
(1) Memo, OCofOrd Industrial Svc Facil for G-4/38773. (2) Memo, OCofOrd Industrial Svc
Rutherford, 22 Oct 40. Ord 675/1202 (Ohio River Facil for Rutherford, 20 Sep 40. (3) Memo, OASW,
OW—Misc). (2) Memo, OCofOrd Industrial Svc Plng Br for CofOrd, 26 Oct 40. Both in Ord 675/643
Facil for Rutherford, 22 Nov 40. Ord 675/1636 (Misc). (4) Memo, OCofOrd Industrial Svc Facil
(Misc). (3) Minutes of the NDAC, pp. 120-30. for Hartman, 19 Oct 40. 635 (Lake City OP) I.
312 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
16
Dollars Versus Days
Memo, Somervell for Gregory, 9 Dec 40.
17
(1) Memo, OCofOrd Industrial Svc Facil for While the spotlight focused on camps
Knudsen, 1 Aug 40. Ord 675/119 (Radford—Misc).
(2) Compl Rpt, Radford OW, 1940-43, Introd. (3) and cantonments, Campbell and Groves
Memo, OCofOrd for ASW, 2 Nov 40. Ord 675/1335 were uneasy about the progress of in-
(Radford—Misc). (4) Compl Rpt, Indiana OW, 6 dustrial preparedness. As the heads of
Nov 42, pp. 2-3.
18
Memo, Campbell for Groves, 13 Dec 40. QM the Ordnance Department's Industrial
635 (Shops, Ord Repairs) 1940. Service, Facilities, and the Construction
314 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
Division's Operations Branch, they bore tion dates. The deadlines originally an-
a heavy responsibility for the munitions nounced were seldom final or exact.
plant program, a responsibility they Some were set forth in general terms. The
keenly felt. Telephoning Groves on 10 expectation was that the Iowa and Kings-
December 1940, General Campbell said: bury shell loading plants would take
"Two guys are going to hold the bag, about ten months to build; the Lake
Campbell and Groves. You won't have City small arms ammunition plant, about
the plants ready. I can't make TNT until one year. Other completion dates, giving
the Quartermaster gives me the plant." month and day, changed again and
Groves mentioned one solution, to put again, sometimes drastically.21 Not know-
the projects on a three-shift basis. "It is ing how fast to proceed or how heavily to
going to cost money," he told Campbell, spend, Somervell in mid-December ap-
"and if anybody doesn't like it after we pealed to the Chief of Ordnance for
have started, we say, 'What are you "honest-to-God" completion dates. Gen-
going to do about it?' "19 The problem, eral Wesson turned the request over to
both men recognized, was not that Col. Francis H. Miles, Jr., of the Am-
simple. Funds were short and goals un- munition Division, giving him ten days
certain. Unless money was available and to prepare an answer. Miles' was no easy
its spending could be justified, wholesale assignment, since completion hinged on
use of crash methods was out of the deliveries of processing machinery. As
question. Campbell put it, "No use having the
On 13 December Campbell asked buildings when we have no equipment."22
Groves to find out how much the muni- It was still too early to know when de-
tions projects were actually going to cost. liveries might come through, so in the
By making financial arrangements "with- end, Wesson had to put Somervell off.
out delay to take care of any shortages," On 23 December, he set dates for partial
Ordnance hoped to avoid "showing large completion of three plants. One line at
deficits upon completion of plants." Com- Radford was to be ready on 15 March;
plying with Campbell's request, Groves two lines at Indiana, on 1 April; and
directed Constructing Quartermasters at three lines at Kankakee, on 1 July.
all Ordnance projects to submit revised Wesson promised to have dates for all
estimates of cost. The results were soon the plants on 1 March. Until then, he
apparent. Ordnance projects would show asked Somervell to continue building on
deficits totaling about $100 million.20 a single-shift no overtime basis at all
Meanwhile, Groves and Somervell had projects except Indiana, Radford, and
23
appealed to Ordnance for firm comple- Kankakee.
21
Table compiled in EHD from Constr Progr
19
Tel Conv, Campbell and Groves, 10 Dec 40. Rpts and corresp files, Completion Dates and
Opns Br Files, Ord. Progress—Ord Plants. EHD Files. Cited hereinafter
20
(1) Memo, Campbell for Groves, 13 Dec 40. as Table, EHD, Compl Dates and Progr—Ord
(2) Memo, Groves for Campbell, 17 Dec 40. Both in Plants.
22
QM 635 (Shops, Ord Repair) 1940. (3) OUSW, Tel Conv, Groves and Campbell, 17 Dec 40.
Summary of Constr Program for Manufacturing Opns Br Files, Ord.
23
Facils (Rev 24 Jan 41). USW Files, Prodn Div (1) Memo, Somervell for Styer, 26 Dec 40. Opns
600.1-134 Constr (1 Jun 40-23 Mar 41). (4) Min, Br Files, Ord Projs. (2) Memo, Somervell for Patter-
Mtg in Harris' Office, 5 Feb 41. son, 29 Apr 41. QM 635 (Ammo Plants) 1941.
CREATING A MUNITIONS INDUSTRY 315
24
Wesson's choice of these three plants its attention on Kankakee. Campbell
reflected the critical shortage of smoke- asked Groves to urge the contractor,
less powder. The output of the single Stone & Webster, to bend every effort
line at Radford would enable Frankford toward completing one DNT line "at
25
Arsenal, the Army's sole small arms am- the earliest possible moment." That
munition factory, to increase production the first rush order covered only three
markedly. The two lines at Indiana plants in no way reduced its importance.
would turn out twice as much cannon Indiana and Radford presented little
and small arms powder as the whole difficulty. Begun in September 1940,
country had manufactured in 1940. But both were healthy projects and gave
production of smokeless powder de- promise of meeting their deadlines.
pended on the supply of DNT, one of Creedon took nothing for granted, how-
its components. When it became ap-
parent that commercial sources would 24
(1) Memo, Campbell for Somervell, 28 Dec 40.
not yield enough of this explosive to 635 (Radford OW) I. (2) Compl Rpt, Indiana OW,
6 Nov 42, p. 5. EHD Files.
permit the lines at Radford and Indiana 25
Memo, Campbell for Groves, 20 Dec 40. Ord
to operate at capacity, Ordnance focused 675/2218 (Misc).
316 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
ever, stating only that the jobs would salamanders and by performing extensive
be ready on time if everything went maintenance on equipment was the con-
well. Virtually everything did. Threat- tractor able to avoid shutdowns. Frequent
ened delays in deliveries of structural changes in layouts and designs played
steel failed to materialize. Chartered hob with orderly construction. Most
trains brought additional workmen to serious, Stone & Webster had little luck
Radford from Roanoke and Bluefield; in getting structural steel. Too many
the passengers paid forty cents per round orders were ahead of Kankakee's at the
trip and the government made up the mills. On 1 February the project was 6
difference in fare for the long distances percent complete, fifteen percentage
involved. At Indiana, trailer camps pro- points behind schedule. Finishing three
vided attractive housing for workers. lines by 1 July would take some doing.
Operating three shifts and employing Ordnance therefore asked the contrac-
20,000-man work forces, the projects tor to rush one building which could
moved along at a lively pace. By early serve temporarily as a DNT plant. Im-
February, Indiana was well ahead of position of this additional requirement
schedule, and Radford, though some- brought no lessening of pressure for
26 27
what behind, was making rapid gains. completion of permanent lines.
Kankakee was another story. Although For the program generally, economy
the contract with Stone & Webster went rather than speed became the overriding
into effect early, on 12 September 1940, consideration. Groves' report of a $100-
the project experienced one delay after million deficit touched off an economy
another. The land, acquired by a Chicago drive. On 8 January Campbell forbade
broker, did not become available until the building of more brick dwellings at
21 November. Two days later a supple- plants. Residents would enjoy "com-
mental agreement doubled TNT capa- modious and comfortable" frame houses
city, tripled DNT, and added twelve but would have to do without tile bath-
tetryl lines. Not until December were rooms, slate roofs, and air-conditioning
designs far enough along for Stone & systems.28 The savings involved were
Webster to order materials. Building negligible, for the houses originally con-
progress was slow. Recruitment proved structed were not luxurious by ordinary
difficult; the nearby Elwood plant had civilian standards.29 Going a step further,
already exhausted the supply of skilled Campbell on 16 January modified de-
labor in the area, and workmen had to signs for administration buildings. "It is
come from Chicago and other more dis- more desirable to effect economies," he
tant points. Freezing temperatures hin- wrote to Somervell, "than to have ela-
dered the work of building roads, digging borate buildings." Two-story brick struc-
foundations, and pouring concrete; only tures would give way to one-story frame
by using portable shelters and coke-fired
27
(1)Compl Rpt, Kankakee OW, 11 Aug 44,
26
(1) Compl Rpt, Indiana OW, 6 Nov 42, pp. 69- passim. EHD Files. (2) Constr Div Progress Charts, 5
70, 74-81. (2) Compl Rpt, Radford OW, 1940-43, Feb
28
41, p. 46.
pp. 26-28. (3) Memo, Somervell for Campbell, 4 Jan Memo, Somervell for general distribution, 8
41. Opns Br Files, Radford OW. (4) Constr Div Jan 41. QM 600.1 (Ord) 1941.
29
Progress Charts, 5 Feb 41, pp. 46-47. Groves Comments, VIII, 5.
CREATING A MUNITIONS INDUSTRY 317
30 34
buildings. Campbell must have felt hand. Following on the heels of
that he was straining at gnats, for he Somervell's memorandum were orders
sent Somervell a second memo the same to each of the projects instructing com-
day, urging "such steps to reduce the manding officers and Constructing Quar-
cost of construction [as] can be done termasters to survey all plans with a view
without lessening the efficiency of the to scrapping unnecessary items and re-
operation or safety of the plants." Since ducing costs.35
some of the projects were so far along Ordnance, continuing meanwhile to
that changes might cause delays, seek additional economies, discovered
Campbell asked Somervell to rely on his that material savings might result from
own judgment in deciding where to cut.31 changes in layout as well as in design.
Wasting little time on formalities, According to General Campbell, im-
Somervell sent Campbell the terse reply, portant savings could "be had in the
"Your desires in this matter will be basic layout of the plant with particular
32
carried out." Meanwhile, he sum- respect to the locations of the various
moned Colonel Leavey.33 Within a day elements comprising the plant." He
or so the two Engineers had mapped recognized, however, that design and
a campaign. Somervell sent a scorching construction had been under way too
memorandum to the field. There had, long on some plants to permit economi-
he said, been "a leaning toward gran- cal changes in layout. He nevertheless
deur." Stressing the need for simplicity, asked commanding officers to cut corners
efficiency, and economy, he wrote: wherever they could without hurting
There is no excuse for masonry structures, progress.36
monumental or otherwise, where a light On 18 January, in a far more drastic
frame structure will serve the purpose. There step, Campbell ordered a fundamental
is no excuse for the use of expensive materials change in plans for many late projects.
where less costly ones will serve the purpose Scrapping blueprints for permanent fa-
for the period of time for which the construc-
tion is being provided. There is no excuse cilities, he switched to temporary plants
for a heavy duty road where a lighter type designed for a 5-year life. To be built
will . . . provide for anticipated traf- on the new model were eight projects,
fic with reasonable maintenance costs. There including all bag loaders and late shell
is no need to design railroads for a speed of loading, TNT, and powder plants.
37
remaining first-wave projects under way. though they made some concessions—
As the using services settled questions of commanding officers served as CQM's
requirements and plant location, orders at five of the late plants, New River,
for construction came through. Seven Wolf Creek, Alabama, Hoosier, and
new directives, one in December, three Ohio River—they held on to going proj-
in January, and three in February— ects already under their control and took
46
added to the backlog inherited from charge at most new ones.
Hartman—brought to twenty the num- Increasingly, the Construction Division
ber of jobs for which Somervell had to asserted its authority. In late December
negotiate contracts. Although he signed Somervell and Campbell sent command-
but one agreement in December, he ing officers at powder and explosives
completed arrangements for 6 projects plants the following joint statement:
in January, 8 in February, and 3 in "You must realize the fact that the
March. Meanwhile, the number of going Quartermaster Corps is charged by law
projects rose. By late January, 23 were with all construction activities. Equally,
building; by late March 33-44 you must recognize that the Ordnance
By tightening control over the proj- Department occupies the position of a
ects, Groves hoped to eliminate con- client in private construction work."47
fusion and delays. As far back as No- Six weeks later, in a circular to the field,
vember 1940, he had started strengthen- Somervell took a stronger line. The
ing the Quartermaster position in the Constructing Quartermaster was "the
field. Shortly after his appointment to official in responsible charge"—"the
the Fixed Fee Branch, Quartermaster authorized representative of the Govern-
officers took charge of construction ment on the project." As such, he con-
at the Iowa shell loading plant, Lake trolled the architect-engineer and con-
City small arms ammunition plant, and structor. Although the wishes of the
Weldon Spring explosives plant. Early operator and the commanding officer
in December, Groves told Campbell, would be "fully considered at all times,"
"There is little detailing of Ordnance their needs would "be communicated to
officers on the job as Constructing Quar- and carried out on the project through
termasters."45 But Campbell was also the Constructing Quartermaster." The
moving to strengthen his position. In quartermaster zones would referee dis-
mid-December he insisted on placing putes. The document made it clear that
his representatives as CQM's at the the CQM was headman at the project
Morgantown ammonia plant and the and that his decisions were subject to
Jefferson Proving Ground. Then, a few review only by his superiors in the Quar-
days after Christmas, he suggested termaster Corps.48
that commanding officers take over as
46
CQM's at all large munitions projects, (1) Data compiled from EHD Files, Industrial
Projs. (2) Memo, Campbell for Groves, 27 Dec 40.
old and new. Neither Groves nor QM 210.213 1940. (3) Opns Br Files, Ord Corresp.
Somervell was willing to go along. Al- 47
Ltr, Somervell and Campbell to CO's Powder
and Explosive Plants, 30 Dec 40. Opns Br Files,
44
Constr PR's 15, 19 Apr 41; 40, 30 Nov 41. Ord Corresp.
45 48
Tel Conv, Campbell and Groves, 7 Dec 40. Opns OQMG Constr Div Ltr 101, 19 Feb 41. EHD
Br Files, Ord. Files.
320 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
phia Armor Plate Plant reached comple- heavy machine tools. Steam locomotives
tion. In April the Indiana Ordnance furnished heat. Fifteen hundred work-
Works produced its first powder and the men maintained a lively pace. By mid-
Detroit Arsenal, its first tank.53 Con- April 1941 the principal manufacturing
sidering the season of the year when units were ready. On the 24th Chrysler
much of the work went forward and the formally presented its first tank to Gen-
lack of funds for expediting three of the eral Wesson.55 Campbell, who attended
five projects, the opening of these plants the presentation ceremonies, later wrote:
was a notable achievement. "The first two tanks rolled out the back
Describing construction "as a miracle door. The steam was provided by two
of performance," General Campbell cited old locomotives which had been run into
the example of the Detroit Tank Ar- the shop. Some of the outside walls were
senal.54 Designed and built by the of canvas tarpaulin and yet, with the
Chrysler Corporation and Albert Kahn indomitable spirit of all connected, this
56
Associates, the arsenal was the first plant great job had been done."
in the United States to mass produce More miracles and more indomitable
tanks. On 11 September 1940 Kahn spirit were needful. In the spring of 1941
broke ground for the main assembly only a small part of the program was
building, a huge steel and glass structure, complete. The Army faced new and exi-
five blocks long and two blocks wide. gent demands on the munitions front.
The scheduled completion date was 31 Pressure for speed was mounting.
March 1942. There was some friction
at first, as the Constructing Quarter- Demands for Greater Speed
master, an Ordnance officer, rubbed
Kahn the wrong way. On 11 October During the winter of 1940-41, rearma-
Hartman relieved the CQM and re- ment entered a more critical phase, as
placed him with Major Kadlec. Working the nation assumed new risks and fresh
in harmony, Chrysler, Kahn, and Kadlec responsibilities. After his re-election,
forced construction at top speed. On 18 President Roosevelt took bold and force-
November erection of structural steel ful measures to assure America's security
began. Work went forward in the bitter and Great Britain's survival. On 29 De-
cold of the hard Detroit winter. By 28 cember 1940, in a significant and mem-
January the steel members were all in orable address, he made common cause
place and half the structure was glassed with Britain and called upon this country
in. At this point the contractor closed off to become the "Arsenal of Democracy."
57
the completed portion of the building Three days later, in his State of the
with temporary partitions, so that he
could lay concrete flooring and install 55
(1) Ltr, ZCQM 6 to OQMG, 25 Apr 41. EHD
Files. (2) Ltr, CQM Detroit Tank Arsenal to OQMG,
53
(1) Constr Div OQMG, Constr Contracts 19 May 41. EHD Files. (3) Comments of Gen Camp-
Awarded or Approved, 12 Nov 41, pp. 9, 37. (2) bell on Constr MS, VIII, 66. (4) Lt. Gen. Levin H.
Compl Rpt, Radford OW, 1940-43, p. 28. (3) Compl Campbell, Jr., The Industry-Ordnance Team (New York:
Rpt, Indiana OW, 6 Nov 42, p. 81. (4) Rpt, Activities Whittlesey House, 1946), pp. 109-10.
56
of Constr Div, Jul 40-Nov 41, pp. 216, 198. Ltr, Campbell to OCMH, 10 Mar 55.
54 57
Ltr, Campbell to OCMH, 10 Mar 55. Public Papers and Addresses, IX (1940), 633ff.
322 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
Union message, he announced the policy: for each unit, "A" or desirable and "B"
We are committed to an all-inclusive or essential. Thus, the "A" schedule for
national defense. the third and fourth TNT lines at Kan-
We are committed to full support of all kakee was 1 July 1941; the "B" schedule,
those resolute peoples, everywhere, who are 1October. The entire plant was to be
resisting aggression and are thereby keeping ready on 1 December or 31 December,
war away from our Hemisphere. the "A" and "B" dates for the last tetryl
We are committed to the proposition that
principles of morality and considerations for lines. While Somervell was happy to
our own security will never permit us to have firm target dates at last, the dates
acquiesce in a peace dictated by aggressors themselves raised problems, for Ordnance
and sponsored by appeasers.58 was in effect calling for a speedup in
Congress affirmed this policy by passing munitions plant construction.61
the Lend-Lease Act of March 11, 1941, Before accepting the schedule, Somer-
which, in Stimson's words, "established vell wanted answers to two questions:
between us and the nations fighting were the dates feasible and how much
Hitler ... a relation which was would it cost to meet them. Polling
not substantially dissimilar to that which the contractors, Groves got a mixed re-
would have existed had their fighting action. Six sent favorable replies: Coosa
forces been our own expeditionary River, a bag loader, Weldon Spring,
fighting forces and we their base or Radford, Ravenna, Kingsbury, and Iowa
59
arsenal." The new commitments and could meet the "A" schedule without
the dangers they entailed required major added cost. Two projects, Indiana and
readjustments in military goals. Plans New River, could satisfy the "B" schedule
took shape for a second wave of munitions without any trouble or extra expense
plants. Meanwhile, Ordnance and con- but would need more money to meet the
struction officers intensified their efforts "A" dates. "We will make every effort
to expedite completion of first-wave to meet the desired dates," explained
projects. DuPont's representative at Indiana,
The long-awaited schedule of Ord- "but ... it will be necessary to
nance completion dates, which Campbell work overtime and Sundays . . .
gave to Somervell on 28 February 1941, and to spend additional funds for bet-
reflected Roosevelt's urgent demand for terment of present material delivery
60
"more of everything." Listing seven- dates, which in some cases may not be
teen plants, the schedule resembled the able to be improved."62 From the Wolf
one established earlier for Indiana, Rad- Creek shell loading plant came the
ford, and Kankakee. That is, it set time puzzling reply: either schedule was pos-
limits for construction of each production sible with another $5 million. Contrac-
unit, such as a single powder or TNT tors at the Hoosier plant despaired of
line. Completed units would operate 61
(1) Memo, Campbell for Somervell, 28 Feb 41. Ord
while construction continued on re- 675/4276. (2) Min, Constr Div Staff Mtg, 7 Mar 41.
maining ones. The list included two dates EHD Files. (3) Ltr, Farrell to CQM Kankakee OW,
58
4 Mar 41. 600.914 (Kankakee OW) I.
59
lbid., pp. 666-67. 62
Ltr, E. I. DuPont de Nemours & Co., Charles-
Report of the Secretary of War . . . 1941, p. 7. town, Ind., to CQM Indiana OW, 18 Mar 41. 635
60
Public Papers and Addresses, IX (1940), 642. (Indiana OW) I.
CREATING A MUNITIONS INDUSTRY 323
meeting "A" dates but felt that an Morgantown continued to pose a prob-
additional $4,244,000 might enable them lem. Although Groves said that the "A"
to keep to the "B" schedule. The seven date, 1 September, was patently im-
remaining projects offered no assurances possible, Campbell insisted "that every
whatever. The Alabama powder plant, effort be made towards meeting the
Ohio River ammonia plant, and Plum September first date in view of the ur-
Brook TNT plant could furnish no an- gent requirements for Ammonia." Groves
swers at all. At Kankakee, Elwood, and accepted the September date reluctantly,
the Baytown toluol plant, completion complaining, "This will undoubtedly
would depend on deliveries of materials result in continued reports of 'behind
and processing equipment. The case of schedule' for the Ammonia Plant at
the Morgantown ammonia plant seemed Morgantown."65 Somervell appeared
hopeless; the contract had called for more confident. "Ordnance has been
completion in May 1942 and Ordnance very cooperative in figuring dates for us
was now demanding that production to meet," he told a conference of zone
begin in September 1941.63 When all Constructing Quartermasters early in
replies were in, Groves laid the facts April. "None of them seem to be dates
before Campbell. Final decision was up that we cannot meet if the jobs are con-
66
to Patterson, who, as Assistant Secretary ducted reasonably well."
of War until April 1941 and as Under While the Ordnance schedule was
Secretary thereafter, administered funds under revision, the Chemical Warfare
for expediting production.64 Service was setting new requirements.
On 1 April Campbell forwarded a new The five Chemical Warfare projects,
schedule for a dozen plants. The dates which had previously carried no comple-
indicated that Patterson had loosened tion dates, suddenly received relatively
the purse strings slightly but was un- close deadlines. Edgewood Arsenal was
willing to empty the purse. "A" schedules down for 1 September 1941. The im-
would apply to five of the six projects pregnite plants at Niagara Falls, New
which would require no additional funds. York, East St. Louis, Illinois, and Mid-
Because Coosa River was still in pre- land, Michigan, all started in February,
liminary stages, decision on that proj- were to be ready by October. The char-
ect remained up in the air. Deadlines coal-whetlerite plant at Fostoria, Ohio,
for Alabama, Hoosier, New River, and not yet under way, was due for comple-
Ohio River were also in abeyance. In- tion early in 1942. In addition, on1
diana received an additional $3.2 million March 1941 Chemical Warfare requested
to enable DuPont to meet the "A" construction of four clothing renovation
schedule. "B" schedules would have to plants. To occupy government-owned
suffice for most of the remaining plants. land near Quartermaster depots at Co-
Indeed, Wolf Creek got an additional lumbus, Ohio, Kansas City, Missouri,
two months, its final completion date New Cumberland, Pennsylvania, and
moving from October to December 1941. Ogden, Utah, the plants had price tags
63 65
Memo and Incl, Groves for Somervell, 16 Apr 41. Memo, Groves for Somervell, 16 Apr 41.
66
Opns Br Files, Ord Corresp. Min, Conf of ZCQM's, 7-10 Apr 41, p. 23. EHD
64
WD Orders, 21 Apr 41. Files.
324 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
of $322,600 each. The "desired" com- of Ordnance, OPM, and the Under
pletion date was 1 July 1941; the "es-Secretary's office agreed to try to obtain
67
sential" date, 1 August. Comparatively processing equipment for the plants by
small though they were, Chemical War- 30 September.70 A week later the drive
fare requirements added to the ever- was on.
growing construction burden. Patterson impressed upon all con-
Pressure was developing for a drastic cerned the urgent necessity for finishing
speedup of the small arms ammunition the plants by 30 September. On 15 April
projects. By early 1941 the demand for he directed Gregory "to take any and
rifle ammunition was rising sharply as all steps necessary to see that construction
more and more troops entered training. work on these projects is completed by
Ordnance reserves, already depleted by that date."71 On 16 April he told an
large shipments to Great Britain, were official of the Remington Arms Company,
dwindling rapidly. Frankford Arsenal operators at Lake City and Denver, that
had increased its production but could the President was worried over the out-
not possibly cope with the growing short- look for production of small arms am-
72
age. The new small arms ammunition munition. "We will not be in good
plants had been planned as long-term shape," said Patterson, "until the three
projects. On 1 March 1941, Lake City new plants get into operation." He
carried a tentative completion date of asked Wesson and Gregory to station
27 November 1941; St. Louis, a date of their "most capable and energetic of-
1April 1942; and Denver, where con- ficers" at the projects, to pay close at-
struction had not yet started, no date tention to progress, and to do everything
68
at all. Early completion of these three within their power to hasten deliveries
plants was imperative. "The shortage of of processing machinery. Since St. Louis
small arms ammunition," Groves later was the weakest of the projects, he asked
wrote, "and the terrific shortage which Wesson to make certain that the operator,
would occur in the event we were at- the Western Cartridge Company, clearly
tacked was a matter of serious concern understood "the seriousness of our pre-
73
to Campbell, Somervell, and myself. I dicament." But in urging these meas-
am sure that it must have been in the ures, Patterson did not attempt to tell
mind of Wesson." Campbell and Somervell how to meet the deadlines.
Somervell talked to Patterson about the As soon as they got the green light,
69
situation. On 7 April representatives Groves and Creedon went into action.
67
(1) Constr PR's, Jan-Apr 41. EHD Files.
70
(2) EHD, Construction of Chemical Warfare Facilities Memo, OCofOrd for Masson Britton, OPM, 11
(MS), 1944, p. 4. (3) Leo P. Brophy, Wyndham D. Apr 41. USW Files, Misc & Sub—Ammunitions thru
Miles, and Rexmond C. Cochrane, The Chemical Dec 41.
71
Warfare Service: From Laboratory to Field, UNITED Memo, Patterson for Gregory, 15 Apr 41.
STATES ARMY IN WORLD WAR II (Washing- QM 635 (Ammo Plants) 1941.
72
ton, 1959), pp. 254-56. Ltr, Patterson to D. F. Carpenter, Remington
68
(1) Thomson and Mayo, Ordnance Procurement and Arms Co., 16 Apr 41. USW Files, 095 (Remington
Supply, pp. 190-91, 195. (2) Table, EHD, Compl Arms Co).
73
Dates and Progress—Ord Plants. Memo, Patterson for Wesson and Gregory, 19
69
Groves Comments, VIII, 8-9. Apr 41. QM 635 (Ammo Plants) 1941.
CREATING A MUNITIONS INDUSTRY 325
They sent orders to Constructing Quar- hesitate. The money was soon forth-
78
termasters, instructing them to "push coming.
the work ... to the maximum The speedup of small arms ammuni-
extent possible consistent with orderly tion plants was only the beginning.
procedure." They authorized extra shifts Somervell was certain of that. He saw
and overtime.74 And they told architects the day fast approaching when "the heat"
to forget about aesthetics. "I personally would be off the housing program and
don't care what the thing looks on all the plants instead. Early in April
like . . . ," Groves informed one he predicted: "By next summer the
CQM, "as long as we get it finished."75 people are going to start worrying about
Creedon, taking every possible precau- the powder and shot for the brave boys
tion against delays, meanwhile gave and not so much about the brave boys
particular attention to steel.76 By late who will be supplied with everything
April Somervell felt the division was up to a powder puff to take care of them-
doing all it could to expedite construc- selves." Holding that "the time to get
tion. "Provided no delivery difficulties ahead is the first half of a job and not
are encountered with respect to mate- the last half," he insisted on greater speed
79
rials, especially steel," he advised at all munitions projects. He ordered
Campbell, the new deadlines would be his staff to hunt out bottlenecks and break
77
met. them. He brought pressure on Ordnance
At the outset, Somervell had warned to hasten selection of the two or three
that the ammunition speedup would be remaining sites and on Patterson to ex-
costly—a sure-fire prediction. A survey pedite approval of the several late con-
of the projects showed that an additional tracts. He ordered zone Constructing
$29 million would be necessary. The Quartermasters to put their most com-
80
bulk of it, $21.5 million, would go for petent engineers on Ordnance projects.
increased payrolls—overtime, extra shifts, For his part, Groves tried to get the proj-
and enlarged work forces; the remainder, ects in shape for the big push he knew
for premiums for quick deliveries and for was coming. Explaining that it would
salaries of expediters and followup men. be "embarrassing ... to wait and
St. Louis, where union rules prescribed then find out it was too late to speed up,"
heavy premiums for overtime and shift he told a member of Patterson's staff:
work, would claim the lion's share, $12 "We are going ahead on the basis of
million. Lake City would require $9 seeing that every one of [the plant proj-
million and Denver $8 million. The ects] is in condition so that we can step
total was large but Patterson did not it up. The few that are behind now, we
are starting to spend a little extra and
go into a certain amount of overtime so
74
Ltr, Groves to CQM St. Louis OP, 24 Apr 41.
78
Opns Br Files, St. Louis OP—Corresp. (1) Ltr, OCofOrd to WD Facils Bd, 5 May 41.
75
Tel Conv, Groves and CQM St. Louis OP, 30 Ord 675/7222 Misc. (2) Memo, OCofOrd Fiscal O
Apr 41. Same File. for Campbell, 23 May 41. Ord 675/8381 Misc. (3)
76
Notes of Conf, Creedon, Wilson, and Reps of Memo, Patterson for NDAC, 14 May 41. USW Files,
various steel companies, 28 Apr 41. Same File. Misc & Sub—Ammunitions thru Dec 41.
77 79
Memo, Somervell for Campbell, 21 Apr 41. QM Min, Conf of ZCQM's, 7-10 Apr 41, pp. 248, 23.
80
635 (Ammo Plants) 1941. Min, Constr Div Staff Mtgs, 7, 14 Mar 41.
326 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
estimates would be available within a the first-wave projects at the earliest pos-
month.82 sible date. "Furthermore," Wesson wrote,
The bid failed. On 24 April Brig. Gen. "to the extent that additional overall
Sidney P. Spalding, director of the Pro- expense may be involved in expediting
duction Branch, OUSW, gave Groves the completion of this work, I recom-
the bad news. The previous evening mend that authority be given the Quar-
Patterson had brought Somervell's termaster General to exercise his judg-
memos to Spalding's office, and after ment in this connection." Patterson con-
talking the matter over, had decided curred.86 Speed was all-important. The
not to send the letter to Knudsen. "At time lost in efforts to economize was
least," said Spalding, "we weren't ready beyond recall. The Army had to make
to go ahead on any of the others except the most of whatever time remained.
the small arms ammunition plants
and ... we would check up and The Steel Shortage
let him [Somervell] know shortly about
the remaining plants." Spalding was The greatest obstacle to early comple-
studying each of the projects to see tion was the shortage of steel. Unlike
"whether we are justified in spending a camps and cantonments, which were
good deal of money on speeding them largely of wood, munitions plants and
83
up." Apparently, he failed to find depots required huge quantities of steel.
sufficient justification. On 30 April Manufacturing buildings were usually
Patterson ruled out any crash effort on steel fireproof structures on reinforced
the Chemical Warfare plants. A week concrete foundations. Doors and window
later he told Somervell to limit the sash were of steel, as was much of the
speedup to small arms ammunition.84 processing pipe that honeycombed the
This limitation held for another month. buildings. Steel was a major component
Then came the long-anticipated change. of magazines and igloos for storing ex-
On 27 May 1941 the President pro-plosives and also of inert storage ware-
claimed an unlimited national emergency houses, laboratories, water and power
and called for "the strengthening of our plants, and industrial sewage systems.
defense to the extreme limit of our na- Many miles of railroad tracks criss-
tional power and authority."85 Two crossed the sites: the Iowa plant had 96
weeks later General Wesson recom- miles; the Elwood plant, 100. Seven-foot
mended that Patterson scrap existing chain link fences strung on steel posts
schedules and direct Gregory to complete enclosed maximum security areas. The
Umatilla Ordnance Depot had 20 miles
82
(1) Memo, Somervell for Patterson, 23 Apr 41, of this fencing; the Radford Ordnance
and Incl. QM 635 (Ammo Plants) 1941. (2) Memo,
Somervell for Patterson, 23 Apr 41. QM 635 (CWS)
Works, 23.8 miles. Among the iron and
1941. steel products that went into the Indiana
83
Tel Conv, Spalding and Groves, 24 Apr 41. Opns smokeless powder plant were 16,471 tons
Br Files, Ord.
84
(1) 1st Ind, 30 Apr 41, on Memo, Somervell for
of structural steel; 8,737 tons of reinforc-
Patterson, 23 Apr 41. QM 635 (CWS) 1941. (2) ing rods; 440 tons of reinforcing mesh;
Memo, OUSW for Somervell, 7 May 41. QM 635
86
(Ammo Plants) 1941. Memo, Wesson for Patterson, 9 Jun 41, and
85
Public Papas and Addresses, X (1941), 193. approval thereon. Opns Br Files, Equip 1.
328 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
7,746 squares of corrugated iron; 185,001 for the first three production units, Stone
square feet of steel sash; 2,401 tons of & Webster reported that the mills could
steel pipe supports; 17.53 miles of chain not promise structural steel in time to
link fencing; and rails for 67.6 miles of meet the schedule. The contractors ap-
tracks. The switch to 5-year life design pealed to Creedon for a blanket priority.
early in 1941 reduced, but by no means Because the ANMB had yet to approve
eliminated, requirements for steel.87 priority ratings for construction jobs,
Where steel was concerned, the priori- Creedon had to refuse. In any case,
ties system tended to work against, rather priorities applied only to items on the
than for, munitions projects. Civilian Critical List and steel was not among
production agencies were slow to assist them. By paying premium prices for
the projects. Priorities for plants and warehouse stocks, the contractors secured
depots were consistently too low and too about half the needed steel. Meanwhile,
late. Moreover, steel did not go on the they continued to press for priority as-
Critical List until May 1941. No priority sistance. In mid-February Groves asked
ratings were applicable to steel before that ANMB to assign the project a high
time. Not until the fall of 1941 did pro- priority, but the board turned him down.
duction authorities take steps to curtail Major Wilson tried pressuring the mills
use of critical materials in nonessential but with little effect. The project wobbled
construction. Throughout most of the along until late March, when it was
last year of peace, vast tonnages of steel rated A-1-b. But since steel was not sub-
went to civilian construction, while de- ject to production controls, the rating was
90
fense agencies competed among themselves of little help.
for part of the industry's product.88 Six Gradually the shortage spread. On 19
months after Pearl Harbor, a Senate February, Major Wilson gave Patterson
committee reported: a list of sixteen munitions projects at
In the year 1941 approximately $11,- which steel was critical. Thus far, he
600,000,000 was expended for new con- advised the Assistant Secretary, few con-
struction. Of this amount almost $4,000,000,- tractors had encountered serious delays
000 represented construction for nondefense in obtaining structural shapes, but he
purposes. The industry consumed about warned that the situation might soon
15,000,000 tons of steel ingot in this year, take a turn for the worse. During Febru-
over 7,000,000 of which went into construc-
tion for nondefense purposes.89 ary and March the number of jobs held
up awaiting shipments of steel crept
One of the first projects to feel the higher. Deliveries of structural shapes
pinch was Kankakee. In January 1941, were two to four months after order.
soon after Ordnance set the July deadline Rail was increasingly hard to get and
87
corrugated iron was becoming scarce.
(1) Rpt, Activities of the Constr Div, Jul 40-
90
Nov 41, pp. 196-238. (2) Compl Rpt, Indiana OW, (1) Memo, OCofOrd for OQMG, 29 Jan 41.
6 Nov 42, p. 337. (3) Compl Rpts, various other 635 (Kankakee OW) I. (2) Compl Rpt, Kankakee
projects. OW, 11 Aug 44, Secs 5.305 and 5.307. (3) Ltr,
88
For a general discussion of the workings of the Stone & Webster to Creedon, 11 Feb 41. 601.1
priorities system see: Smith, The Army and Economic (Kankakee OW) III. (4) 600.914 (Kankakee OW)
Mobilization, chs. XXII, XXIII. I. (5) Ltr, OQMG to Stone & Webster, 1 Apr 41.
89
S Rpt 480, Part 8 (1942), p. 12. QM 161 (E. I. DuPont de Nemours Co.).
CREATING A MUNITIONS INDUSTRY 329
When, on 1 April, seven Ordnance proj- steel would be "awfully late," Groves
ects received closer deadlines, vigorous thought of switching to reinforced con-
action followed to hasten deliveries of crete but gave the idea up on learning
steel. Contractors paid large premiums that redesign would take too long. Pur-
for warehouse stocks. Troubleshooters suing what appeared to be another for-
intensified their efforts. At the Indiana lorn hope, Wilson scoured the country
94
Ordnance Works, DuPont enlarged its for reserve stocks of structural shapes.
"Urging Department" to 52 persons.91 By exerting pressure on mills and fabri-
Then came the mid-April speedup of cators, Creedon obtained fairly good
small arms ammunition projects. results. Suppliers agreed to step up de-
Whether the plants could be com- liveries to ammunition projects. "We
plete by 30 September would depend have arranged to take certain materials
primarily on supplies of structural steel. from jobs scheduled for defense and
When Patterson directed the speedup, otherwise," an official of the American
steel was on order for the three ammuni- Bridge Company explained, "and simply
tion plants, but delivery schedules of put back other jobs which may be as im-
course reflected original completion portant as this." But the new schedules
dates. Bids on steel for the armor-piercing were not entirely satisfactory, for under
92
core plant had not yet come in. Early them one building at St. Louis could not
deliveries were now imperative, but pros- possibly be up by the end of September
pects of obtaining them were bleak. The and three other structures at the same
mills, already operating at capacity, were plant would be dangerously close to the
95
booked far ahead. Labor disturbances deadline.
were threatening to choke off vital sup- On 28 April, in an effort to wring
plies of coal. Warehouse stocks were just further concessions, Creedon conferred
about exhausted. "We are facing tough with representatives of American Bridge,
problems," Major Wilson stated. "When Bethlehem, and the Mississippi Valley
you take a plant scheduled for completion Structural Steel Company. Discussion
one year from now and try to complete revolved around the four buildings at
it in five months, you have a job on your St. Louis, which Creedon called "the
hands."93 key to the progress." The steel men held
The Operations Branch tackled the out little hope. Bethlehem's representa-
problem from several angles. Finding, tive warned that further changes in
on opening bids for the core plant, that rolling schedules would disrupt the whole
91
defense program. "If you were given a
(1) Memo, Wilson for Patterson, 19 Feb 41. priority, would that place the steel on
411.5 I. (2) Opns Br Files, Proj Behind Schedule. (3)
Memo, Design Sec Arch Gp for Casey, 12 Apr 41. these construction jobs ahead of anything
411.5 I. (4) Memo, Design Sec for Leavey, 1 Apr 41.
94
Opns Br Files, Ord Corresp. (5) Ltr, OZCQM 7 to (1) Tel Convs, Groves and Mr. Giffels, Giffels
Groves, 30 Apr 41. 600.914 (Iowa OP) I. (6) Compl and Vallet, 23, 24 Apr 41. Opns Br Files, Armor
Rpt, Indiana OW, 6 Nov 42, p. 384. Piercing Gore Plant, St. Louis. (2) Groves Comments,
92
Memo, Somervell for Campbell, 21 Apr 41. QM VIII, 9. (3) Memo, Wilson for Groves, 29 Apr 41.
635 (Ammo Plants) 1941. Opns Br Files, Ord—Corresp.
93 95
Notes of Conf, Creedon, Wilson, and Reps of Notes of Conf, 28 Apr 41, Creedon, Wilson, and
Various Steel Companies, 28 Apr 41. Opns Br Files, Reps of Various Steel Companies. Opns Br Files,
Ord—Corresp. Ord—Corresp.
330 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
else you have?" Creedon asked him. fused to recommend an "A-1-a blanket
"That would not help the situation at priority," suggesting that Somervell
all," came the reply. "This schedule is might later seek the higher rating "on
as fast as it is possible to do it. It is a very certain items" if necessary.100
remarkable schedule." The other indus- The day he turned down Somervell's
trialists set no great store by priorities, request, Patterson took a salutory step.
either. "I don't know what we can do Mincing no words, he urged OPM to
that we have not already done," said place steel on the Critical List at once.
one of them. Creedon encouraged the "At the present time," he said, "we know
men to go back to their home offices and that structural steel is going to various
try once more to find a solution. There types of civilian construction, hotels,
96
was no other course he could take. theaters, etc. Unless we can get more
Professing a good deal of faith in pref- prompt deliveries than are at present
erence ratings, Somervell meanwhile indicated, our program on plants for
demanded that ammunition plants have which we have the greatest need will be
top priority. On 24 April General months in arrears."101 That afternoon
Spalding had asked ANMB to assign he got word that steel would go on the
these projects an A-1-b rating, but this Critical List the following day. He im-
request was no sooner granted than mediately passed the good news on to
Somervell complained that the rating Somervell, advising him to take every
97
was too low. He approached Spalding advantage of the situation.102 Somervell
for an A-1-a priority. "The reaction was was gratified but did not relax his efforts
not favorable," Wilson told Groves. The to obtain top priority for the small arms
only A-1-a ratings granted so far had ammunition projects.
been for machine tools to make other He soon made another try. On 2 May
machine tools. Moreover, Patterson he put it squarely to Patterson: procure
feared that too many top ratings would an A-1-a blanket priority or forget
wreck the priority system.98 Somervell about the 30 September deadline.103 This
persisted. On 29 April he telephoned time the Under Secretary gave way.
from Denver. Telling Groves to send Having just learned that the Navy had
a transcript of the conversation to obtained A-1-a priority for several im-
Patterson, he said: "Unless we can get portant projects, he contended: "A simi-
the A-1-a priority on these three plants, lar rating for Small Arms Ammunition
I can't promise them to them by Sep- Plants should be readily agreed to by
tember 30. ... If he wants to keep the Navy since it is dependent on Army
it A-1-b, it'll make it very doubtful as Ordnance for small arms anmuni-
to the completion date."99 This stratagem
failed. On 30 April Patterson again re-
100
Memo, OUSW Prod Br for TQMG, 30 Apr 41.
96
97
Ibid.
Memo, Spalding for ANMB, 24 Apr 41, and QM 635 (Ammo Plants) 1941.
101
Memo, Patterson for Stettinius, 30 Apr 41.
1st Ind, 25 Apr 41. Opns Br Files, Ord—Corresp. USW Files, Misc & Sub—Steel thru Dec.
98 102
Memo, Wilson for Groves, 29 Apr 41. Opns Br Memo, Patterson for Somervell, 30 Apr 41.
Files, Ord—Corresp. 411.5 I.
99 103
Tel Conv, Somervell and Groves, 29 Apr 41. Memo, Somervell for Patterson,
QM2 May 41. QM Plants) 194
635 (Ammo
635 (Ammo Plants) 1941.
CREATING A MUNITIONS INDUSTRY 331
104
tion." At a meeting of the OPM council shared Groves' doubts. Colonel Dunstan,
on 6 May, Patterson spoke of the am- the Zone CQM at San Antonio, told
munition plants as the "most urgent that steel was promised to Denver on a
Army requirement," and Knudsen given date, remarked: "Of course, that's
105
agreed. Two days later, ANMB rated not exactly the same as the steel rolling
110
St. Louis, Lake City, and Denver in there." Even so, Somervell was
106
A-1-a. confident. Late in May he assured
Gradually the outlook for the am- Patterson that the plants would be com-
111
munition projects improved. Steel com- plete on or before 30 September.
panies advanced delivery dates a bit All this was merely a preview of what
further, and Major Wilson located ware- followed. By May the shortage was
housemen who claimed to have stocks growing worse and anxiety was spreading.
of structural steel. If all orders were filled, From project after project came the re-
all promises kept, Lake City appeared port: construction delayed for lack of
certain to meet the deadline; Denver, steel. Edgewood, Weldon Spring, New
highly likely. All signs pointed to com- River, Hoosier, the Fostoria Chemical
pletion of the core plant during August Warfare Plant, the Anniston Ordnance
and of three main buildings at St. Louis Depot—these and other projects called
by the end of September. A fourth build- for help. The clothing renovation plants
ing at St. Louis was still in doubt but were in desperate shape. Scheduled for
might possibly get in under the wire.107 completion no later than 1 August, they
Groves, though encouraged, was skep- were slated for deliveries of structural
tical. "It's a question of steel and various steel in September and October. Greatly
other things and that's why I'm not ab- concerned, Patterson persuaded OPM
solutely sure about it," he said of the to issue blanket priority ratings to all
prospect for completing the four plants projects experiencing difficulty with
on time.108 Nor was he sure that ware- steel.112 Buoyant, Somervell told his
housemen could deliver structural shapes. staff: "We can now obtain the priority
"Now we don't know," he mused, "lot's ratings we desire on steel."113
of steel people say they've got them, and Announcement of OPM's policy
other steel people say that they are lying brought a flood of requests for priorities,
and they haven't got them."109 Others and in due time many were granted.
The new ratings, which ranged from
104
1stInd, 5 May 41, OUSW to ANMB on the A-1-h for bag loaders above.to A-1-b for
105
explosives plants, seemed to inspire hope.
CPA, Minutes o f t h e Council o f t h e Office o f Many now felt confident that P steel
r o d
would u c
106
Memo, OUSW Prod Br for TQMG, 8 May 41. soon be forthcoming. But faith in priori-
QM 635 (Ammo Plants) 1941.
107 110
(1) Memo, Wilson for Groves, 1 May 41. Opns Tel Conv, Dunstan and Groves, 10 May 41.
Br Files, Ord—Corresp. (2) Memo, Creedon for Opns Br Files, Ord.
111
Farrell, 5 May 41. Opns Br Files, St. Louis OP— Memo, Somervell for Patterson, 27 May 41.
Corresp. 411.5 I.
108 112
Tel Conv, Groves and Shaffer, 19 May 41. (1) Opns Br Files, Proj Behind Schedule. (2)
Opns Br Files, Ord. Memo, Patterson for Somervell, 7 May 41. 411.5 I.
109 113
Tel Conv, Groves and CQM St. Louis OP, Min, Constr Div Staff Mtg, 9 May 41. EHD
30 Apr 41. Opns Br Files, St. Louis OP—Corresp. Files.
332 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
ties, though prevalent, was to a large July. But too late. Creedon reported that
extent ill-founded. A haze of wishful "many vendors held previous A-1-a
thinking obscured the obvious fact that priorities . . . which were given
wholesale granting of priorities would precedence, thus resulting in delay of
weaken the system. "A preference rat- material and equipment for this proj-
ing is not a 'magic carpet'," Colonel ect." Elsewhere A-1-a ratings were like-
116
Vandervoort reminded the CQM at wise ineffective. By August the priori-
Fostoria, adding: ties system had virtually broken down.
The mere assignment of one does not in- On 28 August President Roosevelt
sure delivery of material by the date re- abolished the Priorities Committee of
quired. The principal step is to anticipate OPM and replaced it with the Supply
requirements and to place orders timely; Priorities and Allocations Board (SPAB)
then after placement a follow-up should be in the Office for Emergency Manage-
made with suppliers to determine whether
difficulties 114have arisen which might delay ment (OEM). SPAB, as its name im-
deliveries. plied, not only exercised the priorities
function but also allocated materials,
Vandervoort's advice was sound. A that is, decided how much of the total
priority was little more than a hunting supply of any critical commodity would
license. go for defense, for foreign aid, and for
Priorities became less meaningful as civilian use. Early in September steel
more projects acquired top ratings, a and pig iron went under complete
process compared by Donald Nelson to mandatory priority control, which meant
the depreciation of currency in a period allocation of the entire national produc-
of inflation. By mid-June Somervell felt tion of these materials. At the same time,
impelled to ask for A-1-a ratings on all SPAB ruled out priorities assistance for
Ordnance plants. He did so with the expanding plants with no defense orders.
backing of General Wesson, who re- A month later it extended this ruling to
quested the highest priority for processing all nonessential building. Henceforth
equipment as well as for building ma- priorities would go only to defense proj-
terials. ANMB denied the request. Never- ects and to projects necessary for public
theless, the number of plants with A-1-a health and safety. Although SPAB's
ratings rose steadily. Just as steadily, the criteria were vague, its orders had a
value of these ratings declined.115 To marked effect. According to the New
illustrate, the Weldon Spring plant, York Times, construction in the Eastern
after jumping from A-1-e in May to states declined 24 percent between Oc-
A-1-b in June, went to A-1-a early in tober and December 1941.117 But for
first-wave munitions projects, the im-
114
Ltr, Vandervoort to CQM, Fostoria CWS
116
Plant, 11 Jul 41. QM 161 (ZCQM 5) 1941. Incl with Memo, Creedon for Groves, 21 Aug
115
(1) Donald M. Nelson, Arsenal of Democracy, The 41. Opns Br Files, Weekly PR's—F. R. Creedon.
117
Story of American War Production (New York: Harcourt, (1) Executive Order 8875 (6 F. R. 6511), 28
Brace and Company, 1946), pp. 141-45, 155ff. (2) Aug 41. (2) OQMG Circ Ltr 221, a Sep 41. (3)
Memo, Somervell for Patterson, 19 Jun 41, with Reginald C. McGrane, The Facilities and Con-
Wesson's Ind. QM 635 (Ammo Plants) 1941. (3) struction Program of the War Production Board and
Memo, ANMB for TQMG, 12 Jul 41. 161 (Ord Predecessor Agencies, May 1940 to May 1945 (WPB
Dept) (Pref Rat) Part 1. Sp Study 19), pp. 67-70.
CREATING A MUNITIONS INDUSTRY 333
provement came too late. By the time and concrete roof decks and timber fram-
SPAB's orders began to take hold, the ing were much in evidence.118 Describing
program was nearly over. some of the measures taken to cut steel
Where production controls failed, the consumption, Colonel Leavey wrote in
Construction Division fell back on other June 1941:
devices—expediting, conservation, and Building designs, formerly accomplished
redesign. Within the organization were in steel, have been and are being prepared,
men who knew how to locate scarce using wood and concrete construction. Much
items, trim requirements, and contrive siding and roofing, which was formerly cor-
acceptable substitutes. Heading up the rugated steel, will now be wood sheathing.
Steel fence posts will now be of wood. These
expediting drive was Major Wilson, who efforts have been made both to conserve
displayed a marked talent for finding steel and to decrease the time necessary to
materials others could not find. Sparking complete a project because119of the delay in
the effort to conserve scarce commodi- obtaining the necessary steel.
ties was Harry B. Zackrison, an able en- Noteworthy among the new designs
gineer who had been with the division was one for igloos, the barrel-arched,
since 1933. Directing the work of rede- earth-covered magazines of reinforced
sign was Colonel Casey, holder of a doc- concrete used for storing ammunition.
tor's degree from the Technische Hoch- These structures were an outgrowth of
schule at Berlin and one of the most the lightning-caused disaster which had
brilliant engineers in the Army. Seasoned flattened the Navy's ammunition depot
construction officers in close touch with at New Denmark, New Jersey, and part
the field, men like Groves and Dunstan, of neighboring Picatinny Arsenal in
furnished practical suggestions. So did 1926. Designed in 1928, the standard
many contractors. By working together, igloo had two salient features—a semi-
exchanging ideas, and considering prob- cylindrical shape which would direct
lems from different angles, members of the force of an explosion upward rather
the construction team were able to cope than outward and an elaborate system
with the shortage. of lightning protection which included
New standards and designs promised not only lightning rods but also steel
to save large quantities of steel. Concrete reinforcing rods, closely set and welded.
doors, timber trusses, lighter rail, rein- For some years before the emergency
forcing mesh instead of rods—these were the Construction Division had argued
some of the suggestions reaching Casey's unsuccessfully that the igloos were super
desk. Others envisaged frame warehouses safe. When Casey began his review of
for inert storage and simpler rail and
utilities systems. After reviewing these 118
(1) Notes of Conf between Reps of Ord Dept,
recommendations, Engineers, construc- OPM, and Constr Div, 17 Jun 41. 635 Part 1. (2)
tion men, and Ordnance representatives Memo, Casey for Leavey, 1 Apr 41. Opns Br Files,
Ord—Corresp. (3) Memo, Arch Gp Design Sec for
endorsed most of them. Substitutions Casey, 12 Apr 41. 411.5 1. (4) Memo, Farrell for
were many. For example, at the Ohio Groves, 6 Jun 41. Opns Br Files, Staff Mtgs—1941.
River ammonia plant, temporary wooden (5) Compl Rpt, Ohio River OW, 31 Oct 42, p. 15.
(6) Compl Rpt, Kankakee OW, 11 Aug 44, Sec 4.206.
frames supported miles of heavy over- 119
Memo, Leavey for Proc Control Br Plan and
head piping; and at Kankakee, wood Control Div OQMG, 27 Jun 41. 400.8 Part 1.
334 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
standard plans and drawings early in suaded Ordnance to accept the changes.
1941, he gave the igloo design especially The new design saved not only steel but
120
close scrutiny. As Groves explained to labor and money as well. Casey took par-
one Ordnance officer, "If you're doing ticular pride in the monetary saving—
20 or 30 [igloos] or even 100, it doesn't an estimated $800 to $2,000 per igloo.
matter; but when you start to build Since tens of thousands of igloos would
about 1,000, why, then, if it's unneces- eventually be built, the potential saving
sary, we certainly ought to know."
121
was indeed sizable.122
Casey consulted Dr. Karl B. McEachron, Systematic conservation reduced steel
chief of General Electric's high voltage requirements still further. Beginning early
laboratory, about the system of lightning in 1941, when he joined the Federal
protection. He also weighed a proposal Specifications Committee on Metals,
by Colonel Dunstan to eliminate tie Zackrison continually searched the speci-
beams by reinforcing the concrete slab fications with a view to conserving stra-
floor to take the thrust of the arch. After tegic and critical materials. In June,
careful study and many consultations, when Patterson inaugurated a compre-
Casey adopted Dunstan's idea, reduced hensive conservation program for the
the number of reinforcing rods, elimi- Army, Zackrison assumed additional
nated a good deal of the welding, and duties as Casey's liaison with OPM. In
modified footings and other details. In time his contacts widened to include the
June, with McEachron's help, he per- new Conservation Section of the Com-
120
(1) Thomson and Mayo, Ordnance Department:
122
Procurement and Supply, pp. 360-61, 368. (2) 1st Ind, 12 (1) 633 I. (2) Opns Br Files, Igloos. (3) Notes of
Jun 41, on Ltr, OQMG to CofOrd, 21 May 41. Conf between Reps of Ord Dept, OPM, and Constr
633 1. (3) Groves Comments, VIII, 14. (4) 633 I. Div, 17 Jun 41. 635 Part 1. (4) OQMG Constr Div
121
Tel Conv, Groves and Maj Rogers, Ord, 6 May Ltr 391, 6 Aug 41. EHD Files. (5) Ltr, Casey to EHD,
41. Opns Br Files, Ord. 11Jul 55.
CREATING A MUNITIONS INDUSTRY 335
May.134 Bricklayers were especially dila- on Army construction, for the very definite
tory, averaging 350 bricks a day on reason that his members were unwilling to
do an honest day's work. The number of
straight walls, where 800 to 900 was the bricks, per day per man, . . . remained
norm. Terming their conduct "one of pitifully small.135
the outstanding disgraces of World War
II," Groves related: On 5 July Somervell addressed a mass
meeting of all artisans on the project
Every effort was made within the power of and pleaded for more production, but
our organization to make the bricklayers do
an honest day's work. Despite repeated to little avail. Opinion differed as to the
promises from Harry Bates, their interna- reason for this and other slowdowns. One
tional president, this could never be achieved. theory was that workmen were stretching
It reached the point where I personally in- out the work; another, that they were
formed Mr. Bates that, insofar as I was able, after more overtime; and still another,
all brick work would be held to a minimum
that the unions were attempting to create
134
Min, Mtg, OCQM, St. Louis OP, 17 May 41.
135
Opns Br Files, St. Louis OP—Corresp. Groves Comments, VII, 4.
338 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
more jobs. All these theories seemed crafts would agree to work under provision
plausible.136 provided by ... [the Building Trades
Agreement] and then later withdraw has
Early in August, widespread trouble seriously handicapped the work even though
flared. An agreement effective on1 only one craft would refuse to go along.
August, between the AFL Building This [has been] unsatisfactorily reflected in
Trades Department and government all phases of operations and the confusion
defense construction agencies, eliminated and dissatisfaction among the workers that
double time premiums and established were employed has necessarily resulted in a
great loss of time during the week as well as
a universal time and a half rate for over- on weekends.139
time, weekend, and holiday work.137 On
Thanks to the Building Trades De-
the 2d a rash of protest strikes broke out,
all of them at munitions projects. During partment, the commotion finally died
down. When Coyne learned of the stop-
the next four weeks, 55,747 man-days
were lost, more time than in the pre- pages, he telegraphed national head-
quarters of the striking unions: "Con-
ceding five months, and this in spite of
tact your local union by wire requesting
the fact that most of the strikers stayed off
their immediate co-operation."140 The
the job only over weekends. Thirteen
Building Trades Department and the
projects were affected, including Kan-
nationals faced a challenge—maintaining
kakee, Morgantown, Plum Brook, St.
Louis, Lake City, and Weldon Spring.
discipline among the rank and file. When
the plumbers at St. Louis persisted in
The stoppages at Kankakee and Morgan-
defying the agreement, the national
town lasted only one day, but elsewhere
president ordered immediate compliance
they extended over several weekends. Of
and followed this up by telling his repre-
four major strikes which occurred at
sentative to assume jurisdiction and pro-
Army construction projects between July
tect all those wishing to work. After this
1940 and September 1945, three took
representative threatened to man the
place during August 1941. A strike at
job with other plumbers, the local ac-
the St. Louis Ordnance Plant involved
cepted the time and a half rate. As a
all crafts and a total of 24,534 man-days
"salve to the unions," Somervell au-
lost. Beginning on 2 August this strike
thorized 10-hour shifts and hikes in basic
dragged on until 30 September. Lake 141
wage rates at some projects. By Sep-
City and Weldon Spring each lost 11,000
man-days in the course of three week-
tember the strikes had abated and the
projects were regaining lost momentum.
ends.138 Unrest hurt progress during the
Completion of plant buildings was
week even though everyone was on the
timed to coincide with deliveries of
job. As the CQM at Weldon Spring
139
described it: Telg, CQM Weldon Spring OW to OQMG, 18
Aug 41. 600.1 (Weldon Spring OW) (Labor).
140
The fact that at various times the different Telg, Coyne to Attached List, 7 Aug 41. LRBr
Files, Bldg and Constr Trades Dept.
136 141
(1) Rpt, OZCQM 7 to OQMG, 15 Jul 41. (1) Telg, President George Masterson, United
LRBr Files, St. Louis OP—Gen Corresp. (2) Com- Assn of Journeymen Plumbers, to F. T. Schlenzig,
ments of Gen Campbell on Constr MS, VIII, 83. (3) Gen Organizer, St. Louis, 3 Sep 41. (2) Telg, H. B.
S Rpt 480, Part 6, Apr 6, 1942, p. 6. Deal & Co. to OQMG, 15 Sep 41. Both in LRBr
137
For a detailed discussion of this agreement see Files, St. Louis OP. (3) Memo, Creedon for Groves,
pp. 366-71, below. 11Aug 41. Opns Br Files, St. Louis OP. (4) Ltr,
138
Statistical Tables, EHD, 1949, Strikes in the Mil Fruco Constr Co. to Somervell, 23 Sep 41. 161 (Fruco
Constr Program. EHD Files. Constr Co.).
CREATING A MUNITIONS INDUSTRY 339
processing equipment. As the big struc- plosives, would be within the danger
tures were glazed and roofed in, as acid- zone. Ordnance was justly proud of its
resistant or spark-proof surfaces were safety record. So were munitions manu-
applied to heavy concrete floors, as facturers, and especially DuPont. Safety
finishing touches were put to complex was a "must" in their operations. Yet
piping and electrical systems, crews be- the nation's survival might be at stake.
gan tooling up the plants. A function of DuPont faced the issue one Sunday
the using services, procurement of the morning early in September 1941, when
highly specialized processing machinery Groves held a meeting at Kankakee.
was immensely difficult. Secret patents The temporary DNT line at Kankakee,
were one obstacle. Specifications calling completed in May, had stood idle all
for scarce materials were another. More- these months. Now several TNT lines
144
over few foundries and machine shops were almost finished. At the conference
were equal to the job. Anticipating Groves explained "that TNT was badly
emergency needs, Ordnance in the late needed, that the shortage would be
1930's had obtained funds for securing desperate in the event of war, and that
machinery for small arms ammunition, undue regard for the lives and safety
powder, and loading plants. As Under of a relatively small number of employees
Secretary Patterson pointed out, "The and the safety reputation of the DuPont
reserve machinery thus procured was of Company and of the Ordnance Depart-
immeasurable value."142 But the reserve ment were far outweighed by the possible
was far from adequate. Despite pro- thousands of casualties which would re-
digious efforts by Ordnance and Chemi- sult from a shortage of TNT if war came."
cal Warfare officers and operating con- The project manager left the room and
tractors to expedite production of ad- returned a short time later to announce
ditional equipment, deliveries were dis- that production would begin as soon as
appointingly slow. "In a number of the first TNT lines were ready. "I as-
cases," Groves reported, "extra expendi- sumed that he called Wilmington but
tures were made to save time in construc- did not ask him," Groves recounted. "I
tion which then stood idle while we merely congratulated him on his an-
waited for the last bit of machinery neces- nounced viewpoint."145 Other operating
sary to make it a productive unit."143 contractors adopted the same attitude.
As the plants reached completion, unit Plant after plant started up while con-
by unit and line by line, there was an struction was still in progress. For-
agonizing decision to make. To begin tunately, there were no major disasters,
producing ammunition and explosives though one minor explosion did occur
while construction forces worked nearby in the latter part of 1941.146
would be extremely hazardous. The dust 144
(1) Ltr, CQM Kankakee OW to Somervell, 8
and noise of construction would increase Sep 41. 600.914 (Kankakee OW) I. (2) ComplRpt,
the risk of explosion. In event of an ac- Kankakee OW, 11 Aug 44, Introd, and Secs 1 .407,
5.104,5.201.
cidental blow, large numbers of work- 145
Groves Comments, VIII, 7-8.
men, unaccustomed to the perils of ex- 146
Two melt loading buildings were destroyed in an
explosion at the Iowa Ordnance Plant in December
142
Patterson's Testimony, 15 Jul 41. In Truman 1941. (1) Compl Rpt, Iowa OP, 15 Aug 42, Book I,
Comm Hearings, Part 6, p. 1521. p. 1. (2) Ltr, Groves to Dist Engr, Omaha, Neb., 3
143
Groves Comments, VIII, 6. Feb 42. 635 (Iowa OP) II.
340 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
The number of Ordnance plants turn- gan turning out ammonia. In December
ing out munitions rose steadily. During Plum Brook was in shape to produce
August Kingsbury, Ravenna, and Wolf TNT; and Coosa River, to load bags.
Creek began loading shells, the core By the end of 1941 only two first-wave
plant at St. Louis went into operation, plants, the Alabama smokeless powder
and the addition to Picatinny Arsenal factory and the Ohio River ammonia
reached completion. September saw pro- works, were not yet producing, and these
duction start at the Kankakee and two projects, both late starters, were
147
Weldon Spring explosives works, the ahead of schedule.
Hoosier and New River bag loading Construction of Ordnance storage fa-
plants, and the Baytown toluol plant. cilities kept pace with production. The
On the 30th the Lake City small arms five new ammunition depots—Anniston,
ammunition plant came through on Portage, Umatilla, Wingate, and
schedule. Nine days later the Gadsden Milan—were huge affairs, occupying a
shell forging plant was ready to begin total of 110,812 acres. Together, they
production. The Denver ammunition would provide 3,504 igloos with total
plant opened on 15 October, just seven floor space of 5,775,512 square feet and
months after the contractor broke
ground. On the 20th the first lines at 147
(1) Table, EHD, Compl Dates and Progress—
St. Louis were complete, though the plant Ord Plants. (2) List, Constr Div OQMG, 24 Nov
41, sub: Ord Plants, Scheduled and Actual Initial
produced no ammunition for another Opn Dates. EHD Files. (3) Rpt, OCE, Progress of
month. In November Morgantown be- Mil Constr 42, 31 Dec 41, pp. 117, 139.
CREATING A MUNITIONS INDUSTRY 341
38 large magazines with a total of 413,139 pregnite plants at East St. Louis, Illinois,
square feet.148 Begun in the late winter and Midland, Michigan; and the clothing
and early spring of 1941, the depots renovation plants at Kansas City, Mis-
made good progress. By late August, souri, and Ogden, Utah—all were com-
Anniston was 32 percent complete; Port- pleted in December. The work of ex-
age, 55; Umatilla, 30; Wingate, 65; and panding and rehabilitating Edgewood
Milan, not started until June, was 5. At Arsenal also wound up during the month.
the end of the year, Milan was 84 per- The two remaining projects, the clothing
cent complete; Wingate was 99; and the renovation plants at Columbus, Ohio,
others were somewhere in between.149 and New Cumberland, Pennsylvania,
Provision of inert storage facilities was were ready for use at the turn of the
151
hardly less rapid. At Ogden 40 ware- year.
houses would store casings for the shell Reporting to Gregory late in 1941,
and bomb loading plant. By mid-Octo- Somervell noted that "huge ordnance
ber this $3-million job was 82 percent manufacturing facilities" stood where
complete. "To date," Colonel Thomas there had been "but vacant fields a little
reported, "thirty-one warehouses have over one year ago."
been finished and made available for
The whole interior of the United States of
use, and virtually all of these actually are America [he wrote] has been transformed
in use."150 Elsewhere the story was much into a vast network of great munitions fac-
the same. None of the plants lacked ade- tories, the output of which will forever render
quate warehousing at any time. this country free of dependence upon any
The Chemical Warfare program came other country for the tools of self-de-
fense. . . .
to a close in December 1941. Only one Today they are producing TNT and DNT,
Chemical project had reached comple- anhydrous ammonia, smokeless powder, tol-
tion earlier—the Niagara Falls im- uol, shell forgings, small arms ammunition,
pregnite plant, which began production armor-piercing cores for shells, armor plate,
on 4 September. Handicapped by low chemical warfare material, machine guns,
rifles and tanks, while others are loading
priorities and shortages of expediting shells and powder-bags. Yet others have been
funds, the other eight jobs had fallen recently authorized and still others are
behind schedule. Deliveries of steel were planned.152
months late. The contractors, unable to
offer much overtime work, were at a dis- Rounding out the first-wave plants and
advantage in the labor market. Through completing a second supplementary wave
the autumn, as steel trickled in, the proj- would take time and effort. But the big
ects gained steadily but slowly. Then, job was done. When war came to the
spurred by the war crisis, they finished United States, the new government-
in a blaze of speed. The charcoal-whet- owned munitions industry was a reality.
lerite plant at Fostoria, Ohio; the im- 151
(1) Rpt, OCE, Progress of Mil Constr 42, 31
148
Rpt, Activities of the Constr Div, Jul 40-Nov 41, Dec 41, pp. 130-33, 134-35, 148-49, 174-75, 98-99,
pp. 30-32. 100-101. (2) EHD, Constr of Chemical Warfare
149
(1) Constr PR 34,30 Aug 41, pp. 78, 82, 88, 103, Facils (MS), 1944, p. 1 5 f f . (3) Brophy, Miles, and
98. (2) Rpt, OCE, Progress of Mil Constr 42, 31 Dec Cochrane, Chemical Warfare Service: From Laboratory
41, pp. 119, 160, 117, 137, 165. to Field, pp. 253-56.
l50 152
Rpt, Activities of the Constr Div, Jul 40-Nov 41, Rpt, Activities of the Constr Div, Jul 40-Nov 41,
p. 234. p.119.
CHAPTER X
Planning Ahead
"Anyone may be excused for being expedient that steps be taken to provide for
defeated," said Somervell in December such a condition, to prevent a recurrence of
the major difficulties that have been experi-
1940, "but he certainly can have no enced with the present program, and to in-
excuse for being surprised." He intended sure maximum economy consistent with
to foresee developments and to be pre- rapid construction.
pared to meet them. World conditions
Peterson suggested a line of action. The
being what they were, a second, larger
War Department would forecast its re-
building program seemed inevitable,
quirements and translate them into
and he would plan accordingly.1 Soon
terms of projects. It would choose sites
after taking charge of the Construction
acceptable not only to users but to
Division, he put the question to his staff:
builders as well. It would improve stand-
what would increasing the Army to 4
ard layouts and revise structural plans
million men mean in terms of sites, en-
in light of recent experience. It would
gineering, personnel, materials, and so
perfect purchasing methods and es-
forth.2 Thorough preparations, clear re-
tablish better labor relations. It would
sponsibility, sound policies, workable
develop a more forward-looking or-
procedures, and a strong organization,
ganization. Site plans, specifications, es-
ready when the need arose—these were
timates, bills of materials, and even
Somervell's goals. Hartman had cher-
personnel assignments would be worked
ished similar goals but had been unable
out in advance. Somervell would be all
to achieve them. Commanding far greater
set, ready to call for lump sum bids,
support than his predecessor, more flexi-
when orders came to build.3 As proposed
ble and more persuasive, Somervell, in by Peterson, the idea gained adherents
large part, succeeded.
rapidly. Long-range planning—"ad-
Inspector General Peterson, Somer-
vance planning" in Armyese—became
vell's friend and sometime collaborator,
a co-operative endeavor, embracing
started the ball rolling. On 23 December
many different activities and producing
1940, he wrote General Marshall:
many needed reforms.
With the world situation as it is today, no
assurance can be given that within a year
the War Department will not be undertaking Advance Planning—Camps and Cantonments
another major housing program. It seems
Additional troop housing was the first
1
planning objective. Meeting on 30 De-
Memo, Somervell for Gregory, 9 Dec 40. EHD
Files.
2 3
Min, Constr Div Staff Mtg, 20 Dec 40. EHD Memo, Peterson for Marshall, 23 Dec 40. G—
Files. 4/30552.
PLANNING AHEAD 343
tract in southern Illinois and Colonel General Reybold warned the field that
George began the search for sites in publicity would being pressure on the
California and Washington. By the end War Department and members of Con-
of the month, field parties had surveyed gress.15 But keeping secrets proved im-
most of the general areas originally possible.
named by G-3 and were visiting ten Neither in 1917 nor in 1940 had so
others recently designated for antiair- many letters, resolutions, and petitions
craft firing centers and armored di- flooded Congress and the War De-
vision camps. Meanwhile, corps area partment and so many delegations de-
boards were beginning to function.13 scended on Washington urging particu-
The new procedure, involving more lar sites. Citizens demanding camps for
people and moving more slowly than their communities besieged Capitol Hill.
the old, increased the chance of infor- Pressure on the Chief of Staff was ex-
mation leaks and gave interested parties tremely heavy. "As long as this agitation
more time to bring pressure to bear. exists," one sympathetic Senator told
Both Reybold and Somervell had cau- General Marshall, "there will be hun-
tioned investigators against publicity dreds of letters received in your office
of any kind, but with survey teams scour- and my office demanding that some-
ing the countryside, questioning cham- thing be done about the situation."16
bers of commerce, and talking to local Appearing before a Senate committee
officials, rumors began to fly. One of in April 1941, the Chief of Staff referred
the first serious leaks occurred on 2 to the investigations going forward under
February, when the Douglas, Arizona, Reybold and Somervell's direction.
Daily Dispatch blazoned the headline: "They have been at that for three
"Some City in the Southwest Will Get months," he said. "They have had me
New Cantonment, Says Colonel involved, it seems, with every chamber
14
Winston, Investigating Douglas." of commerce in the United States in one
Winston, a member of a corps area way or another. I am not very popular,
board, had told officials at Douglas that I might say."17 To divorce site selection
his was a fact-finding expedition, nothing from politics was immensely difficult;
more, and had pledged them to strictest but Marshall attempted to do so, in-
secrecy. Nevertheless, someone talked. sisting that location of training camps
18
The article in the Dispatch indicated be based "on purely military needs."
that the Army was about to build more Among those who received one of his
camps. Other papers picked up the item. polite but firm refusals was no less a
personage than the Senate Majority
13
(1) Ltr, Green to Leavey, 31 Jan 41. QM 685
15
(ZCQM 4). (2) Memo, Dreyer for Casey, 5 Feb 41. (1) Tel Conv, Dunstan and Styer, 7 Feb 41.
QM 685 (ZCQM) 1941. (3) Ltr, Hayden to Gregory, 652 I. (2) WD Ltr AG 601.1 (2-7-41) M-D to CG
6 Feb 41. QM 685 (ZCQM 6). (4) Ltr, OZCQM Eighth Corps Area, 10 Feb 41. Opns Br Files,
9, Chief Engr to George, 7 Feb 41. (5) Memo, Leavey ZCQM's.
16
for Somervell, 26 Feb 41. Last two in QM 685 Ltr, Sen James E. Murray (Mont.) to Marshall,
(ZCQM 9). (6) Memo, Styer for Harvey, 27 Feb 41. 23 Apr 41. AG 680.1 (7-11-40) (1) Sec 2.
17
Opns Br Files, Constr Advisory Comm. (7) Weekly In Truman Comm Hearings, Part 1, p. 173.
18
PR's in QM 685 Various Zones. Ltr, Marshall to Sen Murray, 28 Apr 41. AG
14
Memo, G-4 for TAG, 7 Feb 41. G-4/30552. 680.1 (7-11-40) (1) Sec 2.
PLANNING AHEAD 347
planned site development. While he tive D. Lane Powers of New Jersey put
followed closely the work these men the question: "Do you have any funds
were doing, Somervell tackled a job on for planning jobs?" Somervell replied:
his own. "No sir. The whole essence of this thing
On 11 February, the day before the is to have proper plans. In other words,
House opened hearings on the big de- if we could have had a small sum for
ficiency appropriation bill, he made a plans prior to this time, I think I can
second bid for a $15-million engineering say conservatively that we would have
27
survey fund. In a strongly worded saved $100,000,000." This statement
memorandum, prepared for Gregory's was to cause Somervell some embar-
signature, he reminded General Moore rassment. The press misquoted him as
that the money would provide "plans having said that the hundred million
of critical importance to the Nation's would have been saved had he, rather
defenses." Somervell referred to the than Hartman, been Chief of Construc-
international situation and the need tion at the start of the program. Three
for having construction plans "ready months later he was still trying to cor-
for instant action." For years, he pointed rect this erroneous impression. But the
out, the Corps of Engineers had re- statement led to other, happier results.
ceived funds for long-range planning of The House concluded and the Senate
civil projects. He attributed the Corps' agreed that Somervell should have funds
ability to carry out construction "in for advance planning. The supplemental
an efficient and economical way" to appropriation voted in March gave him
"this very businesslike and common- the $15 million—an important gain to-
sense" procedure. Should not the same ward planning goals.28 Meanwhile, there
procedure be followed on highly im- were other gains.
portant defense projects? Gregory signed Stockpiling of lumber commenced on
the memo and sent it to Moore by 24 February, when Major Wilson placed
special messenger.25 But nothing came orders for deferred delivery of 95,150,000
of it. When Harrison telephoned later board feet. Fifty-one vendors shared in
that day to inquire about the budget, the award; they agreed to process the
Groves told him the $15 million was lumber and hold it in their yards for
out. "Is that final?" Harrison asked. shipment after 1 May. Their average
"That's the way we have to present it price, $26.41 per thousand, was well
to Congress," Groves replied, "and we below the average of $33.25 for current
are not allowed to mention the fact that delivery which Wilson paid during
it has been trimmed unless we are asked February. Market conditions being fa-
and I don't know whether General vorable, Wilson continued to buy. In a
Somervell is going to get asked or not."26
Whether by chance or prearrange- 27
H Subcomm of the Comm on Appns, 77th
ment, Somervell was asked. Representa- Cong, 1st sess, Hearings on Fourth Supplemental National
Defense Appropriation Bill for 1941, pp. 33, 49-50.
25 28
Memo, Gregory for Moore, 11 Feb 41. 600.1 (1) Memo, Somervell for Amberg, 19 May 41.
Part 8. QM 600.1 (Funds) X. (2) Memo, Amberg for
26
Tel Conv, Harrison and Groves, 11 Feb 41. Somervell, 20 May 41. USW Files, Legis—H and S
Opns Br Files, Budget. Investigating Comm 1. (3) 55 Stat. 34.
PLANNING AHEAD 349
few weeks he had obligated over $7 damages when delays resulted from
millionfor a stockpile of 265,155,550 priority regulations; a more liberal policy
board feet. At that point Somervell on granting extensions of time; and
called a halt. A quarter of a billion board lower damages rates. Patterson gave the
30
feet would fill 65 percent of known future necessary approvals. Whether contrac-
requirements. With plans for further tors would compete on these terms and
construction still nebulous, he hesitated submit reasonable bids remained to be
to build the reserve higher. The ac- seen. Somervell, apparently, thought
cumulation of a second stockpile could they would. "Doing jobs on a lump sum
wait until fall. Meanwhile, the division basis," he confidently declared, "that
had insurance against a serious shortage.29 is our policy."
31
Changes in the standard lump sum "Of course," Major Casey commented,
agreement raised hopes for a return to "all of this work is planned to be done
conventional methods of contracting. on the lump-sum basis and is going to
The lump sum form originally adopted require the preparation of plans and
for emergency work carried the usual specifications for soliciting bids on the
damages clause, which penalized con- work."32 Completing the revision of the
tractors for delays. Most firms were 700 series was, hence, his first objective.
understandably reluctant to bid com- During February and March of 1941,
petitively on defense contracts containing Casey and his staff made innumerable
this clause. A further deterrent was the changes in the Quartermaster drawings.
absence of an escalator clause providing On the whole, the new designs were a
for adjustment of the contract price decided improvement over the old.
should materials and labor costs rise. Heavy timbers and durable roofing
In February 1941, at Somervell's direc- materials made for stronger, more lasting
tion, Major Jones set about liberalizing structures. The addition of screens, cloth-
the contract. Assisting him in this work ing hooks, and balustrades assured troops
was Joseph P. Tanney, his principal greater comfort and safety. Substitutions,
civilian aide. The going was hard, for such as shellac for aluminum paint,
there were various legal angles to con- promised savings in critical materials.
sider and numerous objections to Omission of skirting, "aqua medias,"
overcome. After soliciting opinions and termite shields made possible sub-
widely—from OPM, the AGC, the Bu- stantial savings in funds. Standard sta-
reau of Yards and Docks, the Bureau of tion hospitals, widely considered as fire-
Reclamation, and the Under Secretary's traps, were equipped with fire alarms,
office, Jones and Tanney came up with sprinkler systems, and draft stops. Hun-
the following ideas: an escalator clause dreds of other changes corrected and
for long-term contracts; a clause ex-
empting contractors from payment of 30
(1) QM 600.1 (Lump Sum Contracts). (2) QM
600.1 (Contracts—Misc) IV. (3) Memo, Capt R. E.
Cron for Bergstrom, 11 Jun 41. OCE Legal Div
29
(1) Memo, Wilson for Groves, 25 Feb 41. Opns Contracts Br Files, Constr Div Ltrs. (4) 160 Part 2.
31
Br Files, Maj Wilson. (2) Table, Constr Div OQMG, Min, Conf of ZCQM's, 7-10 Apr 41, p. 237. EHD
sub: Lumber Awards, Totals, and Av Prices (revised Files.
32
to 30 Jun 41). EHD Files. (3) Opns Br Files, Lumber. Ibid., p. 125.
350 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
refined the 700 series.33 By April Casey wood continued to predominate, other
had prepared lithographic prints of the products found a growing market in the
revised drawings. Continuing his review Army program.36
of the plans, he said, "We don't feel at While the 700 series was undergoing
any time they are finished to the last revision, a new set of plans was in the
word." Suggestions for further "improve- making. Early in January Leavey dis-
ments and economies" were always covered that the standard 63-man bar-
welcome.34 racks was, by reason of its size, ill suited
As Casey revised the drawings, he to many Army units. To illustrate, each
opened up specifications "to permit infantry heavy weapons company had
alternative types of construction."35 For to have four such barracks, because these
several months, he and Bergstrom ex- companies were slightly too large for
plored the uses of masonry, tile, cinder three. Of the 81 companies in a triangu-
blocks, plaster, and stucco and tested lar division, 51 fitted more easily into
many types of prefabricated buildings. bigger barracks. Going into the problem,
Their findings took the form of recom- Casey found that a switch to a larger
mendations. They suggested, first, that structure would not only reduce the
the Army adopt a plan for two-story number of barracks but also pare the
hospitals of fire-resistant materials; sec- size of cantonment areas and shorten
ond, that tents give way to portable roads and utility lines. He lost no time
prefab huts; and, third, that sturdier in having drawings prepared. Plans for
materials come into competition with a 74-man barracks were among the
wood. While these proposals gained first in the new 800 series.37
acceptance in principle, two of them Completed during the spring of 1941
were impracticable during the defense by Bergstrom and his staff, the 800
period. Detailed plans for semiperma- series drawings were markedly different
nent hospitals were not complete until from the old 700's. Structures were
December 1941. Money to convert tent stronger, utilities more elaborate, and
camps into hutments did not become quarters more spacious. Warehouses were
available until early 1942. The rule that larger, and mess halls were arranged for
all changes in standard plans had to more efficient service. Better ventilated,
clear G-4 at first blocked moves to let better insulated, and equipped with
field officers substitute other products for better heating systems, the buildings
wood. At length, with General Robins'
help, Somervell persuaded Reybold to 36
(1) Memo, Casey for Bergstrom, 21 Mar 41. 652
rescind the ruling. In April 1941 the (Cp Grant) I. (2) G-4/31741-1. (3) Ltr, OQMG to
OUSW, 24 Jun 41. QM 652 (Misc) Jun-Aug 1941.
construction services received authority (4) WD Ltr AG 600.12 (1-27-42) MO-D to Cof-
to deviate from standard plans. Although Engrs, 30 Jan 42. 652 I. (5) Ltr, Robins to TAG, 14
Mar 41, and 1st Ind, 8 Apr 41.686 (Airfields) Part 10.
(6) Ltr, Somervell to Reybold, 8 Apr 41, and 1st Ind,
33
(1) Constr Div Ltrs 81, 10 Feb 41; 175, 26 Mar 15 Apr 41. 600.92 Part 1.
37
41; 181, 28 Mar 41; 169, 22 Mar 41; 119, 27 Feb 41. (1) Memo and Incl, Value for Leavey, 22 Jan
EHD Files. (2) QM 621 (Misc). 41. (2) Ltr, Casey to Reybold, 23 Jun 41. (3) Ltr,
34
Min, Conf of ZCQM's, 7-10 Apr 41, pp. 121, Casey to Reybold, 15 Jul 41. All three in QM 621
125. (Misc). (4) Memo, Design and Engrg Sec for Cof-
35
Ibid., p. 126. Engrs, 12 May 41. 600.1 Part 9.
PLANNING AHEAD 351
Source: Leon Zach, "Site Planning of Cantonment and Community Housing," Civil Engineering, August 1945, pp. 364-65.
PLANNING AHEAD 353
with the Provost Marshal General, to price of labor, we establish an index for
schemes for special lighting and fences. various parts of the country.
Having satisfied the users' needs, Zach This index enabled the Engineering
considered construction costs. "The real Branch to forecast with a high degree
estate promoter who built houses and of accuracy the cost of building any
sold properties on only one side of his structure anywhere. Owing to Boeckh's
streets would soon go bankrupt," he generosity, the Army paid nothing in
reasoned. With that thought in mind, the way of royalties for a service which
he proceeded, through successive re- had more than twenty thousand com-
visions of typical layouts, to reduce mercial subscribers.45
roadage at divisional cantonments by By early May 1941 reports of site
44 percent and graded areas by 25 per- investigations were arriving in the War
cent. (Chart 11) Applying the same method Department. Many locations were rec-
to airfield cantonments, he reduced ommended—several in each of the
graded areas by 43 percent and roadage general G-3 areas. The task was to
by 51.6 percent. He effected similar choose among them. After study by
economies in water and sewer lines.43 G-3 and G-4, the site reports went,
His fresh approach to an old problem first, to The Surgeon General for com-
produced spectacular results. ment and, then, to The Quartermaster
A contribution toward better plan- General for review. Specialists in Casey's
ning, made by Major Boeckh, took much office analyzed each report. Some of
of the guesswork out of building esti- the recommended sites seemed unfit for
mates. During the spring of 1941, construction. One such site was at Bend,
Boeckh rounded up 70 or 80 qualified Oregon; a heavy layer of lava rock lay
engineers and introduced his own copy- just below its surface, and the nearest
righted estimating system.44 Somervell, source of electric power was 50 miles
who called Boeckh "the best estimator away, on the other side of the Cascade
in the United States," described his Mountains. Many of the sites had one
method: or two bad features which, though un-
desirable, did not warrant disapproval.
Briefly this system consists of finding the As they O.K.'d these locations, Casey
unit costs of the materials that go into these
various . . . [structures] by getting and Leavey spelled out the difficulties
quotations from the various parts of the construction would entail. They noted,
country . . . . To that . . . we for example, that it would cost about
add the cost of labor for the erection of the $300,000 to remove high tension lines
units that go into these various types of crossing a site near Marysville, Cali-
structures. Having done that, we establish
what is a base price, a zero price. Then, with fornia, and that subsurface rock would
fluctuations in the price of materials and the increase the sewer excavation costs at
a site near Waco, Texas, by about
$200,000. After medical and construc-
43
Leon Zach, "Site Planning of Cantonment and
45
Community Housing," Civil Engineering, XV, No. 8 Somervell's Testimony, 20 May 41. In H Sub-
(August 1945), 363-65. comm of the Comm on Appns, 77th Cong, 1st sess,
44
(1) Opns Br Files, Gen. (2) Boeckh Interv, 21 Hearings on Military Establishment Appropriation Bill
Jun 59. for 1942, pp. 686-88.
354 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
tion officers had had their say, the Gen- Charles T. Main, Black & Veatch, and
eral Staff made final selections. At Gen- Leeds, Hill, Barnard and Jewett—all
eral Marshall's recommendation, Secre- of which had previously designed a
tary Stimson approved nine new sites camp. It also included a number of
in May and fourteen in July.46 newcomers to the program, all reputable
The time devoted to selecting these though untried. The architect-engineers
locations and the emphasis placed on took fixed-fee contracts and agreed to
engineering stood out in sharp contrast work under Casey's supervision. Within
to the speed of earlier investigations 90 days of award, Somervell hoped to be
and their neglect of builders' problems. ready to build the camps by advertised
Between orders for preliminary surveys lump sum contract.48
and approval of the first 9 sites, over Writing in the July 1941 issue of The
three months elapsed. Another nine Constructor, Somervell assured his readers:
weeks went by before final agreement "If the need to house a larger army be-
on the 14 additional sites. Zone and comes apparent, construction can be
corps area boards had inspected more started with maximum economy and
49
than 150 locations. In narrowing the minimum delay." He had attained
choice, the boards had recommended the first of his planning goals.
and the Engineering Branch had re-
viewed 46 sites for camps and training A New Approach—Munitions Projects
centers. The twenty-odd sites finally
chosen received approval for planning Keeping pace with plans for additional
purposes only.47 troop housing were plans for industrial
Once he knew where the Army expansion. The munitions program of
planned to build, Somervell took the 30 June 1940 had as its goal productive
next step forward—putting architect- capacity to equip two million men and
engineers to work. Among the firms maintain them in combat. But since the
chosen to plan the new camps were War Department's mobilization plans
some of the best and most experienced visualized a force of four million, the
in the country. Somervell wished to Army regarded the first wave plants
negotiate exclusively with those who had as a down payment on preparedness.
already handled a camp project suc- Thinking ahead to the next installment,
cessfully. Patterson, on the other hand, Patterson in January 1941 appointed
believed that the War Department ought an informal committee of three to draw
to spread its work among a larger num- up a new plant program. Representing
ber of contractors. The two agreed to the "major production interests in-
compromise. The list of architect-en- volved," this group consisted of General
gineers for advance planned camps in-
cluded such firms as J. B. McCrary, 48
(1) Memos, Somervell for Patterson, 28 Mar, 19
May 41. QM 600.1 (CPFF) 1941. (2) Memo,
46
(1) QM 685 (Cp Sites), (2) G-4/32656. (3) Incl, Somervell for Amberg, 31 Jul 41. QM 333.9 (S
7 Jul 41, with Memo, Leavey for Reybold, 8 Jul 41. Investigations).
49
QM 685 (Gp Abbot). Brig. Gen. B. B. Somervell, "The Temporary
47
Rpt, Casey for Leavey, 23 Jul 41. QM 685 (Gp Emergency Construction Program," The Constructor,
Sites). July 1941, p. 116.
PLANNING AHEAD 355
outlined its course. It would observe the wave, had the Construction Division's
strategic boundary and avoid unneces- approval.
sary concentration. It would co-operate So negligible had been the influence
fully with OPM. It would investigate of The Quartermaster General in the
proposed sites thoroughly, considering design and layout of munitions plants
such factors as estimated cost, labor that any change would have to be in the
requirements and supply, power, trans- direction of increasing his powers—and
portation, and housing. It would clear there were many indications that a
all projects and all sites with OPM before change was necessary. Blueprints were
presenting them to the Assistant Secre- too long on operators' drawing boards,
tary of War and the President for ap- and constructors marked time while
proval.55 plans underwent painstaking review by
So far the Army had done nothing to Ordnance. Even Knudsen, in OPM,
insure thorough engineering investiga- remarked how long it took for drawings
tions of new sites, but this situation soon to reach the field. "It would seem to
changed. On 5 April Patterson revised me," he wrote Patterson, "that drawings
the procedure for locating plants. The of simple structures could be pushed
Quartermaster Corps would survey pro- ahead so as to get the contracting work
posed sites and the Facilities Board done."57 Ordnance excused delays by
would consider only those Somervell pointing out that the plants were large
had approved. By May Colonel Leavey and complex and most engineers were
had developed criteria for use by archi- relatively inexperienced in munitions
tect-engineers in reporting on proposed work.58 But when plans for roads, utili-
locations for Ordnance and Chemical ties, and administration buildings were
Warfare projects. The new system was not forthcoming, this argument was
not infallible. Despite an unfavorable hardly convincing. Observers noted that
report by the Construction Division, designs were neither uniform nor eco-
General Wesson insisted that he had to nomical. Harrison stated that "con-
build a plant at Crab Orchard, Illinois. struction costs of certain powder and
This site, in a depressed area, had the TNT plants . . . have disclosed
backing of Sidney Hillman and, even rather wide variations due to details of
more important, of Harry Hopkins, design and to construction refine-
who evidently wished to please an in- ments."59 One of Groves' inspectors
timate, ex-Congressman Kent E. made "the alarming observation" that
Kellar.56 But such cases were rare. For "the interpretation of safety requirements
the most part, locations for the second- is different at almost every shell loading
wave plants, unlike those for the first plant."60 Still another practice of Ord-
57
Ltr, Knudsen to Patterson, 3 Apr 41. USW Files,
55
Memo, WD Facils Bd for Rcd, 26 Mar 41. Same 333 Insps.
58
File. Memo, OCofOrd for Patterson, 10 Apr 41.
56
(1) Memo, Patterson for Gregory, 5 Apr 41. 635 USW
59
Files, 333 Insps.
(Mun Plants) Part I. (2) Bull Engrg Br, May 41, sub: Memo, Harrison for Biggers, OPM, 23 Jul 41.
Criteria for Rpt on Selection of Sites for Ord and QM 600.1 (Def Constr) 1941.
60
CWS Projs. EHD Files. (3) 635 (III. OP) I. (4) QM Memo, Groves for Gregory (20 May 41). QM
333.9 (H Mil Affs Investigation) 1941. 333.1 May-Jun 41
358 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
the interests of economy, all agreed that brick and tile; let trucks partly replace
new facilities would be "somewhat less railroads in intraplant transportation;
permanent" than the first-wave plants build mostly one-story structures; use
and that greater emphasis would be fencing, lightning protection, and
laid on curtailing construction costs.67 sprinkler systems sparingly; and employ
It remained for user and builder to standard plans whenever possible.
translate these broad aims into detailed Wesson passed the report on to Somervell,
plans and specifications. Accordingly, who was already at work on the same
on 26 May, General Wesson appointed problem.68
a board of Ordnance officers to recom- On 17 June representatives of Ord-
mend "general layouts, together with nance, OPM, and the Construction
types of construction and equipment to Division met for an all-day conference on
be used in these future plants." The the second-wave plants. Among those
board submitted its recommendations
on 6 June: substitute sheet siding for 68
(1) Memo, Wesson for Patterson, 9 Jun 41, and
Incl, 6 Jun 41. USW Files, 004.404 Plants, Ord and
67
Patterson's Testimony, 15 Jul 41. In Truman Mun. (2) Memo, OCofOrd for TQMG, 16 Jun 41.
Comm Hearings, Part 6, p. 1523. QM 635 (Ammo Plants) 1941.
360 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
present were Somervell, Leavey, Casey, practice," Campbell stated that the
Harris, Campbell, and Harrison. operator was "an adjunct of the Ord-
Somervell opened the meeting with a nance Office . . . with all that
call for co-ordination "in the interest implies." The architect-engineer, under
of effecting economies of construction contract to the Quartermaster Corps,
and increasing speed of construction." received from the operator "the basic
He went on to present plans newly de- and general plans and layouts of the
veloped by the Engineering Branch. work for the detailing of such, for the
Ordnance accepted practically all of ordering of material, and for the actual
Somervell's suggestions, and he, in turn, construction of the plant by the con-
agreed to the proposals advanced by structing contractor." Indeed, the archi-
Harris and Campbell. The conferees tect-engineer had to regard the operator
then adopted certain general principles as his only source of information. The
and procedures. Where new buildings constructor, also under contract to the
would duplicate older ones, original Quartermaster Corps, received his in-
plans and bills of materials would be used structions from the architect-engineer.
in order to save time. Whenever possible, Ignoring the Constructing Quarter-
however, additions to existing plants master, Campbell wrote of the com-
would be of temporary design and only manding officer: "He, as the represent-
"bare necessities" would be provided. ative of the owner for whom the plant
Ordnance would submit schematic lay- is being built, with funds appropriated
outs of process equipment to the Con- to the Ordnance Department for that
struction Division for review and analy- purpose, is charged, and rightly so, with
69
sis. Continued co-operation seemed the duty of being head man at the plant."
assured when the two services scheduled Campbell pronounced the arrangement
further meetings and Somervell agreed sound and asked Somervell if he did not
71
to establish a suboffice in Wilmington agree.
70
to work with the Ordnance office there. Somervell emphatically did not. There
But all was not harmonious. On 3 were, he insisted, two "more satisfactory
March Somervell sent Campbell a note methods by which the construction of
suggesting that contracting procedures ordnance facilities can be better prose-
were due for an overhauling. When the cuted from the standpoint of efficiency,
two men met a few days later, Somervell speed, and economy." Under the first,
brought the subject up again. On the he and Campbell together would select
12th he received a memorandum from and contract with a design consultant,
Campbell defending the existing ar- who would prepare basic layouts and
rangement. Pointing out that the Con- designs in collaboration with Ordnance.
struction Division had itself defined the The Construction Division would hire
position of Ordnance as "analogous to the architect-engineer, after considering
that of a client in private construction the recommendations of the design con-
sultant who would advise the architect-
69
Notes, Conf Between Reps of the Ord Dept,
OPM, and Constr Div, 17 Jun 41. 635 Part I. 71
70
Ltr, Casey to McFadden, 29 Aug 41. QM 600.17 Memo, Campbell for Somervell, 12 Mar 41.
(ZCQM 2). Opns Br Files, Ord Projs.
PLANNING AHEAD 361
engineer during construction. The di- Ordnance would administer the con-
vision would also hire the constructor, tract titles dealing with management,
apparently without reference to Ord- design consultant services, equipment,
nance. Under the second method, Ord- and operation, while the Quartermaster
nance would contract with the design Corps would administer the subtitles
consultant and the architect-engineer. having to do with architect-engineering
73
Upon completion, plans and specifica- and construction. The setup proposed
tions would go to The Quartermaster by Wesson was the same one Hartman
General, who would then make a separate had successfully resisted in 1940.
contract with the architect-engineer for Somervell did not learn what Ord-
supervisory services during construction nance was up to until the morning of
and would hire his own construction the 31st, when Wesson read the
contractor. Though Somervell favored memorandum to him over the telephone
the first method, he was willing to settle and asked for his concurrence. Not only
for the second. Both offered clear-cut did Somervell refuse to concur, he
advantages. "The division of authority promptly declared war. He spent the
and responsibility is more clearly de- rest of the day drafting an angry letter
lineated," he argued, "and there would to Patterson. The gist of his argument
be but one boss of the construction ac- was contained in the opening para-
tivities in the field." And since the in- graphs:
terests of Ordnance would be safeguarded, This office strongly objects to the method
the sending of a commanding officer to outlined by General Wesson, because it
construction projects would be "inad- would be contrary to the National Defense
72
visable and not necessary." Act, since it precludes the QM Corps from
Once Ordnance knew the tack discharging the responsibility given it there-
Somervell was taking, it moved to head under. In order to discharge its duties and
obligations properly, the QM Corps must
him off. On 29 March Wesson wrote exercise direct control over all phases of the
to Patterson, "It is my matured judg- work entering into the construction of a
ment that the ends of economy and plant. Where the prime contract includes
celerity of completion will best be met operation and management, design consul-
by entering into a single contract with tation, architect-engineering and construc-
tion, to all intents and purposes, it is ad-
a firm to cover management service- ministered soley by Ordnance and no direct
design consultant, equipping, operation, control by the QM Corps can be exercised.
architect-engineering, and construc- Such a situation would result in a waste of
tion." The contractor would usually many millions of dollars, since the prime
sublet architect-engineering and con- contractor is chosen primarily for his opera-
ting ability, and often has little or no knowl-
struction work, in which case the sub- edge and experience in matters invol-
contractors would be selected by the ving design, engineering, and construc-
Construction Division and approved by tion.
Ordnance. But he might in some in- The whole effect of such a procedure, in
stances elect to do all the work himself. addition to the objections just cited, would
72 73
Memo, Somervell for Campbell, 15 Mar 41. Memo, Wesson for Patterson, 29 Mar 41.
Opns Br Files, Ord Projs. Madigan Files, 101.6 Gen Corresp.
362 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
be to leave this office with the responsibility to date to indicate that the interests of the
for mistakes which might be made, and no United States will be better served by of-
authority to prevent such mistakes. ficially sanctioning the practices cited above
than by placing the construction work in
Somervell was not content to stop there, line with customary practice and with the
but went on page after page. He quoted law which states that the Quartermaster
General shall have direction of all work
liberally from the law and the Army pertaining to construction.
Regulations to prove that Congress and
the Secretary of War clearly intended He ended by recommending that
The Quartermaster General to have all Patterson tell Wesson to confine himself
construction, not just the part of it that to operating the plants and to stay out
Ordnance deigned to give him. He of construction.74
stated that the Chief of Ordnance, "al- Five days after Somervell's outburst
though not possessed of officers or staff Patterson adopted the single contract.
skilled in matters of construction," in- The Chief of Ordnance would choose
sisted on "placing the control of all this a prime contractor, who would have
work in the hands of persons having responsibility for all work from de-
no continuing responsibility to the United signing a plant to operating it, and who
States." He implied that operators were would subcontract architect-engineering
taking advantage of Wesson's innocence. and construction. Ordnance and Quar-
Unorthodox contracts were in use. Ord- termaster would "together negotiate and
nance was approving insurance con- execute the contract," but the Quarter-
trary to Patterson's policies. Superin- master would be responsible primarily
tendents and engineers were receiving for the parts pertaining to construc-
excessively high salaries. Some ar- tion. The two subcontractors, the archi-
rangements with utilities companies were tect-engineer and the constructor, would
questionable. Returning at last to be "selected and recommended" by
Wesson's proposal, Somervell wrote: the Quartermaster, "subject to the con-
currence of the prime contractor."
The construction agencies of the War Patterson was careful to state that The
Department are a clearing house of infor-
mation on construction practice and ma- Quartermaster General would "super-
terials. All large organizations such as the vise the construction of the entire proj-
War Department maintain engineering or ect," but whether that supervision could
construction organizations to carry out this be effective under these circumstances
part of their work. Unless there were a sound was debatable. It appeared that the
reason for this, the railroads, the telephone
companies, public utilities, and other large fight 75was over and that Ordnance had
concerns would not maintain such organi- won.
zations. . . . Following General Wes- But Somervell would not be bested.
son's reasoning, there is no need for such an After recurrent agitation against the
organization. He submits nothing to support single contract, he persuaded Patterson
his statement. Although ex cathedra state-
ments of this kind from the Chief of Ordnance
are, of course, entitled to consideration, for 74
Memo, Somervell for Patterson, 31 Mar 41.
them to be at all convincing some cogent QM 635 (Ord) 1941.
reasons and, most of all, facts should sup- 75
Memo, Patterson for Gregory, 5 Apr 41. 635
port them. There is nothing in the program (Mun Plants) Part I.
PLANNING AHEAD 363
76
to yield. On 14 July 1941 the Under "a constant gyration in the Engineering
Secretary abolished the single contract. Branch."79 But Somervell knew what
The Quartermaster General would he was after—a construction capability
henceforth have "full responsibility" for second to none. He was aiming high.
choosing architect-engineers and con- Whether he could hit the mark remained
structors. Subject only to Patterson's to be seen.
approval, Somervell would award sepa- During the first half of 1941, new
rate contracts to these firms. Wesson names appeared on the division's roster
would make arrangements with operators of key personnel. Douglas I. McKay,
and approve plans and specifications. who became Somervell's special assist-
But he would have no authority for con- ant, was a former police commissioner
struction in the field. Somervell was at of New York City. John J. O'Brien, who
last in a position to control effectively replaced Colonel Valliant as chief of
the operations of architect-engineers and Real Estate, had been a top attorney in
builders.77 the Lands Division of the Department
It had been a hard fight, but Somervell of Justice. Lt. Col. William E. R. Covell,
had come out on top. He could rea- who became Leavey's executive when
sonably expect that future munitions Nurse, at his own request, went to the
projects would present fewer engineering Ninth Zone, was a retired Engineer
and construction difficulties than those officer, first man in the West Point class
built in the past. of 1915. There were two former em-
ployees of the New York City WPA—
A Stronger Organization one was James P. Mitchell, afterward
Secretary of Labor in the Eisenhower
In an address before the annual con- cabinet, who succeeded Brigham as
vention of the Associated General Con- head of the Labor Relations Section;
tractors on 20 February 1941, Somervell the other was Oliver A. Gottschalk, who
spoke of his "determination to make the became assistant chief and later chief
Construction Division as competent an of the Accounts Branch. As Hartman's
agency as exists in the Government."78 men faded from the scene, Somervell
In pursuing this objective, he spared no brought in his own team.
effort and shunned no opportunity. The Other noteworthy personnel changes
big reorganization of December 1940 took place in the Construction Advisory
was followed by innumerable smaller Committee. Seeking to remove all
ones. The division underwent a thorough doubt of the committee's impartiality,
housecleaning. Personnel shake-ups were Somervell decided to enlarge its mem-
an almost daily occurrence. Many new bership and to place an experienced
faces appeared and some old ones military engineer at its head. General
dropped out of sight. Dreyer recalled George R. Spalding, an officer of the
highest reputation who had retired as
76
77
QM 635 (Ammo Plants) 1941. G—4 of the Army in 1938, became chair-
Memo, Patterson for Wesson and Gregory, 14 man on 18 February 1941. Later that
Jul 41. QM 600.1 (Ord) 1941.
78
Brig. Gen. B. B. Somervell, "The Man With
79
the Contract," The Constructor, March 1941, p. 52. Dreyer Interv, 27 Feb 59.
364 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
vision and was believed, in some quar- would stand.86 Gregory's decision could
ters, to have contributed measurably hardly have been otherwise. By late
to Hartman's difficulties. No less an April the Construction Division had
authority than the commission was now 2,933 employees as compared with
87
advocating that the division handle its 1,989 in all other divisions of his office.
own affairs. On 4 April, Somervell for- It was no easy matter to keep the tail
warded Flemming's recommendation to from wagging the dog.
The Quartermaster General. "This seems Somervell was furious. Making little
to me to be a very constructive sugges- effort to disguise his feelings, he drafted
tion," he wrote Gregory, "and it could a reply. The Quartermaster General was
be put into effect immediately if your a "disinterested" party, "remote from
office . . . would be willing to the scene of operations" and out of
grant authority to the Construction "direct contact with the work." His
Division to deal directly with the Civil control of appointments was preventing
Service Commission." Somervell added quick action in situations where success
that he had no wish to usurp any of might "hinge directly on our ability to
Gregory's powers and he pointed out move fast." "It is believed to be a
that The Quartermaster General could generally accepted principle," Somervell
still cancel any action taken by the noted, "that an organization the size of
Construction Division.85 the Construction Division, performing
About a month later, after "very care- a definite type of function and not closely
ful consideration," Gregory turned down related to the parent organization, should
the proposal. Although he wished to be responsible for the appointment,
give his subordinates as much responsi- training and supervision of its person-
bility as possible, he held that "certain nel." After presenting evidence of "sig-
functions" could not be delegated to nificant delays," he declared, "It would
division chiefs. "I feel," he explained, not be an exaggeration to say that much
"that central control of personnel poli- of the lack of proper coordination which
cies and management is necessary. I find in various Branches of the Con-
Grades, classifications, and rates of pay struction Division today is due to the
should not differ too widely in the various present system of procuring civilian
operating Divisions of the office." There personnel."88 Styer felt this reply went
had been delays, certainly, and some too far. Substituting his own more diplo-
"creaking and groaning" of the hiring matic version, he chided Somervell for
system. However, hundreds of employees "wasting time arguing." Besides, he
had been added to the Construction said, the Construction Division was
Division since mid-December. If ever not entirely blameless.89 That ended the
central control hindered the division's 86
work, Gregory would "be only too glad Memo, Gregory for Somervell, 7 May 41. EHD
Files.
to consider very definite modifications." 87
Memo, OCMH Dep Chief Historian for Rcd, 8
Until then, the present arrangement Mar 55. EHD Files.
88
Draft Memo, Somervell for Gregory, 22 May 41.
EHD Files.
85 89
Memo, Somervell for Gregory, 4 Apr 41. Opns (1) Routing Slip, Styer to Somervell, 25 May
Br Files, Pers—Dec 40-Apr 41. 41, and Incl, 24 May 41. EHD Files.
366 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
91
Groves Comments, VI, 3. real concessions from the building trades.
Rpt, Activities of the Constr Div, Jul 40-Jul 41, Soon after his appointment to the
pp. 127, 131.
92
Tel Conv, Clyde Davis, Los Angeles, Calif., and Labor Relations Section, Mitchell took
Leavey, 7 Mar 41. Opns Br Files, San Luis Obispo. up the question of overtime, weekend,
PLANNING AHEAD 367
were we to recommend what we think Mitchell went to St. Louis to lay his
is a fair solution."96 Patterson decided proposal before the local unions. The
to let well enough alone, and on 8 Febru- conference was a failure. After most of
ary he so informed Coyne. For the next the locals refused to go along with
two months, Mitchell made no attempt Mitchell, Rivers came out in favor of
to reopen the question. Quartermaster eight hours' pay for seven and one-half
projects continued to pay premium rates hours' work on all shifts. Under pressure
according to local practice.97 for increased speed, Somervell accepted
Not so crucial as premium rates but Rivers' alternative on 1 May. The new
nevertheless important was the question shift policy, which gave workers one-half
of shift work. Since November 1940 the hour more pay on first and second shifts
Construction Division had reimbursed than the Army had advocated, applied
contractors for seven and a half hours' at small arms ammunition projects and
pay on the first shift, one-half hour being other urgent Ordnance jobs.100
allowed for lunch on the employee's Faced in the midst of the Ordnance
time; the second-shift lunch period speedup with the prospect of more jobs
counted as time worked where this was ahead, Somervell recognized the need
local practice. Authorized only "under for cutting labor costs. So far, basic wage
extraordinary conditions," third shifts rates had been kept from spiraling. But
consisted of seven and one-half hours, Mitchell and his staff, noting that more
including a half-hour for lunch counted requests were coming in for raises at
as time worked; the pay rate on these jobs in progress, feared they could not
"graveyard" shifts was one and one- stem the tide much longer. The trend
98
fifteenth times the basic rate. Although on overtime rates was to substitute time
Coyne had informally approved this and a half for straight time in the South,
arrangement, local unions had not rati- double time for time and a half in the
99
fied it. Middle West, and double and a half for
In April 1941, when it became ap- double time in the Northeast. Unless
parent that continuous 3-shift operations wages were stable, labor pirating would
would be necessary to expedite comple- be uncontrollable. Moreover, ruling on
tion of small arms ammunition plants, so many requests for pay boosts and over-
Mitchell pressed for a firmer under- time premiums placed an enormous ad-
standing. On the 22d he approached ministrative burden on the Labor Rela-
Herbert Rivers of the Building Trades tions Section. Under the circumstances,
Department, who agreed to co-operate. Coyne's earlier proposal now seemed
On the 28th, accompanied by Rivers, advantageous.101
100
(1) Ltr, Mitchell to Rivers, 22 Apr 41. QM
96
Memo, Thom for McGrady, 8 Feb 41. Same 600.1 (Labor) 1940. (2) Min, Conf at St. Louis, 28
File. Apr 41. (3) Ltr, Somervell to Rivers, 1 May 41. Last
97
(1) Memos, McGrady for Patterson, 12, 13 Feb two in LRBr Files, St. Louis OP. (4) Ltr, OQMG
41. Same File. (2) Memo, Mitchell, no addressee, 3 to ZCQM VII, 19 May 41. 600.1 (Weldon Spring
Apr 41. Same File. OW) (Labor).
98 101
Incl, 4 Nov 40, with Constr Div OQMG FF (1) Memo, Somervell for Hillman, 10 May 41.
Ltr 15, 6 Nov 40. EHD Files. LRBr Files, WPB. (2) Intervs with L. Dale Hill, 4
99
Memo, Mitchell for Brigham, 28 Jan 41. LRBr Nov 49; Robert F. Jacobs, 6 Sep 49; James P.
Files, Intraoffice. Mitchell, 5 Nov 49.
PLANNING AHEAD 369
ambition. Many grew to dislike and dis- Somervell moved into the limelight and
trust him. Nor was Congressional appro- acquired new friends in Congress and in
bation unanimous. Citadels of Democracy industry. His enhanced prestige and in-
made Representative Taber boil with fluence proved of benefit not only to him
indignation. In a letter to Stimson, the personally but also to the organization
New York Republican complained: he headed.
I am grieved and surprised that the War Brilliant accomplishment and glittering
Department would do such a thing. The success—such was the picture presented
"picture book" can have no possible use, by Somervell. A sobering view opened
can have no effect upon anyone except one to the public as Congress inquired into
of complete disgust . . . . It savors
of the War Department's attempting to construction difficulties and the reasons
sabotage the Defense Program by wasting behind them.
thousands of dollars upon such a fantastic
document with the money so sorely needed Congressman Engel Investigates
for actual defense.27
Taking a stand as a member of the House Representative Albert J. Engel was the
Appropriations Committee, Taber ad- first to attempt a systematic inquiry. A
member of the House Appropriations
26
(1) Renshaw Interv, 13 Feb 59. (a) Memo, Committee, the Michigan Republican
Styer for Gregory, 31 Mar 41. Opns Br Files, Cong—
28
Hearings, Complaints, Requests. Ltr, Taber to Marshall, 17 Jul 41. Same File.
27 29
Ltr, Taber to Stimson, 17 Jul 41. Opns Br Files, Min, Constr Div Staff Mtg, 16 May 41. EHD
Cong—Hearings, Complaints, Requests. Files.
THE PUBLIC IMAGE 379
had long advocated giving all military view of the fact that all the projects are
construction to the Corps of Engineers. handled ... in the same way," he
Throughout the summer of 1940 he fol- told his colleagues, "I thought that an
lowed the progress of appropriations for analysis of this one job might give us an
sheltering Guardsmen and selectees. idea of what happened on a majority of
Engel wished to examine the War De- all the jobs." But after dissecting the
partment's estimates closely before voting operations of the Walsh Construction
construction funds but found his plans Company, Engel had concluded that it
blocked by the tactics of the Majority. "would be presumptuous for me to make
He later recalled his experiences on the definite, permanent recommendations
September day in 1940 when the House . . . when I have so small a pro-
voted the bulk of the money for Army portion of the facts before me." An-
housing: "A clerk of the Appropriations nouncing his decision to broaden the
Committee came to my office at 5 minutes investigation, he indicated what he ex-
to 12 and asked me to approve the pected to learn. Three years earlier he
Regular Army housing bill, which had suggested to General Craig "that
amounted to $338,000,000, without a the construction quartermaster work be
full committee meeting. I refused to do transferred to the Army Engineering
this. When I got to the floor, the House Corps." Promising Congress "definite
was in session, and the bill was being recommendations" soon, he now stated:
considered. I reserved the right to object, The Army housing program . . . ac-
but finally realizing the need of im- tually places Army engineers into the Con-
mediate Army housing for the draftees, struction Quartermaster Corps. But we still
did not object." Engel continued to pur- have practically the same conditions existing
sue the matter. During October he ob- as before. Construction work requires trained
men. It is the engineers' and architects' job;
tained a breakdown of Hartman's build- and the sooner we learn this, the sooner we
ing estimates and inserted it into the are going to eliminate a great deal of inef-
Record. He expected the Army "to ac- ficiency, including waste and extravagance.31
count to Congress for every dollar."
About the first of December he began a In February Engel set out to inspect
one-man investigation of camp construc- camps in the East and South. Before
tion.
30 leaving Washington he asked for a letter
On 16 January 1941, in a speech before giving him entree to any project and
the House, Engel described his efforts to permission to examine anything he
find out "just how this money is being wished. Somervell furnished the letter
spent." So far he had collected cost data and offered the services of Captain
on twenty-three projects. On the basis Davidson as companion and guide. Engel
32
of this information, he put the construc- took the letter but left Davidson behind.
tion deficit at $300 million, a figure re- His visits were intended to surprise. "I
markably close to the War Department's
own estimate. He had also made an ex- 31
32
87 Cong. Rec. 166-69.
haustive study of Camp Edwards. "In (1) Ltr, Engel to Somervell, 27 Jan 41. (2) Ltr,
TAG to CO's Posts, Camps, and Stations, 3 Feb 41.
30
(3) Ltr, Engel to Somervell, 18 Feb 41. All three in
87 Cong. Rec. 166. QM 032 (Engel, Albert J.) 1935-43.
380 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
do not want the camp to know when I'm do it." Simpson reported that Engel had
coming," he said.33 For the next few announced he was going to censure the
weeks the specter of the ubiquitous Mr. Quartermaster Corps when he got back
Engel haunted Constructing Quarter- to the capital. On hearing this, Groves
masters. Engel would arrive on the scene exclaimed, "Encourage him to go further
at an early hour, unannounced and un- away."36 Engel went as far as Blanding;
observed. He would spend the morning then he headed home. Late in March
touring the project, taking pictures, talk- the Construction Division learned of his
ing to workmen, examining materials return.
and equipment, poking into scrap piles, Engel was soon ready to lay his findings
looking everywhere for irregularities. By before Congress. During the first week in
the time camp authorities became aware April he delivered two lengthy addresses,
of his presence he would be ready to go one on Camp Blanding, the other on
over the contractors' books and to ques- Camp Meade. At the Florida camp,
tion the project manager, the auditor, Engel had uncovered the following infor-
and the Constructing Quartermaster. His mation: 54,000,000 board feet of lumber
departure was as unceremonious as his had been bought for the project at an
arrival. Before sundown he would be off average price of $40 per thousand;
to another undisclosed destination and 580,000 tons of lime rock costing
would drive "to the next project that $1,250,000 had been used for roads and
night so as to be able to join the caravan parkways; rentals on equipment valued at
of workers as they arrived at the camp $4,628,605 had totaled $1,992,080 by 20
at or before 7 a.m., the next morning."34 February; $1,079,400 had been paid out
The uninvited guest taxed the patience in overtime; half of the 5,000 men who
of his hosts. The New York Times por- had drawn carpenters' wages had "very
trayed the congressman at Fort Bragg, little, if any previous experience." Engel
backing four generals into a corner.35 implied that the Quartermaster Corps
During Engel's visit the Constructing had paid too much for labor, equipment,
Quartermaster at Bragg, Lt. Col. Law- and materials and hinted at collusion on
rence L. Simpson, made an excited tele- bids for the limestone contract. His chief
phone call to Washington. "I wanted to target was the Blanding site. After point-
assure you that we are being just as ing out that 40 percent of the building
diplomatic as possible," he told Groves. area was below the level of nearby Kings-
But efforts to "ease him along" did not ley Lake, he went on to contend that the
divert Engel. Simpson complained: "He location had added $5,000,000 to the
won't let any of us go with him. He cost of the camp. In conclusion he stated,
wanted to get those pictures and didn't "There is no question in my mind but
let us know he was here. ... In that the selection of this site .
the meantime, if he does see anything he was not only unfortunate and extremely
can pick up that would look bad, he will expensive, but shows gross inefficiency
and a total disregard for taxpayers'
33
Memo, Somervell for Moore, 3 Feb 41. QM 333.1
1941.
34 36
87 Cong. Rec. 2843-44. Tel Conv, Simpson and Groves, 20 Feb 41. Opns
35
New York Times, March 9, 1941, Sec IV, p. 2. Br Files, Ft Bragg.
THE PUBLIC IMAGE 381
interests."37 Two days later Engel spoke one of every five men paid carpenters'
on Meade. Once again he presented an wages lacked carpenters' skills. He noted
array of figures as "evidence of waste that $15,000 had gone for termite shields
and extravagance due to incompetency in an area where a wooden building had
and inefficiency." As before, he directed stood since the 17th century without
his ire against men who had chosen the suffering damage from insects. Criticism
site. "I say here and now," he declared, of the rocky, mountainous site climaxed
"that the officers in the United States his remarks. "There is no question in my
Army who . . . are responsible for mind," he said, "that the selection of this
this willful, extravagant, and outrageous site has cost the taxpayers millions of
waste of the taxpayers' money, ought to dollars." In a lively exchange, one Demo-
be court-martialed and kicked out of the cratic congressman insisted that, in fair-
Army."38 ness to the War Department, evidence
Interest in the one-man probe flared of negligence, bad judgment, and waste
briefly and subsided. Warmly applauded of public funds be spelled out in the
by his colleagues at first, Engel com- Record. Engel countered: "I have had
manded dwindling audiences in the information that the War Department
House. After reporting his early sallies, has had engineers go over my Blanding
the press fell silent. The morning after and Meade speeches, made on April1
Engel's address on Meade, Somervell re- and April 3. They have had 2 weeks
marked to his staff, "I have been specu- but no answer has been made by them
lating, without being able to get an thus far."41
answer in my own mind, as to just what When the War Department continued
help these speeches are going to be to silent, Engel did not persist. A speech on
National Defense."39 Groves put his finger Camp Edwards, scheduled for 1 May,
on one of Engel's difficulties: "He's a went undelivered. Offered as an exten-
better man than I am if he can go to a sion of remarks, it was interred in the
camp and wander around it for a day Record's appendices. An address on Fort
and then come up with the whole story."40 Belvoir met the same fate.42 The one-man
A rigorous investigation of the building probe was over. Engel's findings were
program was not a one-man job. obscured by those of other, more
Engel took the floor again on 17 April. thoroughgoing investigators.
His subject was a different camp, Indian-
town Gap, but his speech had a familiar House and Senate Committee Investigations
ring. Predicting a deficit of $10.3 million,
he asserted that prices paid for lumber Sooner or later there was bound to be
were 20 to 25 percent too high, that a full-dress Congressional probe. World
rentals on equipment amounted to 50 War I had produced the Chamberlain
percent of appraised valuations, and that and Graham investigations; the Spanish-
American War, the Dodge; and the Civil
37
87 Cong. Rec. 2843-48. War, the Wade. As far back as the
38
87 Cong. Rec. 3004-7.
39
Min, Constr Div Staff Mtg, 4 Apr 41. EHD Files.
40 41
Tel Conv, Groves and Maj Clark (BOB), 4 Apr 87 Cong. Rec. 3158-62.
42
41. Opns Br Files, Budget. 87 Cong. Rec. A2037-40, A2288-90.
382 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
Revolution, Congress had looked into the His statement that the advisory com-
conduct of military preparations. In fact, mittee granted interviews to all comers
as one scholar has pointed out, "of all was contradicted by Louisiana's Overton
administrative departments the Depart- Brooks, who said he knew several con-
ment of War has come most often under tractors turned away by the committee.48
the inquisitorial eye of Congress."43 Dur- When Harvey stated that he could ap-
ing the fall of 1940 there were rumblings praise contractors' qualifications from
of a Congressional investigation into the their answers to a questionnaire, Repre-
Army's defense activities.44 Early in the sentative Paul J. Kilday rejoined, "I
49
new year committees of the House and think you are a genius." Several of the
Senate launched formal inquiries. Mili- Congressmen questioned the advisory
tary construction was the initial target. committee's impartiality. Representative
On the morning of 12 February, the Andrew Edmiston implied that political
House Military Affairs Committee began considerations had influenced its selec-
hearings. First to testify was Forrest S. tions. Kilday suggested that the Associ-
Harvey of the Construction Advisory ated General Contractors had had a hand
Committee. Chairman Andrew J. May in its decisions. Brooks made pointed
opened the proceedings by asking "just reference to the fact that Harvey had
how" the Quartermaster Corps let its worked for Leeds, Hill, Barnard and
contracts. Harvey started to explain but Jewett, the architect-engineer at San Luis
45
was soon deluged with questions. Repre- Obispo. In two days before the House
sentative Dow W. Harter inquired why Committee, Harvey failed to dispel these
50
most of the work was going to large con- doubts.
cerns. Representative Matthew J. Merritt The next witness, Francis Blossom,
asked why some firms had received two underwent a cruel ordeal. After a few
contracts while other firms went begging. preliminary questions, one committee
Representative John M. Costello wanted member asked him: "Now, since you
to know why the Army had not broken have been ... a member of this
up large contracts so that more firms board has the firm of Sanderson & Porter
could participate.46 Harvey's explanation received any contracts from the War
of the reasons for giving industrial projects Department?" Blossom's affirmative an-
to a few select firms was dismissed by swer evoked a storm of questions. Was
Pennsylvania's Charles I. Faddis with the he an active partner in the firm? He was.
remark, "I am not convinced that there What would be his share of the fee for
is as much specialization on contractors the Elwood Ordnance Plant? Approxi-
47
as maybe we have been led to believe." mately $125,000. Although testimony re-
43
Marshall E. Dimock, Congressional Investigating vealed that Sanderson & Porter was
Committees (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins Press, eminently qualified for the job and that
1929), p. 92.
44
neither Blossom nor the Construction
Memo, Col Brennan, WDGS, for SGS, 2 Oct 40.
OCS, Notes on Confs-Sep 24, 1940—. Advisory Committee had participated in
45
H Comm on Mil Affs, 77th Cong, 1st sess,
Hearings, Inquiry as to National Defense Construction,
48
Part I, pp. 1-54. Ibid., pp. 24-25.
46 49
Ibid., pp. 8, 9, 21. Ibid., pp. 40-41.
47 50
Ibid., p. 13. Ibid., pp. 14, 30-31, 37, 51.
THE PUBLIC IMAGE 383
this selection, the Congressmen showed brokers. General Brett reported on the
no disposition to let the matter drop.51 progress of the Air Corps program. On
On 15 February, the day after Blossom's 1April Chairman May suspended hear-
appearance, Stimson noted in his diary, ings on defense construction.
"There is no evidence of any impropriety Thus far the House investigation had
or corruption on the part of Blossom but aroused only moderate interest. Except
they are making a big hue and cry over for the disclosures concerning Blossom,
52
it and it is a very unpleasant thing." little new information had come to light.
The hue and cry continued as Somervell, On the whole, questioning had been
Patterson, Campbell, and others were unmethodical and desultory, and testi-
questioned about the Elwood contract.53 mony had lagged. The committee had
Recalled by the committee at his own asked many of the officials who came
request, Blossom announced his decision before it to discuss matters of which they
not to participate in the profits of his had little or no direct knowledge. The
firm for the years 1940 and 1941. "I practice of permitting members to take
trust that it will be understood," he told turns interrogating each witness had led
the House group, "that this is not an to tedious repetition. Moreover, the Con-
inconsiderable sacrifice for me to make. gressmen were not sufficiently well
Nevertheless, I make it freely and will- grounded in construction to conduct a
ingly as my contribution to the welfare comprehensive inquiry. Chairman May
of my country."54 Shortly afterward, he occasionally lost patience with his col-
resigned from the advisory committee leagues. From time to time he urged
and returned to private life. "I think," them to "get along a little faster" or
56
Patterson commented, "that a man of chided them for "going far afield." But
proper sensibilities, being criticized, even his efforts to keep the discussion from
though he might not think the criticism bogging down were not entirely success-
just, might be prompted to say, 'I would ful. After six weeks of hearings the investi-
stand clear of it all together.' I am sure gation appeared to have run its course.
that he came down here from the most Then, on 2 April, the inquiry received
patriotic and high-minded motives."55 a new lease on life. That day the House
A procession of witnesses passed before adopted a resolution, authorizing the
the House group. A third member of Military Affairs Committee to make a
the Construction Advisory Committee, thorough study of the Army's defense
Mr. Dresser, repeated much of Harvey's activities. Immediately after passage of
testimony. General Somervell defended this resolution, the committee met to
cost-plus-a-fixed-fee contracts. John J. discuss procedures for conducting its
O'Brien and Congressman Clarence Can- probe. It agreed to form three special
non presented their views on real estate committees, the second of which would
consider real estate and construction.
51
Ibid., pp. 55-95. Special Committee No. 2 would have
52
Stimson Diary, 15 Feb 41. nine members; R. Ewing Thomason of
53
May Comm Hearings, Part I, pp. 151-52, Texas would be the chairman. Soon after
161-70, 186-206, 207-11, 217-32.
54
Ibid., p. 116.
55 56
Ibid., p. 165. Ibid., pp. 109, 139.
384 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
its formation, the Thomason group began investigating committee and an executive
to lay plans for carrying out its work.57 department.60
News that the May committee was After reviewing testimony before the
preparing to widen its investigation full committee, Thomason concluded
caused some consternation in the War that "open hearings did not constitute
Department. A full-scale Congressional the best vehicle for development of facts."
inquiry would place a heavy burden on He also saw that few committee members
the Department's staff, which would have could cope with complexities of military
to search out data, answer questions, and construction. Methods employed by his
produce witnesses. The probability that committee reflected this realistic attitude.
the committee would call for secret infor- Thomason and his colleagues assembled a
mation raised a ticklish question—should staff of experts in real estate, labor re-
the Department refuse to furnish classified lations, engineering, business, and ac-
data and thus raise suspicions that it was counting. They persuaded the Comp-
hiding behind a security cloak or should troller General to lend them Albert W.
it comply with the committee's requests Perry, who became their chief counsel.
and thus run the risk of aiding potential They made extensive use of question-
enemies of the United States.58 If officials naires. They sent investigators to jobs
also feared an outbreak of muckraking, throughout the country and visited a
this fear soon subsided. During early number of sites themselves. They as-
stages of the inquiry a Quartermaster sembled a mass of documentary evidence.
observer noted: "The House Committee Such hearings as they held were closed.
does not appear to be in a belligerent or In short, the Thomason investigation took
61
tense attitude. . . . While the com- on the character of a research project.
mittee is on a 'fishing expedition,' they On 2 May the Thomason committee
are entirely relaxed and will investigate sent out its first questionnaire. Addressed
in as cooperative a spirit as possible."59 to Secretary Stimson, the questions
This spirit of co-operation continued covered such subjects as site selection,
throughout the life of the investigation. land acquisition, plans and specifications,
By agreeing to take secret testimony in and costs. The committee asked for data
executive session and by limiting requests on all building projects costing in excess
for information, the committee showed of $5,000,000 and all real estate trans-
consideration for the War Department. actions involving $200,000 or more. The
The House inquiry furnished a notable Secretary reacted promptly to Thoma-
example of good relations between an son's request. Maj. Carlisle V. Allan of
the General Staff took charge of co-ordi-
nating the War Department's work with
57
(1) H Res 162, 77th Cong, 1st sess, 2 Apr 41.
60
(2) New York Times, April 3, 1941, pp. 1, 15. (3) (1) H Comm on Mil Affs, 77th Cong, 2d sess,
May Comm Hearings, Part 2, p. 1. Interim Gen Rpt Pursuant to H Res 162, 23 Jun 42,
58
Memo, Amberg for Patterson, 2 May 41. USW p. 2. Cited hereinafter as May Comm Interim Rpt,
Files, Legis—H and S Investigating Comm 1. 1942. (2) Memo, Amberg for Lt Col C. V. Allan, 18
59
Memo, OQMG Constr Div RE Br, M. M. Dec 41. USW Files, Legis—H and S Investigating
Epstein, for J. J. O'Brien, 8 May 41. QM 333.9 Comm 2.
61
(Constr and RE). May Comm Interim Rpt, 1942, pp. 76-77.
THE PUBLIC IMAGE 385
that of the committee. Capt. Clarence curement policies were apparently de-
Renshaw of Groves' staff drew liaison signed "to put the little man completely
duty with the Thomason group. Chief out of business." After picturing the plight
responsibility for answering the question- of the little manufacturer and the owner
naire fell to Maj. Garrison Davidson, of the little machine shop, he discussed
another of Groves' officers. By 7 May the little contractor. The Senator out-
Davidson had a force of six men at work. lined the criteria adopted by the Con-
Two weeks later General Gregory replied struction Advisory Committee. "Were
informally to Perry. The committee these requirements religiously carried
meanwhile had prepared two more ques- out," he stated, "no one could find fault
tionnaires. One, calling for detailed dis- with them; but the rules do not fit the
cussions of the quality and cost of con- facts." He charged that Dresser, whom
struction, delays, equipment rentals, and he characterized as the committee's
fees, was for individual contractors. The leader, was giving contracts to friends.
other, dealing with the Army's plans for At the same time, Truman contended,
building additional camps, was for the "It is considered a sin for a United States
War Department. By the middle of June, Senator from a State to make a recom-
answers to most of these queries were in mendation for contractors, although we
Thomason's hands. During the next two may be more familiar with the efficiency
months the special committee inspected and ability of our contractors at home
construction projects, questioned officials, than anybody in the War Department."
and analyzed the information it had Like many another member of Congress,
gathered. Not until the third week of Truman believed that the fixed-fee
62
August was Thomason ready to report. method worked considerable mischief and
Meantime, public interest centered on that it not only stifled competition but
another investigation. encouraged contractors to defraud the
Among the visitors at the first hearing government. Recalling his experiences
of the May committee was the junior with public works as a county judge in
Senator from Missouri, Harry S Tru- Missouri, he assured the Senate that con-
man.63 Two days earlier, on 10 February, tractors would take full advantage of
he had told the Senate that he planned their current opportunity to fleece the
to ask for an investigation of the defense government. "I consider public funds to
effort. In his speech on that occasion, be sacred funds," he declared in closing,
Truman said that the government's pro- "and I think they ought to have every
safeguard to prevent their being misused
62
(1) Ltr, May to Stimson, 2 May 41, and Incl. and mishandled." Only by getting at the
QM 333.9 (Constr and RE). (2) Memo, Amberg for bottom of the present situation could
Patterson, 2 May 41. USW Files, Legis—H and S Congress prevent a recurrence of the
Investigating Comm I. (3) Memo, Davidson for
Styer (7 May 41). (4) Ltr, Stimson to May, 22 May
profiteering of World War I.64 Three
41. Last two in QM 333.9 (Constr and RE). (5) days later, on 13 February, Truman
Memo, Amberg for Allan, 3 Jun 41. USW Files, introduced a resolution for a special in-
Legis—H and S Investigating Comm I. (6) Renshaw
Interv, 13 Feb 59.
63 64
May Comm Hearings, Part I, p. I. 87 Cong. Rec. 830-37.
THE PUBLIC IMAGE 387
vestigating committee, and on I March Secretary Stimson, would direct the War
65
the resolution carried. The chairman- Department's presentation; Lt. Col.
ship went to Truman. Named to serve Arthur R. Wilson of G-4, an officer of
with him were old-line Democrats: Tom considerable political acumen, became
Connally of Texas, James M. Mead of the War Department's liaison with the
New York, Mon C. Wallgren of Wash- committee; Major Davidson became
ington, and Carl A. Hatch of New Somervell's. Together with Peterson,
Mexico. Republican members were these men helped determine the War
Joseph H. Ball of Minnesota and Ralph Department's strategy.
O. Brewster of Maine. This investigation, By late March preparations were in
which continued throughout the war, full swing. On the 28th Amberg held a
brought its first chairman into national meeting with Quartermaster officers, in-
prominence. cluding Gregory, Somervell, and Groves.
The emergence of Senator Truman as After outlining the probable scope of the
inquisitor plunged the War Department investigation—geographic distribution of
into elaborate preparations to defend its defense contracts, favoritism in awards,
record. Even before passage of the Senate profits on fixed-fee jobs, selection of camp
Resolution, Patterson had called for re- sites, original estimates and final costs,
ports on matters Truman might look delays in completion, methods of land
66
into. Such a request was more or less acquisition, and union activities—he
routine. Early in March, however, Pat- "urged the frank admission of mistakes
terson's advisers began advocating a "real where they existed and a full statement
attempt ... to present an affirma- of the measures that had been taken to
tive case." "As you know, in many Con- correct them." In a point-by-point dis-
gressional investigations those in charge cussion, Amberg took the part of devil's
attempt each day to make headline advocate while the officers postulated the
news," wrote Special Assistant Howard case for the Construction Division. The
C. Peterson. "For this reason and be- sense of the meeting was "that the
cause the results of a full-dress investi- Quartermaster Corps had very little to
gation will have an important effect on apologize for, that in presenting its case
the relations of the War Department to the Committee, every effort should be
with the Congress and the public, I think made to make an affirmative case
it is imperative that the testimony of . . . , rather than to take a purely
representatives of the War Department defensive attitude on all matters that the
be carefully presented and adequately Committee cares to bring up."68 Also on
67
prepared." Patterson took this advice. the 28th, Secretary Stimson began plan-
He put able men on the case: Julius H. ning his appearance before the com-
Amberg, past president of the Michigan mittee. Under that date he wrote in his
Bar Association and now assistant to diary:
65
(1) S Res 71, 77th Cong, 1st sess, 1 Mar 41. I began to prepare my speech which I am
(2) 87 Cong. Rec. 1615. going to make to the Senate Investigating
66
Memo, Patterson for Chiefs of Arms and Services, Committee . . . . It is a big chore
27 Feb 41. 3820 (Nat Def) Part 2.
67 68
Memo, Peterson for Patterson, 7 Mar 41. USW Notes of Conf, prepared by Maxwell, 28 Mar 41.
Files, USW Memos. QM 381 (Nat Def) 1941.
388 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
but I think a very necessary one. We are committed, this committee can be of im-
confronted with an investigation which will mense constructive help in bringing the
undoubtedly try to maximize the blemishes defense program to successful accomplish-
and defects of this great effort that has been ment.71
made by the War Department for the past
year and will entirely obscure the difficulties Shortly after the Senator's radio ad-
and the achievements . . . . As I amdress, the committee's chief counsel,
the first witness, I am going to try to forestall Hugh A. Fulton, conferred with Amberg.
that by making a careful written presentation Fulton wanted more information about
which will show what we have done and what
our difficulties have been and how magnifi-
the War Department's "soft spots" and
cent the accomplishments have been; in other specific examples of abuses. He men-
words, to start the thing off on the right foottioned lobbyists, excessive prices, dis-
and to, if possible, put to shame the attempts crimination against small contractors,
to belittle it. and mistakes in site selection as topics of
Aided by McCloy and Somervell, the special interest. Amberg pointed out
Secretary toiled for days over "this con- "that it would be difficult to get our
founded speech." He found it "one of personnel to inform us that they had
the hardest jobs that I have ever had."
69 done something wrong which should be
72
Late in March, amid reports that he investigated." Nevertheless, the com-
70
was headline seeking, Truman went on mittee was soon receiving suggestions.
the radio. Rumors were rife in Wash- Somervell, for one, was closemouthed at
ington, he said, of irregularities in award- first, but, according to Truman, he came
ing contracts and locating plants, of around when he realized 73
the committee
lobbyists at work, of "outrageous prices" might be useful to him.
paid for land, and of unconscionable On the morning of 15 April Secretary
profits and avoidable waste. He intended Stimson took the stand to open the com-
to get to the bottom of things. "There mittee's first public hearing. In his care-
will be no attempt to muckrake the de- fully prepared statement, he described
fense program," he assured his listeners, the sudden and unexpected nature of
"neither will the unsavory things be the emergency. By comparing the situ-
avoided." Coming to the crux of his ation of 1940 with that of 1917, he
message, he said: brought the Army's current problems
into sharp relief. By recalling the pro-
We recognize the importance of conducting longed debates of the previous summer,
this investigation so as not to add delay and
confusion to an accelerated defense program; he drew attention to the fact that Con-
yet a properly conducted investigation now gress had allowed the War Department
can be valuable both for its deterrent effect little time to do its job. The Secretary
on those who might otherwise go wrong, and then launched into a discussion of con-
for constructive suggestions which it can of- struction and procurement. Leaving ex-
fer to the Congress for legislative action and
to the Executive for administrative improve- 71
Radio Address by Sen Harry S Truman on the
ment. So that instead of being a witch-hunt Washington Evening Star's Evening Forum, March
after the mistakes are made and the crimes 24, 1941. Opns Br Files, Questions and Answers—
Truman Comm. Reprinted in 87 Cong. Rec. Al564-65.
69 72
Stimson Diary, 28 Mar, 1,14 Apr 41. Memo of Conf, Amberg for Rcd, 4 Apr 41.
70
(1) Interv with former President Truman,12 USW Files, Legis thru S-2599.
73
Apr 58. (2) Stimson Diary, 15 Apr 41. Truman Interv, 12 Apr 58.
THE PUBLIC IMAGE 389
79
planations to later witnesses, he kept his struction. On 22 April it called the
remarks general. The burden of his testi- Chief of Staff to testify on mobilization
mony was a plea for recognition of the and troop housing. A parade of construc-
War Department's achievement.74 "With tion experts followed him to the stand.
the magnitude of the task and the speed Appearing for the Construction Division
and pressure under which it was per- were Somervell, Harvey, Loving, and
formed, it is inevitable that some mis- Groves. The list of witnesses lengthened
takes have been made," he told the to include members of the General Staff,
Senators, "but when the work of this Constructing Quartermasters, contrac-
committee is completed, I am confident tors, architect-engineers, and renters
that it will be found that the total of of equipment. In time the committee
these mistakes will appear quite insignifi- quizzed virtually every major actor in
cant when set against the value of the the construction drama and many minor
time saved and the size, of the task per- ones besides. In its investigation of the
formed."75 Patterson, who presented a building program, the Truman group at
detailed account of the Army's procure- first pursued the same line of inquiry as
ment and construction programs at the the May committee. The Senators wished
afternoon session, followed much the same to learn the reasons for the overrun in
line as Stimson. "It is fitting," he told camp expenditures and to uncover dis-
the committee, "that we render an ac- honesty and extravagance. Early testi-
count of the manner in which we are mony revolved around questions of con-
performing our trust. We have been vigi- tracts, real estate, and sites. Such subjects
lant, we believe; but if abuses have crept as profits, salaries, wages, and equipment
in despite our vigilance, they must be rental rates evoked special interest. The
eradicated."76 The statements of the committee bore down heavily on the
Secretary and the Under Secretary evils of cost-plus contracts, making no
seemed to make a favorable impression. sharp distinction between fixed-fee and
After answering the Senators' polite ques- percentage types. The probe revealed
tions and receiving their compliments, costly mistakes—General Parsons' layout
the two witnesses stepped down.77 De- of Camp Meade was one—and pin-
scribing their treatment by the com- pointed instances of waste, such as the
mittee, Stimson wrote later that day: payment of $150 monthly rental for a
"They were mild as milk and I couldn't 1917-model truck. It also raised chal-
help feeling that there was ... no lenging questions: for example, were too
latent hostility in the air around me."78 many contracts going to big concerns.
After a week of eliciting "background But it failed to unearth any real evidence
information" from such top defense offi- of fraud or corruption.80
cials as Knudsen and Hillman, the com- The one major construction scandal
mittee got down to the business of con- that came to light involved General R. C.
Marshall. Acting, purportedly, on a tip
74
75
Truman Comm Hearings, Part I, pp. 2-16. from Somervell, the committee sum-
Ibid., p. 16.
76 79
Ibid., p. 20. Harry S. Truman, Memoirs, I, Tear of Decisions
77
Ibid., pp. 1-75. (New York: Doubleday & Co., 1955), 169.
78 80
Stimson Diary, 15 Apr 41. Truman Comm Hearings, Parts 1, 2, 4, 6.
390 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
moned the former Chief of Construction Their testimony revealed that the Staff
to answer charges of influence peddling. had not foreseen mobilization short of
During the early months of the defense war. The absence of a blueprint for peace-
effort, Marshall had served as consultant time mobilization explained many condi-
to the following construction firms: tions underlying high construction costs:
Mason & Hanger Company, Dunn and hasty selection of sites, lack of plans and
Hodgson, Consolidated Engineering specifications, and reliance on the fixed-
Company, J. A. Jones Construction Com- fee contract.85 Convinced that the Army's
pany, MacDougald Construction Com- M-Day plan had been in fact "an Indian-
pany, and Taylor & Byrne. All these war plan,"86 Truman declared that its
concerns had received fixed-fee contracts author "ought to get a currying." "I am
from the Quartermaster Corps. The com- going to keep on digging," he told
mittee's investigation, during which General Seaman, "until I find the fellow
Marshall destroyed his files, failed to pro- who is responsible for this situation, be-
duce any evidence of official wrong- cause I labor under the impression that
81
doing. Nevertheless, disclosure of his . concrete plans for a mobilization
activities brought action by the War De- of a million men contemplate a place to
partment against Marshall and his clients. put them and a place to train them.
Secretary Stimson demanded Marshall's Evidently you did not have it."87
resignation from the Reserve Corps. Truman's attempt to assess guilt solely in
General Gregory deducted the amount terms of individuals was doomed to fail-
of Marshall's fees from payments due his ure. Congress and the people shared with
clients.82 If, as was alleged, Somervell the Army responsibility for the nation's
had vowed to fix "Puck" Marshall so unpreparedness. But if Truman's hope of
"he won't be able to hold his head up finding a culprit was futile, his opinion
in this town," he came near to suc- of the mobilization plans was well
83
ceeding. But Marshall, always a dan- founded. By showing the effects of un-
gerous opponent, got his licks in, too. realistic planning on the construction
In the course of his testimony, he had program, he projected a valuable lesson
managed to place before the committee for future military leaders.
a proposal for a separate construction With two committees, Thomason's and
84
corps. Truman's, inquiring into construction,
As the committee probed deeper into speculation arose as to which would be
building problems, it became apparent first to report its findings. The House
that responsibility for much of the con- group began writing its initial report
struction muddle lay outside the Quarter- around Memorial Day. Within a few
master Corps. Turning his attention to weeks Truman was pushing work on his
the Army's mobilization plans, Truman own report. On 12 June, Counsel Perry
called six officers of the General Staff, of the Thomason committee told Captain
several of them retired, for questioning. Renshaw: "I am preparing material to
show that the Quartermaster Corps is
81
Truman Comm Hearings, Part 2, p. 581ff.
82 85
Opns Br Files, Marshall, R. C. 86
Truman Comm Hearings, Part 7, passim.
83
Lamphere Interv, 26 Jun 56. Ibid., p. 2002.
84 87
Truman Comm Hearings, Part 2, p. 603. Ibid., p. 2018.
THE PUBLIC IMAGE 391
doing one of the most efficient jobs of tractors to make faulty layouts, for using
any of the departments, if not the most. slipshod administrative methods, for ne-
After having been kicked around so much glecting to take advantage of land grant
I imagine you won't mind that en- freight rates, and for paying too much
88
couragement." Truman's counsel, Ful- for equipment rentals. With respect to
ton, promised to let the War Department charges of fraud and dishonesty, the com-
assist in presenting his committee's find- mittee stated on the one hand that it had
ings. On 15 July he sent an 80-page found no evidence and on the other
draft to Amberg and gave him one week called for a "most careful check into this
to propose amendments. Amberg replied phase of the program." The Senators'
with 32 pages of suggestions. While Tru- recommendations included an unex-
man adopted some of these changes, he pected bombshell: they urged "the cre-
89
disregarded most of them. On 13 ation of a separate division of the War
August, Amberg warned Stimson that Department to be charged directly with
the "confidence of the country may be . . . construction and maintenance
somewhat shaken by the Senate report."90 and to be entirely separate and distinct
91
Truman made his findings public the from the Quartermaster Corps."
following day. On the 19th the Thomason Thomason's findings to some extent
committee released its report to the press. offset the effects of Truman's. "From a
The report of the Senate committee military point of view," read Thomason's
constituted a stinging indictment of mili- statement, "there can be no question but
tary ineptitude, shortsightedness, and ex- that the Construction Division has done
travagance. Stating that "the lack of a magnificent and unparalleled job of
adequate plans" had been the principal preparing housing accommodations for
reason for the overrun in construction an Army that was created almost literally
costs, the report cited a number of other overnight." The committee defended
contributing factors, among them, in- some procedures attacked by the Truman
adequate organization, inexperience, group and cited instances of "unjustified
speed, winter weather, fixed-fee con- criticism." It held that the Construction
tracts, and poor sites. Although the stress Division had "been diligent in discover-
given to mobilization plans put the bulk ing and frank in acknowledging its mis-
of the blame on the General Staff, the takes, and, more important, in taking
Quartermaster Corps was sharply criti- remedial action." On the question of
cized for mistakes in original estimates, mobilization plans, the committee com-
for mishandling the land acquisition pro- mented, "It is more than obvious that
gram, for failing to centralize all pur- Congress must share with the Army any
chases of lumber, for permitting con- censure for failing to foresee a situation
88
that seems so clear today." Yet the
Tel Conv, Perry and Renshaw, 12 Jun 41. Opns Thomason report was not a whitewash—
Br Files, Hearings.
89
(1) Memo, Amberg for Patterson, 16 Jul 41. far from it. It emphasized the "stagger-
(2) Ltrs, Amberg to Fulton, 21, 22, 24, 25 Jul 41. ing" cost of the building program. It
Both in USW Files, Legis—H and S Investigating revealed instances of nepotism at con-
Comm I.
90
Memo, Amberg for Stimson, 13 Aug 41. Same
91
File. Truman Comm Rpt 480, Part 2, passim.
392 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
Their account brought the affair at Jeffer- of other brokers also. Although the com-
son Proving Ground before the public mittee centered its attention on per-
for the first time. centage contracts and alleged high prices,
People in Indiana reacted sharply to its members showed increasing concern
8
Pearson and Alien's story. On reading over the landowners' plight.
the column in the Indianapolis Star, Joe Hunter's report to The Inspector Gen-
Goode, a real estate and insurance agent, eral on 17 February cleared McCord and
protested to Patterson that property his associates of most of the charges
holders in the Jefferson area usually paid against them. Hunter found no evidence
4
no more than $5.50 for abstracts. Farmer of political finagling or crooked dealing.
John S. Smith, who had an offer of The title company, far from being weak
$16,700 for 377 acres, learned from the financially, had a reserve fund double
newspapers that his neighbor was getting that required by law, an agreement with
$14,000 for a 165-acre farm. Smith pro- another firm to share risks, and an in-
tested to Assistant Attorney General Nor- surance policy with Lloyd's of London.
man M. Littell: "If a 200-pound hog is McCord was well qualified by his Indiana
valued at $16.00, then a 250-pound one background and twenty-six years' ex-
5
is worth more or a lighter one less." perience to handle the Jefferson job.
Other Hoosiers accused McCord of using Hunter held that option prices were not
inconsistent and arbitrary methods of far out of line and were, under the cir-
appraisal, keeping his offers secret to cumstances, fair to both government and
conceal favoritism, and obtaining options vendor, adding that much of the talk
under coercion and threats of condem- about excessive prices stemmed from
nation.6 The Kentucky kinsman of one farmers' boasts. Stating that any recon-
elderly owner summed up his resentment sideration of McCord's offers would delay
in the statement, "It looks like the Re- payments and cause owners undue hard-
publicans from Indianapolis have been ship, he recommended paying the option
away from the trough so long that when prices. But, said Hunter, profits on the
they get to it, they lie down in it."7 transaction were excessive. The full com-
Echoes of the discontent in Indiana soon mission came to $195,000. McCord's net
reached Congress. During February the earnings amounted to $50,000. The title
House Military Affairs Committee ques- company had received $60,000 from the
tioned War Department officials not only broker and at the same time had collected
about McCord's activities but about those $48,000 from the owners. Hunter con-
cluded that McCord's fee was exorbitant
4
and that the title company had charged
Ltr, Joe Goode, Indianapolis, Ind., to ASW, 28
Jan 41. 601.1 (Jefferson Pr Grnd) (Misc) I. twice for the same services.9
5
Ltr, Smith, North Madison, Ind., to Littell, n.d. Reserving his sharpest criticism for the
601.1 (Jefferson Pr Grnd) (Misc) I. Real Estate Branch, Hunter charged
6
(1) Ltr, Theodore and Callie Hamilton to US
Colonel Valliant with negligence. Al-
Atty, Southern Dist of Ind., 6 Feb 41. (2) Ltr, H. A.
Weaver, Jr., to J. J. O'Brien, 21 Feb 41. Both in though Valliant lacked personal knowl-
601.1 (Jefferson Pr Grnd) I.
7 8
Ltr, Freeman Gilbert, Lawrenceburg, Ky., to May Comm Hearings, Part I, pp. 155, 173-75,
Sen Albert B. Chandler, 3 Feb 41. 601.1 (Jefferson 233ff.
9
Pr Grnd) (Misc) I. IG Rpt, 17 Feb 41.
REAL ESTATE: A FRESH DEPARTURE 395
edge of McCord's qualifications, he had McCord's percentage to that of the
relied heavily on the broker's judgment. other brokers. Since the arrangement
The Real Estate Branch had not dis- was not to be retroactive and since work
approved any of McCord's options nor at the Jefferson Proving Ground was al-
had it checked to see if his prices were most complete, McCord on 23 January
reasonable. One staff member had ap- signed a new contract which cut his fee
proved payment of $6,450 for 1.5 acres, from 6.5 percent of the gross sales price
12
assuming that such a large sum must in- to 5 percent of the net.
clude residential or business property, On 6 February Gregory assigned Val-
when, in fact, he had no idea what the liant to a Quartermaster depot in New
tract contained. Valliant had requested York City. Hunter in his report stated
no breakdown of appraisals and McCord that Valliant's relief from the Real Estate
had furnished none. The only breakdowns Branch was a result of the investigation
Hunter could find were tentative esti- at Jefferson Proving Ground.13 Somervell
mates on the backs of vendors' copies of furnished the only public explanation in
options. The commission contract proved an exchange with Rep. Charles I. Faddis
to be Valliant's most vulnerable point. of the House Military Affairs Committee:
According to Hunter, the agreement was Mr. Faddis. How did Colonel Valliant
ambiguous and therefore subject to ma- come to be replaced; do you know that,
nipulation by the broker. In his judg- General?
ment, the contract with McCord was General Somervell. Yes, sir.
improper.10
As the investigation proceeded, Somer- Mr. Faddis. For what reasons, General?
General Somervell. Because I thought
vell began a series of reforms. In a terse the work14 could be handled better by some-
memorandum, on 18 January, he out- one else.
lined a course of action. Valliant would
investigate "the qualifications, integrity, That someone was John J. O'Brien, who
and local relationships, connections, or was recommended for the job by his
interests of real estate brokers . . . superior in the Justice Department,
before . . . work is entrusted to Norman M. Littell.
them." In cases of doubt, he would have A few days after O'Brien joined the
option prices checked by independent Construction Division, Somervell sus-
appraisers. Brokers would furnish de- pended payments at all broker-handled
tailed breakdowns of prices. Valliant projects pending further investigation.15
would take care "in the wording of the The Department of Justice co-operated
contract to insure that the broker is not in the subsequent study of brokers' ac-
paid a commission on a commission or 12
(1) Memo, Styer for Valliant, 21 Jan 41. (a)
similar improper procedure."11 Not con- Memo, RE Br for Styer, 25 Jan 41. Both in 601.1
tent merely to safeguard the future, (Jefferson
13
Pr Ground) I. (3) IG Rpt, 17 Feb 41.
IG Rpt, 17 Feb 41.
Somervell attempted to correct past mis- 14
Somervell's Testimony, I Apr 41. In May
takes. An obvious move was reducing Comm Hearings, Part I, p. 318.
15
10
(1) Memo, O'Brien for Somervell, 11 Apr 41.
11
Ibid. Opns Br Files, H Investigation. (2) Telg, Sp Asst to
Memo, Styer for Valliant, 18 Jan 41. QM 601.1 Atty Gen to OQMG, 13 Feb 41. 601.1 (Kingsbury
(Misc) Jan-Jun 41. OP) I.
396 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
tivities. Special attorneys went over rec- the committee refused to accept prices
ords at the eight projects and questioned 18.5 percent above recent appraisals.
the agents, and Littell visited the site of After a trip to Burlington, McKay recom-
the Kingsbury Ordnance Works in In- mended letting paid options stand and
diana. Along with Somervell and cutting the rest to within 14 percent of
O'Brien, Patterson and Gregory ex- appraised values. Both the government
amined the findings of the Justice De- and the owners considered this settlement
18
partment. In light of this evidence, Pat- satisfactory. Adjustment of differences
terson appointed a committee of three, at Weldon Spring would be more
headed by Douglas McKay of Somervell's difficult.
staff, to re-examine the brokerage con- The committee turned next to the
tracts. Review would turn upon two matter of fees. Concluding that the
points—prices and fees.16 brokers were making "unjustifiable
McKay and his associates studied profits," McKay attempted to reduce
prices first. To determine fair market their commissions. McCord's was one of
values at each of the eight sites, they the first contracts considered. The com-
averaged per-acre costs at neighboring mittee offered him a lump sum, repre-
War Department projects, examined senting 2 percent of the sales price plus
courthouse records, and made spot ap- $40 per tract for the title company.
praisals. A comparison of these figures McCord rejected the offer. A compromise
with brokers' prices showed that although reached on 21 February slashed his fee
the brokers had paid more than the land to 3.5 percent and gave the title company
19
would normally bring, their option prices $50 per tract. A short time later, five
were, in most cases, about the same as or more brokers accepted reductions in their
lower than the Army's. Because the in- fees. McKay did not insist on an adjust-
vestigation had revealed no evidence of ment of the Ravenna contract, originally
collusion between owners and agents, negotiated by the Atlas Powder Com-
and because a majority of the brokers pany. His efforts to impose new terms on
had almost completed their work, the the broker at Weldon Spring were un-
20
committee approved payment of the orig- successful. Before the War Department
inal option prices at all the projects except could benefit from the six amended con-
those at Burlington, Iowa, and Weldon tracts, it had to work out an arrangement
Spring, Missouri.17 At the Iowa plant,
18
(1) Telg, OQMG to Cockrell, 8 Feb 41. (2)
16
(1) Ltr, Littell to Patterson, 6 Feb 41. USW Ltr, OQMG to USW, 18 Feb 41. Both in 601.1
Files, 601 (Land Acquisition), (2) Telg, OQMG to (Iowa OP) II. (3) Memo, Burns for Patterson,
Cockrell, 8 Feb 41. 601.1 (Iowa OP) I. (3) Ltr, 20 Feb 41. USW Files, 601 (Land Acquisition). (4)
Acquisition Agent, Kingsbury OP to OQMG, 7 Telg, TQMG to Cockrell, 20 Feb 41. 601.1 (Iowa
Feb 41. 601.1 (Kingsbury OP) I. (4) Ltr, Patterson OP) I. (5) Memo, O'Brien for Styer, 20 Mar 41.
to Littell, 19 Feb 41. USW Files, 601 (Land Acquisi- 601.1 (Iowa OP) II.
19
tion). (5) Memo, Gregory for Littell, 12 Mar 41. Outline Data, prepared by RE Br OQMG for
QM 601.1 (Misc) Jan-Jun 41. H Comm on Mil Affs, 12 Apr 41. Opns Br Files,
17
(1) Memo, O'Brien for Patterson, 25 Mar 41. OQMG-C-RE.
20
USW Files, 601 (Land Acquisition). (2) Memo, (1) Draft Rpt, prepared by RE Br OQMG for H
O'Brien for Somervell, 11 Apr 41. Opns Br Files, H Comm on Mil Affs (Jul 41). Gideon Files, 6AI. (2)
Investigation. (3) O'Brien's Testimony, 18 Mar 41. Memo, O'Brien for Somervell, II Apr 41. Opns Br
In May Comm Hearings, Part I, p. 241. Files, H Investigation.
REAL ESTATE: A FRESH DEPARTURE 397
whereby savings would revert to the gov- countered great difficulty in ...
ernment rather than to the owners, who finding anyone qualified to do appraisal
had nominally paid the brokers' com- work . . . or ... anyone
missions. Under the new agreements, willing to do so." He wrote: "The real
brokers would refund to the Army the estate dealers have definitely advised me
difference between revised and original that they are not at all interested as they
fees.21 This arrangement was a tacit ad- are very busily engaged in making sales
mission that Uncle Sam was paying the to those who are being dispossessed
brokers' fees and that his contracts with . . . . They, moreover, do not want
them were of the cost-plus-a-percentage to antagonize the owners within the area
type. By late spring O'Brien had made by making an appraisal which might be
amicable settlements with all but one of at a figure lower than that included in
the brokers. the option."25 Blanton "combed the
Hopes for extricating the War Depart- county" to find three men willing to
ment from its unhappy situation now undertake the job.26 When these men
rested on R. Newton McDowell, the appraised ten tracts at prices 40 percent
broker at Weldon Spring. By February below McDowell's offers, the Construc-
McDowell had taken options on 16,500 tion Division accepted their findings as
acres at an average price of $159 per evidence that his prices were excessive.27
acre. Valliant had approved all but three Seeking a compromise, Patterson asked
of these options and had thus obligated McDowell to come to Washington for a
the War Department to pay more than conference. The meeting, held on Friday,
2.5 million dollars.22 McKay's investi- 7 March, with O'Brien, Blanton, and the
gation of this project, although described McKay committee, demonstrated the fu-
by Somervell as "impartial and tility of further efforts to reach an under-
23
thorough," was hindered by a lack of standing with McDowell, for the broker
information and personnel. McDowell flatly refused to accept any reduction in
was unable to furnish breakdowns for fee. When the committee asked the
248 of the 270 tracts at Weldon Spring, owners to take lower prices, it was again
explaining that all but twenty-two of rebuffed.28 Two courses remained open
the owners had priced their holdings in to the War Department: it could give in
lump sums.24 One of the investigators, to McDowell, or it could take the case
U.S. Attorney Harry C. Blanton, "en- to court. The first alternative was un-
21 25
(1) Ltr, OQMG to Chief of Finance, 26 Jul 41. Ltr, Blanton to O'Brien, 14 Feb 41. 601.1
601.1 (Iowa OP) III. (2) Ltr, D. J. Snodgrass, (Weldon Spring OP) II.
26
Dept of Justice, to Constr Div, 5 May 41. (3) Ltr, Ltr, Blanton to O'Brien, 17 Feb 41. 601.1
RE Br to Snodgrass, 26 May 41. Both in 601.1 (Weldon Spring OP) II.
27
(Kingsbury OP) I. (1) Memo, O'Brien for Somervell, 11 Apr 41.
22
(1) Outline Data, prepared by RE Br for H Opns Br Files, House Investigation. (2) Memo,
Comm on Mil Affs, 12 Apr 41. Opns Br Files, McKay Comm for Patterson, 8 Mar 41. 601.1
OQMG-C-RE. (2) Memo, McKay Comm for (Weldon Spring OP) II.
28
Patterson, 8 Mar 41. 601.1 (Weldon Spring OP) II. (1) Telg, Patterson to McDowell, 28 Feb 41. (2)
23
Memo, Somervell for Patterson, 1 Mar 41. USW Memo, McKay Comm for Patterson, 8 Mar 41. (3)
Files, Weldon Spring. Telg, McDowell to Harry Hopkins, 11 Mar 41. (4)
24
Ltr, McDowell to RE Br OQMG, 14 Feb 41. Telg, McDowell to OQMG, 26 Mar 41. All in 601.1
601.1 (Weldon Spring OP) II. (Weldon Spring) II.
398 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
acceptable.29 "Mr. McDowell," O'Brien ect and in the first five minutes stated
explained, "was undoubtedly sincere in these prices are too high and started
his efforts, but the prices for which the preaching condemnation proceedings and
lands were optioned are so unreasonable he did not know a damned thing about
that the War Department is unwilling it." Furthermore, the committee's ap-
to assume responsibility for voluntary praisers were not qualified for the job,
payment."30 Patterson resolved to re- McDowell asserted, citing as evidence
pudiate the contract with McDowell and their use of 1929 assessments in determin-
33
to take by condemnation the properties ing current fair market values. He also
on which options were still outstanding. charged that the Justice Department had
He reasoned: instituted condemnation proceedings
I did not see how I as an executive of the
merely to create "pork-barrel jobs for
34
Government could authorize the carrying lawyers."
out of the purchases in view of the fact that Word of the Washington meeting
the prices were reported to me to be greatly reached Missouri on 8 March, when
in excess of the value of the tracts. It seemed Sunday papers carried front-page ac-
to me that the only course was to send the counts of the government's "squeeze
cases to condemnation in court, with pro- 35
vision for prompt payment of the value con- play." The people at Weldon Spring
ceded by the Government and with the right expressed astonishment at the news. A
of the owners to get any 31further amount 91-year-old man wired Stimson: "I have
found to represent said value. observed public affairs since before the
On 19 March Secretary Stimson asked Civil War; I have seen my country pass
The Attorney General to institute con- through that supreme test and the lesser
demnation proceedings in the U.S. Dis- test of the late World War and now find
trict Court of Eastern Missouri.32 it confronted with the present crisis but
McDowell fought to defend his offers. in none of these periods nor at any other
Refusing to accept the judgment of the time did I ever hear of the United States
McKay committee, he told O'Brien: of America repudiating sacred conve-
"You do not know whether my prices nants with its citizens."36 A farmer's wife
are excessive or not because you have accused the government of regarding 37
the
not been furnished with any intelligent options as "scraps of paper." Another
information on the subject . . . .woman complained: "Citizens are not
Ewing Wright [a member of the com-
mittee], political lawyer from southern
Indiana, . . . walked onto this proj- 33
Ltr, McDowell to O'Brien, 22 Mar 41. 601.1
(Weldon Spring OP) II.
34
(1) Telg, McDowell to Patterson, 19 Mar 41.
29
Ltr, Stimson to Chm, S Comm on Mil Affs, 17 USW Files, Geog—Weldon Spring. (2) Telg, Mc-
Apr 41. 601.1 (Weldon Spring OP) III. Dowell to Marshall, 19 Mar 41. 601.1 (Weldon
30
Draft of Ltr, prepared in RE Br OQMG to Spring OP) I.
35
Rep Cannon (22 Mar 41). 601.1 (Weldon Spring St. Louis (Mo.) Globe-Democrat, March 8, 1941,
OP) II. p. 2A; March 9, 1941, p. 1A.
31 36
Ltr, Patterson to Sen Carl Hayden, 5 Apr 41. Telg, William H. Snyder, St. Charles, Mo., to
USW Files, Geog—Weldon Spring. Stimson, 25 Mar 41. 601.1 (Weldon Spring OP) III.
32 37
Ltr, SW to The Atty Gen, 19 Mar 41. USW Files, Ltr, Mrs. Arch Howell, Defiance, Mo., to Mrs.
Weldon Spring. Roosevelt, 11 Apr 41. 601.1 (Weldon Spring OP) III.
REAL ESTATE: A FRESH DEPARTURE 399
permitted to [repudiate a contract] but partment, this surely is."43 Congressman
apparently Uncle Sam can do any- Cannon commented: "I hardly see what
38
thing." On 12 March owners met and inducement there would be for the land-
drew up a petition asking the President owners to sign another option with the
39
to intervene. Although Representative Government . . . when the Gov-
John J. Cochran of Missouri termed the ernment has repudiated all other options
situation "as dangerous from a political signed, and can just as easily repudiate
standpoint for a Congressman to fool this one." He had learned that the War
with . . . as it is to fool with Department would bring a test suit and
TNT,"40 he and other influential men, if the court ruled in favor of the owners
among them Chester Davis of NDAC, would drop condemnation and pay the
Senator Carl Hayden of Arizona, and original options. "However," he said, "it
Senator B. Champ Clark of Missouri, should not be overlooked that they will
41
supported the owners. The people of pick the one tract in all the entire area
Weldon Spring had a stalwart champion in which they think they have the best
44
in their congressman, Clarence Cannon, chance to make a case."
who attacked the Army's decision. "The O'Brien's representative at Weldon
only reason given by the War Depart- Spring reported that Cannon had
ment is that they made a mistake," he "stiffened up some of the larger land
said, "and because they made a mistake owners."45 Although the Army continued
they are going to take it out on the to negotiate, it succeeded in settling only
farmers who are innocent third parties."42 a handful of hardship cases.46 Countering
While preparing to take the condem- charges that the government was coercing
nation cases to trial, O'Brien tried to the poorer farmers, O'Brien explained
settle out of court. Establishing an office that any of the owners could withdraw
at Weldon Spring, he offered to negotiate money deposited in the courts without
new options on the basis of a reappraisal prejudicing their rights to receive a larger
by the Federal Land Bank of St. Louis. amount should the courts decide in their
But most of the owners were in no mood favor. Owners, warned by their attorneys
to bargain. One of their spokesmen stated, that they might nullify their rights under
"If there ever was anything that we con- the original options, left the money where
sider as a shakedown by the War De-
43
(1) Memo, H. C. Gelnaw, RE Br OQMG, for
O'Brien, 16 Apr 41. (2) Ltr, O'Brien to Littell, 19
38
Ltr, Hortense K. Spence, Springerville, Ariz., to Apr 41. (3) Ltr, E. R. Sutton, St. Charles, Mo., to
McDowell, 27 Mar 41. USW Files, Geog—Weldon Patterson, 25 Apr 41. All three in 601.1 (Weldon
Spring. Spring OP) III.
39 44
Min, Mtg of Former Owners Held at Weldon Ltr, Cannon to Clerk of the County Court, St.
Spring, Mo., on 12 Mar 41. 601.1 (Weldon Spring Charles, Mo., printed in the St. Charles (Mo.) Daily
OP) II. Cosmos-Monitor, May 5, 1941.
40 45
Ltr, Cochran to Patterson, 2 Apr 41. USW Ltr, Gelnaw to O'Brien, 7 Mar 41. 601.1
Files, Geog—Weldon Spring. (Weldon Spring OP) III.
41 46
(1) Ltr, Davis to O'Brien, 12 Mar 41. 601.1 (1) Affidavit of President, Kansas City Title
(Weldon Spring OP) II. (2) Ltr, Hayden to Patterson, Insurance Co., Kansas City, Mo., 26 Mar 45. 601.1
31 Mar 41. USW Files, Geog—Weldon Spring. (3) (Weldon Spring OP) 1943-45—Misc. (2) Memo,
May Comm Hearings, Part I, 1941, p. 315. Amberg for Patterson, 23 Jul 42. USW Files, Geog—
42
May Comm Hearings, Part I, 1941, p. 267. Weldon Spring.
400 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
it was.47 The issue rested on the outcome litigation, since delay would inflict further
of the trial. Prolongation of the case did hardship. Owners appealed to the Presi-
not delay construction; the government dent for immediate payment, pointing
took possession of the land under Mc- out that the Army had led them to be-
Dowell's options, and the Weldon Spring lieve that it would abide by the test case
50
Ordnance Plant went into operation on decision. Meanwhile, Julius Amberg,
29 September 1941.48 Stimson's special assistant, conferred with
On 30 March 1942, three cases came members of the Real Estate Branch and
before the District Court at St. Louis. the Department of Justice. "Personally,"
One hundred and twenty-three other he advised Patterson, "I think it is a
cases involving roughly $1,325,000 hinged close question of law in which we may
on the outcome of these hearings. be defeated although there is an ap-
Blanton, representing the government, preciable chance of success."51 Despite
contended that McDowell's option con- the risk, he recommended an appeal,
tracts were invalid because they violated advancing these reasons: first, the War
the congressional prohibition against per- Department had not yet received a con-
centage agreements, because the broker trolling decision from the courts; second,
had set exorbitant prices, and because he there was a large sum of money involved;
had deceived Valliant by representing and third, if the War Department now
option prices as fair market values. Coun- reversed its stand and agreed to pay,
sel for the owners asked the court to up- Congress might react unfavorably. On
hold the contracts. The three judges who 8 August 1942 Patterson asked The At-
52
heard these cases handed down their de- torney General to appeal.
cision on 6 July. Two ruled that the When the second round ended late in
contracts were valid and ordered pay- 1943 in a victory for the government,
ment of the full option prices. The third the owners took the case to the Supreme
ruled that the contracts violated the Act Court.58 In February 1945, in a 5-3
of July 2, 1940, which outlawed per- decision, the Court upheld the legality of
centage contracts, and were therefore the contracts and thus compelled the
49
void. War Department to pay McDowell's op-
54
Patterson now had to decide whether tions. The owners then sued for interest
to accept defeat or appeal to a higher on the amount of the original offers. On
court. Senator Clark and Congressman 3 February 1947 the Court, in a 7-2
Cannon urged him not to prolong the split, decided in the War Department's
50
(1) Memo, Patterson for Amberg, 22 Jul 42.
47
(1) Ltr, O'Brien to William H. Snyder, St. USW Files, Geog—Weldon Spring. (2) Ltr, Comm of
Charles, Mo. (2) Ltr, R. F. Thiele, St. Louis, Mo., to Owners, Weldon Spring, Mo., to the President, 2 Sep
Gregory, 30 Apr 41. Both in 601.1 (Weldon Spring 42. 601.1 (Weldon Spring OP) VI.
51
OP) III. Memo, Amberg for Patterson, 6 Aug 42. USW
48
Telg, Fraser Brace Engrg Co., Inc., to OQMG, Files, Geog—Weldon Spring.
52
30 Sep 41. 635 (Weldon Spring TNT Plant). (1) Ibid. (2) Ltr, Patterson to The Atty Gen, 8
49
(1) 3d Ind, O'Brien to UMVD, 20 Apr 42, basic Aug 42. USW Files, Geog—Weldon Spring.
53
missing. 601.1 (Weldon Spring OP) V. (2) Ltr, OCE Telg, Blanton to O'Brien, 22 Dec 43. 601.1
to Sen W. Lee O'Daniel, 6 Nov 42. (3) Ltr, O'Brien (Weldon Spring OP) 1943-45 Misc.
54
to Patterson, 27 Jul 42. Last two in 601.1 (Weldon Muschany et al. v. United States, 65 Sup. Ct. 442
Spring OP) VI. (I945).
REAL ESTATE: A FRESH DEPARTURE 401
55
favor. The controversy over the land tained if those skilled in these fields are
at Weldon Spring had ended after six permitted to serve their Government."58
years of litigation. But this avenue did not offer O'Brien a
way out. First, Patterson prohibited the
Changes in Organization and Procedures use of private agents without his per-
mission. Then, Congress, over Quarter-
Reliance on private brokers was merely master objections, limited brokerage fees
a symptom of the ills of the Real Estate to 2 percent of purchase prices, and thus
Branch. Testifying before the House Mili- lessened realtors' desire to participate.
59
tary Affairs Committee in March 1941, O'Brien had to seek help elsewhere.
O'Brien stated: "When I went with the At the time O'Brien took over, the
War Department I found that the present Real Estate Branch had 4 officers and
land program had apparently not been 41 civilians and its organization followed
anticipated. The Real Estate Branch lines laid down in 1925. The new chief
lacked adequate personnel. There was a immediately began to weed out men he
lack of satisfactory records, and I simply did not wish to keep and to assemble a
had to start from scratch, you might say, corps of specialists. Valliant's departure
and develop not only an organization had been the signal for a general exodus,
but also a land acquisition procedure."56 but O'Brien's connections with the legal
While trying to quiet the commotion profession, other federal bureaus, and
over brokerage contracts, O'Brien also associations of realtors enabled him to
had to expand the real estate organization find replacements rather quickly. By July
and revamp its methods of doing business. his staff numbered 140; by October, 165.
Like Valliant before him, O'Brien re- O'Brien split the branch into six sec-
quired a large force of expert assistants. tions—Planning and Appraisal, Purchase,
Although the attempt to solve the per- Condemnation, Leasing and Claims, Dis-
sonnel problem by using brokers had posal and Legal, and Funds and Records.
boomeranged, Somervell still believed Because each section consisted of experts
such agents could be helpful. It would, in a single field, competent men were
he wrote Patterson, be "undesirable to more willing to take jobs with the branch
bar the services of honest, reliable, and and the work went more smoothly. While
capable realtors willing to assist the War reorganizing the Washington office,
Department to the utmost in meeting O'Brien was also lining up an advisory
the demands of the National Defense board. On 16 June, 14 leading realtors
Program."57 Taking a similar stand, the from various sections of the country
National Association of Real Estate formed the National Advisory Council
Boards advised its members: "Better re-
sults and greater economies can be ob- 58
Excerpt, Natl Assn of RE Bds, Confidential
Weekly Ltr, 19 May 41, Incl with Memo, Somervell
for Reybold, 4 Jun 41. G-4/30881, Sec II.
55 59
Albrecht et al. v. United States, 67 Sup. Ct. 606 (1) Draft Ltr, OQMG to Chm H Subcomm
(1947). of Comm on Appns, 12 May 41. QM 601.1 C-RE
56
18 Mar 1941. In May Comm Hearings, Part 1, Misc. (2) Address, J. J. O'Brien before Annual
P. 234. Convention of Natl Assn of Real Estate Bds, at
57
Memo, Somervell for Patterson, 6 Jun 41. QM Detroit, Mich., 5 Nov 41. Gideon Files, 6B1. Cited
601.1 (Misc) Jan-Jun 41. hereinafter as O'Brien Address, 5 Nov 41.
402 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
and long-term leasing, but some balked eral was responsible for acquiring military
at turning short-term leases over to the real estate.67
zones. Somervell pressed his advantage. Somervell prepared to concentrate real
He asked the corps area officers if they estate activities in the zones. On 29
thought the zones could do leasing. All March he designated the ZCQM's real
thought they could. "In other words," estate agents of The Quartermaster Gen-
Somervell prompted, "you think Zone eral and placed them in charge of all
Quartermasters ought to take over real transactions in the field except for several
estate—lock, stock, and barrel?" The types of leasing. The Corps of Engineers
corps area quartermasters were unwilling would handle leases for Air Corps proj-
to go that far. Somervell had to compro- ects. Short-term leases for maneuver
mise. The zones would buy land and areas, recruiting stations, and the like,
arrange long-term leases; the corps areas remained the responsibility of corps area
would rent maneuver areas and make quartermasters. O'Brien could not make
other short-term leases. "If that works," the transfer to the zones overnight, for
Somervell told the corps area quarter- he had to set up offices and hire personnel.
masters in closing, "we will leave it to Until the zones were ready to take their
your judgment to throw as much at the new assignment, corps area quarter-
64
Zone Quartermaster as you want." masters would continue to handle real
Knowledge that other branches of the estate matters.68
Army were dabbling in real estate matters The transfer order produced bad feel-
strengthened Somervell's determination ing and confusion. From Atlanta, Colonel
to take over from the corps areas. Repre- Green reported that General Frink was
sentatives of using Services were negoti- "just a wee bit miffed about the whole
ating directly with owners. The chief business."69 Frink had understood that
offender was the Air Corps. In one in- the zones would take over acquisition
70
stance, four young air officers descended for new construction and nothing more.
on an area in Alabama and demanded Comments from other corps areas also
that the owners surrender their land.65 reflected dissatisfaction. For example,
Among the persons hectored in this way Maj. Gen. Richard Donovan, com-
was an acquaintance of General Somer- mander of the Eighth Corps Area, char-
vell's. On hearing of the incident, Somer- acterized the instructions as "illogical, if
vell asked G-4 to give the Air Corps not ambiguous"; and his quartermaster
"immediate and peremptory instructions asked for a clearer definition of corps
66
to desist from real estate operations." 67
The result was a forceful reminder from WD Ltr AG 601.1 (3-27-41) M-D-M, to CG's
All Armies . . .,31 Mar 41.
Reybold to all branches of the War De- 68
(1) Memo, Gregory for Patterson, 17 Mar 41.
partment that The Quartermaster Gen- USW Files, 601 (Land Acquisition). (2) WD Ltr,
64
AG 680.4 (3-17-41) M-D-M to CG's all Depts and
65
Ibid., pp. 75-82. CA's, 29 Mar 41. QM 601. (3) OQMG Circ 1-1,
Ltr, RE Br to CAQM Eighth CA, 17 Mar 41. Change 2, 8 Apr 41. 601.1 Part 3.
69
QM 601.53 (ZCQM 8) (RA). (2) Memo, Gregory for Tel Conv, Green and Younger (1 Apr 41). QM
Reybold, 25 Mar 41. G-4/14506-157. (3) Ltr, 300.5 (QM Circ 1-1).
70
ZCQM 4 to Somervell, 3 Mar 41. 601.1 I. (1) Ltr, Frink to Gregory, 4 Apr 41. 601.1 Zone
66
Memo, Somervell for Reybold, 6 Mar 41. 4, Mar 41-Jan 42. (2) Memo, Younger for Somervell,
601.1 I. 20 May 41. QM 333.1 ZCQM 4.
404 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
soldiers and trucks to help with moving. 8,845,079 acres of which only 84,782
He asked the zones to co-operate with acres had yet to be obtained. O'Brien's
the Department of Agriculture and with progress in leasing was equally impres-
agencies of state and local governments sive; during his first nine months with
in setting up central clearinghouses where the Construction Division the area leased
residents could go for aid in finding new by the War Department more than
farms or new jobs. Most important, by tripled. He performed a valuable service
expediting payments, he put cash in in improving relations with Congress and
sellers' pockets with minimum delay.85 the public, but his greatest contributions
Streamlined and revitalized, the Real by far were lower real estate costs and
Estate Branch not only kept abreast of increased speed of acquisition.86 Summing
new work but wiped out the inherited up the accomplishments of O'Brien's
backlog. As of 28 February 1941, the organization, Somervell said: "The ad-
branch had acquired 1,053,658 acres of ministrative cost of acquisition, as well
the 7,570,470 required. By 15 November as that of the land itself, has been reduced
the total requirement had risen to and this despite an increase in the speed
of acquisition to an extent seldom at-
tained in the Government."87
85
(1) Ltr, BOB to Patterson, 16 Apr 41. Opns Br
86
Files, RE Br Constr Div OQMG. (2) Memo, O'Brien (1) RE Branch PR's, 21 Feb, 15 Nov 41. EHD
for Somervell, 11 Apr 41. Opns Br Files, House Files. (2) Ltr, Holmes to Hayden, 28 Jun 41. QM
Investigation. (3) Ltr, Gregory to TAG, 3 May 41. 601.1 (ZCQM 6). 6 0 1 .1 I. (4) Memo, O'Brien for Dav
87
Memo, Somervell for Patterson, 17 Sep 41.
Opns Br Files, Future Policies, Camp Constr. 601.1 II.
CHAPTER XIII
The low total for construction was in Marshall. "The General Staff," he after-
part due to the Bureau of the Budget, ward complained, "was very slow in
which continued to slash War Depart- recognizing the necessity for additional
ment requests, and, in part, to the public depots and port facilities."6 He doggedly
expectation that National Guardsmen persisted. In mid-January 1941, when he
and selectees would begin going home in learned that the War Department would
3
the fall. To obtain large additional sums request a fifth supplemental appropri-
would require adroit strategy. ation for 1941, he promptly asked for
7
General Gregory got things moving. $175 million.
Since the fall of 1940 he had pressed for On 25 February, just before Gregory's
a start on the $200-million ports and estimate went to the Bureau of the Bud-
storage program deferred by the Presi- get, Leavey telephoned Groves: "We
dent. Gregory remembered his experience have a chance, I think, of getting some
in World War I as a Quartermaster supplemental estimates tacked onto a bill
officer at Jeffersonville Depot. "We had being rushed up to Congress and if you
thousands of tons of supplies," he recalled, have any items you think have to be
"right out in the open in the corn field, put in——." "Fifty million," Groves
where to get to them with trucks, you interjected. He was thinking of contin-
had to go through mud. I determined gencies, of needed repairs, of a lumber
that we would never face that if I ever stockpile, of unfinished work at almost
had anything to do with another war."4 every camp. Leavey hesitated—then
In 1940 he was particularly concerned agreed: "It may get kicked out, but we
8
about the lack of facilities along the can try it." Try they did, but with
Pacific coast, and late in October he sent little success. The Budget estimate sent
Groves west to size up the situation. The to Congress gave the Construction Di-
outlook was not encouraging. At the vision $ 115 million for ports and storage,
Oakland Port and General Depot the $15 million for a lumber stockpile, and
only room for expansion was an area of not one cent for anything else.9
formerly submerged tideland filled with At House hearings on the fifth supple-
bay mud; to provide firm ground, it mental early in March, Somervell kicked
would be necessary to do hydraulic filling over the traces. Defying the unwritten
and to truck dirt from the surrounding law that bound officers to uphold ad-
hills. Oakland was but one of many big ministration measures, he termed the cur-
and difficult future projects.5 Sensing that rent estimate for storage mere guess-
speed was imperative, Gregory kept after work—a figure "just pulled out of the
air" and "not fastened to the ground in
3
(1) H Subcomm of the Comm on Appns, 77th any way." He recalled the deficit for
Cong, 1st sess, Hearings on the Military Establishment
6
Appropriation Bill for 1942, pp. 141-43, 10, 680, 398. Ltr, Gregory to authors, 24 Mar 55.
7
(2) Memo, Reybold for Moore, 15 Nov 40. G— Memo, Bayer for Chief Accounts Br, 30 Jun 41.
4/31679-4. Bayer Papers.
4 8
Verbatim Rpt, Meeting with Gregory and Tel Conv, Leavey and Groves, 25 Feb 41. Opns
Hastings. Br Files, Budget.
5 9
(1) Memo, Groves for Gregory, 28 Oct 40. Opns H Subcomm of the Comm on Appns, 77th Cong,
Br Files, Convention in Chicago. (2) Rpt, Activities of 1st sess, Hearings on the Fifth Supplemental National
the Constr Div, Jul 40-Nov 41, pp. 247-49. Defense Appropriation Bill for 1941, pp. 131ff.
410 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
camp construction, a sore point with pleted the round of military appropri-
some Congressmen, and predicted that ations for the fiscal year. Since June 1940,
a second overrun would follow the grant- more than $2.3 billion for construction,
ing of the present low request. Testifying maintenance, and real estate had be-
before the Senate subcommittee on 27 come available to the Quartermaster
March, he brought up the matter of a Corps—part by direct appropriation and
contingency fund. Defining a contingency part by transfer from other agencies.
as "something that a man could not Roughly half a billion of this sum had
think of in the first place," he told one gone to the Engineers for Air Corps
Senator, "There may be some people projects. The balance, $1.8 billion, was
who are smart enough to think of every- approximately three times the total ex-
thing. They just might exist . . . . pended by the Construction Division from
They are not in the Army, anyway." 1921 to 1940. Although the division had
When Somervell finished, the legislators let contracts and spent money with record
were calling for "a statement showing speed during eleven months of defense
just what it is going to cost." Not yet construction, on 31 May 1941 some $382
ready to make such a statement, Somer- million—most of it from appropriations
vell promised to come back. "And when voted in March and April—was still un-
I come back," he said, "I will come back obligated.12
with definite figures."10 On orders from the President, Patter-
The new appropriation act approved son early in June directed General Greg-
on 5 April provided for a good deal of ory to obligate these funds before the
construction but signaled no real break- month was out. On the 5th Colonel
through. For military posts, ports, and Leavey wired the zones to advertise at
depots, there was $304,821,000; for main- once. Two days later Groves, who had
tenance and repairs, $2,366,000; for not seen the telegram before it went out,
sea-coast fortifications, $3,536,000; and wrote an "amplifying letter," instructing
for expediting industrial production, the field to negotiate if plans and specifi-
$867,286,000. There was also $98,250,000 cations were incomplete or if bids were
for airfield construction tacked onto the excessive.13 Meantime, in Washington,
bill at the President's request. Welcome the Contract Board under Chairman
though it was, the act was hardly more Loving set to work. They cut the adver-
than an accommodation. Of the con- tising period to five days and wrapped
struction total, half was in contract au- up negotiations rather quickly. In some
thorizations. Moreover, many of the items cases they went to letter contracts—pre-
in the bill had merely advanced from the liminary agreements which sealed bar-
11
regular appropriation for 1942. gains in advance of formal contract sign-
With passage of this act, Congress com- ings. CQM's started many projects by
purchase and hire. Haste had its usual
10
(1) Ibid., pp. 140-43. (2) S Subcomm of the
12
Comm on Appns, 77th Cong, 1st sess, Hearings on (1) Rpt, Activities of Constr Div, Jul 40-Jul 41,
H R 4124, pp. 155, 151. pp. 119-23. (2) Constr PR 24, 11 Jun 41, p. 142.
11 13
(1) 55 Stat. 123. (2) Annual Report Covering (1) Telg, OQMG to ZCQM's, 5 Jun 41. QM
Military Activities of the Corps of Engineers for the 600.1 (All Zones). (2) Ltr, Constr Div to ZCQM's, 7
Fiscal Year 1941, p. 75. Jun 41. QM 600.1 (Contracts—Misc) IV.
TOWARD A FOUR-MILLION-MAN ARMY 411
effect. "The contractors are in," Colonel maintenance men, it gave him 12,000.
Alfonte telephoned Groves from Fort Where he recommended a maintenance
Benning, "and they say they haven't got fund amounting to 5 percent of the total
time to figure the things, and they are property investment, it approved a sum
adding a hell of an ante on it." There was equivalent to 2.5 percent. The request
nothing Groves could do. "I'm very much for a contingency fund met another
disturbed about . . . the mad rebuff. Even more discouraging was the
rush," he told Alfonte, "but it was or- outlook for new projects. With reductions
dered from the White House and that in the strength of the Army slated for
ends it."14 By dint of long hours and hard the fall of 1941, there could be no request
work, the Loving board and the zones for more troop shelter. What was worse,
completed the job, 100 percent, by 30 the Budget made no provision for ad-
June. Among the projects gotten under ditional munitions plants. The estimate
way were ordnance depots, storage de- included approximately $391 million
pots, port facilities, and hundreds of new in expediting production funds, but this
buildings—chapels, service clubs, thea- entire amount was for payment of con-
ters, motor repair shops, radio shelters, tracts authorized for 1941.18
and warehouses—at dozens of existing Somervell. decided to fight for larger
stations.15 Early in July Somervell com- appropriations. Complaining that his
mended his organization for giving him organization was "behind the eight
"results, not alibis."16 The President ball," he set himself for a difficult bank
19
expressed his satisfaction but kept the shot. He prepared to get around the
pressure on, indicating that he wished Budget by appealing directly to Congress.
to see the funds for the new fiscal year As the date of the hearings drew near,
obligated in the same manner and with arguments were tested and witnesses
the same speed.17 were rehearsed. On 6 May 1941, the
If haste was becoming more impera- day before the House subcommittee took
tive, the Bureau of the Budget took up the Quartermaster estimates, Groves
scant notice of the fact. Presented with told a member of G-4: "The big mistake
the revised construction estimates for is to be too modest. . . . I'm in
1942, it performed the usual thorough- favor of asking for a lot and letting them
going surgery. Where Somervell asked turn you down if they have the nerve—
$5 per square foot for storage, it gave they won't have the nerve."20 Early next
him $4. Where he asked for 17,000 morning the officers who would testify
14 18
Tel Conv, Alfonte and Groves, 23 Jun 41. Opns (1) Memo, Bayer for Chief Accounts Br, 30 Jun
Br Files, Ft Benning. 41. Bayer Papers. (2) H Subcomm of the Comm on
15
(1) Constr PR 29, 16 Jul 41, passim. (2) Memo, Appns, 77th Cong, 1st sess, Hearings on the Military
Somervell for All Elements Constr Div, 3 Jul 41. Establishment Appropriation Bill for 1942, pp. 397-98,
Opns Br Files, Constr Div Memos. 446-50. (3) S Subcomm of the Comm on Appns,
16
Ltr, Somervell for ZCQM 9, 2 Jul 41. Opns Br 77th Cong, 1st sess, Hearings on H R 4965, p. 30.
19
Files, Zones. Tel Conv, Somervell and Col Brown, BOWD, 16
17
(1) Ltr, Patterson to Gregory, 9 Jul 41. Opns Br Apr 41. Opns Br Files, Budget.
20
Files, Gen Jun-Jul 41. (2) Memo, Leavey for Styer, Tel Conv, Groves and Col Wilson, 6 May 41.
20 Jun 41. USW Files, Appns, thru Aug. Opns Br Files, Equip 1.
412 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
met in Somervell's office to "go over the Back at his desk, Groves exulted: "They'll
thing" one last time, before starting give us anything we ask for."23
21
out for the Capitol. And they did. Satisfied that the Budget
Everything went as planned. Setting estimates were inadequate, the House
the tone for the hearing, Chairman J. group urged the Army to state how
Buell Snyder began: "We are very glad much it really needed. "If the Budget
indeed, General Somervell, that you has anything to say about it," Snyder
are here. . . . and we want you told General Moore, "you refer them to
to know that you are welcome and that us." Somervell was free to present his
we wish to cooperate with you and help own figures to Congress, and on 20
you in any way that we can." Other May he went back to ask the House
members of the subcommittee affirmed subcommittee for $157 million in ad-
their confidence in Somervell and dition to the $280 million originally
praised his organization. Abetted by approved by the Budget. His estimate
friendly questioners, the witnesses de- provided an extra dollar per square
molished the Budget's position. They foot for storage, an adequate main-
explained that men who were ignorant tenance fund, money for deferred build-
of construction had slashed their esti- ings, sums for additional depots and
mates. They demonstrated the need for additional tracts of land, and a $25-
larger sums than those the Budget had million contingency fund. Thanks largely
requested. They predicted overruns, de- to Major Boeckh, Somervell was able
24
lays, and increased costs if the Budget's to present his estimates as "scientific."
policies prevailed. Their testimony had The House accepted them as such and
the desired effect. Stating that he was its bill granted all Somervell's requests.
"getting tired of seeing deficiencies," Somervell could not request funds for
Representative D. Lane Powers told new munitions plants: that was up to the
Somervell: "I think our committee should Under Secretary. But, though the Budget
take into consideration what you think estimate for expediting production was
is necessary . . . and not what the woefully inadequate (the sum requested
Budget arbitrarily gives you, not having would do no more than liquidate half
technical knowledge as to a matter of the unpaid contract authorizations car-
this sort." Mr. Snyder observed that the ried over from 1941), Patterson did not
Budget's recommendations were "merely appeal to the House subcommittee.
advisory." Representative Joe Starnes Instead he sought $500 million for the
proposed to obviate the need for a de- second-wave munitions plants from the
ficiency appropriation by voting enough Reconstruction Finance Corporation. At
money in the first place.22 The Con- a meeting on 9 June in the office of
struction Division had won its case. Commerce Secretary Jesse Jones, dis-
23
Tel Conv, Groves and Chamberlin, 10 May 41.
21
Tel Conv, Styer and Groves, 6 May 41. Opns Br Opns Br Files, B&Q.
24
Files, B&Q. H Subcomm of the Comm on Appns, 77th Cong,
22
H Subcomm of the Comm on Appns, 77th Cong, 1st sess, Hearings on the Military Establishment Appro-
1st sess, Hearings on the Military Establishment Appropria- priation Bill for 1942, pp. 680, 688ff., 686. See also H
tion Bill for 1942, pp. 393, 396-400, 414, 444-56. Rpt 741, 77th Cong, 1st sess, 5 Jun 41.
TOWARD A FOUR-MILLION-MAN ARMY 413
a
Includes projects more than 95% completed.
Source Constr PR 41, 16 Dec 41, pp. 40-43.
more than 150 million dollars' worth 52 were more than one-quarter com-
of construction went into place, Somervell plete, 42 were more than half, and 84
beat his previous record set in February. were more than three-quarters.41
He set a new high in November, when In the five months before Pearl Harbor,
the total passed the $175-million mark. the Construction Division accomplished
Although individual projects lagged, the a great deal. On 28 June 1941, the
program as a whole went ahead on Quartermaster program included 100
schedule. (Chart 13) The Quartermaster defense projects complete or essentially
organization took additions to the work complete and 324 under way; the value
load in stride. For example, the transfer of work in place was $1,043,737,019.42
of $18 million from the Federal Works On 5 December the number of completed
Agency to the Construction Division projects stood at 375; the number of
for 200 USO buildings on 30 September going projects, at 220; and the total
was followed three weeks later by the value of work in place, at $1,828,268,053.
announcement that 51 buildings had (Table 12) Of the 171 projects started
been started. Before the end of November, during this period, only one was highly
191 were under way.40 Of 220 major proj- exceptional—the Pentagon. Most of the
ects under construction early in December, methods and procedures employed were
by now familiar. Only in contracting
40
(1) Ltr, Administrator FWA to Stimson, 30 Sep and contract administration were there
41. Opns Br Files, Gen, Aug 41-Feb 42. (2) Ltr, striking innovations.
Patterson to Somervell, 20 Oct 41. USW Files,
618.2 (Recreation Centers, Grnds, etc.). (3) Memo,
41
Kirkpatrick for Groves, 19 Dec 41. Opns Br Files, Constr PR 41, 16 Dec 41, p. 31.
42
Grnd Trs Sec. Constr PR 27, 2 Jul 41, p. 3,
TOWARD A FOUR-MILLION-MAN ARMY 419
Contractual Refinements and Reforms and therefore is against the rules and regu-
lations governing the operation of a fixed-fee
Of all the criticisms directed at Army contract, which states that the contracting
construction, the harshest and most officer has to authorize all expenditures. The
contractor, therefore, in order to protect
persistent had to do with contracts. The his own financial interests insists that every
fixed-fee agreement—the keystone of purchase, large or small, must be approved
Hartman's system and of Somervell's by the contracting officer before the purchase
as well—was a popular target. The is made by any of his employees.43
general public and the press displayed a Under an easy-going CQM, the story
deep-rooted prejudice against it. Poli- was likely to be different. On a visit to
ticians identified it with high costs, profi- Camp Polk in April 1941, Mitchell
teering, favoritism, and collusion. discovered that the contractor was paying
Specialty firms damned it. Equipment ten employees yearly salaries of more
renters chafed at recapture. Material- than $6,000. He cited two cases:
men, forced by the slowness of audit-
reimbursement to wait for money due One employee, bearing the imposing title
of "Assistant General Superintendent" is
them, voiced bitter complaints. Comp- apparently in actuality a chief material clerk,
troller General Lindsay C. Warren, responsible for the receipt, custody, and
seeking to guard against dishonest con- distribution of materials and equipment.
tracting officers and rapacious con- This employee receives $6500 per annum,
tractors, viewed the arrangement with to which I offer the single comment that
"It's nice work if you can get it."
distrust. Some War Department officials Another employee acts as Assistant General
believed that the fixed-fee method, if Superintendent in charge of operation and
not inherently evil, was impractical for maintenance of automotive equipment, again
public work. Those responsible for con- for the sum of $6500 per annum. This figure
struction had to consider every objec- occurs so frequently that I am beginning to
believe it has some mystic significance. This
tion, valid or not. job is purely that of a master mechanic, and
The most vulnerable part of the fixed- again the salary seems to me out of line.
fee system was the audit-reimbursement
machinery. At times it hamstrung con- Proposing a full-scale investigation,
tractors, at times it led to abuses, and Mitchell quipped, "When folk go to
it was nearly always slow. Terming it Polk they should poke around a little
44
"the most expensive and progress-im- mo'." Bottlenecks in field auditors'
peding feature of a cost-plus-fixed-fee offices not only tied up contractors' funds
job," Madigan described how it might and forced them to borrow but also
work under strict administration: worked injustice on suppliers. One
lumber dealer, calling his trade with
After the job has been operating a short fixed-fee contractors "the most high-
time, the contractor is confronted with his handed piece of monkey business I have
first argument with the contracting officer
and auditors in charge concerning whether gotten into in a long time," wrote to
or not a certain expenditure which he may
have deemed necessary is reimbursable. His 43
Memo, Madigan for Amberg, 23 Feb 42.
attention is called to the fact that the parti- Madigan Files, AEM Data.
cular expenditure, which everybody admits 44
Memo, Mitchell for Somervell, 12 Apr 41.
was probably necessary, was not authorized Opns Br Files, Gen Corresp to 29 Dec 41.
420 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
the Construction Division in the spring and inspection work from contractors.
of 1941: "By what right or token have At Edgewood Arsenal the government
you, the contractor, or any other de- took over the contractor's payroll as
partment the privilege of taking my well. Pashley believed that time would
lumber, using it, and not paying when tell which of the two methods produced
the invoices are due under the terms of better results.50
sale set up by yourselves? Meanwhile, Pashley endeavored to
Yes, gentlemen, I am mad and getting strengthen the field organization. He
madder every day. I want my money."45 began in December to form an auditors
Madigan's solution to these problems pool but made slow progress. Somer-
was to scrap the contract. "I question," vell complained that the auditing force
he said, "whether the cost-plus-fixed- was "not being built up and over-
fee form . . . , for which I have hauled . . . with anything like
the greatest personal respect, is workable the speed which should be secured."51
on government projects."46 Unable to Moreover, he insisted that Pashley make
dispense with fixed-fee contracts, the doubly sure of the honesty of every field
Construction Division could only try to auditor. "Integrity," Somervell ser-
increase their workability. monized, "is what has made the Corps of
Started during Hartman's adminis- Engineers successful in its affairs and
tration, efforts to streamline auditing the record made in this present con-
procedures continued under Somervell.47 struction program in the Quartermaster
In late December 1940, the chief of the Corps must be equally outstanding in
Accounts Branch, Colonel Pashley, asked this respect." Any malfeasance would
52
most field auditors to cut their staffs to bring "prompt and ruthless action."
20 percent of current size, which would Firing people was one thing; replacing
leave the government with one time- them was another. Pashley's efforts to
keeper or materials checker for every recruit auditors continued to have limited
five on contractors' staffs.48 When Con- success. Some of the men he persuaded
structing Quartermasters tried "to stick to take jobs in the field left after a short
to that 20 percent right down to the time. "Personality upsets and dislike of
gnats' eyebrow," he told the field to go military type direction by higher grade
as high as 30 percent but to get away civilians" lay behind many resignations.53
from "absolute duplication."49 Mean- Even with the odds against him, Pashley
while, he continued testing the method kept trying. By April he had secured
used in World War I. At Camp Meade enough auditors to keep abreast of the
and at the Ravenna Ordnance Plant
field auditors took over all timekeeping 50
(1) Ltr, C. M. Gall to Pashley, 16 Jan 41. QM
600.914 (Ravenna OP) I. (2) Memo, Gottschalk for
45
Ltr, Will B. Duke, Memphis, Tenn., to Constr Pashley, 3 May 41. OCE Legal Div Files, Changes
Div, 23 Apr 41. QM 167 (Ft L. Wood) 1940-41. in Provisions and Policies, CPFF Contracts.
46 51
Memo, Madigan for Amberg, 23 Feb 42. Min, Constr Div Staff Mtg, 20 Dec 40.
47 52
See pp. 236-37, above. Memo, Somervell for Branch Chiefs, 21 Jan 41.
48
Min, Constr Div Staff Mtg, 20 Dec 40. EHD OCE Legal Div Files, Changes in Provisions and
Files. Policies, CPFF Contracts.
49 53
Notes, Conf of ZCQM's, 7-10 Apr 41, pp. Memo, Pashley for Davidson, n.d. Opns Br
190-91, 208. Files, Questions and Answers, Truman Comm.
TOWARD A FOUR-MILLION-MAN ARMY 421
job, though some positions were still able report maintained that Carter's
vacant. Schemes to offer larger salaries method offered greater initial protec-
and to set up a school for auditors and tion to the government and speedier
accountants held some hope for the reimbursement to the contractor. Pace,
future, but as long as the nationwide reacting adversely, pointed out that the
shortage of professionally trained men proposed procedure did not constitute
continued, Pashley could expect to have an audit, since it provided no check of
54
fewer than he needed. original records. He argued that chang-
Colonel Pashley had no say in choos- ing the setup at going projects would
ing a new auditing procedure. Early in save little or no money and emphasized
March Judge Patterson brought in the advantages of having contractors
Arthur H. Carter, senior partner of keep their own records. Besides, he held,
Haskins and Sells of New York City, one big corporations like DuPont would
of the country's top accounting firms, probably refuse to turn their bookkeeping
to review the fixed-fee audit system.55 A over to the government. Colonel Pashley,
military background (a West Point edu- agreeing with Pace, recommended that
cation and over ten years' service as a the Construction Division oppose the
Coast Artillery officer) enhanced Car- change. General Somervell sided with
ter's qualifications for the job. After Gottschalk. On 15 May Patterson
visiting a number of construction proj- adopted Carter's system. The task of
ects, Carter on 29 April recommended instituting the new procedure fell to
that the War Department assume "re- Gottschalk, who succeeded Pashley as
sponsibility in the first instance for cer- chief of the Accounts Branch in mid-
57
tain functions now administered by May.
contractors and, to a great extent, du- Because Constructing Quartermasters
plicated by Government auditors." He no longer checked contractors' books
suggested that field auditors take over but compiled the original records them-
all the work of checking time, preparing selves, there was a need for some sort
payrolls, inspecting materials, and audit- of supervision. Patterson therefore di-
56
ing vendors' invoices. He thus set his rected Gregory to establish a force of
seal of approval on the procedure used in supervisory auditors, who would be in-
World War I. dependent of the project offices. This
When General Schulz forwarded force was to see that auditing procedures
Carter's report to the Accounts Branch, adequately protected the government,
Pashley turned it over to his deputy,
Oliver A. Gottschalk, recently of the 57
(1) Memo, Schulz for Gregory, 29 Apr 41. OCE
New York WPA, and to Thomas A. Legal Div Lib, Directives 1940-41. (2) Memo,
Pace, head of the Accounting and Gottschalk for Pashley, 3 May 41. (3) Memo, Pace
Auditing Section. Gottschalk in a favor- for Pashley, 3 May 41. (4) Memo, Pashley for
Somervell, 3 May 41. Last three in OCE Legal Div
54
Files, Changes in Provisions and Policies, CPFF
55
Notes, Conf of ZCQM's, 7-10 Apr 41, p. 186ff. Contracts. (5) Memo, Somervell for Gregory, 14
Rpt, OUSW Dir of Purchases and Contracts, May 41. Opns Br Files, Gen—Dec 40-Jun 41. (6)
for FY 1941, p. 18. EHD Files. Memo, Schulz for Gregory, 15 May 41. OCE Legal
56
Memo, Carter for Schulz, 29 Apr 41. OCE Div Lib, Directives 1940-41. (7) Ltr, Gottschalk to
Legal Div Lib, Directives 1940-41. Carter, 24 May 41. QM 161 1941.
422 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
that field auditors' offices were properly in Congress, where the Thomason com-
organized and capably staffed, that there mittee commended Carter for eliminating
was no unnecessary duplication, and duplication, increasing efficiency, and
that the Quartermaster organization saving money.62
caused no delays in reimbursement. The The War Department Insurance
Under Secretary's directive was easy Rating Plan made possible further econ-
to carry out. In the zone Accounts omies. Patterson took the first step
Branches, Somervell had a ready-made toward developing this plan early in
supervisory force. The transition to the January, when he appointed a board of
new system went forward with little experts to review the insurance pro-
disruption to the work. At new projects visions of the fixed-fee contract. Somervell
63
and at older jobs where the Constructing gave the project his full support. "This
Quartermaster and the contractor were move should not be allowed to die of
able to reach an agreement, field audi- inanition," he told Leavey and ordered
64
tors, working under the watchful eyes him to "follow through." How far
of the zones, now performed an impor- Somervell influenced the board's findings
tant management function, the keeping was hard to tell, but his enthusiasm for
of original accounts.58 its work was unmistakable. The plan
Although, as Pashley had predicted, adopted on 3 May was a boon to the
some contractors balked at letting the Construction Division. Under it the
government keep their records,59 the government obtained reduced rates from
new system enjoyed wide use, and most insurance carriers. Fixed-fee constructors,
rated it a success. To be sure, Comptrol- architect-engineers, and subcontractors
ler General Warren looked with some whose premiums totaled $5,000 or more
disfavor upon a system which, strictly could insure at these reduced rates or
speaking, was not an audit, but others "self-insure . . . in a manner satis-
praised the system highly.60 Patterson factory to the War Department." Con-
was enthusiastic. On 25 August he ad- tractors paying less than $5,000 in pre-
vised Secretary of Labor Perkins: "It miums had to obtain competitive bids
65
is estimated that since this procedure on insurance rates. Six months after
was put into effect on June 7, 1941, it the introduction of the plan, Somervell
has resulted in a saving of approximately
$15,000,000."61 Such news was welcome
62
H Comm on Mil Affs, Subcomm 2, Draft of
58
(1) Memo, Schulz for Gregory, 29 Jul 41. 3820 Interim Rpt, Aug 41, p. 15. EHD Files.
63
(Nat Def) Part 7. (2) Incl, 30 Oct 41, with Memo, Min, Constr Div Staff Mtg, 31 Jan 41. EHD
OSW for OQMG, 7 Nov 41. EHD Files. (3) OQMG Files.
64
Constr Div Ltr 286, 7 Jun 41. Memo, Somervell for Br Chiefs, 21 Jan 41.
59
(1) Ltr, CQM Indiana OW to Somervell, 14 Jul Opns Br Files, Gen, Dec 40-Jun 41.
65
41. Opns Br Files, Indiana OW. (2) Ltr, CQM WD Emergency Constr and Expansion Com-
Twin City OP to ZCQM 7, 20 Aug 41. QM 132.3 prehensive Insurance Rating Plan on CPFF Contract,
(Twin City OP) 1941. Incl with OQMG Constr Div Ltr 336, 27 Jun 41. The
60
Warren's Testimony, 19 Oct 43. In H Comm on plan applied to coverages required under fixed-fee
Mil Affs, 78th Cong, 1st sess, Hearings on H R 3022, contracts. These coverages included workmen's
Part 2, pp. 237-39. compensation or employers' liability, automobile
61
Ltr, Patterson to Perkins, 25 Aug 41. OCE Legal and property damage liability, and comprehensive
Div Files, Labor—Gen. liability.
TOWARD A FOUR-MILLION-MAN ARMY 423
reported that insurance costs on fixed-fee investigations were soon under way in
jobs had dropped 20 percent.
66
Patterson's office.69 The ANMB's Hogan
Much of the controversy over emer- committee took a dim view of these pro-
gency contracts revolved around fees. ceedings, asserting that fees were "already
By comparing defense profits with pre- too low."70 Industry agreed. A prominent
vious earnings by the same firms, the constructor, one of a number who protes-
Truman committee attempted to prove ted, told Patterson that "the fees proposed
that fees were unconscionably high. An would be much too low, unless the con-
analysis of constructors' fees at twenty- tractor is to act as a mere broker and
two camps showed profits averaging sublet everything, and if that is con-
more than 450 percent of the contractors' templated why have any contractor?"71
mean annual earnings for 1936 through But protests were unavailing.
1939. A check of twenty-five architect- In June 1941, Patterson, with the
engineers showed an average increase of advice of Madigan, Harrison, and a
more than 300 percent over peacetime board of distinguished officers and civil-
profits. Rare instances of contractors ians headed by General Robins, revised
whose income had jumped 1,600 and the fee schedules for both constructors
1,700 percent strengthened the im- and architect-engineers. (Table 13) The
pression that the Army was playing new scales were markedly lower. Where
Santa Claus to the building industry.67 the War Department had previously
Somervell believed such comparisons paid at least $300,000 for a $10,000,000
were unfair. Appearing before the com- construction job, it would now pay at
mittee on 25 April, he emphasized that most $250,000. Where the old schedule
the construction industry had just for architect-engineers had listed $48,000
emerged from a severe depression and as the average fee for a $5,000,000 proj-
that most defense projects were larger ect, the new one set $45,000 as the top
and more difficult than the jobs pre- figure. The industry, which was witness-
viously handled by the same firms. In ing a marked decrease in public works
his opinion the fees originally set by construction, accepted the reduced rates,
Hartman and Loving were "about though not without grumbling. Ap-
right."68 pearing before the Truman committee
By early 1941, new fee schedules were on 15 July Patterson pointed out that
already under consideration. Colonel fees on construction contracts had so
Jones and his staff in the Legal and far averaged 3.3 percent and those on
Contracting Section had begun in Janu- architect-engineer contracts I percent
ary to study the possibility of using the of original estimated costs—well below
old ANMB schedule not as a minimum the limit set by Congress. New schedules,
curve for constructors' fees, as Hartman
had done, but as a maximum. Similar 69
(1) Memo, Somervell for Br Chiefs, 21 Jan 41.
Opns Br Files, Gen Dec 40-Jun 41. (2) Memo,
Schulz for Gregory, 27 Jan 41. QM 600.1 (GPFF) II.
66 70
Rpt, Activities of the Constr Div, Jul 40-Nov 41, Ltr, Hogan Comm to Patterson and Forrestal,
PP.67 77-78. 30 Jan 41. 600. 1 Part 8.
71
S Rpt 480, Part 2, pp. 17-18, 38. Ltr, T. A. Scott, Merritt-Chapman & Scott
68
In Truman Comm Hearings, Part 1, pp. 318-19. Corp., to Patterson, 6 Feb 41. 3820 (Nat Def) Part 2.
424 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
Source: Memo, Dir P&C, OUSW, for TQMG, 23 Jun 41. OCE Legal Div Lib, Instructions re FF Contracts, Bk I.
he assured the Senators, would reduce The second, the so-called 25-percent
72
fees even further. clause, attempted to set a standard for
At the same time that he adopted defining a material change and thus for
lower schedules of fees, Patterson ap- deciding when a fee adjustment was in
proved a revised version of the fixed-fee order. The clause ruled out any change
construction contract. Although most unless there was a net increase or de-
of the changes were minor ones, two crease of 25 percent in the number of
new clauses were of major importance. "units" covered by the contract. Ad-
The first gave the contracting officer the justment would take place at the time of
right "to decide which functions of final settlement and would turn upon the
checking and auditing are to be per- number of units "exceeding the said 25
73
formed exclusively by the Government percent." If, for example, the original
and to prescribe procedures to be fol- contract called for 400,000 square feet of
lowed by the Constructor in such ac- storage space and the government or-
counting, checking, and auditing func- dered 100,000 more, the contractor
tions as he may continue to perform." would not receive a higher fee. But, if
change orders brought the total to
72
(1) Memo, Schulz for Schley, 18 Apr 41. 3820 650,000, he could claim an additional fee
(Nat Def) Part 4. (2) Memo, Schulz for Schley, 22 based on 150,000 square feet. Compli-
May 41. 3820 (Nat Def) Part 5. (3) Memo and Ind,
Schulz for Gregory, 23 Jun 41. OCE Legal Div Lib, cated and cumbersome, and designed
Instructions Re FF Contracts, Book I. (4) Madigan,
73
Interv, 18 Jun 56. (5) Truman Comm Hearings, WD FF Form 1 (Rev 19 Jun 41), art. IV, par. 4,
Part 6, pp. 1532-33. art. I, par. 4.
TOWARD A FOUR-MILLION-MAN ARMY 425
primarily for storage and housing proj- manner he sees fit; and besides, . . .
ects, the 25-percent clause eventually any effort to restrict a contractor in this re-
spect would throw an unwarranted burden
fell by the way. Nevertheless, after June upon the appropriations involved by pre-
1941 the Construction Division gen- venting . . . a substantial saving through
erally defined a material change as one the elimination of a portion of the subcon-
76
involving roughly 25 percent of the tractors' profits from the cost of the work.
74
scope of the original contract. Although Somervell scoffed at the subcontractors'
the revised agreement alleviated some complaints, maintaining that the pro-
of the administrative difficulties con- testing associations were in fact per-
nected with fixed-fee work, it failed to forming "a very large portion" of con-
satisfy fixed-fee critics. struction.77
Among the most determined foes of The specialty associations refused to
the Army's fixed-fee system were specialty take "no" for an answer. On 1 May
contractors. Dissatisfied with the amount 1941, they asked Congress to require
of work that came their way during the the subletting of all specialty work. Gen-
early months of defense construction, the eral Somervell hastened to point out
specialty groups renewed their demand the disadvantages of such legislation:
for a contractual clause forcing fixed- first, it would give principal contractors
fee contractors to sublet mechanical no alternative but to accept unreasonable
items. Attorney O. R. McGuire, repre- bids for mechanical items; second, it
senting a number of specialty associa- would in the form presented give specialty
tions, hurled a barrage of protests at firms control of items for which their
the War Department. His clients rein- finances, equipment, and organizations
forced this opposition by invoking re- were inadequate; third, it would in-
strictive agreements with unions and crease the need for skilled mechanics
suppliers to put the screws on con- and possibly result in demands for higher
tractors.75 wages.78 "Considered from any angle,"
Even in the face of these tactics, the Somervell told Congressman May, "this
War Department refused to alter its amendment will result in increased cost,
policy of leaving the decision when to delay in time of completion, and con-
subcontract up to principal contractors. fusion due to lack of coordination and
Writing to McGuire in April 1941, divided responsibilities."79
Secretary Stimson summed up his po- Although the specialty contractors
sition: failed to get their measure passed, they
It is not in conformity with public policy succeeded with the help of their em-
or in the interest of national defense to pre- ployees' unions in bringing about a
vent a substantial general contractor from change in War Department policy. Dur-
undertaking to do an entire job himself in any
76
Ltr, Stimson to McGuire, 25 Apr 41. OCE Legal
74
(1) OCE, Contract Negotiation Manual (Rev Div, Contract Br Files.
77
15 Aug 44), pp..44-45. EHD Files. (2) Ltr, Reybold Ltr, Somervell to Sen B. Champ Clark, 11 Feb
to Patterson, 24 Jan 42. 161 (X Ref) I. 41. QM 600.1(CPFF) 1941 II.
75 78
(1) Ltr, McGuire to Patterson, 4 Dec 41. QM (1) Memo, OUSW for TQMG, 1 May 41,
600.1 (CPFF Policy) I. (2) Ltr, McGuire to Patterson, and 1st Ind, Somervell to OUSW. QM 161 (X Ref)
3 Dec 41. 600.1 Part 8. (3) 652 (Cp Edwards) I. (4) May-Jun 41.
79
652 (Ft Riley) I. Ltr, Somervell to May, 5 May 41. Same File.
426 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
ing talks leading up to the building fee schedule for construction contracts
trades agreement of 22 July 1941 the accordingly.82 Specialty firms seemed as-
specialty trades unions asked that the sured of a larger share of defense profits.
government require principal contractors While the specialty "subs" were win-
to sublet items usually subcontracted ning these concessions, general contrac-
and to make any contractor who elected tors and third-party renters were in-
to handle such items himself "show af- tensifying their efforts to do away with
firmatively that such work is ordinarily recapture clauses. As lend-lease drained
performed by him and that his existing supplies of new machinery and obsoles-
organization includes capable personnel cence, wear and tear, and government
and suitable equipment for the work." capture depleted stocks in private hands,
Expressing the Navy's attitude toward resistance to recapture stiffened. With
this proposal, Admiral Moreell informed an increasing amount of work available
Hillman: "The article as written . . . for remaining stocks, owners could ill
establishes a procedure with such afford to lose irreplaceable machinery
. . . rigidity as to seriously encroach needed for continuation of their busi-
upon the duty and responsibility of the nesses. The Army encountered more and
contracting officer to see that the work more difficulty in renting. Third-parties
is performed in a manner such as to were reluctant to bid, and those who
safeguard the interests of the Govern- did asked prices sufficiently high to in-
ment."80 Under the building trades sure against the risk of losing their
agreement, the government accepted stock in trade. Representatives of the
the unions' provision, but reserved the construction industry joined with equip-
right to waive the requirement to sublet ment dealers in recommending that
when performance of specialty work by recapture be discontinued.83 Managing
subcontractors would "result in ma- Director Herbert E. Foreman of the
terially increased costs or inordinate AGC complained that recapture was
81 84
delays." This agreement, while falling putting "the contractor out of a job."
short of the subcontractors' original de- By the spring of 1941 Patterson was
mands, gave them stronger grounds on considering a change.
which to appeal for work. In August On 19 June he gave Generals Schley
1941, Patterson made further conces- and Gregory permission to waive re-
sions. He adopted a new method of capture. Two months later he took up a
setting fees, whereby the principal con- proposal to strike the recapture clause
tractor took a flat deduction for sub- from the contract. Anticipating lower
contracting regardless of whether he rents, the Engineers favored the move.
wished to sublet. Somervell revised the Somervell opposed it, arguing that the
80
government should retain the right to
Ltr, Moreell to Hillman, 21 Jul 41, and Incl.
82
OCE Legal Div, Wage and Salary Br Files. (1) OQMG Constr Div Ltr 478, 22 Sep 41. (2)
81
Memorandum of Agreement Between Repre- OCE Finance Circ Ltr 252, 20 Aug 41.
83
sentatives of Government Agencies Engaged in (1) 481 (Cp Blanding) I. (2) 481 (Cp Grant) I.
Defense Construction and the Building and Con- (3) Notes of Conf, Reps of Constr Div and AGC, 9
struction Trades Department of the American Federa- May 41. Opns Br Files, Rental Equip.
84
tion of Labor, 22 Jul 41. Incl to OQMG, Constr Div Notes of Conf, Reps of Constr Div and Foreman,
Ltr 372, 31 Jul 41. 3 May 41. Opns Br Files, Rental Equip.
TOWARD A FOUR-MILLION-MAN ARMY 427
acquire any piece of rented equipment. cure proposed is worse than the disease.
Despite Somervell's objections, Patterson In fact, it will kill the patient."87
on 6 September banned the recapture Fear that fixed-fee contracts might
provision from all future fixed-fee con- be outlawed prompted consideration
tracts. He made no changes in the third- of changes which would "appease Con-
party agreement. Although the Con- gress, but do as little damage to the
struction Division occasionally forwent system as possible."88 Somervell weighed
recapture on third-party equipment the advisability of adopting several sug-
during the latter half of 1941, field gestions made by congressional com-
officers did not receive authority to mittees—competitive bids on fees and
waive the provision until mid-1942, a bonus and penalty clauses. Some of
time when the shortage of equipment his advisers believed that competition
was most acute.85 in regard to fees might forestall pro-
Streamlined procedures, economy hibitory legislation until most of the
measures, and new contractual clauses larger jobs were under contract or until
failed to pacify congressional critics of the fixed-fee agreements were no longer
fixed-fee method. The Truman commit- necessary. Others argued that while
tee recommended curtailment of fixed- competition would reduce fees but
fee contracting. Congressman Engel went slightly, bidding could easily result in
so far as to offer an amendment out- awards to inferior contractors whose
lawing the contract on camp projects.86 mismanagement would increase costs
In commenting on the Engel rider, Gen- and cause delays. Advocates of the bonus
eral Somervell made his position clear. and penalty clause maintained that by
"I can say without reservation," he penalizing builders who ran over their
told Representative Snyder, "that the estimates and rewarding those who made
amendment will do more to delay the savings the Quartermaster Corps would
War Department's construction program give its contractors an incentive to hold
than any other device which could be down costs. Opponents of the clause
adopted without actually ordering the entered a strong plea against its adop-
program stopped. It will delay the tion. They pointed out that the British
completion of the work on an average had used a similar provision early in the
of six months." Somervell conceded war with unsatisfactory results. They
that fixed-fee contracts had certain dis- argued that bonus and penalty clauses
advantages, but, he pointed out: "The smacked of percentage contracting.
85
Finally, they said, where the War De-
(1) Memo, Schulz for Schley and Gregory, 19 partment had sufficient information to
Jun 41. 481 Part 1. (2) Notes of Conf in OUSW, 22
Aug 41. OCE Legal Div Files, Changes in Provisions draw the sound estimates necessary for
and Policies, GPFF Contracts. (3) Memo, Schulz for a bonus and penalty provision, it could
Gregory, 27 Aug 41. (4) Memo, Somervell for award a lump sum contract. After long
Patterson, 2 Sep 41. Both in QM 600.1 (FF Projs)
1940. (5) OUSW Purchases and Contracts Gen Dir and careful study Somervell decided
38, 6 Sep 41. (6) Rpt, Activities of the Constr Div,
Jul 40-Nov 41, p. 79. (7) Memo, SOS for Chiefs of
87
Sup Svcs, 9 May 42. 413.8 Part 12. Ltr, Somervell to Snyder, 9 Jun 41. 600.1 Part 9.
86 88
(1) S Rpt 480, Part 2, p. 35. (2) New York Times, Rpt, Constr Adv Comm for Patterson, n.d. QM
June 7, 1941, p. 9. 600.1 (FF Projs) 1940.
428 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
cantonment projects and 2 lump sum. There was no simple answer to the
His computations showed that climate, Truman committee's statements con-
weather, site conditions, levels of wages cerning costs of fixed-fee work.
and prices, speed of construction, and Even as he attempted to counter at-
other factors unrelated to the type of tacks against the fixed-fee method,
contract all affected costs.95 Gavin Somervell looked for ways to step up
Hadden of Groves' staff undertook a fixed-price contracting. In July 1941,
second, more thoroughgoing study. After when directives came through for the
analyzing 48 projects, 41 fixed-fee and first advance planned camps, he asked
7 lump sum, Hadden came up with Groves and Leavey to confer with repre-
the following average costs per man: sentatives of the Associated General
$758 for fixed-fee cantonments against Contractors on the possibility of doing
$399 for lump sum; and $751 for fixed-fee the work by lump sum contract. Among
tent camps against $355 for lump sum. those present at the conference, held on
Warning that these figures were decep- 24 July, were Managing Director
tive, Hadden wrote: Foreman of the AGC and heads of six
Every one of the lump sum projects is large contracting firms which had re-
located at a station previously existing and cently completed camp projects. The
provided with utilities. The existence of consensus was that only eight combina-
roads on the sites of these projects had a tions of contractors in the United States
double advantage, in reducing the cost of could bid on a $20-million camp and
construction of the roads themselves and in
reducing the costs of buildings and other that any bids offered on projects of this
utilities by providing for efficient handling size would include 97 a contingency item
of materials and labor during construction. of about $5 million. The Construction
Every one of the lump sum projects had Advisory Committee also questioned if
been started before the first of the fixed-fee lump sum contracts were feasible on these
projects was started. This had a material
effect in lowering costs because the bidders projects. Somervell was considering
could not foresee the effects of the program whether to abandon98 the attempt, when
as a whole on the labor, materials and equip- Patterson stepped in.
ment markets—effects which had a marked Concerned by congressional criticism
influence in raising the costs of the fixed-fee of fixed-fee contracts, the Under Secre-
projects. This factor is not likely to be to the
Government's advantage again on any future tary on 1 August called for an all-out
lump sum projects. effort "to place construction work on
99
To conclude . . . that future projects a competitive basis." A few days later
could be constructed under lump sum con- Somervell advertised for bids on two
tracts at costs per man as low as those for armored division camps, Chaffee, at
these past projects would therefore be er-
roneous.96 Fort Smith, Arkansas, and Cooke, at
Santa Maria-Lompoc, California. Pes-
95 97
(1) Tel Conv, Groves and Daley, 8 May 41. Verbatim Rpt of Conf, 24 Jul 41. Madigan Files,
Opns Br Files, Memos, Engrg Br. (2) Memos, Lump Sum vs. FF.
98
Boeckh for Casey, 6, 10, 16 Jun, 19 Jul 41. (3) Memo, (1) Memo, Constr Adv Comm for Loving, 30
Leavey for Styer, 26 Jul 41. All in QM 652 (Canton Jul 41. 652 (Camp Chaffee) I. (2) Memo, Groves for
Constr) 1941. Leavey, 28 Jul 41. QM 600.1 (FF Projs) 1940.
96 99
Memo, Hadden for Hastings, 13 Sep 41, and Memo, Patterson for Somervell, 1 Aug 41. USW
Ind. Opns Br Files, Costs. Files, Contracts, Jul and Aug.
430 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
the division let 1,671 advertised lump Hardly had they set to work before
sum contracts. The value of these com- the plan changed. Looking over the
petitive agreements was $240,132,000, airport site in the flood plain of the river,
or roughly 15 percent of the total. Fixed- General Reybold concluded that con-
fee contracts, though comparatively few struction there might not be feasible.
in number, dwarfed the others in impor- On his advice, Somervell moved the
tance. Agreements with 154 construction location some distance to the north and
firms and 149 architect-engineers west, to a 67-acre tract in the former
amounted to $1,347,991,000 or 80 per- Department of Agriculture experimental
cent of the total.105 To most construction station, Arlington Farms, now a military
experts, the fixed-fee method was the reservation. So that the building would
logical one to use on high-speed emer- harmonize with its new surroundings—
gency programs. They believed with it would be just east of Arlington Ceme-
General Schley that it was "hard to argue tery and opposite the Lincoln Memo-
against it."106 But political realities would rial—he reduced the height to three
108
militate against its use in the years ahead. stories.
The plans were in Somervell's hands
The Pentagon Project on Monday morning. A reinforced con-
crete structure, the building would have
On the evening of Thursday, 17 July 5,100,000 square feet of floor space, twice
1941, Somervell summoned Casey and as much as the Empire State. Fitted to
Bergstrom to his office. That day, at its site, which was bounded by five roads,
hearings before the House subcommit- it would have five sides, hence the name
tee on appropriations, Representative Pentagon. Most of the interior space
Woodrum had suggested that the War would be open, with temporary parti-
Department find an overall solution to tions. Only top officials would have pri-
its space problem. Somervell wanted vate offices. An area of 300,000 square
basic plans and architectural perspectives feet in the basement was for record
for an office building to house 40,000 storage. The layout included parking
persons on his desk by 9 o'clock Monday lots for 10,000 cars. Approved by
morning. He envisaged a modern 4- Marshall, Moore, and Patterson that
story, air-conditioned structure, with afternoon, the plan went to Secretary
no elevators, on the site of the old Stimson the following morning.109 "Skep-
Washington-Hoover Airport, on the tical" at first, Stimson at length con-
Virginia side of the Potomac. Designed curred. "Of course," he noted in his
to accommodate all War Department diary, "it will cost a lot of money,
activities, the new structure would be but it will solve not only our prob-
the largest office building in the world.
Casey and Bergstrom faced "a very 108
H Subcomm of the Comm on Appns, 77th
107
busy weekend." Cong, 1st sess, Hearings on the First Supplemental
National Defense Appropriation Bill for 1942, pp. 500-
105
50'.
109
504, 506.
Constr PR 41, 16 Dec 41, p. 162. (1) Memo, Somervell for Red, n.d. EHD
106
Schley Interv, 26 Oct 55. Files. (2) H Subcomm of the Comm on Appns, 77th
107
Ltr, Casey to EHD, 11 Jul 55. See also Min, Cong, 1st sess, Hearings on the First Supplemental
Constr Div Staff Mtg, 18 Jul 41. EHD Files. National Defense Appropriation Bill for 1942, p. 508.
432 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
lem, ... it will solve a lot of other million would cover everything except
problems, including the Navy and a lot the parking area, which might come to
of other people all around." Having about $1 million.111
approved the plan, Stimson took it to The legislative machinery moved
the White House and obtained smoothly at first and then suddenly
Roosevelt's O.K.110 stalled. On the 23d the House Com-
Presenting the plan to the House sub- mittee on Public Buildings and Grounds
committee on 22 July, Reybold and met and, after hearing Somervell's testi-
Somervell stressed its advantages. It mony, gave its unanimous approval to
would relieve congestion in other agen- the project, agreeing to ignore the fact
cies which could occupy government that Congress had voted no authoriza-
buildings vacated by the War Depart- tion.112 On the 24th the Appropriations
ment. It would save about $3 million a Committee reported out the bill, recom-
year in rentals. It would obviate the mending $35 million "for the construc-
need for a $22-million building proposed tion of an office building on the site of
for the Navy, which could take over the the former Department of Agriculture
Munitions Building instead. It would Experiment Farm across the Potomac
release apartments for residential use River to house all of the activities of the
again. It would increase the War De- War Department."113 But when the
partment's efficiency by 25 to 40 percent. House took up the bill that afternoon,
It would also be more convenient to a hitch developed. Representative
the public which would no longer have Merlin Hull, after expressing aston-
to chase all over town to find the right ishment at the sheer size of the project,
man. The subcommittee members were raised a point of order: the proposal
favorably impressed. Their main con-
cern was how much the building would 111
H Subcomm of the Comm on Appns, 77th
cost. Somervell assured them that $35 Cong, 1st sess, Hearings on the First Supplemental
National Defense Appropriation Billfor 1942, pp. 500-513.
112
87 Cong. Rec. 6303, 6322, 6366-6367.
110 113
Stimson Diary, 22, 24 July 41. H Rpt 988, 77th Cong, 1st sess, 24 Jul 41, p. 12.
TOWARD A FOUR-MILLION-MAN ARMY 433
"to carpet 67 acres of Virginia farmland Soldier and restoring the Robert E. Lee
with brick and concrete" was unau- Mansion.
thorized legislation.114 Woodrum and Friday editions of the Washington
other supporters of the project tried to newspapers played up the War Depart-
overcome Hull's objections, but he stood ment's "$35 million cubbyhole." In a
pat. Decision on the bill hung fire until feature article, the Daily News reported:
the following week.115 Not even a castle in the air Wednesday
Unperturbed by this contretemps, night, "Defense City, Va.,—Pop. 40,000"
Somervell went ahead to select a con- was on the congressional conveyor belt and
tractor and a Constructing Quarter- the motor was humming . . . . The
master. To erect the building the Con- House was ready yesterday to rubber-stamp
struction Advisory Committee nominated the grandiose proposal . . . but there
may be some trouble in the Senate where
three combinations of three firms each. Maryland has a highly vocal representative
Its first choice was John McShain, Inc., in Millard Tydings.117
of Philadelphia, with the Turner Con-
struction Company and George A. Fuller The Post quoted the "dazed" manager
Company, both of New York City. The of hard up Arlington County, who de-
Fuller and Turner companies were spaired of handling118 the influx without
among the giants of the industry, and massive federal aid. An editorial in the
Turner had pioneered in building con- Evening Star, which envisioned a proj-
crete structures. McShain had built the ect "so staggering in its proportions as
Jefferson Memorial, the National Air- to be difficult to grasp on short notice,"
port, and the Naval Medical Center deplored the fact that no one had con-
and had recently completed the first sulted the Commission on Fine Arts and
unit of the New War Department the National 119Capital Park and Planning
Building in downtown Washington. Commission. "Just to keep the record
Somervell was happy with the selection straight," Representative Woodrum is-
of McShain, but he rejected the two sued a press release that day, declaring
big New York concerns in favor of two that "the project was wholly and en-
Virginia firms, the Wise Contracting tirely the idea of the War Department,"
Company, Inc., and Doyle and Russell, and naming all those up through 120
the
116
both of Richmond. To direct the work President who had approved it.
of these contractors, he named Capt. The following Monday, when the
Clarence Renshaw, one of Groves' as- House resumed debate, Representative
sistants. A West Point careerist, Renshaw Hull claimed credit for having given
had served as Assistant Constructing "Congress and at least some of the press
Quartermaster in charge of building the an opportunity to consider what was
approaches to the Tomb of the Unknown being brought in here under the guise of
114 117
Washington Daily News, July 25, 1941, p. 10. Washington Daily News, July 25, 1941, p. 10.
115 118
87 Cong. Rec. 6322-24. Washington Post, July 26, 1941, p. 11.
116 119
(1) Memo for GSB, no sig, n.d. Somervell Editorial, Washington Evening Star, July 25,
Folder, EHD Files. (2) Ltr, Somervell to Patterson, 1941, p. A-8.
120
25 Jul 41. 600.1 (WD Bldg, Arlington, Va.). (3) Release by Rep Woodrum, Jul 25, 1941. In S
Ltr, McShain to Groves, 2 Oct 42, and Incl. 600.1 Subcomm of the Comm on Appns, 77th Cong, 1st
(Pentagon Bldg) Part 3. sess, Hearings on H R 5412, p. 234.
434 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
national defense." Several of his col- cept war would justify such permanent
leagues joined him in objecting to the injury to the dignity and character of
project, which, said Hull, might cost the area" near the cemetery. Delano
twice $35 million "before the Federal concentrated on the "single question of
Treasury gets through paying the bill." the practicability of the project as a
Moreover, its opponents held, the build- whole," that is, on the problems of
ing would consume labor and materials utilities and of transportation in relation
already in short supply, increase existing to the probable residences of employees.
traffic problems, and be a white elephant His investigations indicated that ex-
after the war. Woodrum and his forces tending water and sewer lines would
fought back. Three times that day Hull pose no special difficulties, but transpor-
and his confederates tried to kill the tation was a different matter, since a
proposal; three times they met defeat. mere 12 percent of War Department
The House passed the bill with the employees lived in Virginia. He ques-
provision intact.121 tioned putting the entire War Depart-
As the Senate began hearings on the ment staff in one place and recommended
measure, opposition was stiffening. Time scaling down the building to accommo-
reported "a sizzling row over the War date only 20,000. Delano and Budget
Department's scheme to move to Vir- Director Harold D. Smith went to the
ginia and build itself the 'largest office White House to protest the project on 30
building in the world'."122 Protests came July. The next day the President wrote
from the D.C. Chapter of the American Chairman Alva B. Adams of the Senate
Institute of Architects, the National Subcommittee on Deficiencies that he
Association of Building Owners and had "no objection to the use of the
Managers, outraged Washingtonians, Arlington Farm site" but agreed with
and others. In a letter to the Senate Delano that the size of the building
123
Appropriations Committee, Chairman should be reduced by half.
Gilmore D. Clarke of the Commission When Senator Adams' group took up
on Fine Arts objected to the "flagrant the matter on 8 August, its primary
disregard" of the policy to reserve the concern was with the site. Many alter-
Arlington area for burial of the honored natives lay open, most of them in the
dead and to the "introduction of 35 District. A last-minute entry was an
acres of ugly flat roofs into the very fore- area earmarked for a Quartermaster
ground of the most majestic view of the depot, three-quarters of a mile south-
National Capitol." In a similar vein, east of the disputed Arlington Farms
Frederic A. Delano, chairman of the location: a switch to this site would
National Capital and Park Planning surmount aesthetic objections to the
Commission and a cousin of the Presi- project though it would not solve the
dent, wrote: "No other emergency ex- transportation problem. Somervell held
out for Arlington Farms, arguing that
121
87 Cong. Rec. 6363-6375.
122 123
Time, August 18, 1941, p. 58. Reprinted by S Subcomm of the Comm on Appns, 77th Cong,
permission from TIME, The Weekly Newsmagazine; 1st sess, Hearings on H R 5412, pp. 234, 162-63,
Copyright Time Inc. 1941. 141-43,182-83.
TOWARD A FOUR-MILLION-MAN ARMY 435
Department housed in the Northwest Somervell put the cost at about $33
Triangle and this building used for million. Falling in with the scheme, the
storing records.131 President imposed but one restriction—
Pulling down a curtain of secrecy that there be no marble in the building.
over the project, Somervell followed an When Somervell suggested facing the
independent course. Losing no time in outer walls with limestone, Roosevelt
breaking ground at the depot site, he raised no objection. If it lacked the ele-
pushed work on designs and blueprints. gance of the Capital's classic architec-
By early October Bergstrom had com- ture, the new structure would, nonethe-
pleted the basic drawings. These plans less, be handsome and imposing.134
depicted a three-story edifice of rein- Interest in the choice of materials ran
forced concrete in the shape of a regular high, as competing industries and rival
pentagon. With 4 million square feet of states vied with one another for a share
floor space, the structure would be the in the prestigious project. Typical of the
largest office building in the world. Set many letters received by Renshaw was
in a 320-acre landscaped park, it would one from a Georgia Congressman, com-
overlook plazas and terraces leading up plaining that specifications for granite
from a lagoon created by an enlargement steps at the entrance limited the choice
of the Boundary Channel. A six-acre to North Carolina, Rhode Island, and
inner court, numerous ramps and esca- Maine. Also typical was the CQM's
lators, a large shopping concourse on the reply: although Georgia granite would
first floor, cabstands and bus lanes in the not harmonize with the color of the
basement, parking lots for 8,000 cars, façade, it might find a place elsewhere
and an elaborate system of roads were in the structure.135 By far the loudest
132
among its distinctive features. Func- uproar was over the building's 9,000
tional, commodious, and, as one general windows. When invitations went out
put it, "so right" for the War Depart- late in October for alternate bids on
ment, the building seemed unlikely ever steel and wood sash, manufacturers of
133
to serve as a records depository. wood sash promptly cried "foul," claim-
Taking the plans to the White House ing that the specifications gave steel an
on 10 October, Somervell presented edge. A flood of letters and telegrams
Roosevelt with an accomplished fact. inundated the War Department.
Construction had been under way for Somervell and McShain wished to ignore
nearly a month, a thousand men were the clamor, but OPM would not agree;
at work, and hundreds of 30-foot con- and by 10 November new invitations
crete piles were in place. Part of the were in the mail. At an opening on the
foundation had been poured and forms 18th, steel won out. Although the ques-
for a section of the first story were ready.
Predicting completion in 14 months,
134
(1) Washington Evening Star, Oct 10, 1941, pp.
131
New York Times, Aug 26, 1941, p. 8 and Aug 27, A-1 and A-19. (2) Groves Second Draft Comments,
1941, P. 5. XIII, 4.
132 135
(1) 600.1 (Pentagon Bldg) Part 1. (2) WD Press Ltr, Rep Robert Ramspeck to Styer, 2 Dec 41,
Release, 7 Oct 41. with 2d Ind, Renshaw to OQMG, 5 Dec 41. 411.8
133
Dreyer Interv, 27 Feb 59. (New WD Bldg, Arlington).
438 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
138
tion was settled, protests continued for their production." Moreover, he agreed
weeks.136 with McShain that brickwork would
Bothersome though they were, outside be cheaper and faster. But Bergstrom
pressures did not present anything like held out for architectural concrete. He
the trouble raised by shortages of ma- planned to leave a gap between the form
terials. Proceeding under the watchful boards so that the mixture would ooze
eye of defense production officials, archi- and form a ridge, thus simulating lime-
tect Bergstrom took steps to conserve stone. At Groves' suggestion, workmen
critically needed metals. His design for built sample walls, and, on 14 October,
concrete structural framework made pos- McShain telephoned disturbing news—
sible a saving of 43,000 tons of steel, more honeycombs had developed in the con-
than enough to build a battleship. His crete.139 Even so, Somervell went along
use of concrete ramps instead of elevators with Bergstrom. Although the concrete
reduced steel requirements still further. walls added $650,000 to the cost of the
Drainage pipes were concrete; ducts building, they greatly enhanced the
were fiber; interior doors were wood. structure's architectural coherence.140
An unusual wall design—concrete span- Plans were the principal bottleneck.
drels carried to window sill level— Ordinarily, the architect for a large
eliminated many miles of through-wall permanent building had many months
copper flashings. When OPM called for start on the contractor. Bergstrom and
still more drastic reductions, Somervell David J. Witmer, a prominent Los
agreed to "strip-tease" the entire struc- Angeles architect who came in to assist
ture. Bronze doors, copper ornamenta- him, had virtually no lead time. In late
tion, and metal partitions in toilets were October McShain reported that if de-
among the first to go, but the stripping sign information were available he could
process continued throughout the life triple his present force. On the 28th
of the project.137 Renshaw, McShain, and Bergstrom re-
As work progressed on the foundation, viewed the problem but found it un-
an important decision loomed: would solvable.141 Pressure on the architect for
walls on the interior courts be of brick delivery of drawings became more and
or concrete. Groves, who favored brick, more intense. At times, construction ran
afterward explained: "Despite all our ahead of planning, so far ahead, in fact,
past troubles with bricklayers, I thought that Leisenring, who had charge of
it would be better to have the exterior specifications, referred to his group as
of brick . . . . It would put the "historical records" section; by the
pressure on the bricklayers throughout time "specs" were completed, a dif-
the country to have this work under the
close observation of Congress. The result
138
would have been an overall increase in 139
Groves Second Draft Comments, XIII, p. 4.
Tel Conv, McShain and Groves, 14 Oct 41.
Opns Br Files, WD Bldg, Arlington.
140
(1) Opns Br Files, WD Bldg, Arlington. (2)
136
600.1 (Pentagon Bldg) Part 2. Memo, Renshaw for Groves, 16 Apr 42. 600.1
137
(1) 600.1 (Pentagon Bldg) Part 2. (2) Constr (Pentagon Bldg) Part 3.
141
Div Press Release, 30 Oct 41. EHD Files. (3) Memo, Memo, Farrell for Groves, 29 Oct 41. Opns Br
Styer for Leavey, 6 Nov 41. Opns Br Files, Engrg Br. Files, WD Bldg, Arlington.
TOWARD A FOUR-MILLION-MAN ARMY 439
ferent material was already in the build- By 1 December 1941, 4,000 men were
142
ing. working three shifts a day on the huge
An unusually high accident rate was edifice. At night the project blazed with
an added worry. At a meeting on 5 No- light. Between 2 and 3 percent complete,
vember the executive committee of the construction was far enough along so that
Building Trades Council voted to probe the pentagonal shape of the building was
into the "alarming" number of mishaps apparent. The contractors had relocated
at the project. In a statement to the press, one mile of railroad line, lowered the
a committee spokesman referred to water table of the old airport eight feet,
several deaths and many severe injuries, started work on the power plant, and
including broken backs, and he put the graded more than 100 acres of land.
blame on the War Department's failure Barges were delivering sand and gravel
to enforce its own safety regulations.143 to the Boundary Channel shore. The
An investigation by Blanchard and other job was making headway, but the bulk
members of Groves' Safety Section of the work remained. At the rate of
showed that the report was exaggerated. progress so far, a little more than1
There had been 40 lost-time accidents, percent per month, it would take more
with some simple fractures, and one than eight years to complete the build-
145
fatality, but no broken backs. Blanchard ing.
agreed the accident rate was high— Events of 7 December 1941 served
about four times that of the Army pro- both to underline the necessity for speed
gram as a whole. Acting on his advice, and to confirm the wisdom of those who
Groves instructed Renshaw to see that had conceived the project. From head-
the contractor employed a full-time safety quarters in the Pentagon, a united War
engineer and followed War Department Department would direct American
safety regulations to the letter. Although armies to victory in global operations.
McShain complied, the accident rate But the huge five-sided building, like
did not measurably decline. Perhaps, many other projects launched by
as he asserted, mishaps were an unavoid- Somervell, would be carried to comple-
able byproduct of speed.144 tion under different auspices.
142
Leisenring Interv, 5 Jun 57.
143 145
Washington Post, November 6, 1941, p. 11. (1) Memo, Blanchard for Groves, 1 Dec 41.
144
(1) Memos, Blanchard for Groves, 7 Nov, 5 Opns Br Files, WD Bldg, Arlington. (2) Ltr, Super-
Dec 41. (2) Ltr, Groves to Renshaw, 14 Nov 41. vising Traveling Auditor to OQMG, 17 Nov 41.
Both in 631 (Pentagon Bldg). 132.2 (Pentagon Bldg).
CHAPTER XIV
The Transfer
As war moved closer, as larger and A Test for the Engineers
larger construction tasks loomed ahead,
the old problem of responsibility called What were the Engineers' qualifica-
out for final solution. During 1941 two tions? Where was proof they could do
competing organizations shared the the job? Over the years opponents of a
work—one, an element of the Quarter- transfer had raised these questions again
master Corps, the other, the Corps and again. Embracing fortifications,
of Engineers. Although measurably rivers and harbors improvements, flood
strengthened and to some extent de- control projects, roads, railroads, dams,
centralized by Somervell, the Construc- and canals, the Corps' experience in
tion Division still exhibited weaknesses heavy construction was unequaled by
resulting from twenty years of scanty that of any other engineering outfit in
budgets and from its position in a multi- the world. But, as its adversaries em-
functioned supply service. Whether it phasized, the Corps had little acquaint-
could withstand increased wartime pres- ance with the type of structural work
sures was uncertain. The Corps of En- supervised by The Quartermaster Gen-
gineers, a technical branch, specializing eral. In fact, the Engineers claimed no
in construction and maintaining a large, special competence in the housing and
smooth-running field organization, par- building fields. Confidence in their or-
ticipated in the military program to a ganization, in its strength and versatility,
limited extent and, mostly, on a tem- explained their willingness to tackle all
porary basis. Unless the Corps' emer- military construction. The Air Corps
gency construction assignment was con- program, transferred in November 1940,
tinued and enlarged, the Engineer De- provided a practical test of the Engineer
partment would face stagnation and Department, an opportunity to show
partial dissolution. Patterson's dissatis- what it could do with an unfamiliar and
faction with the existing arrangement, challenging assignment.
Schley's concern over the future of his "When we took over the air force
Corps, Somervell's personal ambitions, construction from the Quartermaster,
alleged Quartermaster shortcomings, and it was just simple chaos," General Plank
Engineer successes—these were among afterward declared, "and there is nothing
the factors which influenced settlement that anybody can say by way of rational-
of the long-standing controversy and ization that will change the posture of
brought all military construction under it from chaos." To Plank, then a major
the Corps of Engineers. with 20 years' service in the Corps of
THE TRANSFER 441
Engineers, the confusion was virtually gineer Regular. Major Hannis, Robins'
complete. No one appeared to know just liaison officer with the Air Corps, also
how many projects were on the books or reported to Plank. Over a period of
how much money had been spent. Pro- about six months, the organization grew
cedures followed in selecting sites and to approximately 100 persons, or
preparing layouts seemed "cockeyed and about one-fifth the size of Groves' Opera-
2
crazy." Washington made decisions tions Branch. Meanwhile, under the
which only the field could properly direction of Robins and Hardin, Plank
make. No firm guidelines existed for use was trying to bring order out of what he
in designing runways to bear the weight regarded as chaos.
of new and heavier planes. Camouflage Decentralization was to be the first
and dispersion had received little at- step. As far back as the spring of 1939,
tention. One encountered critical delays General Schley had made it known that
at almost every turn. The situation, in if he assumed responsibility for airfield
Plank's opinion, "was not alone the construction, he would delegate much of
fault of the Construction Quartermaster his authority to the Engineer field. At
as an engineer outfit, but it was the easy that time he said:
way in which they had worked with the The existing organization of the Engineer
air force."1 Working with the Air Corps Department would be used without material
was to be a good deal harder than he change. The detailed engineering design and
anticipated. all construction would be handled through
Plank, whose position in the Air Corps Division and District Engineers.
program corresponded roughly to that To get the results required, these organiza-
tions must be allowed to handle, with as few
of Groves in the larger, more difficult restrictions as possible, all engineering de-
Quartermaster effort, had to start from sign, preparation of construction drawings
scratch to build an organization. Be- and specifications, procurement, 3
contracting,
cause his program was smaller and the accounting, and disbursement.
work more decentralized, he did not When he took over the Air Corps pro-
require anywhere near as large a staff gram in late 1940, he went into action.
as Groves. In the beginning, he had only The field had long enjoyed considerable
one secretary and the part-time assis- freedom in awarding advertised con-
tance of Carter Page and Wallace R. tracts and approving plans and specifi-
Vawter, two of Robins' ablest civil en- cations for civil works and fortifications.4
gineers. Almost immediately, the section In December 1940, Schley extended this
expanded to 7 or 8 persons, and by same procedure to the newly acquired
April 1941 it had nearly 40. As unit air projects. A short time later, he gave
heads, Plank was able to obtain Page, division engineers authority to approve
Vawter, and 4 others, 2 civilians and 2 negotiated contracts in amounts up to
Engineer Reservists. (Chart 14) To be $500,000 and district engineers, in
his executive, he chose Capt. John L. amounts up to $100,000. General Robins
Person, a graduate of West Point and
2
MIT who had a fine record as an En- (1) Ibid, (2) Rpt, Activities of the Constr Div,
Jul 40-Jul 41, p. 126.
3
Memo, Schley for Tyner, 10 Apr 39. G-4/31324.
1 4
Interv with Maj. Gen. Ewart G. Plank, 5 Dec 50. See p. 268, above.
THE TRANSFER 443
would select contractors for negotiated pared specifications, and readied the
agreements amounting to $500,000 or job for advertising. Congratulated by
more from among firms nominated by Colonel Tompkins on this and similar
the field. Although bound by War De- feats, Lt. Col. Edwin C. Kelton, the
partment policy in matters of structural district engineer, replied: "The real
design, Schley made the districts fully answer to our ability to turn out plans
responsible for water supply and sanita- and specifications consists of the fact
tion. He wished to give the field still that we are just plain 'damn good.'"
greater powers, but further decentraliza- Then, in a more serious vein, he added:
tion had to await changes in War De- "I was fortunate in having a large or-
partment policy and in Air Corps or- ganization of highly trained men with
5
ganization. qualifications to handle almost any type
Quickly and firmly, the Engineer of construction. This of course was the
field took hold, applying to Air Corps secret of being able to get started early
7
work methods which over the years had on these jobs." The Corps' civil or-
proved successful on rivers and harbors ganization was proving its worth on
construction. The Engineers' cost ac- military projects.
counting system, the oldest in the govern- There were problems aplenty—of a
ment and possibly the best, went into kind the Engineer field was powerless to
effect at air projects. District purchasing prevent. The most exasperating dif-
departments, familiar with local markets ficulties were traceable to the Air Corps'
and materialmen, assisted contractors Colonel Kennedy and his Buildings and
in procuring scarce supplies. District Grounds Division. In 1940 and early
labor relations officers continued the 1941 the method of site selection in vogue
long-established practice of settling local with the Air Corps was to accept tracts
disputes locally. District disbursing of- donated by various communities. "How
ficers took over work previously handled old do you have to be," Plank asked,
with indifferent success by regional fi- "to know what kind of land you get under
nance offices.6 In placing construction those circumstances?"8 Moreover, Ken-
under contract, the districts set a re- nedy, with only a small staff to advise
markably rapid pace. To cite one ex- him, had set himself up as an arbiter in
ample, the Los Angeles District received engineering matters. In choosing sites
a large sheaf of Quartermaster drawings he consulted construction officers seem-
for the new Tucson airport on 15 De- ingly as the whim prompted. He in-
cember; by the 24th it had reviewed, sisted on preparing all air station lay-
revised, and retraced the plans, pre- outs in his Washington office. He also
5
(1) Bruner, Outline of Authorizations—Constr dabbled in design; at the time of the
Contracts, I, 1-3; IV, 2; VI, 1-2. (2) OCE Circ airfield transfer, he was pressing for
Ltrs R&H 64, 6 Dec 40; Finance 226, 9 Dec 40; adoption of soil cement, a mixture of
Finance 41, 19 Feb 41; R&H 67, 16 Dec 40; and
R&H 71, 23 Dec 40. cement and natural soil which formed a
6
(1) OCE Circ Ltrs Finance 224-227, 9 Dec 40; weak concrete, as a standard paving
Finance 230, 11 Dec 40. (2) 1st Ind, 7 Dec 40, on
7
Ltr, NAD to Dist Engr Providence, R. I., 3 Dec 40. Ltr, Kelton to Tompkins, 29 Mar 41. 686
686 (Airfields) Part 1. (3) Incl with Memo, Mitchel) (Airfields) Part 1.
8
for Styer, 6 Dec 41. LRBr Files. Plank Interv, 5 Dec 50.
444 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
material for runways. Other headaches "gook," as some called the soggy sub-
that plagued the Engineer field were grade, ran down to a depth of 20 feet.
attributable not to Kennedy's notions An elaborate drainage system, costing
but to the inability of the Quartermaster heaven knew how much, would be neces-
Corps to furnish basic engineering data sary before paving could go forward.
necessary for proper design. Among the Adding to Teale's worries was a dispute
masses of Quartermaster blueprints, with Colonel Kennedy over the Brookley
drawings, specifications, manuals, and layout.10 The district engineer at Vicks-
bulletins turned over to the districts and burg, Maj. Samuel D. Sturgis, Jr., re-
divisions, there were no criteria for de- ceived a rude jolt when he inspected his
signing paved runways and few plans new project at Meridian. Key Field, the
for Air Corps technical buildings. And municipal airport selected by the Air
there was not much information on air- Corps as the site for a tactical base, was
field drainage or passive defense. on Okatibee Creek, which frequently
Somervell had promised to help make overflowed and every two or three years
11
up these deficiencies, but he was slow in inundated the area. Sturgis saw that
9
doing so. levees would be necessary to protect the
Illustrative of the troubles facing dis- air base. At Kennedy's insistence, run-
trict engineers were situations at two ways were of soil cement. "A complete
projects transferred to the Corps on 2 waste of money," Sturgis said. The im-
January 1941: Brookley Field at Mobile, pervious clay subgrade produced so
Alabama, and Key Field at Meridian, weak a runway that the wheels of heavy
Mississippi. Brookley, also known as the planes "cut through it like a knife."12
Southeast Air Depot, occupied a 1,350- Stronger pavements of concrete or as-
acre site just south of the city on Mobile phalt were mandatory.13 Like other dis-
Bay. Part of the tract, comprising a small trict engineers who found themselves in
municipal airport, was a donation; ad- similar predicaments, Sturgis and Teale
ditional land, costing more than looked to the Chief for more sagacious
$500,000, had been acquired by Colonel planning of future Air Corps projects.
Valliant. Started late in 1939, work at At the Munitions Building in Washing-
Brookley had been painfully slow. When ton, the Chief's office was alive with
the Mobile District Engineer, Lt. Col. activity as General Robins and his staff
Willis E. Teale, took over the project, he tried to do what was needful. Respon-
saw why. The ground water level was sible not only for Air Corps construction
from 1 to 4 feet below the surface. The but also for designing and building fields
plasticity index of the soil varied from for the Civil Aeronautics Authority,
zero to 20 percent and the liquid limit, Robins prepared his organization for a
from 16 to 35 percent. "Blue mud" or
10
9
(1)686 (Brookley Fld) Part 1. (2) Ltr, Dist
(1)Ltr, Div Engr SPD to OCE, 19 Feb 41. 686 Engr Mobile, Ala., to Div Engr SAD, 23 Sep 43.
(Airfields) Part 6. (2) Ltr, Robins to Brett, 8 Feb 41. 686.61 (Brookley Fld).
11
686 (Airfields) Part 5. (3) Ltr, OCE to All Div Compl Rpt, Meridian Air Base, Oct 41, pp.
Engrs, 1 a Mar 41. 686 (Airfields) Part 7. (4) OCE 57-58, 68-69.
12
Circ Ltr Constr 37, 14 Feb 41. (5) Ltr, Robins to Interv with Lt Gen Samuel D. Sturgis, Jr.,
Gregory, 9 Jan 41. 686 (Airfields) Part 3. (6) Ltr, 36 Sep 63.
13
Plank to Gregory, 17 Feb 41. 686 (Airfields) Part 5. 686 (KeyFld) Part 1.
THE TRANSFER 445
dominant role in American airport de- charge of a new Airports Division in the
velopment. Soon a list of works on air- Engineering Section; and Gayle
field design was making the rounds, and McFadden, who had directed construc-
experts in river, harbor, and flood control tion of La Guardia Field and the Wash-
work were boning up on the subject. In ington National Airport, became Kemp's
January seventy-five officers and civilian principal assistant. Knowing that en-
employees of the Corps began a 6-month gineering work was slack in some dis-
course in airport engineering under trict offices, McAlpine made plans for
Prof. Byron J. Lambert of the University farming out design jobs to them.14 By
of Iowa. William H. McAlpine, the 67- February 1941 American Aviation was able
year-old chief civilian engineer, was a to report: "The Corps of Engineers, it
tower of strength. "Mr. Mac" went at is understood, did not especially relish
the task of learning a new specialty with the idea of handling the airport program
the vigor of someone half his age; he also since it was, admittedly, not well in-
brought in men experienced in utilities 14
and airport work. Harold A. Kemp, (1) Manual, Engrg Sec OCE, Design of Airport
Runways, Jan 41, pp. A1-A7. (2) ENR, March 13,
chief of the Washington, D. C., Depart- 1941, p. 56. (3) Memo, Kemp for Bills, 28 Mar 41.
ment of Sanitary Engineering, took McFadden Reading File.
446 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
with leading experts in paving design lems of airfield drainage, soil stabiliza-
and with the Civil Aeronautics Au- tion, and flexible pavement design. On
thority, the Public Roads Administra- 14 February, Colonel Tompkins asked
tion, the Portland Cement Association, the districts and divisions to try out
and the Asphalt Institute. Using in- low.-cost paving materials on runways,
formation they provided, he hastily taxiways, and aprons and to report their
compiled a manual, Design of Airport findings to him as soon as possible. A
Runways, which he published in Janu- short time later, he directed the Norfolk
ary 1941. The manual, which included District Engineer, Lt. Col. John F.
sections on grading, drainage, and run- Conklin, to experiment with circular
way layout, devoted considerable space metal plates as a means of determining
to various formulas developed by spe- the bearing capacity of soils under flexi-
cialists in the design of rigid (concrete) ble pavements. At Langley Field and at
and flexible (bituminous) pavements. the Williamsburg Test Road of the
Among the formulas for rigid types was Virginia State Highway Department,
one advanced by Prof. Harald M. Conklin was soon at work exerting pres-
Westergaard of Harvard University; sures on a plate and then measuring
Westergaard had developed it originally the effect on the subgrade below it.18
for highways but in 1940 had extended Conducting experiments and analyzing
the principle to runways. Another, de- results took time. While all this research
vised by Frank T. Sheets, president of was in progress, the Engineers were ex-
the Portland Cement Association, was ploring other aspects of airfield design.
based on observations and measurements At bases transferred from the Quarter-
at the Bates Test Road in Illinois. The master Corps, an important safeguard
manual warned against using these for- was lacking. From the air, Westover
mulas as "the necessary or sole basis for Field near Chicopee, Massachusetts,
establishing the thickness of concrete stood out in bold relief from the sur-
slab in all cases." Similarly, it pointed rounding countryside. Construction
out that successful use of formulas for forces had denuded the land of vegeta-
flexible pavement design would require tion; and all day long, clouds of dust
accurate measurement of the bearing rose from the reservation. The buildings,
capacity of the subsoil—a measurement crowded into about one-third of the
for which there was as yet no standard available space, stood in the close, regu-
yardstick. Sketchy and tentative, the lar formations that mark military posts.
manual was to serve as "a general guide Westover was not unique. Other bases
in runway design and not as a source along the Atlantic, Gulf, and Pacific
of specific instructions."17 coasts were highly visible from the air—
Through tests and investigations, the inviting targets to possible enemy at-
Engineers sought to extend their knowl- tackers.19
edge. In late January 1941, the Water- 18
(1) Ltr, WES to CofEngrs, 6 Feb 41. 686 (Air-
ways Experiment Station at Vicksburg, fields) Part 5. (2) OCE Circ Ltr Constr 37, 14
Mississippi, began studying general prob- Feb 41; Constr 84, 6 May 41.
19
(1) Memo, Engr Bd Camouflage Sec for Red,
17
Design of Airport Runways, pp. 15, 32, 1, 29 Jul 41. 686 (Airfields) Part 26. (2) Memo, Burton
passim. for Robins, 5 Dec 40. 467 Part 1.
448 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
tection for all stations in the air frontier, All of this was preliminary. During the
Robins reproduced Bragdon's plan and first quarter of 1941 the Construction
distributed it as a model.28 Division continued to carry the burden
Gradually, the Engineers began to take of designing Air Corps structures. When
a hand in building design. During the the next wave of air projects broke, the
early months of 1941, requests trickled burden would shift to the Engineers.
in from the Air Corps for new plans and Anticipating an upsurge in Air Corps
for changes to existing ones. When, in construction, General Robins looked for
mid-January, Colonel Kennedy decided ways to get around obstacles to further
that the standard control tower was un- decentralization. Early in February, he
satisfactory, he asked Kemp to design approached General Brett about the
a better one. Within a month the new possibility of giving some of Kennedy's
plan was on its way to the field. In approval authority to air commanders
February Kennedy called for a 31-cadet in the field. Referring to the preparation
barracks for use at reception centers and of layouts in the Buildings and Grounds
pilot training schools. By early March Division, Robins maintained:
the drawings were complete. Meanwhile, The present system ... is not the
more requests were coming in: for a most efficient and expeditious method of
building to house low-pressure chambers accomplishing this work. It does not take
which could simulate high-altitude flight, advantage of the intimate knowledge of the
for a heating system for hangars, for ground and local utilities problems which
exist in the District and Division Engineer
re-estimates of warehouse costs, and Offices, nor does it enable responsible Air
so forth. Few of these early jobs presented Corps field commanders to express their
much difficulty. For example, by adding views before a definite plan is settled upon.30
pressure lines and extra piping, Kemp
Both Plank and Kemp favored the
quickly adapted a standard warehouse 31
to take low-pressure chambers. The En- change. The division engineer at San
Francisco, Col. Warren T. Hannum,
gineers' first challenging assignment in
structural design involved storage fa- expressed the viewpoint of the Engineer
field. In a letter to Schley on 19 February,
cilities for war reserves of aviation gaso-
line. Turned over to Lt. Col. Ludson D. he stated: "Insofar as possible to observe
Worsham, the district engineer at Pitts- in the field, it appears that the bottle-
burgh, late in January, this work was neck causing delay in planning . . .
virtually complete by the first of March.29
lies in the Office of the Chief of the Air
Corps."32 Bringing Kennedy around
28
Ltr, OCE to SPD, 11 Dec 41. 686 (Airfields) would take time and patience, but
Part 44.
29
Robins intended to persist. With
(1) OCE Circ Ltr Constr 16, 18 Jan 41, and Somervell he resolved to cut through a
Amendment 1, 14 Feb 41. (2) Ltr, Hardin to Div
Engrs, 4 Mar 41. 686 (Airfields) Part 7. (3) Memo, second obstacle—the G-4 "freeze order"
Kemp for Vawter, 21 Mar 41. 686 (Airfields) Part 8.
30
(4) Ltr, Kennedy to Schley, 7 Feb 41. 686 (Airfields) Ltr, Robins to Brett, 8 Feb 41. 686 (Airfields)
Part 5. (5) Ltr, OQMG to OCE, 23 Jan 41, and Parts.
31
Inds. QM 600.1 (AC—Transfer to Engrs). (6) Ltr, Memo, Kemp for McAlpine, 27 Jan 41, and
Plank to ORD, 28 Jan 41. 635 (War Reserve) Part 4. Plank's notations thereon. 686 (Airfields) Part 5.
32
(7) Ltr, Worsham to Schley, 1 Mar 41. 635 (Airfields) Ltr, Hannum to Schley, 19 Feb 41. 686 (Air-
Part 1. fields) Part 6.
THE TRANSFER 451
requiring Reybold's approval of major Schley. Initial choice of sites for other
changes in standard plans. This would air projects would be up to the field. For
also take some doing, but difficulties training stations the commanding gen-
did not dissuade the two men from erals of the three Air Corps training
33
trying. centers—the Southeast, Gulf Coast, and
By the spring of 1941, the airfield West Coast—would convene investi-
transfer was virtually complete and gating boards composed of air, Engineer,
directives for brand new Air Corps and medical officers. The same general
projects were coming into OCE. Round- procedure would apply to tactical bases,
ing out facilities under the First Avi- with the regional Air Force commanders
ation Objective—the 12,000-pilot, 54- convening the boards. Reports on all
group program approved by Congress sites, whether from War Department,
in the fall of 1940—were 7 airfields, 2 Training Center, or Air Force boards,
gunnery stations, 2 schools for mechanics, would go first to General Brett for review
and 3 depots for overhauling engines. A and recommendation and then to G-3
second, larger increment of air projects and G-4 for final decision.35 In practice
underset the Second Aviation Objective, the Engineers played a larger role than
a goal of 84 combat groups and 30,000 the one formally assigned them, for as
pilots a year announced by General a rule General Reybold would accept
Marshall in February. To meet this no site until Robins O.K.'d it.36
objective, two dozen installations would The new procedure went into effect
be necessary—20 flying training stations, just in time to prevent some serious mis-
2 depots, a gunnery school, and a cadet takes. In February the Air Corps had
reception center. The fourth and fifth begun picking locations for the Second
supplemental defense appropriations for Aviation Objective. By March, when
1941, approved in March and April, district engineers entered the picture,
carried funds totaling $284,250,000 for this work was far advanced. At Green-
34
additional air construction. In launch- ville, Mississippi, Major Sturgis looked
ing the new projects, the Engineers got over three sites that the Southeast
off on a different footing with the Air Training Center thought desirable. The
Corps. Mississippi Delta, with its swamps, al-
Meeting with Colonel Chamberlin on luvial soil, and networks of drainage
4 March, Kennedy, Tompkins, and ditches, its heavy rains and thick fogs,
Hardin agreed to revise site procedures. seemed to Sturgis a most unlikely place
To choose locations for air depots, the to put an air base. He suggested that the
General Staff would appoint War De- Air Corps pull out of the area and build
partment site boards, each to include an 35
(1) Memo, Chamberlin for Rcd, 6 Mar 41.
Engineer member named by General G-4/31791-6. (2) Memo, Kennedy for Chamberlin,
17 Mar 41, and Incl. G-4/32750. (3) WD Ltr AG
580 (3-21-41) M-D, 26 Mar 41. 686 (Airfields)
33
(1) Memo, Hardin for Robins and Tompkins, 12 Part 11. (4) WD Ltr AG 580 (5-7-41) MC-F-M, 13
Mar 41. 686 (Airfields) Part 7. (2) Ltr, Robins to May 41. 686 (Airfields) Part 14.
36
TAG, 14 Mar 41. 686 (Airfields) Part 10. D/F, Reybold to Schley, 31 May 41. 686
34
(1) Craven and Cate, Men and Planes, p. 137ff. (2) (Lubbock Fld) Part 1. See also 686 Part I for
Memo, Hardin for Plank, 4 Apr 41. 686 (Airfields) Victorsville, Calif.; Merced, Calif.; Valdosta, Ga.;
Part 10. (3) 55 Stat. 34, 123. Columbus, Miss.; etc.
452 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
farther north. When the airmen insisted instances, they had to content themselves
on staying at Greenville, he did the best with making general comments such as
he could; rejecting the sites proposed "the site appears suitable for develop-
by the training center, he chose another, ment of an Air Corps Pilot Training
the highest and most easily drained he School," in the case of a tract at Valdosta,
could find in the area.37 To the east, in Georgia;41 or with merely quoting from
the Mobile District, Colonel Teale also a board report, as when they wrote of a
had to contend with a hard-to-build-on site at Victorville, California: "[It]
site. The Air Corps had selected and the is described as 'reasonably flat desert
General Staff had approved a 1,200-acre land . . . with a sandy surface and
tract near Tuskegee, Alabama, for a gravelly loam of decomposed granite well
field to train Negro pilots. On investi- drained.' From this description it would
gating this site, Teale found the soil was appear that the site is satisfactory from
gumbo clay, "the poorest type for road a construction viewpoint."42 Before giving
building purposes ... in the State Reybold the green light on such loca-
of Alabama." He reported to Schley: tions, Plank checked with the districts
"The conditions encountered are so to make sure that further investigation
adverse that very serious consideration was unnecessary. In most cases, district
should be given to abandoning the site engineers, who had served on the site
and selecting another one." Relocating boards, advised against making addi-
the project on another site he had in mind tional studies.43
would, he estimated, save at least While the work of site selection went
$700,000 and 6 months' time.38 Colonel forward, the Engineers were facing up
Tompkins persuaded Brett to follow the to another challenge: designs for special
district engineer's advice. A hastily con- technical structures at the new air de-
vened training center board rubber- pots. Among the largest and most com-
stamped Teale's choice.39 Other district plex of the Air Corps projects, carrying
engineers were no less vigilant. Most price tags of $14 million each, the 5
egregious errors made under the old depots authorized in 1941 were to include
procedure were swiftly uncovered and separate buildings for testing and re-
rectified. pairing engines, radios, armament, and
By May, the Airport Division of the equipment and for storing bombsights,
Engineering Section was hard at work chemicals, and explosives. Buildings
studying site board reports and preparing serving most of these purposes could
recommendations for G—4. Because many be found at the 4 original Air Corps
of the reports contained little or no en- 41
Memo, Kemp for Plank, 21 May 41. 686 (Moody
gineering data, Kemp and his assistants Fld) Part 1.
were often at a disadvantage.40 In some 42
Memo, Kemp for Plank, 27 May 41. 686
37 43
686 (Greenville Fld) Part 1. (1) Telg, Schley to SWD, 28 May 41. 686 (Enid
38
Ltr, Teale to Schley, 4 Apr 41. 686 (Tuskegee Fld) Part 1. (2) Ltr, Dist Engr Denison, Tex., to
Airfield) Part 1. Schley, 8 Jun 41. 686 (Perren Fld) Part 1. (3) Telg,
39
686 (Tuskegee Airfield) Part 1. SAD to Schley, 22 May 41. 686 (Moody Fld) Part 1.
40
(1) Memo, Kemp for Plank, 27 May 41. 686 (4) Telg, LMVD to Schley, 12 May 41. 686 (Lake
(Midland Fld) Part 1. (2) Memo, Kemp for Vawter, Charles Fld) Part 1. (5) Telg, SWD to Schley, 3 Jun
4 Jun 41. 686 (Enid Fld) Part 1. 41. 686 (Enid Fld) Part 1.
THE TRANSFER 453
outs based on rough sketches furnished has been in for years." On 16 April he
by the Buildings and Grounds Division. wrote Tompkins:
But he still insisted that each layout have
his approval before construction started. theI Chief have had two official letters prepared to
on the following . . . but have
Under continued prodding, Kennedy at torn them up. This office has just begun to
length gave way. In June, Hardin was receive numerous requests for small jobs at
able to inform the districts that construc- March Field, Hill Field, and for alterations
tion could begin as soon as local air in the fields that we are building at Tucson,
Phoenix, and Muroc Lake. It is expected that
commanders accepted layouts.48 Robins' these requests will multiply, especially if
powers of persuasion were also effective we show an indication of being liberal. I
with his fellow Engineer officer, the G-4, think the problem is about to become serious,
General Reybold. Arguing for recision particularly as the small jobs take such a
of the "freeze order" on design, Robins great amount of time in proportion to the
emphasized the need "for modifying amount of money expended that we will
lose sight of our main objective which is51 to
mobilization type buildings at times to provide new air fields for the Air Corps.
take advantage of local conditions." He
held that the change would "permit Another forceful protest, this one to the
competition between suppliers, . . . Chief, came from Major Sturgis on 15
take advantage of available skilled labor, May.
and . . . tend to reduce costs and There is no apparent limit to the requests
to obtain high type of materials for the or demands of Air Corps Station Com-
same cost." Finally, he assured G-4 that manders for modifications, changes, improved
no increases in cost or losses of time would facilities, and additional installations, both
result.49 In April Reybold yielded and minor and major in character [Sturgis
revoked the "freeze order."
50 wrote]. These Commanders have formed the
habit of visiting or of sending staff officers to
Lifting the "freeze" unleashed forces inspect numerous other projects, completed
it had held in check. The door was now or under construction, in order to obtain
52
open to those who wished to improve ideas for improvements. . . .
upon the spartan standards of the mo-
bilization plans, and none were more Indorsing Sturgis' letter on to Schley,
eager to enter than air station command- Brig. Gen. Max C. Tyler of the Lower
ers. Hardly had the countermand hit Mississippi Valley Division expatiated
the field when districts began com- on the activities of the commander at
plaining. From Los Angeles, Colonel Meridian, who spent his weekends "flying
Kelton appealed to the Chief's office to to other fields for the purpose of col-
"prevent our being placed in the un- lecting new ideas" so that Meridian
enviable position that the Quartermaster could be in the commander's words,
"the best Air Corps cantonment in the
53
48
(1) Plank Interv, 5 Dec 50. (2) Ltr, SPD to United States." Clearly, air comman-
Schley, 19 Feb 41. 686 (Airfields) Part 6. (3) Civil
Engineering, vol. XI, no. 4 (April 1941), p. 207. (4)
51
Ltr, Kennedy to Robins, 17 Apr 41. 686 (Airfields) Ltr, Kelton t o Tompkins, 1 6 A p r 4 1 . 6 8 6
Part 11. (5) OCE Circ Ltr Constr 103, 13 Jun 41.
49 52
Ltr, Robins to TAG, 14 Mar 41. 686 (Airfields) Ltr, Sturgis to Schley, 15 May 41. 686 (Airfields)
Part 10. Part 15.
50 53
OCE Circ Ltr Constr 67, 10 Apr 41. 1st Ind, 22 May 41, on p. 52.
THE TRANSFER 455
Recalling the planning done in 1941 approach in dealing with the public.67
by McAlpine, Kemp, McFadden, and This approach worked just as well for
the district staffs, Plank said: "We really military projects as for river, harbor,
went about the business . . . from and flood control jobs. For example,
an honest to goodness engineer stand- district real estate men knew the fair
point."63 The record bore him out. Il- price of the land in their areas, and the
lustrative of the Corps' professional owners knew they knew. Moreover,
standards were exceptionally well-de- bargaining was often on a friendly basis.
fined criteria for site selection published The district representative might pref-
in July 1941. An example of sound en- ace his offer by asking: "How's Aunt
gineering judgment was the Corps' re- Mollie?" Condemnation was a rarity
jection of artificial design concepts put in the Engineer program.68 Similarly,
forward by the Air Corps, such as General Schley was able to give due
Kennedy's idea that all runways at weight to congressional recommenda-
major fields be of concrete.64 An in- tions on behalf of constituents. Although
stance of engineering foresight was the he regularly consulted the Construction
Corps' insistence on developing a timber Advisory Committee in selecting firms
frame hangar to take the place of steel, for negotiated contracts, he was less de-
despite Kennedy's declaration that he pendent on the committee's advice than
65
was "unalterably opposed." The Corps' was The Quartermaster General. Merely
scientific attitude was perhaps best seen by picking up the telephone and calling
in its continuing research into the one of his district engineers, he could get
strength of runway pavements and the an on-the-spot appraisal of a contractor's
bearing capacities of soils.66 A technical ability and reputation. Thus he could
branch, the Corps had once again ex- confidently turn down the concern picked
hibited technical proficiency in this, the by the committee for a $1,440,000 air-
latest of its successive engineering mis- field at East Baton Rouge, Louisiana,
sions. and choose instead a combination recom-
After they had hurdled major ob- mended by both the district engineer
stacles in dealing with the Air Corps and at New Orleans and the district congress-
had overcome serious deficiencies in man. The contractor performed credit-
plans, the Engineers took the program ably—evidence that political necessities
in stride. Tasks that had cost the Quar- and public interest need not be in-
termaster Corps a good deal of trouble, compatible.69
they handled with relative ease. As the In sharp contrast to the Quarter-
only federal construction agency that master Corps, the Corps of Engineers
went "back to the people," the Corps relied heavily on competitive fixed-price
had long ago developed a grass roots contracts. Schley declared it "the general
63
policy on construction . . . con-
Plank Interv, 5 Dec 50.
64
(1) OCE Circ Ltr Constr 126, 3 Jul 41. (2) OCE
67
Circ Ltr Constr 145, 12 Aug 41. (3) 686.61 Part 3. Interv with Gen Reybold, 12 Mar 59.
65 68
1stInd, 14 Apr 41, on Ltr, Hardin to Kennedy, 8 (1) Sturgis Interv, 17 Oct 63. (2) Constr Div
Apr 41. 686 (Airfields) Part 10. See also Ltr, OCE to OQMG, Real Estate PR, 15 Nov 41.
69
SAD, 17 Sep 41. 686 (Airfields) Part 34. (1) Final Rpt of the Constr Adv Comm, 15
66
See ch. XIX, below. Mar 42. EHD Files. (2) 686 (Harding Fld) Part I.
THE TRANSFER 457
72
tracts to obtain bids from contractors month. The air commanders' unceas-
throughout the continental limits of the ing quest for "something better" forced
70 73
United States." With the engineering the Engineers to keep a watchful eye.
force at his disposal, he was in a position For example, when the commanding
to implement this policy. There were officer at MacDill Field asked for $3,000
exceptions, to be sure—offshore bases, worth of "Coolite" glass in his hangars
aircraft assembly plants, and other large to reduce heat and glare, Col. William
and very urgent projects. Nevertheless, C. Weeks of the Jacksonville District
by the fall of 1941, Patterson could re- turned down the request and accom-
port that in dollar value approximately plished the same result by spraying blue
60 percent of the Engineers' construction paint on ordinary window glass at a
work was fixed-price as compared with cost of $50.74 Friction with the Buildings
under 25 percent for the Quartermaster and Grounds Division continued. After
program. "Of course," Patterson stated, the organization of the Army Air Forces
"in fairness to the Quartermaster Corps (AAF) under General Arnold's com-
I want to point out that their projects mand in June 1941, Kennedy, offering
in the main have been larger projects no explanation, withdrew his permission
and projects where perhaps more speed to start construction before he approved
was required." He emphasized, however, layouts. On occasion district engineers
that the Engineers were "habituated were able to force quick approvals by
to the system" of competitive bidding. calling attention to delays; but there was
"That is their general rule, unquestion- many an exasperating wait for approvals.
ably," he said, "and wherever the en- There was also some confusion, as when
gineers depart from it they do it with the Air Corps sent a layout for the air
reluctance and only under the spur of base at Greenville, South Carolina, to
necessity, where speed is of the essence the field at Greenville, Mississippi.75
and they have got to do it."71 Needless Plank recalled numerous other "little
to say, congressional critics of negotiated battles" with Kennedy. "We won some,
fixed-fee contracts endorsed the Corps' we lost some," he said. The skirmishing
policy. did not die down until 1942, when Col.
There were some troubles, of course. Walter J. Reed took charge of the Build-
District engineers, as always, faced prob- ings and Grounds Division.76 But except
lems peculiar to their localities. At for those concerning layouts, the dis-
Vicksburg, in a cotton-growing region, putes did not appreciably retard con-
Sturgis was naturally confronted with struction progress.
shortages of materials and skilled work-
men. At Detroit, in strong union terri- 72
(1) Sturgis Interv, 17 Oct 63. (2) Table, pre-
tory, Lt. Col. Ralph G. Barrows had pared by EHD, Work Stoppages on Mil Constr
two strikes at one project within a Jobs, Jan-Dec 1941.
73
Reybold Interv, 12 Mar 59.
74
70
686 (MacDill Fld) Part 6.
75
Memo, Schley for Patterson, 7 Mar 41. 3820 (1) AR 95-5, 20 Jun 41. (2) Ltr, Kennedy to
(Nat Def) Part 3. Robins, 9 Jul 41. 686 (Airfields) Part 23. (3) 686
71
Patterson's Testimony, 30 Sep 41. In H Comm Part I for Kaye, Midland, and Greenville Flds. (4)
on Mil Affs, 77th Cong, 1st sess, Hearings on H R Sturgis Interv, 26 Sep 62.
76
5630, p. 8. Plank Interv, 5 Dec 50.
CHART 15—CONSTRUCTION BY THE CORPS OF ENGINEERS AT AIR CORPS STATIONS—U.S.
ARMY
THE TRANSFER 459
toward him was an incident recounted with housekeeping chores. But Somervell,
by Madigan. One day in the summer of who had only a limited acquaintance
1941 a high-ranking Engineer officer with life on Army posts, failed to see
came into Patterson's office with a paper Groves' point. Repairs and utilities would
in his hand. It was Somervell's efficiency be part of the package.94
rating, and on it Schley had written: On 15 August 1941, Madigan sub-
"Officially, the whereabouts of this man mitted his findings to Patterson. In a
is unknown to me."92 Still Somervell 20-page report, he set forth the case
was sanguine. The Engineers had long for consolidating all War Department
sought the military construction func- construction, real estate, and main-
tion. Now they needed it. If the Quar- tenance activities in the Corps of En-
termaster Construction Division went gineers. He presented the time-honored
over to them, would he not be the logical arguments. The Corps was a technical
man to head the combined organization branch specializing in construction.
as Chief of Engineers. Madigan stressed the civil works ex-
As Madigan probed deeper into the perience and the wartime mission of
subject, he became convinced that mili- building in theaters of operations. The
tary construction properly belonged with Corps possessed "a well-established, rela-
the Corps of Engineers. The Construc- tively large and going organization."
tion Division, under Somervell, was an Madigan pointed out that because of
Engineer organization in fact if not in their civil program the Engineers could
name. Engineer officers were running maintain this organization in time of
the Quartermaster program. Somervell peace. Moreover, he asserted, military
had patterned his organization in Wash- construction would further the training
ington and in the field on the older and of Engineer officers. As for the main-
stronger Engineer Department. More- tenance function, he pointed to the
over, the Engineers already had airfields. "obvious advantage" of having struc-
The Quartermaster General, Madigan tures kept up "by the same organization
reasoned, ought not to have construction; which built them." Madigan supported
he should concentrate on fulfilling his his conclusions with statistical tables and
other missions. Nor was a separate corps maps. As an appendix to the report he
desirable. In time of peace it would have included a draft of a bill transferring
little more to do than post maintenance. these Quartermaster functions to the
Real estate belonged with construction, Engineers.95 Patterson read the report
and, Madigan concluded, so did repairs and promptly approved it.
and utilities.93 When Groves learned Having decided what course to take,
that Madigan planned to give the En- the Under Secretary moved fast. On the
gineers the unwanted task of main- 15th, the same day Madigan turned in
tenance, he became alarmed. He pleaded his report, Patterson recommended to
with Somervell not to saddle the Corps Stimson "that the entire job . . .
92 94
Madigan Interv, 18 Jun 56. (1) Groves Interv, 19 Jun 56. (2) Groves Com-
93
(1)Ibid. (2) Rpt, Madigan to Patterson, Con- ments,
95
IX, 3.
solidation of Constr Work, WD, 15 Aug 41. EHD Rpt, Madigan to Patterson, Consolidation of
Files. Constr Work, WD, 15 Aug 41.
464 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
be given to the Engineers." In a the probable date was Monday, the 18th
memorandum for the Secretary, of August. Marshall began by saying
Patterson said: that he had read Madigan's report and
The Engineers . . . are now or- liked it, but he had a somewhat different
ganized, and have been for years, on a coun- plan in mind. He did not think con-
try-wide basis. They have their district struction should go to the Engineers. He
organizations. ... If they had had favored establishing a separate corps.
charge of Army construction a year ago, A major general, a man with a strong
they would have moved in with a going
organization and the program, I am sure, technical background, would head the
would have been carried out in better fashion new organization. His staff would be
than was the case with the Quartermaster. heavily civilian. The major general
would prepare estimates, appear before
He informed the Secretary that new
Congress—before Marshall could go fur-
legislation would be necessary, adding,
ther, Madigan broke in. That major
"If you approve, I will see that the bill
general, he said, would have the same
is prepared and put into the proper
standing on the Hill as a Salvation Army
channel."96 On the 15th he also wrote
general. "Every member of Congress
to Marshall, attaching a copy of his
knows the Chief of Engineers by name,"
comments to Stimson and stating, "I
he declared. "If you want to throw away
am sure that such a measure would clear
the best political contact anyone ever
up a good many of our troubles."97 On
had with Congress, I can't stop you."
the 16th the Secretary returned
Madigan had scored. Marshall saw the
Patterson's memo with the notation:
light. "We'll put it in the Engineers,"
"I fully approve of this. You begin the
he said. Madigan rose to leave, then he
necessary steps to carry it out. HLS."98 turned and said, "One favor; no staff
At that Madigan was ready to send the
study, please." Marshall agreed. He
bill to Congress, but Patterson restrained
wrote "O.K., GCM" on the report and
him. This was a matter for the Chief of
asked Madigan to take it to General
Staff. General Marshall was with the Moore to implement. Marshall then
President, conferring with Churchill off
added a condition of his own. Madigan
the Newfoundland coast. They would
was to handle the defense of the bill be-
have to wait. Meantime, Madigan took
fore the congressional committees. The
a copy of his report to the Secretary of the
Chief of Staff wanted Army officers kept
General Staff, who agreed to show it to out of it.99
Marshall.
Upon his return to Washington, the
During the last 2 weeks of August,
several other noteworthy developments
Chief of Staff sent for Madigan, who
gave the following account of their took place. Around the 20th, the Presi-
dent sent his nomination for the next
conversation. The time was 8:30 A.M.;
Chief of Engineers to the Senate. The
100
96
Memo, Patterson for Stimson, 15 Aug 41. AG choice was General Reybold. On the
020 (4-21-39).
97
29th Stimson took a résumé of Madigan's
Memo, Patterson for Marshall, 15 Aug 41 .G-
4/31324.
98 99
Quoted in Memo, Reybold for Marshall, 26 Madigan Interv, 18 Jun 56.
100
Aug 41. G-4/31324. ENR, August 21, 1941, p. 7.
THE TRANSFER 465
107
87 Cong. Rec. 7250, 7393.
D. Thomas introduced the transfer meas- (1) Marshall's Testimony, 22 Sep 41. In S
Comm on Mil Affs, 77th Cong, 1st sess, Hearings on
103
Memo, Gregory for Marshall, 4 Sep 41. QM S 1884, p. 20. (2) Memo, Patterson for H. C. Peterson,
600.1 1918-41. 16 Sep 41. (3) Memo, Patterson for Knudsen, 17
104
Handwritten note, Marshall to Moore, undated. Sep 41. Last two in USW Files, Constr, Transfer
OCS 16600-88. QM-CE. (4) Memo, Harrison for Patterson, 19
105
Memo, Moore for Marshall, 8 Sep 41. OCS Sep 41. WPB Files, 411.33 (Constr Projs—Mil)
16600-88. 1940-41.
468 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
Reynolds of the Senate Military Affairs parently satisfied, the delegates returned
112
Committee: "Recommend that Senate home. A short time later, the News-
Bill 1884 be favorably reported. It does Record changed its tune. Commenting
not meet completely the recommenda- editorially on the proposed transfer, the
tions of Special Committee . . . , publication stated:
but it is a step in the right direction." Consolidation of the Construction Division
Truman signed the telegram and of the Quartermaster Corps with the Corps
108
Madigan sent it. of Engineers . . . would appear to be a
Important though they felt it was to logical step toward greater efficiency in army
have key Senators on their side, propo- construction. And not only should it save the
nents of the measure knew that success nation money and time in an emergency
such as that of the present, but consolidation
or failure might hinge upon the attitude will be an advantage to both of the Army
of the construction industry. It there- organizations involved. Neither has had a
fore came as a relief to them when The fair deal under the artificial division of
Constructor, official organ of the AGC, authority that existed heretofore.
announced that the "national associa- So, from many angles, the consolidation
tion is taking no position with respect promises advantages. It gives the Army, in
to the legislation."109 At first no such as- one branch of the service, the efficient de-
surance was forthcoming from the en- centralized and experienced construction
gineering societies. On 11 September, and contracting organization of the Corps of
the Engineering News-Record pointed out Engineers and the building design, construc-
tion and maintenance experts of the Con-
that the Corps of Engineers had struction Division of the Quartermaster
"hitherto done little" building con- Corps. It gives to these previously separate
struction.110 A week later the magazine forces the abilities that each lacked separately,
expressed doubt that the Engineers could and it guards them against being made
handle the job.111 Members of the pro- scapegoats in impossible situations. It fur-
thermore assures the nation an efficiency in
fession registered concern. Over the years emergency defense construction which it has
the Corps of Engineers had relied heavily previously been denied.
upon its own forces for engineering and There is one other advantage. When peace-
design. Fearful that the Corps would ful times come back again the men who
discontinue the Quartermaster practice served temporarily in the Corps of Engineers
during this emergency will go back into civil
of contracting for professional services, life with a broader experience in construction
representatives of engineering societies operations than could have been obtained in
throughout the country went to Wash- either of the two agencies of the old set-up;
ington to confer with high-ranking En- and the professional soldiers who remain in
gineer officers. Reybold and Robins the Corps of Engineers with its broadened
scope of peacetime activities will gain the
assured them there would be no change more diversified experience that is so es-
in the method of doing business. Ap- sential to efficient expansion in some future
108
emergency.113
(1) Memo, Amberg for Madigan, 17 Sep 41.
USW Files, Constr, Transfer QM-CE. (2) Madigan
112
Interv, 18 Jun 56. (3) Telg, Madigan to Patterson, (1) Tel Conv, Styer and Dist Engr Chicago, 16
21 Sep 41. Madigan Files, Bill—Re Consolidation. Jan 42. Opns Br Files, GLD. (2) Patterson's Testi-
109
The Constructor, October 1941, p. 26. mony, 30 Sep 41. In H Comm on Mil Affs, 77th
110
ENR, September 11, 1941, p. 66. Cong, 1st sess, Hearings on H R 5630, pp. 9-10.
111 113
E
N R, September 18, 1941, p. I. ENR, September 25, 1941, p. 53.
THE TRANSFER 469
On the morning of 22 September, the ever in my mind that this is the thing
Senate Military Affairs Committee began to do. It is businesslike, it is decidedly
hearings on the proposal. Appearing to the advantage of the Government,
as the first witness, Patterson gave the and it certainly would be a great help
115
War Department's reasons for advoca- to the War Department."
ting a change. The request for legisla- The Senators were well disposed.
tion, the Under Secretary stated, was When Marshall submitted Gregory's
not a reflection upon General Gregory memorandum, the committee members
and his organization. The Quartermaster paid scant attention to the argument for
Corps had performed creditably under keeping construction in the Quarter-
most adverse conditions. Nevertheless, master Corps. Nor did they comment
Patterson testified: on Patterson's thin excuse that Madigan
I submit that better results will be obtained had not discussed the matter with The
by placing the work with the Engi- Quartermaster General because one or
neers . . . . The Engineers in normal the other of them had always been "out
times have a well-established, large, active of town." After Marshall concluded his
organization for construction work, due to remarks, several members announced
the many projects of a civilian character
which they direct and carry to completion. that they were ready to vote then and
In war or in time of national emergency, it there. But Senator Chan Gurney ob-
requires no great effort to turn that organiza- jected. Although he favored the bill
tion to the task of building what may be and intended to vote for it, he demanded
needed for the Army. The Quartermaster that The Quartermaster General be
Corps, on the other hand, has little to do in
the way of construction in normal times, and heard. The committee asked Gregory to
its organization is necessarily not on a large appear that afternoon. Just before the
scale. With the coming of an emergency, it noon recess, Chairman Reynolds read
has to build its organization from the grass a telegram from Senator Truman urging
roots. There can be no question, I think, the committee to report the bill favora-
that the waste that always goes with haste 116
will be kept to a minimum if the Engineers bly.
take over the entire task. At four o'clock that afternoon, Gen-
eral Gregory found himself in the po-
To strengthen his case, Patterson read sition that his predecessor, General
a letter in which Harrison and Knudsen Rogers, had occupied twenty years be-
gave the bill their unqualified indorse- fore. Not wishing to be in diametric
ment.114 General Marshall followed the opposition to Patterson, Marshall, and
Under Secretary to the stand. "I think Stimson, Gregory told the committee
this is a very important measure," he that his department or the Corps of
told the committee. "It is fundamentally Engineers could do construction equally
sound; it is logical; it should have been well. But on the question of maintenance,
done long ago." After introducing he took a stronger stand. This function
Gregory's letter, he continued: "I am was bound up with Quartermaster ac-
speaking with very great frankness to tivities on every post and could not be
you gentlemen. There is no doubt what- separated from them without loss of
114 115
S Comm on Mil Affs, 77th Cong, 1st sess, Ibid., pp. 17-22.
116
Hearings on S 1884, pp. 2-17. Ibid., pp. 26, 36-37.
470 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
efficiency. Moreover, Gregory stated: that it had nothing to do with the legis-
"The Engineer Corps is primarily a lation under consideration. Kilday de-
combat organization. Its officers are clared that it did. When he threatened
trained along those lines. They are to appeal to the committee, May gave
eligible for promotion in the line. To in and let him continue. Under question-
saddle them with the task of maintenance ing, Madigan admitted that officers
and repair—which would occupy, if were prohibited from expressing opinions
done properly, at least half of their contrary to those of the President, the
personnel—seems to me rather poor Secretary of War, and the Chief of Staff.
organization." Madigan countered by "This phase of the Army regulation,"
introducing Moore's memorandum for Kilday emphasized, "always confronts
Marshall on the maintenance question. an officer who appears before a com-
119
The Senators proceeded to give the mittee."
measure their unanimous indorsement Members of the House group seemed
and reported the bill out favorably that interested in hearing Gregory's side of
117
afternoon. the case. But on the stand, The Quarter-
The House committee hearings, held master General again refused to speak
on 29 September and 1 October, proved out against the proposed consolidation.
to be more searching. The Congressmen There was, he said, no question but that
were less inclined to accept Patterson's all construction ought to be under one
and Marshall's arguments than the branch. Whether that branch was to
Senators had been. Representative Faddis be the Corps of Engineers or the Quarter-
saw no reason why the Quartermaster master Corps was a matter for Congress
Corps could not perform all construction to decide. "This bill," Gregory stated,
and thus put an end to the duplication "has been presented as a War Depart-
that War Department spokesmen made ment bill, and I feel that I cannot prop-
118
so much of. Representative Kilday erly oppose it." On the question of
questioned Madigan closely. Apparently maintenance, he told the committee
suspecting some subterfuge, Kilday kept that he had a "decided feeling." This
probing for hidden motives. He did not function, as he had pointed out to the
like the treatment Gregory had re- Senate group, was a part of Quarter-
ceived. Although Madigan had worked master work at every post and should
on the transfer for three months and had remain so.120
discussed it with scores of persons, in- The hearings were over. All had not
cluding Somervell, he had not gotten gone well. Marshall feared that Madigan
around to The Quartermaster General. had "antagonized the committee." Sev-
Furthermore, Kilday felt that Gregory eral members had joined Kilday and
had been less than candid. Chairman Faddis in opposition to the transfer.
May, a strong supporter of the bill, tried These men felt that construction could
to end discussion on this point by ruling be consolidated as conveniently in the
Quartermaster Corps as in the Corps of
117
(1) Ibid., pp. 38-49. (2) S Rpt 680, 77th Cong,
1st118 sess, Sep 22, 1941.
119
H Comm on Mil Affs, 77th Cong, 1st sess, Ibid., pp. 55-57.
120
Hearings on H R 5630, p. 43. Ibid., pp. 60-61.
THE TRANSFER 471
Engineers. Moreover, they were con- members, Patterson stressed the fact
vinced that higher-ups had muzzled that the bill had the President's ap-
124
Gregory. So powerful was their opposi- proval.
tion that the committee failed to report The Senate passed the measure on 16
the bill to the House. Chairman May October, but the House was slower to
sent word to Marshall that he thought act. Although Majority Leader
it would be necessary for General McCormack was on the whole favorably
Somervell to come before the group and disposed toward the bill, he feared that
make a "strong presentation" in order Quartermaster officers would suffer dis-
121
to break the deadlock. The Chief of crimination when they came under the
Staff apparently saw no merit in this Chief of Engineers. Patterson assured
suggestion, for he did not send Somervell McCormack that General Reybold had
to testify. Possibly Marshall believed promised to give "all officers of the
that the Congressmen had already heard Quartermaster Corps now engaged in
every conceivable argument. Possibly construction work . . . the same
he felt it would be unwise for Somervell measure of consideration that would
to submit himself for questioning; some have been accorded to them had they
representative would probably ask what been connected with the Corps of En-
part he had played in the legislative gineers over the past years." Reybold
planning, while he was Gregory's as- needed these men, Patterson maintained,
sistant. and would give them every opportunity
Two weeks went by during which to serve in positions of responsibility
Patterson and Madigan pondered their equivalent to or better than the ones they
next move. No word came from the then occupied.125 McCormack believed
House committee. On 13 October Chair- that everyone would be better satisfied
man May informed the Under Secretary if an amendment to this effect were added
that the leadership was disinclined to to the bill. As agreed upon by
press for early passage of the bill.122 McCormack and Patterson, the amend-
Patterson grew impatient at the delay. ment stated that all officers on duty with
In his talks with Congressmen he empha- the Construction Division would come
sized that the President was interested under the jurisdiction of the Chief of
in the measure. On the 14th he sent a Engineers "in their present rank and
photostatic copy of the memorandum subject to all permanent and temporary
bearing Roosevelt's handwritten "OK" advances in rank that may be accorded
123
to the House committee chairman. officers in the Corps of Engineers, with-
That day, the committee voted 14 to 5 out additional examinations of any
in favor of the bill. House Majority kind."126 The amendment gained prompt
Leader John W. McCormack still held acceptance. On 21 November the House
back. With him, as with the committee
124
121
Memo, Patterson for Madigan, 14 Oct 41.
Memo, Lt Col Carlisle V. Allan for Marshall, Same File.
125
1Oct 41. OCS 16600-88. Ltr, Patterson to McCormack, 21 Oct 41.
122
Memo, Patterson for Madigan, 13 Oct 41. Same File.
126
USW Files, Constr, Transfer, QM-CE. Ltr, Patterson to McCormack, 18 Nov 41.
123
Ltr, Patterson to May, 14 Oct 41, Same File. Same File.
472 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
passed the measure and on 1 December tinue to be the major effort of the Engineers
the President signed it into law.127 for several years . . . . Under no cir-
cumstances should the less important, slow
The long struggle was ended. Happy moving, civil works be permitted to dominate
over the outcome, Patterson congratu- the reorganization for vital, fast-moving and
lated Madigan. Calling the act the extensive requirements.129
"Madigan Bill," the Under Secretary
Proceeding from these assumptions, he
presented him the pen the President had
proposed sweeping changes in the En-
used to sign the measure. "It is appro-
gineer setup. The central office in Wash-
priate," Patterson said, "that you have
ington, which would direct all construc-
this little memento, because it was due
tion, military and civil, would be or-
to your efforts that this very salutary
128 ganized along the lines of Somervell's
move has now been consummated."
own office. Division boundaries would
Although the transfer of maintenance
be fluid: for military construction, they
caused some misgivings, the Engineers
would coincide with those of the corps
were on the whole well satisfied. The
areas; for civil works, they would con-
long-sought construction function was
tinue to follow major watersheds. The
theirs.
new organization would have plenty of
rank. There would be a deputy Chief
Consolidation of Engineers, a major general; and a
brigadier would head each Engineer
Somervell took the lead in drafting
division.130 The plan was both general
a plan for the merger. Early in Septem-
and tentative, for many details were
ber, shortly after the transfer bill went
lacking and many problems unsolved.
to Congress, he and Styer framed a
In taking the initiative, Somervell
proposal for the Chief of Engineers,
may have been seeking an answer to
outlining a scheme for consolidating
questions surrounding his own future.
the two construction agencies. In his
Keenly disappointed over the failure
preface to this plan Somervell wrote:
of his bid for the top Engineer post, he
In the reorganization of the Office of the began, evidently, to picture himself as
Chief of Engineers and in the consolidation deputy chief. Through the fall of 1941
of construction work in the field, which repre-
sent the greatest change of activities of the he importuned Madigan to get him a
Corps in its entire history, care should be second star, but Madigan was powerless
131
taken not only to take advantage of the best to help. The new Chiefs attitude to-
in both the Corps of Engineers and the Quar- ward Somervell was much the same as
termaster Corps but to place emphasis on the Schley's. "A firecracker," Reybold later
major task or mission of the new organization. said, "but ruthless. He didn't care who
The construction work of the Quartermaster
Corps overshadows overwhelmingly the con- 129
Memo on Consolidation of Constr Div OQMG
struction work being done by the Corps of with the Corps of Engrs, 12 Sep 41. Opns Br Files,
Engineers, and military construction both Orgn and Consolidation.
in amount and importance bids fair to con- 130
(1) Memo, Somervell for CofEngrs, 8 Sep 41.
Madigan Files, Consolidation Bill, Collateral Data.
127
(2) Memo, Styer for Somervell, 10 Sep 41. Opns Br
(1) 87 Cong. Rec. 9005, 9400. (2) 55 Stat. 787. Files, Orgn and Consolidation.
128 131
Ltr, Patterson to Madigan, 3 Dec 41. USW Pagan Interv, 8 Mar 57; Madigan Interv, 18
Files, Constr, Transfer, QM-CE. Jun 56.
THE TRANSFER 473
he hit."132 While continuing to hope for staff," Styer proposed that the boun-
a favorable outcome, Somervell retreated daries and headquarters of nine Engineer
into the background, leaving Styer to divisions be the same as those of the
work out details of the merger with zones. Two divisions, Upper Mississippi
Robins and his group in OCE. Valley and Lower Mississippi Valley,
Concerted planning began in mid- would stay as they were; they would
October, when the Senate passed the have no part in military construction
transfer measure. On the 17th, after but would devote themselves exclusively
134
conferring with OCE, Styer drew up a to civil works. This plan ran into
plan for combining Somervell's Washing- strong opposition from the Engineers.
ton office with Robins'. The new Con- Another solution had to be found.
struction Division, OCE, like the old one While the new field setup was under
in OQMG, would have five branches— discussion, Reybold and Gregory came
Engineering, Operations, Contracts and to an understanding about maintenance
Claims, Real Estate, and Repairs and and repair. The Chief of Engineers
Utilities. The Fortifications Section, would "operate all plants and installa-
OCE, long a part of the Chief's Military tions and perform those functions which,
Division, was to be under Operations. in a city, would be the responsibility of
Headquarters would be in the Railroad a city manager." The Quartermaster
Retirement Building, where Somervell General would continue to have charge
had his office, rather than in the New of branch depots and to run bakeries,
War Building with the rest of Reybold's laundries, shoe repair shops, and the
staff. By 21 October, when G-4 directed like. On 19 November G-4 sent the plan
Gregory and Reybold to collaborate to the Chief of Staff with the recom-
on plans for the transfer, Styer's blue- mendation that it go into effect fifteen
print for reorganizing OCE had already days after the transfer bill became law.
133 135
won acceptance. General Marshall concurred.
Combining the two field systems posed By mid-November Styer was ready
a far knottier problem than joining the with a new scheme for reorganizing the
central offices. The Engineer divisions, field. For the time being, there would be
unlike the zones, were not coterminous no changes in division boundaries and no
with the corps areas. Only two cities moving of headquarters. Zone offices
were headquarters for both a corps area at Boston, New York, Baltimore,
and a division. On 21 October, de- Chicago, Omaha, and San Francisco
claring it "essential that effective close would combine with districts in those
liaison be maintained at all times be- cities. The zones at Atlanta, Columbus,
tween" the construction agency "and and San Antonio, where the Engineers
the Corps Area Commander and his had no offices, would become districts
132 134
Reybold Interv, 12 Mar 59. Memo, Styer for Robins, 21 Oct 41. Opns Br
133
(1) Memo, Styer for Robins, 17 Oct 41, and Files, Orgn and Consolidation.
135
Incl. Opns Br Files, Orgn and Consolidation. (2) (1) Ltr, Gregory and Reybold to TAG, 10 Nov
WD Ltr AG 600.12 (10-20-41) MO-D to TQMG, 21 41. 601.1 (QMC) Part I. (2) Memo, G-4 for CofS,
Oct 41. QM 600.1 (Transfer of Constr Activities 19 Nov 41. G—4/31324. (3) Memo, Gregory for
from QMC to CE) 1918-41. G-4, 24 Nov 41. QM 601.1 1918-41.
474 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
and the Zone Constructing Quarter- latter into the organization137 and procedure of
masters would become district engineers. the Engineer Department.
As yet Styer had proposed nothing con- Writing from Vicksburg, General Tyler
troversial; now he proceeded to do so. Ac- complimented Styer on his "careful and
cording to his plan, districts in the same exhaustive study" of a "difficult
cities as corps area headquarters would problem," but pronounced the result
deal directly with the Chief's office on unsatisfactory. "In my opinion," Tyler
maintenance and on all construction warned, "any plan that is dependent
coming under corps area commanders. upon a compromise between our present
Thus he would create from former zones decentralized organization and a cen-
superdistricts co-equal with Engineer tralized responsibility will suffer the same
divisions. Forwarding this plan to Robins fate as has attended previous efforts in
on 17 November, Styer explained its that direction." Similarly, Col. John S.
advantages. First, it would cause little Bragdon of the South Atlantic Division
interference with work in progress; se- complained that Styer's plan did "not
cond, it would make full use of existing make use of the decentralized organiza-
field offices; and third, it would retain tion of the Corps of Engineers." Col.
138
essential relations with corps area com- C. Lacey Hall of the Ohio River Divi-
manders. Robins sent the plan to the sion had this to say:
divisions for comment.136
Consolidation with the Corps of Engineers,
Division engineers reacted strongly. which it was desired to secure by the new Act,
From Colonel Hannum at San Francisco can only be carried out effectively if the De-
came the comment: partment's tried and true system is exercised
on all the work to which it applies. The Divi-
The organization of the Engineer Depart- sion Engineers are supposed to be officers of
ment in three echelons, the Office of the experience, qualified to take some engineering
Chief of Engineers, the Division Engineer, load off the Department. There should be
and the District Engineer, is the result of no construction work within their Division
many years' experience; and its suitability not under their control.
for rapid expansion to meet efficiently any
temporary or permanent major increase in To a man, division engineers opposed
work has been amply demonstrated, es- letting districts do business directly with
pecially so in connection with the Air Corps 139
construction assigned to the Corps in the the Chief.
present calendar year. It is my fixed opinion At a meeting held by General Robins
that this organization and procedure should shortly before the transfer, their conduct
not be departed from until the necessity was revealing. At General Reybold's
therefore is amply demonstrated by experi- request, Groves agreed to present his
ence.
The suggested plan offered by Colonel "views as to how the work should be
Styer appears to endeavor to make the field carried on if transition difficulties were
organization of the Engineer Department fit 137
Ltr, Hannum to Robins, 25 Nov 41. 600.1
into the present field organization of the (QMC) Part1.
OQMG, instead of fitting the work of the 138
(1) 1st Ind, 26 Nov 41 on Ltr, Robins to Tyler,
21 Nov 41. (2) Ltr, Bragdon to Robins, 1 Dec
136
(1) Memo, Styer for Robins, 17 Nov 41, and 41. Both in 600.1 (QMC) Part 1.
139
Incl thereto. Opns Br Files, Orgn and Consolidation, (1) Ltr, Hall to Robins, 29 Nov 41. (2) Replies
(a) Ltr, Robins to Tyler, 21 Nov 41. 600.1 (QMC) from other Division Engineers. Both in 600.1 (QMC)
Part 1. Part 1.
THE TRANSFER 475
tion machinery moved with clocklike every consideration consistent with the
precision. country's welfare to the problems of
Among the men and women involved, each individual, military or civilian.
there was considerable uncertainty and On 16 December 1941 the transfer
heartache. Old loyalties could not be was effective. That day General Reybold,
tossed lightly aside. Adjustments were noting that construction had become
not always easy. There was bitterness the first unified command in World War
on the part of some Quartermaster of- II, remarked:
ficers and experienced civilian employees. Consolidation of the construction func-
There was the usual lack of desire to tions of the Quartermaster Corps and the
leave an old home for a new one. The Corps of Engineers brings together organi-
situation demanded delicate handling, zations that are engaged in a 3½ billion
and it received it. All Regular Quarter- dollar defense program, embracing projects
in every State, in Alaska, Panama, and
master officers on construction duty had Hawaii, and at island bases throughout the
complete freedom of choice as to whether Western Hemisphere. This vast program
they would remain with construction or engages the attention of some 600,000 in-
go to other duties in the Quartermaster dividuals, including contractors' employees.
Corps. Regulars with sound background If we were organized as a corporation we
should be the world's largest. In fact, this
in construction could, if they wished, merging of functions involves about the same
transfer permanently to the Corps of number of persons as might be affected if
Engineers. Many fine construction of- the United States Steel Corporation should
ficers—Thomas, Nurse, and Dunstan, decide to combine with the Bell Telephone
among the older men, and Renshaw, System.
Kirkpatrick, and Sciple, among the "Obviously," he added, "it will take
younger—traded the Quartermaster in- some time to work out all the details."
144
signia for the Engineer castle. A number, Time was pressing. Barely more than
with brilliant construction records, a week had passed since the attack on
among them Danielson, Hastings, and Pearl Harbor.
Dreyer, did not choose this course. Cog- 144
Quoted in Lt. Gen. Eugene Reybold, Engineers
nizant of the feelings of the Quarter- in World War 11: A Tribute (Fort Belvoir, Va., 1945),
master group, the Engineers tried to give P. 3.
CHAPTER XV
direction, Groves issued expediting orders various types of Ordnance plants. TNT
6
to the field. Meanwhile, requests for topped the list. Tanks, small arms am-
additional projects deluged General munition, anhydrous ammonia, and
Moore's office. On Monday afternoon, oleum also ranked high.9 With Groves'
shortly after Congress declared war help, Campbell began at once to map
against Japan, a group of construction plans for quickly increasing TNT ca-
10
officers appeared to testify before the pacity. Reacting to the news from
Senate Appropriations Committee. The Hawaii and the Philippines—to reports
estimate under consideration, the third of aircraft destroyed on the ground at
supplemental for 1942, had received a Hickam and Clark Fields—General
thorough going-over in the House two Arnold on 9 December called for camou-
weeks earlier. The Representatives had flage and revetments at stations within
pared several items and had closely the air frontiers and for additional run-
questioned Somervell and Reybold about ways and auxiliary fields to permit wider
6
construction costs. Now, the Senators dispersal of planes. For a time there was
wasted no time trying to economize. talk of "a fighter base every five miles."11
Instead, they concentrated their efforts Anticipating a "greatly increased volume
on providing all that was necessary and of shipments overseas," Somervell con-
on getting "this bill passed at the earliest ferred on 10 December with Quarter-
7
possible opportunity." Recalling "the master, Ordnance, and lend-lease repre-
beating we took" before the House com- sentatives. The result was a decision to
mittee in November, Colonel Plank build intermediate general depots to
described what happened on the Mon- regulate the flow of supplies to ports on
day after Pearl Harbor. "We were just the Southeast, Gulf, and West Coasts
given a blank check," he said. "That's and to construct special ammunition
12
how quickly the damn thing changed. loading piers at all principal ports.
And, of course, from then on, you didn't Estimates could not be ready in time for
have any troubles in terms of getting inclusion in the bill then before the
8
funds." Senate. Requests for additional funds
Face to face with the grim actuality would go to Congress early in the new
of war, military leaders made hasty year.
reappraisals of construction needs. Tak- The old dictum, "time is of the es-
ing note of "the national situation," sence," took on added meaning. On 9
General Campbell on 8 December out- December Patterson told Reybold that
lined the "order of preference" for speed was all important and money was
no object. Complete construction with
5
(1) Memo, Styer for Groves, 8 Dec 41. Opns Br "utmost dispatch," he directed, and
Files, Opns Br. (2) Memo, Styer for Patterson, 8 Dec
9
41. 652 I. Ltr, Campbell to Groves, 8 Dec 41. Opns Br Files,
6
H Subcomm of the Comm on Appns, 77th Ord-Corresp.
10
Cong, 1st sess,. Hearings on the Third Supplemental (1) Memos, Groves for Campbell, and Styer for
National Defense Appropriation Bill for 1942, Part 2, pp. Wesson, 9 Dec 41. Same File. (2) Memo, Groves for
154-244. Styer, 11 Dec 41. Madigan Files, Ord-TNT.
7 11
S Subcomm of the Comm on Appns, 77th Cong, Craven and Cate, Men and Planes, pp. 145-47.
12
1st8 sess, Hearings on H R 6159, pp. 80, 54-84, passim, Memo, Somervell for Marshall, 11 Dec 41.
Plank Interv, 5 Dec 50. G-4/32582-4.
THE IMPACT OF WAR 479
expedite work "by every feasible means." West Virginia and Longhorn, with a
The Engineers had only to ask to receive combined estimated cost of $46 million.
necessary funds.13 On the 10th Colonel Planning activity quickened as money
Hardin wired the field, authorizing flowed in for design of four division
division and district engineers to exceed camps at preselected sites, two ammuni-
budgets on "truly urgent and important" tion depots, a gun casting plant, and an
14
jobs. Two days later General Robins internment camp for enemy aliens.17
suspended regulations requiring bids on Slowly the first dim outlines of the mam-
purchases of materials. Before the week moth wartime program were beginning
was out, the administration had sanc- to emerge.
tioned continuous operations at war Passage of the first wartime appropria-
projects, and building trades officials tion bill loosed a flood of orders. Ap-
had renewed their no-strike pledge.15 proved on 17 December 1941, the
Calling on construction men to "place measure carried more than one and a
their full energies at the nation's dis- quarter billion in construction funds—
posal," the Engineering News-Record edi- $827,820,000 for military posts and
torialized: "Building for defense is a $388,000,000 for expediting production,
thing of the past. The construction in- plus smaller sums for seacoast defenses,
dustry's new standard must be embla- maintenance, and war-related civil
zoned 'building for battle.' There is a works. Directives came in rapid suc-
great difference. Time was short. Now cession for 4 general hospitals, 3 division
16
there is no more time." camps, 13 air bases, 10 ammunition
In the ten days that followed Pearl docks, 6 regulating depots, 3 holding
Harbor, forty-five construction directives and reconsignment points, 3 staging
appeared, twice the number released areas, and more. Requests were soon in
during the preceding 10-day period. Robins' hands for large new industrial
A flurry of orders for enlarging projects projects: the Lake Ontario TNT plant;
under way—a $20-million expansion the Buckeye anhydrous ammonia plant;
of the Twin Cities small arms ammuni- a chlorine plant at Edgewood arsenal;
tion plant, a $4-million annex to the and the Wabash River Ordnance Works,
Detroit Tank Arsenal, and an additional the .first facility in the United States for
500,000 square feet of floor space at the production of the superexplosive RDX.
Pentagon, to cite a few examples— Work piled higher. Although troop
preceded authorizations for entire new housing requirements were still in ques-
installations, including two TNT plants, tion—the course of the war and the rate
of deployment overseas would be de-
13
Memo, Patterson for Reybold, 9 Dec 41. QM termining—General Marshall gave the
600.1 (Engr, Transfer of Constr) 1941.
14
Engineers a green light to proceed with
TWX, Hardin to Div Engrs, 10 Dec 41. 686 construction of 6 more advance planned
(Airfields) Part 44.
15
(1) Memo, Robins for Campbell, 13 Dec 41. cantonments and 5 temporary tent camps
Opns Br Files, ZCQM's. (2) Memo, Amberg for
Covell, 15 Dec 41. USW Files, Constr, Dec—. (3)
17
Ltr, Harrison to Patterson, 15 Dec 41. Opns Br (1) Constr PR 41, 16 Dec 41, p. 146. (2) Constr
Files, USW. (4) ENR, December 11, 1941, p. 13. PR 46, 26 Feb 42, passim. (3) Ltr, Renshaw to
16
ENR, December 18, 1941, p. 52. Reybold, 17 Dec 41. 631 (Pentagon Bldg).
480 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
in early January. An emergency rail- Determine the policies, plans, procedures,
road bridge across the Potomac, a huge and methods of the several federal depart-
ments, establishments, and agencies in re-
munitions depot at Chambersburg, spect to war procurement and production,
Pennsylvania, and scores of other proj- including purchasing, contracting, specifica-
18
ects swelled the program's size. Mean- tions, and construction; . . . and issue
while, far greater increases were in such directives in respect thereto as he may
prospect. deem necessary or appropriate.
In his state of the union message to Compliance with the chairman's orders
Congress on 6 January 1942, the Presi- was mandatory, and his decisions were
dent called for "all-out scale production" final.20 For the post of chairman or
to "hasten the ultimate all-out victory." "production czar," Roosevelt chose
Presenting a program for attaining "over- Donald M. Nelson, former executive
whelming superiority" over the Axis director of SPAB. Named to the board
Powers, for building armaments "to were Vice President Wallace, Secre-
the utmost limit of our national taries Stimson, Knox, and Jones, William
capacity," he announced production S. Knudsen, Sidney Hillman, Leon
goals of 60,000 planes, 45,000 tanks, Henderson, and Harry L. Hopkins.
and 20,000 antiaircraft guns for 1942; Among the first matters this group con-
125,000 planes, 75,000 tanks, and 35,000 sidered were the size and urgency of the
antiaircraft guns for 1943; and similarly construction program.21
huge quantities of "a multitude of other As plans crystallized, the magnitude
implements of war." Turning to military of the construction task became ap-
manpower, he envisioned a force capable parent. By mid-January General
of protecting the Western Hemisphere, Marshall had decided that an army of
conducting offensives on a global scale, 3,600,000 would have to be ready before
and inflicting "total defeat" upon the the end of 1942. Ground and service
enemy.19 In terms of construction alone, forces would increase by 1,270,000 men.
the effort required was stupendous. More than 750,000 men, including
To administer the all-out program, the 50,000 pilots, would augment the air
President on 16 January 1942 created forces. Thirty-seven divisions and forty-
the War Production Board (WPB). Un- five air groups would come into being.
22
like NDAC and its successors, OPM This expansion would go forward side
and SPAB, the new agency was to be a by side with efforts to step up lend-lease
powerful one-man directorate with aid, to stem enemy assaults, and to
sweeping authority and broad responsi- launch full-scale offensives. Camps to
bilities. Advised and assisted by board house additional units; training, trans-
members, the WPB chairman would per- port, storage, and hospital facilities;
form the following duties:
Exercise general direction over the war 20
Executive Order 9024, 16 Jan 42. (7 F.R. 3).
procurement and production program. 21
Civilian Production Administration, Minutes of
the War Production Board (Washington, 1946), p. 4.
18 22
(1) 55 Stat. 810. (2) Constr PR's. (3) Memo, (1) WD Ltr AG 381 (1-14-42) Misc C-M, 17
Somervell for Marshall, 1 Jan 42, and approval Jan 42. GHQ, Records, 320.2/62. (2) WD Ltr
thereon. G-4/32626 Sec 2. AG 320.2 (1-3-42) MR-AAF to Arnold, 19 Jan 42.
19
Public Papers and Addresses, XI, 36-40. G-4/31453-25.
THE IMPACT OF WAR 481
factories to outproduce the enemy and these projects were a substantial addition
give the United Nations vast superiority to the Engineer work load.25
in weapons; defense installations and After more than a month of intensive
strategic bases; power plants and harbor planning, calculations, and recalcula-
improvements; flood protection for war tions, a munitions plant program finally
industries: the list of needed projects emerged on 17 January. At a meeting in
seemed almost interminable. According General Harris' office, plans firmed up
to WPB estimates, essential war con- for new Ordnance manufacturing fa-
struction would amount to $10 billion cilities with a total estimated cost of
during 1942.23 The bulk would be mili- $2.5 billion. Eight ammonium nitrate
tary. plants, 7 toluol, 6 small arms ammuni-
Heading the President's "must" list, tion, 4 TNT, 2 smokeless powder, 2
planes received first consideration. On tetryl, and one RDX would be built
16 January Roosevelt sent to the Capitol from the ground up. There would also
what was, in Representative Cannon's be 10 new plants for loading shells,
words, "the largest estimate for war bombs, fuzes, and boosters, 3 for casting
equipment ever submitted to any com- guns, one for producing gun tubes, one
mittee or any Congress in the history for making optical glass for gun sights,
24
of the world." Included in the $12.5- and one for assembling military power
billion request for aircraft and air ord- units. A large tank arsenal, two armor
nance was an item of $933 million for plate plants, a hull welding plant, and
facilities to expedite production. The government-owned-and-built annexes to
major part of this expansion, mainly plants of railway equipment and other
additions to privately owned plants manufacturers would augment produc-
(capacity which could be used after the tive capacity. Most of the facilities con-
war to produce commercial planes), structed in 1940 and 1941 would undergo
would be accomplished under Defense expansion. The Chemical Warfare Serv-
Plant Corporation contracts. To be built ice proposed a less ambitious program,
by the Corps of Engineers were plants comprising one new arsenal, two new
for which there was no foreseeable plants, and additions to existing capacity,
civilian use—four huge bomber as- and carrying a price tag of about $100
sembly plants at Marietta, Georgia, and million. In succeeding months the pro-
at Cleveland, Chicago, and Oklahoma gram fluctuated with changing require-
City; a score of modification centers for ments. For example, the number of
adapting standard-model planes for use small arms ammunition plants dipped
in various theaters; and Ordnance and from six to five and the number of smoke-
Chemical Warfare facilities for producing less powder plants rose from two to three.
air force weapons and ammunition. Es- Yet the basic plan, drawn in January,
timated to cost roughly $350 million, held up rather well. Superimposed upon
a going billion-dollar plant program, the
23
McGrane, Facilities and Construction Program, war munitions projects increased the
P. 2473.
H Subcomm of the Comm on Appns, 77th
Cong, 2d sess, Hearings on the Fourth Supplemental
25
National Defense Appropriation Bill for 1942, p. I. (1) Ibid., pp. 2-3, 35ff. (2) Constr PR's.
482 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
aboard ship from a visit to Puerto Rico Once the decision to pare require-
early in the war, Patterson's adviser on ments was firm, a command construc-
construction had noted that Miami tion program for the ground forces took
Beach was blacked out. Struck by the shape rapidly. First came orders to ex-
thought that the war would hurt resorts, pand existing stations. Wherever land
he had come up with a scheme for leasing was available and water, sewer, and
big luxury hotels. Under pressure from power systems could take the load, camp
Stimson, Somervell at length found an garrisons were to increase to 35,000 men.
acceptable solution. Five cantonments Next came directives for complete, new
would be built according to plan. Beyond installations: twenty camps, six overseas
that, minimum standards would apply. discharge and replacement centers, and
The capacity of existing posts would be dozens upon dozens of lesser projects.
stretched to the limit. New housing Efforts began at once to acquire pre-
would be theater of operations (TO) selected sites, to pick additional ones, and
type. Whenever possible, the Army
to provide modified layouts and TO
would lease or buy civilian properties,
including resort hotels.31 drawings. Late in January, when General
31
Gregory won his case for converting
(1) Stimson Diary, 20 Jan 42. (2) Ltr, Robins
to Sen William Langer, 24 Jan 45. 601.53 VI. (3) tent camps to hutments, the burden grew
Madigan Interv, 18 Jun 56. (4) TWX, Reybold to even heavier. During the first four
Div Engrs, 21 Jan 42. 652 (NAD). (.5) WD Ltr AG months of war, the estimated cost of
600.12 (2-5-42) MO-D-M, 6 Feb 42. QM 600.1
1942-43. all ground troop projects jumped $800
484 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
million.32 The total would continue to capacity for about 100,000 patients.
rise. Surgeon General Magee wished to erect
Construction plans for the four con- semipermanent fireproof buildings of
tinental air forces and the several air tile and concrete blocks, using plans
training commands unfolded much more prepared by the Quartermaster Corps
slowly. Clamorous demands for countless in 1941. So did Robins, Groves, and
projects followed the outbreak of war. other Engineer officers. Somervell went
Requests for auxiliary fields alone num- along with the idea for a time, but as
bered in the hundreds. On 17 January pressure for saving labor and materials
the Engineers learned informally that a mounted, he withdrew permission for
$3-billion program was in the offing, semipermanent structures, first, at sta-
though, as Colonel Plank observed, this tion hospitals arid, then, at. generals.
figure was "obviously general and purely Consequently, most medical facilities
33
preliminary." That same day General built after Pearl Harbor were of canton-
Arnold issued a call for "Spartan sim- ment or TO type. Further savings
plicity" and started "a complete over- resulted from take-overs of civilian hos-
34
hauling of our plans and concepts." pitals and conversions of private schools
Just what his plans would finally entail and hotels. Nevertheless, the Army
was not apparent for some months. needed an initial $60 million in con-
During the first quarter of 1942 the struction funds for general hospitals
36
Air Forces issued directives for roughly alone.
200 command projects—tactical fields, The construction burden grew, as
pilot and technician schools, bombing still more projects crystallized. A $50-
and gunnery ranges, CAA airports, and million program of war-related civil
miscellaneous stations. The number of works included flood protection for vital
projects doubled in the second quarter industries, channel improvements at key
and doubled again in the third. Not until ports, and additions to important hydro-
fall, when it passed the $1.5 billion mark, electric plants. Relocation centers for
35
did the program begin leveling off. the west coast Japanese, though relatively
Available when Japan attacked were modest in cost, introduced unusual com-
75,000 hospital beds, 16,000 at general plications. Special housing for the Wo-
arid 59,000 at station hospitals. To care men's Army Auxiliary Corps (WAAC),
for the 3,600,000-man force would re- emergency highway bridges across the
quire fifteen more general hospitals and Potomac, an airfield at West Point for
scores of new station hospitals with total cadet flight training—these and a host
of other miscellaneous projects added
32
(1) TWX, Reybold to Div Engrs, 21 Jan 42. (2)
Constr PR's 41 and 49, 16 Dec 41 and 15 Apr 42.
(3) WD Ltr AG 600.12 (1-27-42) MO-D to Cof- 36
Engrs, 30 Jan 42. 652 I. (1) Smith, Hospitalization and Evacuation, pp.
33
(1) Craven and Cate, Men and Planes, p. 145ff. 68-70, 78-79. (2) WD Ltr AG 322.3 (12-19-41)
(2) 686 (Airfields) Parts 44-50. (3) Memo, Plank for M-D to CofEngrs, 20 Dec 41. 632 Part I. (3) D/F,
Groves, 17 Jan 42. Opns Br Files, Memo-AF Sec. G-4 for CofEngrs, 19 Feb 42. (4) Memo, Robins
34
Ltr, Arnold to Brett, 17 Jan 42. 686 (Airfields) for Somervell, 14 Jan 42. Last two in G-4/29135-11.
Part 50 A. (5) Tel Conv, Groves and Strong, 31 Dec 41. Opns
35
Constr PR's. Br Files, G-4. (6) Constr PR's.
THE IMPACT OF WAR 485
to the strain.37 Two secret undertakings that followed saw little slackening of the
begun in the summer of 1942 presented pace. There were many hundreds of jobs
unheard-of difficulties. One was the to be started, virtually all at once, and
Holston Ordnance Works, a huge in- then forced through at top speed. To
dustrial plant at Kingsport, Tennessee, meet military goals for 1942, the value of
designed around a new and untried work placed would have to average
process for making RDX. The other, by nearly $600 million per month.39 The
far the larger and more complex, was challenge was unique in the annals of
the Manhattan Project. construction. Success or failure would
With the country at war, the Bureau depend largely upon the effectiveness
of the Budget readily acceded to mili- of the newly consolidated construction
tary requests and Congress acted swiftly forces under General Reybold's com-
to provide necessary funds. The supple- mand.
mental appropriations voted soon after
Pearl Harbor were dwarfed by subse- The War Construction Command
quent money bills. In the spring of 1942
billions upon billions became available The weight of the mammoth war
in lump sums titled "Expediting Pro- construction program fell on an organi-
duction," "Engineer Service, Army," zation in the throes of transition. The
and "Seacoast Defenses," unspecified parts shift of building functions from one
of which were for military construction. agency to another forced serious read-
The largest single direct appropriation justments. Two systems had to be com-
in the history of construction came in bined and two teams made to pull to-
late April, when Congress voted gether. Policies and procedures had to
$5,275,000,000 for the Corps of En- be revised and channels of command
gineers. A direct appropriation of realigned. Offices had to be relocated,
$2,438,000,000, approved on 2 July, units amalgamated, and personnel re-
was to be the last until late in the war. assigned. Old ties had to be severed and
In a relatively short 7-month span, new relationships formed. The upheaval
Congress had provided well over $10 was bound to cause turmoil and uncer-
38
billion in construction funds. tainty. Likening every such change to
Rapidly, throughout the early months "a major surgical operation," Groves
of war, construction directives multi- pointed out that "it usually takes several
plied. During February 1942 authoriza- years to get an organization back on its
tions ran to $200 million a week; during feet."40 In this case a speedy recovery was
March, to $500 million. The months imperative, for the construction transfer
37 39
(1) WPB Constr Research Statistics Div, 25 Apr (1) Memo, Control Sec OCE for Robins, 24
42, Breakdown of Estimated Direct Mil Constr for Mar 42. 600.914 Part I. (2) Memo, Control Sec
1942. WPB 411.33 (Constr Proj Mil) Feb 42-Oct 46. OCE for Robins, 13 Apr 42. 600.1 Part 13. (3)
(2) Constr PR's. (3) H Subcomm of the Comm on Memo, Control Sec OCE for Robins, 28 Apr 42.
Appns, 76th Cong, 2d sess, Hearings on the Sixth Supple- Opns Br Files, Memoranda-Constr Control Br. (4)
mental National Defense Appropriation Bill for 1942, pp. Memo, Somervell for Reybold, 26 Mar 42. 600.1
130-31. (Secret File No. 1 of Two Secret Files).
38 40
56 Stat. 128, 219, 611. Groves Second Draft Comments, V, I.
486 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
took effect only nine days after the Pearl In merging the top echelons of the two
Harbor attack. organizations, General Robins sought to
Initial steps toward consolidation in- preserve continuity and discourage con-
volved the two Washington headquarters. tests for position. His immediate staff in-
Early on the morning of Saturday, 13 cluded men from both OCE and the
December, movers started work. Day former QM Construction Division. He
and night throughout the weekend, named two executives, Colonels Hardin
trucks rumbled back and forth between and Styer. As advisers he selected
the New War Department and Railroad William H. Rose, a World War I En-
Retirement Buildings, transferring files gineer general and retired Sears, Roebuck
and equipment. The merger took place official who had recently returned to
the following Monday. General Robins, OCE as a civilian; Douglas I. McKay,
with Colonel Hardin and other members whose background as Police Commis-
of his immediate staff, moved into sioner of New York City made him an
Somervell's old suite. Elsewhere in the ideal choice as consultant on protective
Railroad Retirement Building, Engineer security; and Mr. McAlpine. Initially,
construction groups merged with Robins retained all of Somervell's branch
branches of the former Quartermaster chiefs. Changes in key personnel came
Construction Division. Reporting to about gradually, seemingly as a matter
Colonel Groves in Operations were the of course. Late in December 1941 Colonel
following sections: Fortifications, under Leavey left for duty in the British Isles
Maj. Francis J. Wilson; River and to be replaced by Lt. Col. James H.
Harbor, under Maj. Albert H. Burton; Stratton, a graduate of West Point and
Flood Control, under Maj. Miles Reber; Rensselaer Poly and lately district en-
and Air Corps Projects, under Lt. Col. gineer at Caddoa, Colorado. Early in
Ewart G. Plank. Reporting to Colonel the new year Colonel Styer began de-
Leavey in Engineering were Mr. voting more and more of his time to
McAlpine and his staff of navigation, helping Somervell with a plan for reor-
flood control, and airport technologists. ganizing the Army. One by one Styer's
Minor elements of OCE, for example, duties devolved on Colonel Groves. It
labor relations and safety units, meshed was Groves' impression that Robins
into the old Quartermaster structure. wished to replace him and that Somervell
The space occupied by the newcomers and Reybold kept him where he was.42
had housed the accounting, procure- But friction, if it did exist, was below the
ment, personnel, control, and public surface. Topside, it appeared to ob-
relations units, which joined General servers, the transfer "just plain clicked."43
Reybold in the New War Building.41 At the operating level, problems were
Planned weeks in advance, the physical more numerous. Among members of
regrouping went off without a hitch. the Quartermaster group, the transfer
was decidedly unpopular. Many veterans
of the long struggle to keep construction
41
(1) OCE Memos 3 and 5, 9 and 11 Dec 41. (2)
Maj. Gen. Eugene Reybold, "Unity of Command in
42
Army Wartime Construction," The Constructor, Groves Interv, 19 Jun 56.
43
July 1942, p. 78ff. Plank Interv, 5 Dec 50.
THE IMPACT OF WAR 487
47 50
Ltr, Robins to Div Engrs, 23 Dec 41. 600.1 Ltr, Styer to George, 6 Jan 42, and related
(UMVD). documents. Opns Br Files, Pers—Jan 1, 1942 to —.
48 51
(1) Renshaw Interv, 13 Feb 59; Thomas Interv, Thomas Interv, 27 Dec 55.
52
27 Dec 55. (2) Ltr, Styer to Admin Div OCE, 30 (1) Bruner, Outline of Authorizations—Constr
Dec 41. (3) 020 (OCE—Rpts of Activities, Mil Pers Contracts. (2) Ltr, OCE to TAG, 11 Dec 41. 600.1
Br) Jan-Mar 42. (QM Corps) Part I. (3) Ltr, Styer to Div Engr
49
Answers to EHD Questionnaire, 18 May 59. MRD, 20 Jan 42. Opns Br Files, MRD.
THE IMPACT OF WAR 489
usual," General Reybold stated in March to active duty in 1941. Five were former
1942: Quartermaster officers. Although one
The Army Engineers still are operating was over 70 and several were in their late
on the principle of decentralization. We are 60's, most of the district engineers were
still "giving a good man a job," we are still between 40 and 55. On the whole they
"giving him the authority and the means," were able men. Some were to attain
and we are still letting him "go to it." In high rank. Before the war ended, two
time of peace this system was highly benefi-
cial—in time of war it is more than bene- would be major generals and nine, briga-
ficial—it is vital.
53 diers. In the postwar period, Colonel
Sturgis of the Vicksburg District would
Among the men on whom the Chief be Chief of Engineers.
relied most heavily were the division Within the Construction Division,
and district engineers. As befitted their opinion differed as to how much au-
position, the division engineers were thority should be vested in the field.
distinguished officers, proud of their Most Engineer officers shared the belief
profession, and steeped in the traditions that in time of great emergency, a well-
of their Corps. All but one were West constituted organization could not be
Point graduates, all had completed ad- too decentralized. Floods, tornadoes, and
vanced courses at the Engineer School other disasters had instilled the lesson
and the Command and General Staff that where minutes count, where lives
School or the Army War College, and may depend on speedy action, decisions
all had records of superior service in must be made on the spot. Discussing
war and peace. With an average age the war construction program, Hardin
of 55—two were 49, four were in their said:
early 60's—they were in order of rank
and seniority: Brig. Gen. Max C. Tyler, It was too big for any strict control from
the Washington office. Things were hap-
Lower Mississippi Valley; Col. Warren pening in the field at such a rapid rate that
T. Hannum, South Pacific; Col. Roger it was impossible for any group of men, no
G. Powell, Great Lakes; Col. John N. matter how competent they might be,
Hodges, North Atlantic; Col. Richard whether they worked 24 hours a day or only
Park, North Pacific; Col. C. Lacey Hall, 12, to influence the direction with too much
detail. You could see what was happening
Ohio River; Col. Frank S. Besson, and maybe guide t h e future . . . .
Missouri River; Col. Malcolm Elliott, But if you held the reins on the people in
Upper Mississippi Valley; Col. Joseph the field who were so energetic and
D. Arthur, Jr., Caribbean; Col. John so enthusiastic about accomplishing re-
S. Bragdon, South Atlantic; and Col. sults, . . . you'd find them losing their
initiative . . . .54
Stanley L. Scott, Southwestern. The
fifty-six district engineers were a more Many who had served with the Quarter-
heterogeneous group. Twenty-two were master Corps questioned this thinking.
non-West Pointers. Eight were retired From their viewpoint the Corps of
Engineer colonels, who had returned Engineers appeared to have gone over-
53
board on decentralization. This attitude
Maj. Gen. Eugene Reybold, "Mobilizing Con-
struction for Victory," The Constructor, March 1942,
54
p. 53. Hardin Interv, 29 Apr 64.
490 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
58
Ltr, Robins to Div Engrs, 24 Jan 42. 601.1
55
(1) Ltr, Stratton to OCMH, I Mar 55. (2) (Gen).
59
Min, Conf in Engrg Br, 5 Jan 42. Engrg Div Airfield 1st Ind, 28 Jan 42 on Ltr, Robins to Tyler, 24
Br, Office Files. Jan 42. 601.1 (LMVD) I.
56 60
Constr PR 51,15 May 42, p. 284. 1st Ind to CofEngrs, 9 Apr 42, on Ltr, Kelton to
57
Ltr, Stratton to OCMH, 1 Mar 55. Hannum, 30 Mar 42. 601.1 (Los Angeles DO).
THE IMPACT OF WAR 491
was one of their favored techniques.61 turbance and without any disruption
Clearly, this modus operandi did not to the work whatever."66
square with decentralized control and Hardly was the construction merger
formal channels. But Groves believed complete when a sweeping reorganiza-
"it was simply not possible to accomplish tion altered Engineer relationships with
the work on any other basis."62 Main- top echelons of the War Department.
taining close supervision over the jobs, On 9 March 1942 the Army formed
frequently bypassing division and dis- three overall commands—Army Ground
trict engineers, he continued to run the Forces (AGF) under Lt. Gen. Lesley J.
show from Washington. Enlarged from McNair; Army Air Forces (AAF) under
500 to 800 persons during the early General Arnold; and Services of Supply
months of the war, the Operations (SOS) under Somervell, who rose to
Branch functioned within the new frame- three-star rank. The War Department
work much as it had within the old.63 General Staff and the Office of the
Attempts to force it into the Engineer Under Secretary contracted in size and
mold were largely unsuccessful. limited their activities to high-level plan-
Despite many trials and occasional frus- ning. Along with the other supply arms
trations, General Robins pressed steadily and services, the Corps of Engineers
forward with the work of unification. became an operating division of SOS.67
By the last week in February he could (Chart 16) During most of 1941 Reybold,
report that activities, "both in the field as G-4, had exercised supervision over
and in the central office," had been Somervell, then Chief of Construction.
"combined, coordinated, and reor- Now their positions were reversed. As
64
ganized." A short time later, General before, the Chief of Engineers would
Reybold informed Congress that the report to the Secretary of War on civil
merger had taken place "without dis- matters, but on military programs he
turbance either to construction progress would report to Somervell.
or to the orderly procedure of our normal The reorganization led to changes in
civil functions."65 The Engineers were the Construction Division. During March
not alone in judging the operation a 1942 most members of the Construction
success. Particularly gratifying to them and Real Estate Branch, G-4, trans-
was a report from the House Military ferred to Robins' office. At the same
Affairs Committee that "the transfer of time, Somervell began drawing personnel
functions from one Corps to another was from the Engineers into SOS. Old
accomplished with a minimum of dis- titles were exchanged for new. General
Styer became Chief of Staff, SOS, while
61
Antes Interv, 3 Jun 58. Colonel Groves, at Somervell's sugges-
62
63
Groves Comments, X, 4. tion, became Deputy Chief of Con-
(1) Constr PR 48, 31 Mar 42, p. 261. (2)
Hardin Interv, 29 Apr 64.
64 66
Rpt, Constr Div OCE to OUSW, 24 Feb 42. Quoted in Reybold, "Unity of Command in
Hadden Papers. Army Wartime Construction," The Constructor, July
65
Reybold's Testimony, 23 Mar 42. H Subcomm 1942, p. 78.
67
of the Comm on Appns, Hearings on the Sixth Supple- (1) WD Circ 59, 2 Mar 42. (2) For a discussion
mental National Defense Appropriation Bill for 1942, Part of the organization of SOS, see Millett, The Army
2, p. 122. Service Forces, pp. 23-42.
THE IMPACT OF WAR 493
dation, but Reybold had demurred. Now major watersheds. The two divisions in
the question had come up again. The the Mississippi Valley would have only
Engineers offered a proposal for dividing civil projects and their borders would
the Ninth Service Command into two remain unchanged. Districts normally
parts to make a tenth and for moving would have either civil or military mis-
the boundaries of the other commands. sions, seldom both. District boundaries
Although Somervell apparently consid- would be flexible, extending sometimes
ered this solution for a time, he at length into two divisions; but no district en-
decided to leave the commands as they gineer would report to more than one
82
were. division headquarters. During Novem-
Late in October 1942 General Reybold ber, after details were out of the way,
announced a plan for realigning the districts received their assignments. The
Engineer divisions. While bowing to North Pacific, South Pacific, and Moun-
Somervell's demands, he endeavored tain Divisions combined to form the
to preserve the essential features of the Pacific Division, with headquarters at
permanent organization for civil works. Salt Lake City. General Hannum would
The Chief's plan was somewhat complex. head the new division. On 1 December
83
Under it, there would be eleven Engineer 1942 the plan went into effect.
divisions. (Map 3) Nine would have Reshaped, consolidated, and decen-
both military and civil functions. For tralized, the organization for military
war construction, real estate, and repairs construction attained a high level of
and utilities, their boundaries would be efficiency during the year following
identical with those of the service com- Pearl Harbor. An amalgam of several
mands. For navigation and flood control and at times opposing elements, a prod-
work, their boundaries would follow uct of different and at times discordant
82 views, the organization nevertheless with-
(1) Memo, Somervell for CofEngrs, 8 Sep 41.
Madigan Files, Consolidation Bill, Collateral Data.
83
(2) Memo, Styer for Reybold, 3 Jun 42, and 1st (1) Ltr, Reybold to Div Engrs, 27 Oct 42. EHD
Ind, 23 Jun 42. 322.01 Part I. (3) 323.3 (Serv Files. (2) OCE GO 45, 21 Nov 42. (3) ENR, Novem-
Comd's). ber 19, 1942, p. 56; November 26, 1942, p. 5.
THE IMPACT OF WAR 499
stood the strains imposed upon it. lower Mississippi, and the projects at
Despite some initial creaks and groans, Pittsburgh, Johnstown, Muskingum,
the new machinery in the end proved and scores of other places, General
equal to the challenges of war. Reybold said: "We have had, so to speak,
a tune-up bout for the championship
86
The Big Push fight that is now upon us." Seasoned
by more than a year of high-pressure
Seeking early in 1942 to describe the defense preparations and strengthened
construction task ahead, General by the transfer of the Quartermaster
Reybold said, "I must borrow a word Construction Division, the Engineer De-
84
from Hollywood: the job is colossal." partment, in the Chief's opinion, was
In this context, that tired, oft misused capable of shouldering an even heavier
adjective seemed appropriate. The under- load than the one thrust upon it by the
taking was truly gigantic, dwarfing those war.87
previous great endeavors, the building Reybold's approach to war construc-
of the Panama Canal and the emergency tion problems was consistent with this
construction programs of 1917-18 and thinking. Convinced that the Corps
1940-41. In urgency, complexity, and knew how best to organize and to get
difficulty, as in size, it surpassed any- results, he made no changes in basic
thing of the sort the world had ever policy following the outbreak of hos-
seen. The speed demanded, the sums tilities. Instead, he stuck to traditional
of money involved, the number and principles and applied time-tested for-
variety of projects, the requirements for mulas. Holding with most of his fellow
manpower, materials, and equipment, Engineers that decentralization was the
and the problems of management and art and heart of war, he placed his main
organization were unparalleled. So for- reliance on the field, regarding the
midable was the enterprise that some divisions as "our fundamental unit" and
questioned whether it was possible. their decision-making power as "the
The Chief of Engineers had few doubts negation of red tape." Shortly after
on that score. He knew the Corps to be Pearl Harbor he announced that the
a great construction organization un- era of fixed-fee contracts was over. He
equaled in experience, size, and capa- intended to use the Corps' "old standby,"
bility. In the past, whenever a job had the fixed-price contract, in all but ex-
come up that no one else could do, the ceptional cases.88 Having what he
government had called upon the En-
gineers. There had been no failures and 86
85 Maj. Gen. Eugene Reybold, "Mobilizing
there would be none now. The 1930's
Construction for Victory," The Constructor, March
had been a decade of peak activity in 1942, pp. 51-52.
civil works. Recalling the Fort Peck and 87
Maj. Gen. Eugene Reybold, "Unity of Com-
Bonneville Dams, the work along the mand in Army Wartime Construction," The Con-
structor, July 1942, p. 78.
88
Maj. Gen. Eugene Reybold, "Mobilizing Con-
84
WD Press Release: Address of Gen Reybold at struction for Victory," The Constructor, March 1942,
dinner of Washington Chapter, ASCE, 27 Jan 42. p. 53. See also OCE Circ Ltrs 1012, 2 Jan 42, and
EHD Files. 1042, 9 Jan 42. General Reybold's contracting
85
Reybold Interv, 12 Mar 59. policies are discussed in ch. XVII.
500 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
thought to be the right setup and the order of business. Soon after war was
right procedures, Reybold did not im- declared, a drive was under way to
merse himself in construction matters. expedite all urgent projects. On orders
Adopting the attitude that the Chief of from the Chief's office, division and
Engineers was "too big a man" to worry district engineers took the initiative.
with details, he left the direction of the They relied heavily on overtime and
program largely to others. Construction, continuous shifts, enlarged work crews,
as he put it, was "pretty well delegated and offered premiums to contractors
89
down." and materialmen for early deliveries.
Too great for one man, the burdens They also diverted equipment and sup-
of leadership were shared by General plies from civil to military jobs, elimi-
Robins and Colonel Groves. One of the nated nonessential work, and employed
the Engineers' most respected senior virtually every known timesaving de-
officers, Robins had a reputation for vice.91 All this was merely the beginning.
sound judgment, cool-headedness, and Discussing what had to be done, General
tact. Friendly with top men in other Reybold pointed out:
branches, he moved easily in high circles To increase the tempo of all work and to
of the War Department. Subordinates accelerate the completion dates of all proj-
responded to his fatherly personality with ects requires an almost perfect balance and
loyalty and affection. Recalling their timing of and for land acquisition, prepara-
relationship, Hardin later said: "His tion of plans and specifications, approval of
calm forthright manner under all con- locations, layouts, and designs, assemblage
of field forces, procurement of material,
ditions and especially in periods of coordination and direction.92
stress and criticism, his consideration of
others, keen perception and ability to He thus emphasized the need for system-
come to quick firm decisions made him atic planning and concerted effort.
an ideal superior to work for."90 Colonel In the first hectic weeks after Pearl
Groves, whose appointment as Robins' Harbor, while consolidation was going
deputy in the spring of 1942 confirmed forward and the huge war program was
the position he had occupied since taking shape, Robins and Groves pressed
shortly after the transfer, was noted for solutions to longstanding difficulties
more for forcefulness than for diplo- and tried to anticipate future troubles.
macy. Critical and demanding, he was They launched fresh attacks on old,
as unsparing of himself as he was of familiar problems—delays traceable to
others. Each of these men assumed the using services, careless selection of sites,
role he was best equipped to play. bottlenecks in design, and low priorities.
Robins charted the overall course and After weighing probable requirements
dealt with persons outside the Corps, against resources, they ordered further
while Groves, acting under him with savings of materials and equipment.
full authority, took charge of production. Confronted with a shortage of contrac-
Stepping up the pace was their first 91
(1) 230.44 Part I. (2) 686 (Airfields) Parts 44
89
and
92
45. (3) 635 PartI.
Reybold Interv, 12 Mar 59. Memo, Reybold for Somervell, 2 Jul 42. 600.914
90
Ltr, Hardin to authors, 21 Apr 64. Part I.
THE IMPACT OF WAR 501
tors for large and complicated jobs, they were brothers working together—some
95
tested a scheme for stretching the ca- friction, of course, but not significant."
pacity of experienced firms. By probing Concerned by forecasts of crippling
continually for weak spots in the system, supply shortages and belated deliveries,
for potential sources of delay, they hoped Robins launched determined assaults
"to foresee problems before they arise on problems of requirements and pro-
and to have planned solutions and curement. To strip designs to bare es-
planned policies ready for promulga- sentials, curtail the use of critical ma-
93
tion at the proper time." terials, and keep shipments flowing to
In the interests of speed and efficiency, the projects were high on his list of ob-
General Robins urged the using services jectives. A sustained Corps-wide effort
to fall into step with the Engineers. Em- to achieve these ends featured a whirl-
phasizing that close co-ordination at the wind revision of structural plans directed
local level would reduce confusion and by Colonel Stratton, the saving of huge
minimize delay, he called on them to quantities of critical materials through
decentralize approvals. Response to this the work of Harry B. Zackrison, and the
appeal was mixed. The Chief of Ord- choice of the Construction Division as
nance and The Surgeon General refused the principal lumber purchasing agent
to relax their control over designs and for the federal government. This ef-
layouts. General Arnold, on the other fort was crucial to the success of the
hand, was willing to make concessions. program as a whole. Its story consti-
Early in 1942, he delegated authority tutes an important chapter in the history
for approving layouts to the field.94 of wartime construction.96
At the same time, he relieved Colonel To improve methods of choosing sites
Kennedy as head of the Buildings and was another of Robins' aims. With the
Grounds Division and replaced him tem- advent of war, engineering aspects of
porarily with Col. Walter J. Reed. An site selection took on increased impor-
Engineer officer, Col. James B. Newman, tance. If contractors were to meet ac-
Jr., became Reed's deputy and after a celerated schedules, they must have sites
few months succeeded him. Relations which lent themselves to high-speed
with the Air Forces improved markedly. construction methods. No time and ef-
"As soon as we got Walter Reed in there, fort could be spared for extensive clear-
lots and lots of things smoothed out like ing, grading, and draining, andno
that," said Plank, snapping his fingers, scarce equipment could be diverted to
"and then, when Jim Newman got a such work. "I know of no better security
little tighter hold, many other little things in the fulfillment of the responsibility of
smoothed out immediately. . . . We the Engineer Department for expeditious
and economical construction," Robins
93
wrote, "than to assist in initial selection
OCE, Rpt of Improvements in Constr Pro-
cedures, 24 Feb 42. Hadden Papers. of sites which facilitate rather than hin-
94
(1) Groves Second Draft Comments, XIV, 3-4.
(2) Memo, Creedon for Strong, 7 May 42. Opns Br
Files, Munitions Plants and Depots Sec. (3) 632
95
Part 2. (4) Ltr, OCAC to CG, AFCC, Boiling Fld, Plank Interv, 5 Dec 50.
96
6 Feb 42. 600.13 (Airfields) Part I. See ch. XVI, below.
502 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
on 2 January 1942, "applying for AA was one of the few projects to which
priority ratings on appropriate items Groves gave close personal attention
and authorizing increased payments for in the early winter of 1941-42.103 This
overtime worked by vendors."101 He period of relative calm along the opera-
soon contrived additional means, sending tions front did not last long.
top government expediters to plants pro- As the avalanche of war directives
ducing equipment and calling on ex- descended on them, the Engineers began
perienced contractors, such as E. B. to fall behind. Each week saw a widening
Badger & Sons and Stone & Webster, of the gap between the estimated cost
102
for assistance. While it was Groves of the program and the value of con-
who put these ideas across, much of the struction in place. During January 1942
credit for them was due Creedon, whose new directives totaled $670 million and
ingenuity and expertise were major the value of work put in place was $210
factors in the success of the munitions million. During February, these figures
program. were $800 million and $200 million,
Combating delays at current projects respectively. Meanwhile, the number of
was also in Groves' department. In the jobs behind schedule increased from 50
first weeks of the war—the program as a on 31 December to 76 on 28 February
whole was then slightly ahead of sched- and the number not started rose, alarm-
104
ule—scarcely more than a handful of ingly, from 60 to 193. Unless the pace
major projects were behind. Immersed accelerated greatly, the program would
in the details of the transfer, in carrying bog down.
the big Quartermaster organization over Flooded with orders, the Construction
to the Engineers "practically single- Division threatened to become a bottle-
handed," as Hardin put it, Groves relied neck. Reduced, as the Engineers de-
on his principal assistants to push con- centralized, from 3,000 members in
struction, Creedon at munitions plants, mid-December to 2,200 on 1 March,
Daley at ground troops projects, Plank the staff was hard pressed to cope with
at airfields, and Davidson at ports and the heavy new demands laid upon it.
supply depots. From time to time, he As one officer remarked, there were
dispatched specialists from the Chief's simply not enough people to "crank
office to trouble spots in the field: for out" that much work. Moreover, the
example, he sent Zach to assist with a presence of two groups in the office, one
difficult layout at Camp Wood, Missouri, accustomed to Engineer methods of
and Kirkpatrick to investigate problems operation and the other not, sometimes
with the sewage system at Camp Stewart, made for misunderstanding. Under the
Georgia. The Pentagon, a center of pub-
lic interest and a magnet for politicians,
103
(1) Memo, Somervell for Reybold, 26 Dec 41.
600.914 Part I. (2) Hardin Interv, 29 Apr 64. (3)
101
Memo, Groves for Robins, 2 Jan 42. Madigan QM 685 (Camp Sites). (4) Memo, Kirkpatrick for
Files, Ord-TNT. Groves, 10 Dec 41. Opns Br Files, Cp Stewart.
102
(1) Memo, Robins for Patterson, 5 Jan 42. 635 (5) Opns Br Files, WD Bldg, Arlington. (6) 600.1
Part 2. (2) Memo, Groves for OCofOrd, 8 Jan 42. (Pentagon Bldg) Parts 2-3.
104
Madigan Files, Ord-TNT. (3) Ltr, OCE to WPB, Constr PR's 42, 31 Dec 41, pp. 34, 31; 44,
4 Feb 42. 635 Part 2. 31 Jan 42, pp. 50, 47; 46, 28 Feb 42, pp. 56, 51.
504 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
ficers of the Lower Mississippi Valley agreed and I would say so today that there
Division, Colonel Sturgis caustically re- are times and there are conditions when direct
contact from the Washington level to the
marked: job area may be necessary. But it is always a
Sometimes I get quite embarrassed at the highly desirable thing at least to contact the
old time-worn methods under which we responsible official in the field and tell him
operated until the great metamorphosis what you did and why you did it. Now
took place. . . . Under the old system, when General Groves might not always have done
I wanted to get instructions about a project, this. . . . He was working under great
I went to the Division Engineer. Now, I get stress and time didn't permit him, maybe,
them from the Area Office . . . . After to call these District Engineers and say, "I
all, it's the Area that's doing the job and all have contacted your area officer and told
we've got is the responsibility.108 him so and so."111
Division engineers were strongly in favor Commenting further, Hardin wrote:
of time-worn methods and time-honored The belief that direct contact from a branch
channels, and evidently Robins was too. or division chief in OCE was a preferred and
But Groves, proceeding along "the path necessary procedure was very difficult to
of speed and action" he had followed in change and control, but the backlash from
the District or Division Engineer when such
the Quartermaster Corps, often short- procedures were employed was generally
circuited districts and divisions to exer- prompt and vigorous.112
cise centralized control. Whether this
state of affairs caused delays was de- On their visits to Washington, division
batable. In fact, as some conceded, it engineers seemed to avoid Groves, but
may have helped keep everyone on his they seldom missed an opportunity to
toes. That it produced conflicts was be- complain to his superiors. When these
yond doubt.109 complaints were unavailing, some tried
"The great problem," as Groves saw obstructive tactics. For example, Gen-
it, "was to combine the Engineer and eral Tyler advised Sturgis not to answer
Quartermaster procedures and to see to telephone calls from Washington.113
it that this amalgamation not only was Balancing the feeling against Groves
efficient in the end but that it was ef- within the Corps was Somervell's strong
ficient at the very start."110 His analysis faith in his ability and the Engineers'
was sound. But his solution to the prob- awareness of that faith.
lem ran against the Engineer grain. Re- In January 1942 Somervell named to
flecting the attitude of most Engineer the top G-4 construction post a man
Regulars, Hardin reminisced: after Groves' own heart. Chosen to suc-
ceed Colonel Chamberlin as head of
I thought it was bad . . . taking the Construction and Real Estate Branch
responsibility out of the hands of the decen-
tralized organization and trying to run the was Col. Frederick S. Strong, Jr. A 1910
show from a Washington office. I always West Point graduate, Strong had been
an Engineer officer until 1919, when he
108
Speech by Sturgis at Vicksburg, Miss., 14 Nov resigned from the Army to go into the
42. Sturgis Files, Personal.
109 111
(1) 1st Ind, Robins to Gregory (Basic Missing), Hardin Interv, 29 Apr 64.
112
18 Feb 42. QM 685 1942. (2) Groves Comments, X, Ltr, Hardin to authors, 21 Apr 64.
113
12. (3) Sturgis Interv, 26 Jan 64. (1) Hardin Interv, 29 Apr 64. (2) Groves
110
Groves Comments, X, 12. Comments, X, 16. (3) Sturgis Comments, IX, 2.
506 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
real estate and land development busi- Reybold, asking what steps he was taking
ness. From 1927 to 1941, he was a mem- to correct the deficiencies Strong had
115
ber of the Booth Investment Company noted.
of Detroit, serving successively as vice Replying to Somervell on 25 February,
president, president, general manager, Robins stressed extenuating circum-
and director. Recalled to active duty in stances. Unusually severe weather had
1941, he had served as Constructing hampered construction at many of the
Quartermaster of the most important projects Strong cited; at Schenectady
zone, the Fourth, and later as district General Depot it had been too cold to
engineer at Atlanta. Commenting on lay bricks without protection, which was
Strong's appointment to G-4, Groves "not covered under the terms of the
observed: lump sum contract in force." Owing to
During his service in Atlanta as Zone low priorities, several jobs had fallen
CQM, Strong had been thoroughly indoc- behind while waiting for delivery of
trinated with my viewpoint that no delay was materials. Delays at several others were
excusable and that most delays were caused traceable to the Air Corps, the Public
by slowness in decision, not only on the site, Roads Administration, or the Ordnance
but in the higher echelons. Strong was a
brilliant man. He stood Number One in his Department. In the case of Fort Sam
class and had lost none of his intellectual Houston, shown as 31 days behind but
keenness. His criticism of other people's actually on schedule, Strong had been
work was always extremely sharp. misled by a typographical error in the
Wishing to keep this valuable officer on progress report. With better weather,
his own team, Groves opposed Strong's higher priorities, and additional over-
assignment to the G-4 post; but time, most of the projects were now mov-
Somervell, as usual, had his way.114 ing along in fine style. Design work on the
Strong soon made his presence felt. Pentagon was picking up speed.116 What-
Visiting the Construction Division and ever reassurance Somervell might have
traveling widely throughout the country, gained from Robins' memo was dispelled
he questioned officers and key civilians by the next bimonthly progress report.
as to their difficulties and complaints. On 2 March, after seeing the latest re-
Stepping up inspections by members of port, he advised Reybold: "In gen-
his staff, he obtained detailed reports on eral, the whole program is not moving
a number of major projects. Poring over along as rapidly as might be desired or
the Engineer progress reports, he grasped as is consistent with the 'Ail-Out Ef-
an overall view of the program. His fort' for War." Gratuitously he added,
first move came on 12 February, when "Present exigencies demand an extra-
he turned over to Somervell a list of 14 ordinary effort."117
important projects that were "substan- That same day Strong launched a
tially behind schedule" and also warned
him that architect-engineering on the 115
Memo, Somervell for Reybold, 12 Feb 42.
Pentagon was not keeping pace with con- 600.914 Part I.
116
Memo, Robins for Somervell, 25 Feb 42, and
struction. Somervell promptly wrote to Incl therewith. 600.914 Part I.
117
Memo, Somervell for Reybold, 2 Mar 42.
114
Groves Comments, X, 12, 4. 600.914 Part I.
THE IMPACT OF WAR 507
slashing attack against the Engineers. In gressive leadership. To head his Control
a report to Somervell, which featured Division, he chose his longtime associate
examples of "inordinate delay," he said: and fellow Engineer, Col. Clinton F.
It seems evident that the present tempo Robinson, widely known as "Somervell's
of the Construction Division derives from hatchetman." Robinson's attention
the conservative practices of the Engineer promptly focused on the construction
Department under its normal program and program. Meanwhile, at Somervell's
that the more flexible and dynamic opera- insistence, Groves became Deputy Chief
tions required under present conditions are
bogging down in a mass of administrative of Construction and Strong took over
120
impedimenta. Some of the things I feel are the Operations Branch. Soon after these
wrong under present war conditions, when we appointments, a call went out for di-
must get the work done not a minute too late, vision and district engineers to meet in
are: Washington.
Confusion and indecision in the Central
Office, with a hodge-podge of control on Arriving for the conference, the field
some matters and attempted decentraliza- officers were in no mood to admit to
tion on others; hence, confusion in the various serious shortcomings. Their general feel-
lower echelons as to the responsibility of each. ing was that the record spoke for itself.
Too many echelons: Central Office, di- Between 7 December 1941 and the last
vision, district, area, and even job offices.
Too many old officers and old civilians day of February 1942, they had started
thinking in terms of peacetime Engineer construction at the unheard-of rate of
121
Department procedure. $200,000,000 per week. While strug-
Lack of flexibility in employing certain gling under the crushing load of direc-
engineering talent, in design, in use of ma- tives, combating shortages of various
terials, and general lack of ingenuity in solv- kinds, and battling winter weather, the
ing problems and getting the work going.
Engineer Department had scored im-
Moreover, he complained, district en- pressive gains. Momentum was increas-
gineers were "so enmeshed in adminis- ing. Districts and divisions were gearing
trative detail" that they had no time to up as rapidly as possible. A great thrust
keep abreast of what was going on at forward would come when the weather
their projects. Strong predicted that un- broke. Continued harassment and inter-
less the system promptly received a ference from Washington would only
thorough overhauling, the program hinder the work. As a group, the division
would fall further and further behind.118 and district engineers regarded Robins'
Somervell passed the report on to new deputy with antipathy. Some senior
Reybold with the comment that some officers were heard to mutter the phrase
119
of the delays seemed "inexcusable." "too big for his britches."
122
Before the Engineers could respond, Among the items on the conference
changes overtook them. On assuming agenda were progress reports and rela-
command of the Services of Supply,
Somervell acted swiftly to insure ag- 120
Reybold Interv, 12 Mar 59; Groves Interv, 19
Jun 56.
118 121
Memo, Strong for Somervell, 2 Mar 42. 600.1 Lt. Gen. B. B. Somervell, "Construction Goes to
Part 12. War," The Constructor, July 1942, p. 64.
119 122
Memo, Somervell for Reybold, 3 Mar 42. 600.1 Sturgis Comments, IX, 2. See also Hardin
Part 12. Interv, 29 Apr 64 and Groves Comments, X, 16.
508 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
there was little reason for concern; a to my attention in the whole program,"
Class III, that the project was in trouble was his description of the Yermo Holding
and prospects for meeting the completion and Reconsignment Point in California.
date were dim. Some jobs got off to a He had found Yermo's commanding
promising start, received excellent man- officer sitting in the corner of an unfin-
agement, ran into few snags, and re- ished cafeteria waiting for office space to
mained in Class I all the way. Others, be provided. "It seems the colonel was
plagued by manifold ills, never rose an old CQM," Strong noted, "and it
above Class III. Ofttimes, unsatisfactory is easy to see why his remarks about this
progress in a single area counted heavily job were not very complimentary."131
against a project. For example, a lag in Supplementing Strong's inspections were
construction of the station hospital kept those of Maj. L. George Horowitz. Top
Camp Van Dorn, Mississippi, in Class man in the West Point class of 1919 and
III, although work in other areas was an Engineer Regular until 1922,
going well.127 The grading system had a Horowitz had returned to duty with the
double purpose. It enabled Strong to Operations Branch. As caustic and criti-
single out projects needing help. It also cal as his chief, he assumed the role of
132
served as a device for needling the di- "sub-hatchetman." He thus joined the
visions and districts. host of inspectors and investigators—
More frequent inspections increased from OCE, WPB, Patterson's office,
pressure on the field. Spending roughly Somervell's headquarters, The Inspector
half his time on the road, Strong visited General's Department, the using services,
more than 140 projects within a five- and congressional committees—who were
month span. Although he occasionally traveling the construction circuit.
dropped in on jobs that were doing well, These Washington parachute jumpers,
most of his trips were to trouble spots. visiting firemen, and hatchetmen, as they
His reports bristled with sharp criticisms. were variously called, made life difficult
"One of our notoriously bad jobs," he for the officer on the job. Arriving at a
said of the staging area at Seattle, Wash- project, they might spend anywhere
128
ington. "A disgrace to the engineering from a few hours to several days, in-
and construction industry," he termed quiring into details of organization,
the Longhorn and Lake Ontario Ord- progress, design, specifications, account-
nance Works.129 "There is no telling when ting, auditing, and so forth, taking up
Camp Campbell will be built," was his the time of the area engineer and his staff,
comment on a cantonment in Ken- and occasionally demanding the presence
tucky.130 "The worst job that has come of the district engineer as well. With
preparations and the necessary followup
127
to answer criticisms, a visit by such a
Memo, Daley for Strong, 21 July 42. Opns Br personage as Madigan might disrupt a
Files, Ground Troops Sec.
128
Insp Rpt by Strong, 3 Oct 42. Opns Br Files, project for a week. Often, the inspectors'
Insp Rpts, Col Strong.
129
Tel Conv, Strong and Mr Reed, DuPont, 13
131
Apr 42. Opns Br Files, Contractors. Insp Rpt by Strong, 28 Aug 42. Opns Br Files,
130
Insp Rpt by Strong, 29 Mar 42. Opns Br Files, Insp Rpts, Col Strong.
132
Insp Rpts, Col Strong. Sturgis Interv, 26 Jan 64.
510 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
suggestions seemed wildly impractical, the present personnel, military and civil-
and their opinions, uninformed. One ian, . . . will surpass in perform-
outspoken district engineer declared: ance during this war the long established
Many of their procedures were against record of the Corps of Engineers in
136
law or regulation. It was, however, no skin getting the job done on time."
lost by them if a project was caught violating Many obstacles stood in the way.
these orders. It was the District Engineer's Priorities were consistently low. Shortages
neck, as these vermin disappeared on such of materials and equipment were a
occasions back into the woodwork. Many perpetual headache. Decisions by the
reports by these visiting hatchetmen were
made to show how good they were rather using services were often slow. The Air
than ... to help the project.
133
Forces protested that overhead was too
high. Supervision at the job sites was at
Protesting against the spate of inspections, times extremely thin, and management
one of Robins' officers averred: "With failures increased as the Engineers had
very few exceptions, the reports are
to dip deeper into the contractor barrel.
lacking in constructive criticisms or
A ruling by the Comptroller General
suggestions, lead to no useful result, and, necessitated difficult adjustments in the
on the contrary, are the cause of delay audit machinery. The weatherman did
and of annoyance and discourage-
not always co-operate. In one form or
ment."134 Another result was to create
another, most of the old, familiar prob-
a false impression, to paint conditions
lems of emergency construction beset the
much blacker than they were. 137
Engineers. Worst of all was the tremen-
Spring found the Engineers making
dous haste. With the best will in the
rapid gains. Production was increasing;
world, it was impossible to maintain the
work valued at $375 million went into pace and still avoid mistakes.
place in March. More and more jobs
Nevertheless, some phases of the work
were getting under way; between 15 and
were proceeding remarkably well.
31 March construction began on proj-
O'Brien's progress was especially en-
ects with a total estimated cost of $521
couraging. The huge land acquisition
million. Progress was improving, as
program for fiscal 1942—the area in-
shown in Table 15. The number of
volved was 5.3 million acres, nearly
projects not started remained constant
three-quarters the size of Belgium—was
at about 240, but as Robins pointed out,
encountering few snags. Slightly more
orders for 125 new projects had come
than 2.5 million acres were being ob-
through during the last two weeks of
tained through the transfer of public
March.136 General Reybold exhibited
lands or through donations. With a
optimism. He had, he told division
sizable organization under his direc-
engineers, "complete confidence that
tion—several thousand persons in the
133
Sturgis Comments, XV, 2.
134 136
Draft Memo, Constr Div for Patterson, n.d. SWD Circ 13-1942, 4 Apr 42. Opns Br Files,
Opns Br Files, USW. SWD.
135 137
(1) Memo, Control Sec OCE for Robins, 13 (1) Opns Br Files, Control Sec, Constr Div.
Apr 42. 600.1 Part 13. (2) Memo, Robins for Somer- (2) Plank Interv, 5 Dec 50. (3) B-21378, December
vell, c. 15 Apr 42. 600.1 (Secret File No. 1 of Two 20, 1941. (4) OUSW, CD Gen Directive 23, 24
Secret Files). Feb 42. 3820 (Nat Def) Part 13.
THE IMPACT OF WAR 511
Engineer field offices and some 250 in to bring the aggregate directly to the site.
the Real Estate Branch, OCE—and with A plant with a daily capacity of 3,000
the assistance of other federal agencies, cubic yards fed materials into batch
O'Brien was moving rapidly ahead to trucks for mixing enroute to points
conclude the purchase of the remaining throughout the sprawling structure. A
2.8 million acres as well as to complete system of tower hoists, chutes, and bug-
the leasing of an additional 1.7 million gies delivered the mix for final place-
acres and some 65 million square feet of ment. Forms for concrete columns, walls,
storage and office space. Reports from and floors were preassembled, marked,
the job sites provided one measure of his and used again and again. Forms for
success. Of 978 delays reported by area concrete facing on the interior courts
engineers in May 1942, real estate ac- were built in place, and in order to save
counted for but 30. There were other time, new ones were provided for each
favorable signs. No nationwide shortage section and old ones taken down and
139
of labor had developed, strikes were few, salvaged. At the peak of employment,
138
and lumber prices were holding firm. 13,000 persons manned the job. Colonel
In these areas, at least, the situation ap- Renshaw, the project officer, contractor
peared to be under control. John T. McShain, and architect George
One bright spot in the program was the E. Bergstrom had to cope with several
Pentagon project. An architectural rarity crises in the early months of the war—
and the butt of a thousand jokes, the a failure by the rolling mills to deliver
"monster" structure went up rapidly steel on time, a strike of plumbers and
during the winter of 1941-42. "Con- iron workers, and last-minute decisions
creting a l00-acre office building," one to increase the size of the building.
writer described the operation. Work Nevertheless, they managed to keep the
proceeded at a record-breaking pace. job on schedule. By late April, they had
Sand and gravel came from the Potomac moved 2,500,000 cubic yards of earth,
River bottom. Early dredging of what poured 225,000 cubic yards of concrete,
would be a scenic lagoon enabled barges driven over 40,000 piles, and completed
138
two sections of the building. On the 3Oth
(1) Annual Rpt, Real Estate Br, OCE, to
USW, 1941-1942. Gideon File, 6A7;. (2) Rpt,
139
Control Sec, Constr Div, 15 May 42, sub: Summary ENR, June 4, 1942, pp. 80-84. See also Leisen-
of Delaying Factors. 600.914 Part 2. (3) Constr PR's. ring Interv, 5 Jun 57.
512 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
the first occupants moved in. By the end his own analysis, General Robins would
of May, 1,000,000 square feet of office have to achieve a work-in-place average
space was available and the expectation of about $550 million per month during
was that another 500,000 would be ready the last three quarters of 1942 in order
in June. Completion of the building by to pull the program through. In addi-
its November deadline seemed virtually tion, he would require at peak a work
assured. As occupancy went forward, force of roughly a million men. After a
pressure on space in Washington relaxed. moderate gain in April, the monthly
One beneficiary was the Construction value of work placed reached the $400
Division, which in June joined the rest million mark in May. In June the figure
of OCE in the New War Department shot beyond $500 million. Meanwhile,
140
Building. the total number of workers employed
From the vantage point of the front grew from 450,000 in March to over
office, the overall outlook was in- 800,000 in June. Robins knew as well
creasingly encouraging. According to as any that the Engineers could not af-
ford to take success for granted. Too
much was at stake, the outcome of bat-
140
(1) WD Press Release, 29 Apr 42. EHD Files, tles and the lives of fighting men, to say
(2) 411.5 (Pentagon Bldg). (3) Gavin Hadden, The
Pentagon Project (MS), 1944, p. 8. 333.5 (Pentagon nothing of the reputation of the Corps.
Bldg—Bulky). Nevertheless, the signs seemed favorable.
THE IMPACT OF WAR 513
Outwardly, at least, Robins was cool and needed his personal attention. Sunday
141
confident. morning would find him there. Sherrill
To Groves, fighting, as it were, in described one such visit—to the Lake
the thick of the battle, things presented Ontario Ordnance Works:
a different aspect. Projects not started, It is a wet, rainy, cold Spring Sunday. He
projects behind, strikes, shortages, trans- gets off the train in Buffalo early in the
portation tieups, problems of priorities, morning, eats a hasty breakfast, and drives
problems of design, contractors in to the project. He spends the morning going
trouble, area engineers unable to meas- over the physical aspects of the job. . . .
At noon, he repairs to the headquarters of
ure up to their jobs, administrative the contractor, J. G. White Engineering
snarls in the divisions and districts—he Company, New York, and asks to have the
had barely dealt with one crisis before contractor's representative meet him for a
he had another on his hands. At times cup of coffee. The contractor's representa-
it seemed as if the weight of the whole tive is mean and testy. He has been pushed
vast program had fallen on his shoulders. around considerably by other representatives
of the Army . . . . For an hour and a
Scalding memorandums came his way half or more, [Groves] talks quietly to the
from Robinson in SOS. Extremely critical man, . . . trying to establish in the
of the Engineers' performance, Somer- representative's mind confidence in General
vell's control officer issued repeated Groves. He succeeds, and the latter realizes
warnings that construction objectives that here is someone who knows more about
142 this job . . . than all the rest of the
might be "missed entirely." Groves Army's representatives put together. . . .
lived in a world of tension and an- This man commences to beam. He has found
xiety, where the possibility of failure someone who talks his language. He brings
seemed by no means remote. Like the out his progress reports, explains his diffi-
conscientious, dedicated officer he was, culty . . . . At the end of the day,
Groves takes the night train back to Washing-
he left nothing undone to insure the ton and is in his office early Monday morn-
program's success. ing.
One of his close associates furnished
a picture of Groves during this critical A month later the project was on sched-
period. "How did he operate?" wrote ule. "This man Groves," Sherrill related,
Col. Fred G. Sherrill. "He usually spent "had literally and figuratively picked
six days a week in Washington, working that project up out of the mud, put it
steadily around the clock." During the on its feet."143 Recalling this period of
week, he would determine which of all his life, Groves disclosed: "I was hoping
the projects under his direction most to get to a war theater so I could find
a little peace."144
141
Meanwhile, there were frequent per-
(1) Memo, Robins for Somervell, n.d. 600.1 sonnel changes in the field. The casualty
(Secret File No 1 of Two Secret Files). (2) Constr
PR's. (3) Hardin Interv, 29 April 64. rate was highest among area engineers.
142
Memo, SOS for CofEngrs, 15 Apr 42, and
similar memos in file. 600.1 Part II. See also (1)
143
Memo, Robinson for Somervell, 14 May 42. 600.914 Col. Fred G. Sherrill, The Case of General
Part I. (2) Memo, Robinson for Somervell, 30 Apr Groves (MS), 1947, pp. 3-4. Copy in EHD Files.
144
42. Madigan Files, 101.6 (Gen Corresp). (3) Memo, Lt. Gen. Leslie R. Groves, "The Atom General
Robinson for Col Pease, 16 May 42. Opns Br Files, Answers His Critics," The Saturday Evening Post,
Memos, AF Sec. June 19, 1948, p. 16.
514 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
One job had four before it reached became a sore point with Groves. When
completion. Some outstanding project reports for mid-April showed little im-
officers acquired a name as trouble provement over March, he acted to
shooters; men like Lt. Col. Harry R. break the log jam. On the 24th he se-
Kadlec, Maj. Karl M. Pattee, and Capt. lected 48 projects which were not yet
Mark C. Fox were called upon again under way despite the fact that their
and again to take over jobs where others directives were all over eight weeks old.
had failed. Commenting on the high Twenty-two of the laggard jobs were in
turnover among area engineers, Groves Colonel Plank's department, thirteen in
said: Colonel Daley's, eight in Colonel
In the first place some failed to do as well as Davidson's, and five in Mr. Creedon's.
we thought someone else would do. In the In a terse note to each of these men,
second place they wore out physically. The Groves demanded to know why the jobs
hours were long and there was no rest. The had not started and when work would
responsibilities were terrific and the require- begin. The replies came back quickly.
ment for important decisions was constant.
Another reason for the turnover being so The officers cited the usual reasons for
high was the fact that an Area Engineer who delays: slowness in receipt and approval
had initiated the work and was responsible of plans, scarcity of qualified contractors,
for the building up of the enormous organiza- troubles with local commanders, and so
tion was never as efficient at tearing it on. They insisted that everything possi-
down. ... A final reason was that
once the project was within about 80 percent ble was being done to get construction
of final completion, it was normally operable, rolling.146 Creedon took a different view,
and the need for a hard145 driving Area putting the blame on the Engineer sys-
Engineer was not so pressing. tem. "Peacetime functioning of Army
departments cannot be utilized for the
Although area officers were particularly
War Program," he maintained. "It is
vulnerable, district and division en-
a shocking perversion of logic to merely
gineers were not immune. Groves gradu-
superimpose gigantic construction on
ally replaced most of the retired colonels
a departmental organization and to ex-
recalled to duty as district engineers in
pect results because the peacetime setup
1941. And, at his prompting, General
functioned efficiently under peacetime
Reybold, on a day in April 1942, relieved
conditions."147 Pressure from Groves not-
the very senior engineers of the North
withstanding, there were 300 projects
Atlantic, Great Lakes, and Missouri
not yet under way on 30 April.148
River Divisions, replacing them with
May was a month of countless trials
energetic younger men, Cols. Beverly C.
and nagging uncertainties. A tightening
Dunn, Ludson D. Worsham, and Lewis
of the lumber market; a worsening
A. Pick. Dunn and Worsham afterward
shortage of steel; warnings from con-
became brigadier generals and Pick,
tractors that equipment was becoming
who served as Chief of Engineers from
1949-53, attained three-star rank. 146
Memos, Groves for Plank, Daley, Davidson, and
The large number of jobs not started Creedon, 24 Apr 42, and replies. Opns Br Files.
147
Memo, Creedon for Strong, 7 May 42. Opns
Br Files, Munitions Plants & Depots Sec.
145 148
Groves Comments, X, 13A-13B. Constr PR 50, 30 Apr 42, p. 57.
THE IMPACT OF WAR 515
"dirty letters," larding them with demanded that the program have high
phrases like "alarming condition" and priority. Alarmed, Groves rushed to
152
"the bottleneck which now exists." California and worked out an agree-
Was the effort succeeding or was it ment: DeWitt withdrew his request
falling short? The answer lay buried in for priority, and Groves, in turn, prom-
the sheaf of reports submitted by the ised that the relocation centers would
field at the end of May. To analyze be ready for occupancy sixty days after
this information and put together the layouts received approval and would
division's bimonthly report would take reach completion one month later.154
a week or two. Explaining the purpose of the agreement
Early in June Groves flew to San to General Tyler, Groves said: "We're
Francisco to confront a fresh emergency. very anxious not to let our haste to get
In February the President had decided these facilities done interfere with our
to evacuate the west coast Japanese.153 general program any more than we can
Assistant Secretary of War John J. help it. In other words we not only want
McCloy was to oversee the undertaking. to get done in 60-90 days, we don't want
155
By early spring work was under way on to get done a minute sooner." Knowl-
temporary induction stations at race- edge that the bargain would be hard to
tracks and fairgrounds in California and keep added to Groves' other worries.
on a dozen relocation centers in the "On this Jap thing," he told Colonel
Rockies and the Great Plains. Division Scott, "if you will make every effort to
engineers reported these projects not to get it finished—because there is nothing
OCE, but to General DeWitt and his that is going to cost us more embarrass-
Western Defense Command. Construc- ment than that."156
tion presented some obstacles: housing During the first weeks in June, Groves
had to be designed for family units; launched one of the Corps' most dif-
Japanese physique and customs had to ficult wartime undertakings: construc-
be taken into account; and a number tion of a supersecret $100-million plant
of the sites were remote. Nevertheless, for manufacturing RDX, an explosive
work proceeded generally on schedule. several times more powerful than TNT.
By May internees were moving through Although discovered in 1899, RDX had
the induction centers and several relo- never been produced commercially in
cation centers were open. The remaining the United States. In 1941, at the urging
centers were expected to be ready in of the British, President Roosevelt had
June, July, and August. Then, suddenly, approved construction of the $4o-million
in early June, orders came for nine more Wabash Ordnance Works at Newport,
relocation centers and General DeWitt Indiana. Based on British models which
152 154
Memo, Robinson for Somervell, 14 May 42. (1) 685 Part I. (2) 652 I. (3) Tel Conv, Groves
600.914 ser 1-34. and Park, NPD, 2 Jun 42. Opns Br Files, NPD. (4)
153
For a detailed discussion see Stetson Conn, Rose Constr PR's.
155
C. Engelman, and Byron Fairchild, Guarding the Tel Conv, Groves and Tyler, UMVD, 18 Jun
United States and Its Outposts, UNITED STATES 42. Opns Br Files, UMVD.
156
ARMY IN WORLD WAR II (Washington, 1964), Tel Conv, Groves and Scott, SWD, 15 Aug 42.
ch. V. Opns Br Files, SWD.
THE IMPACT OF WAR 517
employed the traditional batch method the Deputy Chief of Construction. Gen-
of making explosives, Wabash was orig- eral Robins was in St. Louis for a con-
inally designed to turn out ten tons of ference with the division engineers. On
RDX per day. Begun soon after Pearl Groves' desk that morning was the newly
Harbor and slated for completion in published progress report for 31 May,
eighteen months, the project was 10 showing over 200 projects behind sched-
percent ahead of schedule in May 1942. ule and 200 more not yet under way.
Meanwhile, plans had gone forward for The main item on his agenda for the day
a second plant with seventeen times the was an appearance with General Reybold
capacity of Wabash near Kingsport, before the House Appropriations Sub-
Tennessee. Based on a recently developed committee. The session was long and
and largely untried assembly-line proc- arduous. Congressman Engel took a
ess, the new Holston Ordnance Works prominent part in the proceedings, ham-
posed treacherous problems of layout mering the witnesses with questions as
and design. A poor site (the Engineers to costs, contracting policies, and the
had opposed its selection) and a tight overrun on the Pentagon. Groves, who
completion schedule (partial production was much closer to the work than
was to begin in the spring of 1943) made Reybold, bore the brunt of the inquiry.159
the job even tougher. Vetoing a sugges- Returning to the office, the two men
tion that the Tennessee Eastman Cor- discussed construction progress and a
poration, which had pioneered the proc- highly critical letter which had just come
ess, design and build the plant, Groves from Somervell. Afterward Groves re-
chose the top industrial engineering firm lated: "My attitude at the time was very
of Fraser-Brace as architect-engineer- definite—I believe it was Reybold's
manager and the highly respected also—that the Division Engineers needed
Charles T. Main, Inc., as principal to be stirred up, and that it would be
subcontractor. To administer the work, quite helpful if the Chief showed that
he established the separate Kingsport he was, as I was, personally dissatisfied
District headed by Maj. Elvin R. Gates, with their performance."160 At 6:05 that
who had earned an outstanding reputa- evening, Groves picked up the telephone
tion at Elwood and several other plants.157 and called the Missouri River Division's
"It is brand new, you know," an Ord- St. Louis office. Summoning a secretary,
nance officer told Groves; "nobody has he dictated a scorching message from
158
ever tried this thing before." Groves Reybold, together with instructions that
needed no reminder that Holston would General Robins deliver it in person to
bear close watching. the division engineers the next day. The
Monday, 15 June, was a full day for Chief had not minced his words. Term-
ing the latest progress report "definitely
157
unsatisfactory," he called for "prompt
(1) Robert O. Bengis, Super Explosive Program
RDX and its Compositions, A, B, and C (November and drastic steps to reduce the number of
1945), I, 1-91. Ord Hist File. (2)ENR, June 25,1946, 159
pp. 64-69. (3) 635 (Wabash R OW). (4) 635 H Subcomm of the Comm on Appns, 77th
(Holston OW). (5) 600.03 (Holston OW). Cong, 2d sess, Hearings on Military Establishment
158
Tel Conv, Groves and Maj Kelly, Ord, 5 May Appropriation Bill for 1943, pp. 210-236.
160
42. Opns Br Files Holtson OW. Groves Comments, X, 15-16.
518 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
jobs not started and those behind sched- The attitude of OCE offended many
ule." Attributing delays to "a manage- division and district engineers. Amid
ment failure" in the districts and di- all the criticism and ferment, they were
visions, he demanded to know which giving the program everything they had.
jobs would not be under way by 30 June Some openly displayed their resentment.
and why. "The country is at war," the Returning from a visit to the North
Chief declared. "We have decentralized Pacific, one officer reported: "Colonel
power and responsibility to the Division Park feels very strongly that the 'skin-
Engineers and I expect them to meet their ning' letters from the Office, Chief of
responsibility.''161 Engineers, are definitely lowering the
On the morning of the i6th, Groves morale of his division, and that his men,
summoned Creedon, Daley, Davidson, who are working to the limit of en-
and Itschner to his office. Sitting in on durance, are being distracted from con-
the meeting was General Reybold. It struction by fear of the progress reports
was Engineer Day, the 167th anniver- and the resulting letters from Washing-
sary of the founding of the Corps. But ton."163 Colonel Stratton expressed the
the purpose of the gathering was not to general feeling: "For every 'needler'
celebrate; it was, as Reybold put it, to there were hundreds, if not thousands,
"blow these [projects] loose." Groves working their hearts out to meet the
led the discussion. Referring to the stated objectives, many of which ap-
lengthy list of jobs not started and jobs proached the irrational because they
164
behind, he warned, "This means we will defied the realities." Hardin, who had
be skinned again on our next progress once served in the same regiment as
report." He went on to thrash out the Groves, explained his old comrade's ap-
details of troubles at some 40 key proj- proach: "A lot of it was to get a reaction
ects. Everyone agreed there should be and results that might not otherwise be
no tampering with deadlines. Comple- fulfilled. It was a tool which he was ac-
tion dates were "sacred," they chorused; customed to using from his younger
"you lose control of your job if you keep days as a troop commander."165 Groves
moving them back." Nevertheless, himself confirmed this view. "Certainly,"
Groves felt something could be done in he mused, "even the greatest race-
the way of reporting better progress. horses have to have the whip applied in
Projects already occupied and in use the home stretch. This was our way of
were shown behind schedule. He or- applying the whip and it was success-
166
dered all jobs which were 90 percent ful."
complete wiped from the books. General By late June it was clear that the race
Reybold was for cracking down on the would soon be won. Reporting by tele-
field. "We ought to hammer them phone on the 21st and 22d, the division
hard," he said.162 engineers assured General Robins that
161 163
Tel Conv, Groves and MRD office, 15 Jun 42. Memo, Itschner for Strong, 22 Jul 42. Opns
Opns Br Files, Rpts—Jobs not started before Br Files, Memos—AF Sec.
164
6-30-42. Ltr, Stratton to OCMH, I Mar 55.
162 165
Notes of Meeting, Reybold, Groves, et al., 16 Jun Hardin Interv, 29 Apr 64.
166
42. Same file. Groves Comments, X, 17.
THE IMPACT OF WAR 519
all but a few major projects would be its being carried to successful conclu-
170
under way before the month was out. sion." The force of that momentum
Five divisions expected to have perfectly would soon be effectual.
clean slates. Of the other eight, only
Southwestern, where Colonel Scott was Peak Construction
awaiting real estate directives for ten
airfield sites, would have any backlog All the driving and hard work achieved
to speak of.167 The progress report for their purpose. In July production hit
15 June inspired considerable optimism. an all-time high, as a million-man work
The number of jobs not started had force boosted the monthly value of con-
dropped about 25 percent and the num- struction placed to $720 million—a
ber on or ahead of schedule had in- figure larger than the total for all mili-
creased roughly 10 percent. After looking tary projects from 1920 through 1938.
over this latest report, Somervell sent "A splendid accomplishment," General
Reybold a congratulatory message. "Ap- Reybold telegraphed the division engi-
parently," he wrote, "some of your per- neers.171 Although July was the peak
sonal efforts are beginning to have ef- month, the level of production continued
fect."168 Passing this note on to Robins, high through the autumn of 1942.
the Chief commented: "The attached (Chart 18) For August the value of work
memorandum from the Commanding placed was $646 million—"a wonderful
General, SOS, is gratifying to say the record," Strong declared.172 The total
least. I am sure, however, that any for September was $651 million—
personal efforts on my part cannot com- Somervell extended warm congratula-
pare with the efforts made by you, tions.173 As the blazing pace continued,
Groves, Strong, and your other assist- the construction program neared its
ants." Even greater accomplishments, goal.
he predicted, soon would crown these At the project level, work proceeded
169
efforts. well. The percentage of jobs behind
Writing to Somervell on 2 July, Gen- declined steadily. The progress report
eral Reybold referred to "the magnitude for September listed 950 active jobs, only
of the program, the necessity of main- 64 of which were lagging—about the
taining constant vigilance, and the ur- same number as in February when the
gency of trying to perform what some- program had been roughly one-fifth
times seems like the impossible." Never- its current size. The October report
theless, he asserted, "During the past was even better—only 63 behind out of
few months there has been, and there is a total of 1,176. As the trend continued,
being, generated in the war construction emphasis shifted from shortcomings to
program a momentum which will insure
170
Memo, Reybold for Somervell, 2 Jul 42.
167
600.914 Part I.
171
Opns Br Files, Rpts—Jobs not started before Telg, Reybold to Div Engrs, 14 Aug 42. 600.1
6-30-42. Part 14.
168 172
Memo, Somervell for Reybold, 30 Jun 42. Tel Conv, Strong and Col Elliott, 2 Sep 42.
600.914 Part I. Opns Br Files, Insp & Prog Rpts.
169 173
Memo, Reybold for Robins, 3 Jul 42. 600.914 Minutes of SOS Staff Conf, 20 Oct 42. ASF,
Part I. Staff Confs.
THE IMPACT OF WAR 521
and plans for early offensives. The change in igloo design. Colonel Stratton
crippling of the Pacific fleet (8 battle- stressed the advantages of switching from
ships, 3 light cruisers, 3 destroyers, and mobilization-type to theater-of-opera-
4 other naval vessels were sunk or tions type housing. He also canvassed
severely damaged at Pearl Harbor); the possibilities of wood trusses and
heavy losses of merchant shipping (sink- considered making greater use of ma-
ings by enemy submarines outran new sonry. Various other schemes for sub-
launchings); and Japanese occupation stitutions, simplified designs, and fuller
of Manila, invasion of the Dutch East use of existing facilities came under
Indies, and capture of Singapore (coun- discussion. Even double bunking in
tries rich in vital raw materials were barracks, a measure Surgeons General
falling into enemy hands)—these set- had consistently opposed, received some
backs focused concern on steel production thought. Immense efforts were necessary
and stockpiles of strategic materials. to translate proposals into actions: con-
Churchill's statement, "All our future ducting tests, running checks, redrawing
5
plans depended on a vast flow of Ameri- plans, and winning approvals.
3
can supplies of all kinds"; the mutual Spearheading the drive to conserve
assistance pledge by United Nations building materials was the Engineering
members, whereby each agreed "to Branch. (Chart 19) Combining the heavy
employ its full resources, military or construction knowledge of the Corps of
economic," against the Axis powers;4 Engineers and the building construction
and Allied determination to contain the experience of the Quartermaster Corps,
Japanese and strike against the Germans the organization possessed the skill and
in 1942—all served to emphasize the versatility the situation demanded. The
scale and urgency of the United States chief, Colonel Stratton, was, as one of
logistical commitment. Only by most his civilian assistants put it, "an En-
careful husbandry of essential materials gineer who was an engineer." In the
could this commitment possibly be met. campaign to save materials, he was able
In the weeks that followed the out- to provide vigorous leadership and sound
break of war, General Robins considered technical guidance. His executive officer,
ways to cut requirements for scarce com- Maj. Hibbert M. Hill, had a broad en-
modities. A flood of suggestions claimed gineering background: service with the
his attention. Somervell put forward a U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, the
plan for depots and piers of timber and Engineer Department, and the Northern
frame construction. Madigan conceived States Power Company, and four years
the idea of taking over resort hotels. as instructor at the University of Min-
Patterson recommended converting aban- nesota. "Unassuming," an associate des-
doned mills and factories into war plants. cribed him, "but one of the smartest men
Colonel Leavey advocated a radical
5
(1) Memo, Somervell for Reybold, 23 Dec 41.
3
Winston S. Churchill, The Second World War, G-4/33890. (2) Memo, Patterson for Reybold, 15
vol. III, The Grand Alliance (Boston: Houghton Jan 42. Ord 675/28172-Misc. (3) Memo, Leavey
Mifflin Company, 1951), p. 641. for Wesson, 10 Dec 41. 633 I. (4) Memo, Stratton for
4
Public Papers and Addresses of Franklin D. Roosevelt, Fortifications Sec, Engrg Br, 31 Dec 41. McFadden
XI, 3-5. Reading File. (5) 400.8 Part I.
CHART 19—ORGANIZATION OF ENGINEERING BRANCH, CONSTRUCTION DIVISION, OCE
SPRING 1942
Source: Orgn Chart, Engrg Br, Constr Div, OCE, 6 Jun 42. EHD Files.
THE MATERIALS BATTLE 525
6
I've ever known." While Urquhart and
the other section chiefs made signal con-
tributions, the heaviest burden fell on
Harry B. Zackrison, whose job it was to
co-ordinate all conservation activities
within the construction program. His
duties included liaison with WPB and
ANMB. He also assisted the section heads
in revising specifications and preparing
instructions for the field and cleared all
policy statements that touched on criti-
cal materials. In effect, he functioned
as the Corps' materials czar. Missionary
spirit and unflagging zeal characterized
his efforts. The killing pace he main-
tained—a 12- to 18-hour day, 7 days a
week—sent the trim six-footer's weight
plunging from 165 to 109.7
Steel—above all, plate steel for ships—
was of first importance. On 11 January GENERAL STRATTON. (Photograph taken in 1944.)
Zackrison took off with a Presidential
air priority to deliver a confidential wretched accommodations, a lost suit-
message to division engineers. The fright- case, and an uncomfortably close call
ful losses inflicted on the fleet at Pearl (only a last-minute change in plans pre-
Harbor were still top secret and would vented Zackrison from taking the plane
remain so until the end of the war. En- that carried actress Carole Lombard to
emy submarines were taking a terrible her death). Nevertheless, the same day
toll in the Atlantic. Face to face with he returned, the first of a series of orders
division engineers, Zackrison laid it on aimed at conserving steel—it specified
the line: steel was a question of national wood trusses for all but the largest ware-
survival; utmost economy in using it houses and hangars—went to the field.
was an absolute necessity. His reception On the depot storage program alone, the
in some quarters was cool at first; several anticipated saving was 200,000 tons of
senior officers failed to hide their pique steel, enough to build 7,500 medium
at having a young civilian instruct them tanks.8
in their duties. But his earnest pleas at Though steel was the sternest chal-
length brought them around. It was a lenge, it was by no means the only one.
grueling trip: 11 divisions in 7 days, Rubber, tin, aluminum, nickel, chro-
mium, copper, zinc, lead, iron, and
6
7
Zackrison Interv, 19 Feb 65. hemp—all were commonly used in con-
(1) Memo, Stratton for All See's, Engrg Br, 3 struction and all were critical. To ease
Feb 42. McFadden Reading File, (2) Cast Iron Pipe
News, December 1960-January 1961, p. 15. (3) WD 8
Commendation of Exceptional Civilian Service: (1) Zackrison Interv, 19 Feb 65. (2) OCE
Harry B. Zackrison. (4) Zackrison Interv, 19 Feb 65. Circ Ltr 1092, 19 Jan 42. (3) ENR, April 2, 1942, p. 6.
526 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
Describing his procedure, he wrote: camps and stations, most of which would
14
To effect the rapid completion of the be in use for only a year or two.
revised Theater of Operations designs, The new structures were a far cry from
we designated various District Engineers the comfortable mobilization types. Drab,
throughout the country to undertake specific light-frame buildings (the 32-man bar-
parts of the redesign program. These men racks was a simple one-story affair), the
did a tremendous job both with respect to the TO's carried an exterior finish of 15-
quality of work and speed of accomplish-
ment. As each District completed designs of pound felt with wood lathing on wall
buildings and facilities under its assignment, sheathing. In appearance they were not
the designs were reproduced and distributed unlike tar paper shacks. "A sorry thing,"
to all other Districts and Divisions. By this one officer called them, with "a safety
procedure scarcely a step was lost in pro- factor of one."15 But however much they
gramming the new type of construction to
replace the mobilization type which the war suffered by comparison with the 700
effort could no longer afford.13 and 800 series, their adoption resulted
in tremendous savings: 39 percent on
The revised plans featured wood floors,
iron, 42 percent on lumber, 47 percent
running water, and potbellied stoves.
on steel, 56 percent on lead, 59 percent
Latrines were in separate buildings. Be-
on copper, 61 percent on cement, and
fore the end of January complete sets
66 percent on tin. During the war, TO-
of the blueprints were in district and
division hands. On 6 February Somervell 14
(1) OCE Circ Ltrs 1156 and 1141, 30 Jan 42
adopted the TO drawings for all new and 4 Feb 42. (2) WD Ltr AG 600.12 (2-5-42)
13
MO-D-M, 6 Feb 42. QM 600.1 1942-43.
15
Ltr, Stratton to OCMH, 1 Mar 55. EHD Files. Dreyer Interv, 27 Feb 59.
528 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
type shelter accommodated roughly 1.5 fast rules. "Where time of construction
million men.16 with tile or block would be unduly long,
Questions of hospital design took we can go to wood construction, and
longer to resolve. Shortly after the where feasible, we can use asbestos
United States entered the war, Somervell, shingles," he told Strong in G-4. "Leave
as G-4, revoked authority to use the it right up to us as to what to do, I think,
plans for two-story semipermanent, fire- would be the wise thing." Reasoning
resistant hospitals—plans developed aloud, he continued:
during his term as Chief of the Con- Of course, the real solution should be, in
struction Division. Feeling that masonry my opinion, to do part of the hospital in
work would move too slowly, he issued tile and part of it in wood. Cut the tile work
an order on 29 December, directing the down to a minimum where you find that
Engineers to employ mobilization draw- you can; for example, take the surgery and
the clinics and the administration building—
ings for one-story wooden hospitals.17 put those in tile and you've gone a long way
Two days later, at the insistence of The toward keeping the heart of your hospital
Surgeon General,18 he modified these reasonably safe from fire. That is what I'd
instructions to permit the Engineers to like to see done. Now, the barracks and the
accept alternate bids and build fire- storehouses I'd like to see left in wood. I do
not object to wooden wards, but I'd just as
resistant hospitals "whenever loss of time soon have, say, one or two wards in tile right
or material increase in cost is not in- alongside the surgery where you could put
volved."19 There would be more see- your really bad cases and not have to worry
sawing back and forth before the issue about evacuating them so fast.
was finally settled. Feeling he was on the right track, Groves
Groves was dismayed by Somervell's decided to follow through.20
decision. "Terrible," he complained. On 14 January 1942, after reaching
"An alternate always gets you into an understanding with Surgeon General
trouble." If masonry got the nod, the Magee, Robins made a proposal to G-4.
old argument "wood is cheaper" would He had three recommendations: first,
arise immediately. If the decision went that general hospitals, which would be
the other way, the Engineers would in use for some time after the war, be of
"have to go over to The Surgeon Gen- semipermanent design; second, that, ex-
eral and argue out on price with him." cept at TO cantonments, station hos-
Although willing to "bend over back- pitals also be semipermanent, unless the
wards" to satisfy the medics, Groves Engineers, after surveying local ma-
disliked being hamstrung by hard and terials and labor markets, decided other-
wise; and, third, that hospitals at TO
16
(1) Min, Engr Production Conf, 28 Sep 42, pp. cantonments be mobilization type.
9-10. 337 (Engrs, Corps of). (2) Data compiled Justifying the proposal for widespread
from WD Quarterly Inventory: Owned, Sponsored and
Leased Facilities, 30 Sep 45. use of tile and block, Robins stated:
17
WD Ltr AG 632 (12-27-41) MO-D to the
CofEngrs, 29 Dec 41. 632 Part I.
The semipermanent type of hospital should
18
Memo, Magee for Somervell, 31 Dec 41. 632 in the normal case cost approximately 17
Part I.
19 20
D/F, Somervell f o r Reybold, 3 1 D e c 4 1 . Tel Conv, Groves and Strong, 31 DecG - 4
41. Opns / 3
Br Files, G-4.
THE MATERIALS BATTLE 529
Source: Memo, Daley for Groves, 30 Jan 42. Opns Br Files, Hospitals.
percent more than the cantonment type (Table 16) Early in February Groves told
hospital. Opposed to this increase in cost are
Col. John R. Hall of The Surgeon
greater suitability for the intended purpose,
greater ease of maintenance and adminis- General's office: "About the semiperma-
nent hospitals—you know we are up the
tration, and greater resistance to fire hazard.
These factors are believed to outweigh the spout on those, . . . and the trouble
increased cost. is they are just going to cost so much more
Pressing for a prompt decision, he re- than the wooden ones that the Staff,
minded Somervell that deliveries of and particularly General Moore, won't
boilers, hot water tanks, and other stand for it." He advised Hall, "It is up
24
critical items of installed equipment to you people to get the pressure." The
would govern hospital completion dates. Surgeon General applied pressure, much
Because equipment for the two types of of it on the Engineers, challenging
hospital differed in size and quantity, Kurtz's figures, and, after Somervell
the Corps could place no orders until approved the TO drawings, trying to
Somervell made a ruling. Somervell prevent the Engineers from using them
approved Robins' suggestions the fol- for barracks and quarters for Medical
lowing day.
21 Corps units at hospitals—but without
Any who thought the issue closed success. Meanwhile, Robins co-operated
had soon to think again. Estimates for with Magee by pushing ahead with plans
masonry hospitals far exceeded expec- for five general hospitals of masonry
tations. According to Alfred S. Kurtz, design and five semipermanent station
chief of Urquhart's estimating group, hospitals at advance planned canton-
25
the combination hospital proposed by ments. An order prohibiting this type
Colonel Groves would cost 24 percent of construction seemed bound to come.
more, and the all-masonry hospital 45 The question was how soon.
percent more, than the cantonment Lowering standards for munitions
22
type. Late in January Kurtz drew up plants was not a step to be taken lightly.
estimates based on a 1,750-bed capacity.
23 As has been shown, until Pearl Harbor
the Army had built Ordnance and
21
Memo, Robins for Somervell, 14 Jan 42, and
approval thereon. G-4/31741-1. 24
22
Memo, Stratton for Daley, 30 Jan 42. Opns Br Tel Conv, Groves and Hall, 2 Feb 42. Opns Br
Files, Ground Trps Sec. Files,
25
Hospitals.
23
Memo, Daley for Groves, 30 Jan 42. Opns Br (1) Smith, Hospitalization and Evacuation, pp.
Files, Hospitals. 68-69. 00 632 II and III.
530 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
Chemical Warfare facilities largely of concrete water tanks; barbed wire fenc-
durable materials and had exercised ing; and duckboard sidewalks. West
great care to minimize the dangers of Virginia took 7 months to build as com-
explosion. But once the country was at pared with 21 months for some of the
war, the need for conserving materials earlier TNT plants. The DuPont typical
prompted consideration of drastic changes became the wartime standard for ex-
in design. Early in 1942 DuPont advised plosives projects and started a trend
General Campbell that it could develop which accelerated as shortages became
26
a plan for stripped-down TNT plants. more and more acute.
Although these plants would be more Another early development in the
expensive to operate and maintain, munitions field was an elliptical dome-
DuPont was confident they would be shaped magazine. Colonel Vandervoort
satisfactory in every other way. The West thought up the idea and persuaded the
Virginia Ordnance Works, one of the Corbetta Construction Company of New
first plants built on the new model, in- York City to develop plans based on his
cluded such features as process buildings concept. Shortly before Pearl Harbor,
with asbestos siding; wooden shops, 26
(1) Memo, Groves for Robins, 2 Jan 42. Madigan
dormitories, and administration build- Files, Ord-TNT. (2) Compl Rpt, West Virginia OW,
ings; utilities with five- to ten-year life; 30 Jun 43. (3) Antes Interv, 3 Jun 58.
THE MATERIALS BATTLE 531
cussions with Brig. Gen. Lucius D. Clay, munitions plants.33 Ordnance soon
Somervell's deputy for requirements and turned up a number of possibilities—
resources, and with members of Clay's textile mills, candy factories, and tire
staff. Seldom, if ever, did these higher- and automotive plants. By March the
ups issue an order affecting construction Engineers were negotiating with the
without checking with Zackrison first. owners. Several properties, including
In fact, he drafted many of their orders. the Kelly-Springfield plant at Cumber-
As his responsibilities increased, he en- land, Maryland, were leased for the
larged his staff from one assistant to a duration plus three to five years. Sev-
dozen, but even then he was hard eral, including those of the U. S. Rub-
pressed to do everything the job de- ber Company at Eau Claire, Wisconsin,
manded.31 and the New England Southern Com-
Another approach to conservation— pany at Lowell, Massachusetts, were
more direct but frequently precarious— purchased. Both methods, purchase and
was to turn existing facilities to military lease, presented difficulties. At Eau Claire
use. Every factory, hotel, warehouse, and Lowell negotiations broke down and
hospital, school, and office building the Engineers had to go to condemna-
pressed into service was obviously that tion. At the leased plants, costly improve-
much new construction saved. Under ments were necessary.34 Excluding ma-
the condemnation statutes and recently chinery, overhead, and fees, Creedon
enacted requisitioning laws, the Army "guessed" that expenditures at Cumber-
had ample power to take over properties land would run "somewhere in the
it required. But in a country with strong vicinity of $12 million."35 The troubles
antimilitarist traditions, mandatory inherent in such arrangements, the prob-
powers had to be used judiciously. lems of eventual settlement and disposal,
Adhering to long-standing Corps policies, were obvious, but the immediate advan-
the Engineers relied largely on negotia- tages were overriding. By late 1942 a
tion, avoiding condemnation wherever half dozen converted plants would be
possible and rarely commandeering.32 turning out ammunition.36
In January 1942, Under Secretary A venture unique in War Department
Patterson instituted a search for "un- history was launched in February 1942,
occupied buildings which are capable when the Air Forces decided to establish
of being used in their present state or a technical training center at Miami
of being readily converted" to use as Beach. The Engineers moved fast. At
the height of the tourist season, O'Brien's
31
(1) 400.8 Part I. (2) Ltr, Zackrison to Shortridge men arrived to make quick appraisals of
Hardesty, New York, N.Y., 27 Jan 42. 411.5. (3) 33
Zackrison Interv, 19 Feb 65. (4) Telg, Stratton to Memo, Patterson for Reybold, 15 Jan 42.
Div Engrs, 27 Feb 42. Office Files, Specs and Est Br, Ord 675/28172-Misc.
34
Engrg Div, OCE. (5) 652 (ORD). 601.1and 635 Allegany, Eau Claire, and Lowell
32
(1) Smith, The Army and Economic Mobilization, OP's.
35
pp. 221-22, 248. (2) Miller, Pricing of Military Memo, Creedon for Constr Contract Bd, 25
Procurements, pp. 102-108. (3) OCE Circ Ltr 1015,I Mar 42. 635 (Allegany OP).
36
Jan 42. (4) Gideon, Hist of Mil RE Program, pp. (1) Thomson and Mayo, The Ordnance Department:
51-54. Procurement and Supply, pp. 200-202. (2) Constr PR's.
THE MATERIALS BATTLE 533
125 hotels and rush negotiations with over passed to Army control, as the
the owners. By March, mass leasing was search fanned out in new directions.
under way at the Florida resort. A wave Far-reaching though this effort was, it
of jubilation swept through the com- eased the strain but slightly, eliminating
munity, as civic and business lead- tens of new construction projects in a
40
ers pledged 100-percent co-operation.37 program comprising thousands.
When a handful of hotel men rejected Through the late winter and early
the Army's offers and the Air Forces spring of 1942, materials shortages wor-
threatened to move to St. Petersburg, sened steadily. The ANMB list of pro-
community pressure forced the hold- hibited items for construction work grew
outs into line. On 29 March the Miami ominously longer. As of 1 April, it in-
Herald announced "the good news" cluded aluminum products of all kinds
that "the running battle of the hotel as well as cadmium, magnesium, manila
38
men against the Army was closed." hemp, mercury, nickel, sisal, and vana-
Soon proprietors signed leases and sent dium. Copper and its alloys were avail-
guests packing to make room for the able for only 15 specified purposes, lead
20,000 airmen who would shortly ar- and rubber for only 6, while iron and
39
rive. steel were obtainable for a mere 58 out
41
From Miami the Army branched out of their almost infinite uses. Increas-
into other communities. At the luxurious ingly, the Engineers were caught in a
desert resort of Palm Springs, California, crossfire between war production au-
the Engineers purchased the El Mirador thorities, demanding more stringent
Hotel and converted it into a general economies, and contractors, protesting
hospital. A sanitarium at Battle Creek, strongly that expensive blueprints and
Michigan, and a municipal hospital designs were becoming valueless because
donated by the city of Temple, Texas, of constant revision.
also became Army medical centers. The Although steel capacity was expand-
famous golfing resort at Pinehurst, North ing—in 1942 the United States would
Carolina, the exclusive club at Boca produce over 86 million net tons, just
Raton, Florida, and the Harrisburg 3 million short of the total for all other
Academy at Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, countries combined—the gap between
became air force stations. Racetracks supply and demand continued to widen.
and fairgrounds throughout California By spring the shortage of plate steel was
served as temporary detention camps becoming desperate. Of 15,523 tons the
for the west coast Japanese. Warehouses Engineers would require in April, only
belonging to the Southern Compress 5,494 were tentatively scheduled for
Company at Savannah, Georgia, served rolling. Appealing to Clay for help late
as a supply depot. Properties the country in March Robins warned that something
had to give or serious delays in construc-
37
(1) Craven and Gate, Mm and Planes, pp. 152-53.
(2) Truman Comm Hearings, Part 21, passim.
38 40
Reprinted in Truman Comm Hearings, Part 21, Constr and Real Estate PR's.
41
exhibit 976, p. 9082. Ltr, ANMB to Supply Arms and Svcs, 1 Apr 42.
39
601.53 (Miami Beach). Opns Br Files, Equip I.
534 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
tion would occur.42 General Clay could requirements—this time to "an abso-
44
relieve the Corps' immediate distress, lute minimum."
but he held out little hope for the future. The Engineers had come a long way
On 9 April he assured Groves that the already. Reporting to Clay on 18 April,
Engineers would get the 15,000 tons Robins catalogued the substitutions made
they had put in for, and it was even pos- thus far: wood doors for steel doors;
sible that he could squeeze out another wood framing for steel framing; brick
12,000 tons for them. But, he empha- or concrete smokestacks for steel stacks;
sized, "That squeeze is going to be at the wood or concrete water tanks for steel
expense of an actual weapon."43 The tanks; and concrete or asbestos-cement
next day he asked Robins to come up pipe for steel pipe. At hospitals plate
with a plan for further reducing plate steel requirements had dropped 70 per-
cent, and at supply depots, 95 percent.
43
(1) Truman Comm Rpt 10, Part 3, Feb 43, pp. Adoption of the TO drawings had re-
1-8. (2) Memo, Robins for Somervell, 26 Mar 42. duced the plate going into cantonments
411.5.
43
(3) Memo, Robins for Clay, 31 Mar 42. 411.5. 44
Tel Conv, Clay and Groves, 9 Apr 42. Opns Memo, Clay for Robins, 10 Apr 42. Madigan
Br Files, Equip I. Files, CofE—Memos, Gen.
THE MATERIALS BATTLE 535
or cement-asbestos roof ventilators. The tened utility lines, and decreased overall
list continued on and on.51 grading—all of which added up to tre-
53
Meeting at Kings Mills, Ohio, on 22 mendous savings in materials. Com-
April 1942, Ordnance and Engineer of- menting on his colleague's contribution,
ficers took a giant step forward. Recog- Zackrison said: "It has been an eye-
nizing the need "to eliminate all critical opener to all concerned . . . how
materials in construction work by using effective planning of this character can
54
substitute noncritical materials wherever be."
possible and to limit construction to only By mid-1942, the Engineers had ex-
'bare necessities,' " they agreed to build hausted virtually all the avenues open
temporary small arms ammunition to them. Stating that further major sav-
plants. In order to shorten utilities lines, ings were possible only if The Surgeon
layouts would be more compact. Build- General would drop his opposition to
ings would be fewer and simple wood double bunking in barracks, Colonel
framing would be standard. Steam lines Groves said for the Engineers: "We have
would be above ground. Electrical wiring done what we can."55 In July, at the
would be "open wire, knob and tube peak of the building program, the War
type, or non-metallic cable." Gone would Department publicly announced that
be lightning protection and, except in cuts in construction had gone as far as
56
danger areas, spark-proof floors. The new they could go.
design entailed serious risks, but General
Campbell was willing to accept them.52 Procurement Problems
Site planning provided a fertile field
for conservation. Applying the techniques Lucky Strike green had gone to war.
he had used so successfully during 1941, To the man in the street, contemplating
Leon H. Zach effected progressive econ- the unfamiliar wrapper of a popular
omies and improvements in layouts for a cigarette, wartime shortages stood for
wide variety of projects: staging areas, austerity and inconvenience. No new cars
holding and reconsignment points, am- or refrigerators; no more silk; ration
munition depots, WAAC training centers, coupons for tires, gasoline, and sugar;
prisoner of war camps, and war housing drives to collect scrap metal and salvage
developments, as well as cantonments, abandoned railway and streetcar tracks—
hospitals, and airfields. Zach arranged Americans accustomed to an economy
blocks of buildings more compactly, of plenty were undergoing a novel ex-
reduced firebreak distances, cut the size of perience. For construction officers under
parade grounds, narrowed roads, shor- pressure to meet rigorous deadlines, the
unending struggle for supplies, the fight
51
(1) Address by Zackrison, 14 Oct 42. (2) Constr for priorities, the pleas to dealers and
Div Circ Ltrs. (3) Rpt, Principal Constr Engr, materialmen, the ransacking of ware-
Detroit Tank Arsenal, 15 Apr 42. 600.13 Part I. (4)
TWX, Groves to Div Engrs, 30 Apr 42. Opns Br Files,
53
Equip 2. (5) Memo, New for Zackrison, 21 May 42. OCE, Engineering Manual, 1942, ch. III.
54
Engrg Div, Spec & Est Br Files, Monthly Rpts. (6) Addressby Zackrison, 14 Oct 42.
55
Ltr, Strong to Div Engrs, 11 May 42. 686 (Airfields) Min, Engr Production Conf, 22 May 42. 337
Part 55. (Engrs, Corps of).
52 56
Memo, OCE for OCofOrd, 7 May 42.635 Part 2. WD Press Release, 2 Jul 42. EHD Files.
THE MATERIALS BATTLE 537
Source: Summaries of Delaying Factors, prep by Opns Br, Constr Div, OCE, May-Oct 42. 600.914 Part 2.
houses, the periodic lumber buys, and contrary to early expectations, lumber.
the ceaseless expediting efforts were Not until the autumn of 1942 did the
crucially important. Recalling the criti- situation improve.58
cal shortage of construction materials in Fighting the battle of procurement
1942, "when inventories were exhausted were two organizations, one in Washing-
and production controls not well es- ton, the other in the field. At the time of
tablished by the WPB," one former dis- the transfer in December 1941, the En-
trict engineer asserted: "This was the gineers took over the central purchasing
57
greatest problem facing the field." agency created by General Hartman
Among the delaying factors at con- early in the emergency, the Procurement
struction jobs, shortages of materials and Expediting Section of the Opera-
were by far the most prevalent. Despite tions Branch. Renamed the Materials
the many efforts to reduce consumption and Equipment Section (M&E), the
of scarce commodities and the wholesale organization was headed until May 1942
substitutions and simplifications in de- by Maj. Howard H. Reed, a 1931 West
sign, shortages bulked increasingly large Point graduate, who had chosen a
as impediments to progress. Reports from career in Quartermaster construction.
area engineers told a tale of deepening His successor, Lt. Col. Fred G. Sherrill,
crisis. During the first two weeks in May commissioned from civil life, was a highly
1942, the earliest period for which figures successful businessman. A West Point
were available, difficulties in obtaining classmate of Colonel Groves, Sherrill had
materials accounted for 384 delays out resigned from the Army in I926.59 At
of a total of 614. Through the summer, local and regional levels, district and
the picture became progressively blacker, division purchasing offices normally han-
as indicated in Table 17. In addition to dled direct government purchases and
structural, plate, and reinforcing steel, co-operated with contractors' purchasing
the list of scarce items included motors, departments. The men in M&E, buoyed
pumps, furnaces, pipe, rail, copper wire,
58
hardware, nails, kitchen equipment, and, Summaries of Delaying Factors, prep by Opns
Br,59Constr Div, OCE, May-Oct 42. 600.914 Part 2.
57
Memo, Robins for Mil Pers Br, OCE, 9 Apr 41.
Sturgis Comments, VI, 3 and VIII, a. Opns Br Files, Pers.
538 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
up by past successes, felt they had the Colonel Leavey conferred with Robins on
answer to war procurement problems. purchasing procedures. Developed within
Among the many who shared this feeling the framework of the Quartermaster
were Patterson and Nelson. Most divi- construction system, Reed's organization
sion and district engineers opposed cen- had relied on information from the
tral purchasing. "A brilliant idea theore- centralized Engineering Branch in de-
tically," Sturgis contended, "but a dismal ciding what to buy. As plans went for-
failure in the field." Maintaining that ward for decentralizing engineering to
he knew no district engineer "who didn't the field, Leavey forecast difficulties.
think it was a bust," he went on to say: Districts and divisions would not or-
"No organization can fail to make mis- dinarily submit drawings and bills of
takes; but far fewer are made by ... materials to Washington for approval.
subordinate field offices, which im- How, then, was Reed to discover their
80
mediately confront the problem." requirements? General Robins thought
After talking matters over with he knew the answer.
Patterson and Nelson, Robins agreed In the interests of simplicity . . .
to adopt the Quartermaster system, and [Leavey explained to Groves], the entire
on 29 December 1941 he so informed the burden of preparing requirements for central
districts and divisions. Normally, M&E procurement should be thrown on the field.
would purchase lumber in amounts It is suggested that this be handled by the
issuance to the field of a list showing the
over one million board feet. Under un- types of materials which are to be bought
usual circumstances, Robins would grant centrally. The District Engineer can use this,
requests for authority to buy locally first, to announce to contractors in his re-
amounts up to 2.5 million board feet. quests for bids that materials of this type will
Reed would procure centrally a long list be furnished by the Government . . . .
It can be used, second, to prepare from the
of other items—stoves, heaters, refriger- bills of materials available in the District
ators, pumps, nails, steel for hangars and office ... a list to be furnished you
control towers, and equipment for bak- centrally for your procurement.
eries, laundries, and hospitals. In ad-
This method, Robins thought, would
dition, he would co-ordinate allocations,
eliminate delay. When a résumé of the
priorities, and rolling schedules for plate
General's ideas reached him, Reed must
steel with the Under Secretary's office.
have shaken his head. Underlining the
Concessions to the field were soon forth-
parts about relying on the field and
coming. On 3 January 1942, Robins
eliminating delay, he wrote question
issued new instructions: there would be marks beside them in the margin.62
no centralized procurement for tem- Despite misgivings, Reed followed or-
porary tent camps or TO-type construc- ders. Through lumber auctions early
tion.61
in January at Richmond, New Orleans,
Late in December 1941, on the eve and Seattle, he purchased over 700 mil-
of his departure for Great Britain,
lion board feet at prices generally below
60
(1) Ltr, Sturgis to authors, 23 Oct 63. (2) 62
Sturgis Comments, XVII, I. Memo, Leavey for Groves, 26 Dec 41, and
61
OCE Circ Ltrs Constr 222 and 228, 29 Dec 41 Reed's notations thereon. Opns Br Files, Rental
and 3 Jan 42. Equip.
THE MATERIALS BATTLE 539
63
OPA ceilings. Calling the transaction was Sturgis' descriptive phrase. Contrac-
"the largest . . . of its kind on tors, who believed they could do a better
record for any single agency, public or job themselves, laid the blame on central-
private," the War Department an- ized procurement. Division and district
66
nounced: engineers joined in condemning M&E.
The lumber acquired would make up a Typifying their attitude was Colonel
freight train 280 miles in length, comprising Scott's complaint: "If they can't work
28,000 carloads, or would be sufficient for out some system . . . , they ought
the building of a fence six feet high and to stop that central purchasing. It is a
1,500 miles long. . . . The magnitude mess and something ought to be done
of the present purchases may be realized from 67
about it." Taking a firm line, Colonel
the fact that the total amount of lumber
bought by the Army during the last year was Groves declared: "Whether we like it or
but 2,000,000,000 board feet.64 not or whether the people in the field
like it or not, we've got to have central-
Continuing at a brisk pace, M&E rolled ized procurement."68 The fuss continued.
up impressive totals for January: nearly On 31 January Groves telephoned Far-
4,000 boilers and water heaters; roughly
rell, who was spending a few hours at his
4,000 furnaces and stoves; 7,000 squares home in Albany: "I'm having a terrible
of roofing material; 240,000 kegs of time here. All those lumber boys that
nails; 10 million square feet of plywood
don't know how to handle central
and wallboard; and 850 million board
procurement, and can't make any esti-
feet of lumber—at a total cost of $35.5
mates, and can't do anything else."69
million. During this same period, the
Farrell offered a suggestion: "I think
Supply Division, OCE, under Colonel
what we need is some flexibility, we want
Fowler's direction, purchased $7.6 mil-
simplicity, and we want to make sure
lion worth of service equipment and
there is ample supply in ample time. I
other items for construction projects.
see no objection in having the contractor
Speaking before the West Coast Lumber-
purchase a million, two million, two and
men's Association at Portland, Oregon,
a half million board feet on any job."
on 30 January, Colonel Styer pronounced
Raising another point, whether a district
the operation a success.65
engineer "could make these bills of
Meanwhile, screams of protest were
materials," he told Groves, "I don't think
coming from the field. Deliveries were
he can."70 Together, the two men worked
scheduled improperly. Some projects
out a more flexible procedure and
were swamped with lumber, while others
persuaded Nelson to O.K. it. At the
had virtually none. Many lots were green
start of a job, the contractor would
or warped and many contained random
lengths. Orders were frequently shipped 66
(1) Opns Br Files, Lumber. (2) Sturgis Com-
short. "Organized delay and confusion" ments, V, 2.
67
63
Tel Conv, Scott and Antes, 22 Jan 42. Opns Br
Memo, W. V. Kahler, OPM, for Madigan, 15 Files, San Jacinto, Galveston, Tex.
68
Jan 42. Madigan Files, Cantonments—Troop Tel Conv, Groves and Scott, 23 Jan 42. Opns Br
Housing, Current Data. Files, Lumber.
64 69
WD Press Release, 12 Jan 42. EHD Files. Tel Conv, Groves and Farrell, 31 Jan 42. Opns
65
(1) Constr PR 47, 15 Mar 42, p. 243. (2) OCE Br Files, Lumber.
70
Press Release, 31 Jan 42. Opns Br Files, Lumber. Ibid.
540 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
purchase 10 percent of the project's total would fill the order."74 Fairly widespread
lumber requirement; then, M&E would in the early months of the war, such
buy the balance. Farrell, Reed, and dealings tended to undermine Reed's
other members of Groves' staff logged a efforts.
lot of travel time, going to various Overshadowing the question of pro-
districts and explaining central pur- curement methods were problems of
chasing techniques. Gradually, the up- priorities and allocations. With so many
roar subsided. There was still some construction staples in short supply, the
grumbling from the field, but the worst rate of progress at the job sites depended
appeared to be over.71 largely on priorities fixed by ANMB
The volume of Reed's purchases drop- within broad policies laid down by the
ped as local procurement offices stepped War Production Board. Under the rating
up their activities. Between I February pattern followed during the first six
and 30 April 1942, M&E acquired 860 months of the war, AA was the top
million board feet of lumber, only slightly priority and the A-1 classification was
more than the total for the single month subdivided into A-1-a, A-1-b, and so on
72
of January. Meanwhile, district en- down to A-1-j. Priorities assumed greater
gineers increased their exertions. Sturgis' importance as more and more commodi-
operations at Vicksburg exemplified their ties came under allocation control. Be-
methods. Regarding anything received ginning in November 1941 with steel
from M&E as so much "gravy," he sent plate, the list of allocated items grew to
agents all over the country to buy up include rubber, virtually all the basic
stocks of materials, made personal ap- metals, and many end products, among
peals for help to old friends in the lumber them service equipment and heavy con-
industry, and persuaded the purchasing struction machinery.75
departments of big contractors, including Military construction was far down the
the outstanding firm of J. A. Jones, to list of most urgent programs. Top priori-
assist projects other than their own.73 ties went to aluminum, high octane, and
Going far beyond this, some district and synthetic rubber plants and to naval
area representatives attended M&E's vessels. The rating for warships was
lumber auctions to make separate, back- extended to the Navy's shore installa-
stairs deals with vendors. "In their zeal to tions on the grounds that they were
get on with the job for which they essential to support the fleet. Army
were responsible," Colonel Sherrill re- munitions projects were rated A-1-a or
lated, "they would circulate among the A-1-b. Airfields had to get along with
lumber dealers and tell what their own A-1-e priorities, and cantonments with
requirement was. Of course, when it was A-1-j. Navy recruiting stations took pre-
'easy' business, they had no trouble cedence over Army Ordnance plants.
finding a responsible saw mill which So weak was the priority for camps and
71
(1) Memo, Reed for WPB, 2 Feb 42. 411.1 Part 2.
74
(2) TWX, Reybold to Div Engrs, 10 Feb 42. 411.1 Col. Fred G. Sherrill, Lumber in the War (MS),
Part 2. (3) TWX, Reybold to Div Engrs, 17 Feb 42. I, 8.
75
411.1 Part 2. (4) Opns Br Files, Lumber. (1) Smith, The Army and Economic Mobilization,
72
Constr PR 53, 15 Jun 42, p. 306. p. 534 and ch. XXIV. (2) Building the Navy's Bases,
73
Sturgis Comments, V, 2 and VI, 3. Vol. I, pp. 89-93.
THE MATERIALS BATTLE 541
cantonments, that in April 1942 General The first wire read something like this:
Reybold warned ANMB: "Increasing "This confirms telephone approval of priority
for 12-inch pipe for the El Dorado Ordnance
difficulties being experienced in obtaining Plant."
materials make it certain that the cur- The second wire read: "Priority recently
rently authorized troop housing program granted Monroe Air Corps Base for cast iron
cannot be completed within the time pipe disapproved since this pipe is needed
specified with this comparatively low for the El Dorado Ordnance Plant."
76
priority rating." From the earliest days Sadly, he concluded that the left hand
of the war, the Engineers exerted un- knew not what the right hand did.
78
remitting pressure for higher ratings. When priorities failed, the Engineers
"We have fought and bled for priorities," fell back on their own devices, expediting
General Robins said in May 1942." But and improvisation. In Washington and
success nearly always took the form the field, construction officers kept a
of spot priority assistance—special ratings sharp watch for signs of trouble. At the
for individual items at particular proj- first hint of difficulty, they swung into
ects—rather than higher blanket priori- action. Reed's expediters crossed paths
ties for entire programs. with expediters from districts and divi-
Too frequently, spot priorities merely sions. Traveling from plant to plant,
robbed Peter to pay Paul, diverting from lumberyard to warehouse, these
scarce supplies from one Engineer proj- men carried a stick in one hand and held
ect to another. An experience related by out a carrot with the other. "Waste a
General Sturgis was illuminating. Within minute, lose a life," Sherrill summed up
the Vicksburg District were two urgent their philosophy. "Try to save a dollar,
projects delayed for want of 12-inch cast 79
waste a minute, lose a life." Meanwhile,
iron pipe. One was an Air Forces naviga- the field was resorting to expedients in
tion school at Monroe, Louisiana; the order to lick supply problems. Some
other, an ammonia plant at El Dorado, district engineers purchased abandoned
Arkansas. Finally, after a good deal of buildings and stripped them of equip-
pressure by the Air Forces, the Monroe ment and usable materials. Some bought
job received priority assistance. Because many items second hand. One, unable to
the El Dorado plant was critically obtain structural steel for elevated water
important, Sturgis visited the site and tanks, dug a reservoir, lined it with
spent the day on the telephone with concrete, and roofed it over to keep
production authorities in Washington, at out dust and contamination. Another
length extracting a promise that he would adopted a hangar design calling for
get the pipe. He told the rest of the story glued laminated plywood arches and col-
in these words: lapsible doors which needed no heavy
80
Reaching Vicksburg that same night structural support. And so the story
about 11 P.M., I went to my office to review went: perseverance and invention.
the "hot" mail, which was left on my desk 78
on days I was out of town. There I found Sturgis Comments, XVII, 2.
79
two wires from the WPB. 80
Sherrill, Lumber in the War, I, 4.
76
(1) Memo, Eberstadt for Patterson and For-
Memo, Reybold for ANMB, 16 Apr 42. 652 I. restal, I Feb 42. USW Files, Misc and Sub, Steel. (2)
77
Min, Engr Production Conf, 22 May 42, p. 44. Sturgis Comments, VIII, 2. (3) ENR, May 7, 1942,
337 (Engrs, Corps of). pp. 68-70.
542 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
The temptation was always strong to comb's allegations almost word for
85
use materials readily at hand, however word.
critical. Reportedly, on one occasion the Second only to problems of materials
Engineers succumbed. In April 1942, were problems of construction machinery.
Rexford Newcomb, a ceramics specialist As head of the Mechanical Equipment
for WPB, complained to Reybold that the Unit, Maj. Robert L. Richardson faced
field was flagrantly violating an OCE a challenge only slightly less formidable
order which prohibited use of metallic than the one that confronted Major
cable. Robins was aware of the situation Reed. Shortages of cranes, shovels,
but had done nothing about it; that, said dozers, draglines, and the like, already
Newcomb, was an example of the "com- serious in 1941, turned critical after
plete lack of cooperation we are get- Pearl Harbor, as combat and lend-lease
ting."81 Disturbed by these allegations, claimed a major share of industrial out-
the Chief investigated. From the Louis- put. A year or more of multiple shifts,
ville District, Col. Henry Hutchings, Jr., bad weather and good, had taken a
reported that one project under his con- terrible toll of equipment. The existing
trol had used metallic cable. The contract plant was generally in poor repair and
for electrical work at Camp Atterbury, contractors were clamoring for replace-
Indiana, had gone into effect 17 days ments. Resistance to third-party leases,
before the OCE order appeared. In the which contained recapture clauses, was
interests of speed, Hutchings had let the increasingly strenuous. Shortages of tires
contract stand.82 Other district engineers and gasoline were added complications.
pleaded not guilty. Satisfied the Corps As the war continued, the situation was
was in the clear, Reybold denied New- likely to deteriorate still further.
comb's charges. "This is the first time Prospects for obtaining new equipment
this Department has been accused of worsened steadily. An order placed by
failure to cooperate with the War Pro- the Ordnance Department in December
duction Board," he told Nelson.83 In a 1941 for 4,000 D-6's and D-7's would
conciliatory vein, Nelson replied: "We claim the output of all crawler tractor
are well aware of the general effectiveness plants for a six-month period. Require-
of the restrictions imposed by the Corps ments for Engineer and other service
of Engineers on the use of critical ma- troops, for overseas bases, for the Navy,
terials."84 Unfortunately, the matter did
the British, the Russians, and other high-
not rest there. A few months later, thepriority users imposed a crushing load on
Washington Daily News carried an ac- manufacturers of every type of construc-
count of the affair that repeated New- tion machinery. By January 1942 de-
liveries of cranes and shovels were run-
81
ning about three months behind, and
Memo, Newcomb for Reybold, 16 Apr 42. 410 I. even to place an order required a prefer-
82
(1) Telg, Reybold to Div Engrs, 22 Apr 42.
600.1 Part 13. (2) Ltr, Reybold to Newcomb, 22 Apr ence rating. A plan to convert segments
42. 410 I. (3) Ltr, Hutchings to Daley, 22 Apr 42. of the industry to tank production,
652 (ORD). though mercifully deferred, was un-
83
Ltr, Reybold to Nelson, 6 May 42. 410 I.
84
Ltr, Nelson to Reybold, 26 May 42. 401.1 Aug 41-Feb 43.
85
Washington Daily News, 3 Aug 42, pp. 2, 16.
THE MATERIALS BATTLE 543
mistakably portentous.86 As time went provide a solid base for roads."90 How
on, more and more contractors found important the Engineers considered this
themselves in desperate straits. De- aspect of wartime site selection was
scribing the situation in the Los Angeles suggested by an incident related by
District eight weeks after Pearl Harbor, General Plank. In the spring of 1942,
Colonel Kelton appealed to the Chief's the Air Forces picked a location along
office to "alleviate the present critical the Mississippi River, north of Memphis,
shortage of heavy construction equip- for a large training installation. On
ment which is seriously affecting progress reviewing the Engineer site report, Plank
on existing contracts and which, it is saw that the job would entail moving
already apparent, is adversely affecting "something on the order of 3,000,000
competitive bidding on new work."87 cubic yards of earth." He continued the
The pinch grew tighter. In April 1942, story:
the Engineering News-Record carried the I said, "You simply can't get that project
report: "Only about 15 percent of the built. There simply isn't enough construction
output of the equipment manufacturers machinery. You can pick it, but you'll never
now reaches contractors or rental distrib- get it done in time." And that made the Air
utors, the rest going to equip army and Force so damn mad that they asked that I
be relieved. O.K. You don't get bulldozers
navy combat units or to lend-lease."88 and draglines and what not by relieving me
The developing equipment shortage or anybody else. ... I just had to take
was reflected in directives calling for the the position that the site itself had to be
choice of sites that required little grading. disapproved, and finally made it stick.91
"One of the greatest consumers of con- The Corps vetoed a number of other sites
struction equipment," Robins reminded for the same reason and made the vetoes
the field, "is the item of earth moving, stick.
92
which at many locations has assumed While they tried to pare requirements,
staggering proportions."89 Unfortunate the Engineers also sought to bring every
examples cited by inspectors served to available piece of equipment to their
emphasize the need for level, well- projects; they appealed to state, county,
drained sites: for instance, at the Key- and municipal works departments for
stone Ordnance Works, a railroad pavers and graders; they put pressure on
connection required "many miles of contractors to "scour the backroads" for
construction, some over swamp, some machinery; they urged farmers to lease
through deep cuts, and part over an idle tractors and trucks during the off
enormous 45-foot fill"; and at Pine Bluff season; and they even put plows and
Arsenal, "from one to five feet of poor cultivators to use at airfield projects.
93
Armed with authority from Somervell to Somervell for help. Setting forth the case
"transfer construction equipment from against recapture, Robins wrote:
any military establishment under the As new construction equipment is now
jurisdiction of the War Department," extremely difficult to obtain, the omission of
General Reybold forced post com- the recapture clause would open new fields
manders to send maintenance machinery, of rental, namely contractors without Gov-
trucks, and automobiles to construction ernment contracts. Contractors have been
extremely reluctant to rent construction
jobs.94 Meantime, the tangle of diffi- equipment whenever contracts contain the
culties surrounding third-party rentals recapture clause.
was being unsnarled.
Underscoring the urgency of his request,
Always a sore subject with equipment
Robins pointed out that OPA would
owners, the recapture clause was a
shortly establish price ceilings on third-
controversial issue in the War Depart-
party rentals and thus destroy whatever
ment, where some viewed it as a safe-
chance the Engineers now had of com-
guard and others, as a drawback. De-
peting with the Navy, which made no
leted from the fixed-fee contract in the
provision for recapture in its agree-
fall of 1941, the clause was still a standard 98
ments. Somervell took the matter up
feature of third-party rental agreements
with Patterson, who notified General
when the United States entered the
Reybold: "The recapture clause will be
war.95 Increasing difficulty in renting
required in all lease agreements as
from third parties and sharp rises in
heretofore directed."99 With customary
rental rates caused mounting concern.
persistence, Robins tried again. This time
Judge Patterson seemed to think the
he went to Madigan, who soon set
remedy was at hand. Early in December
matters right. Patterson delegated au-
1941, he reminded Reybold that the
thority to rent without recapture to
Requisition Act was "on the books" and
Reybold, who, in turn, delegated it to the
that the War Department was "no longer
field.100 A serious obstacle was out of
helpless in the matter."96 But requisi-
the way.
tioning was contrary to the Engineers'
With a huge inventory of recaptured
philosophy. Although they often men-
equipment to control and maintain, the
tioned the act as a bargaining point,
Engineers had a problem on their hands.
they continued to do business on a
Advancing a solution early in the war,
voluntary basis. When Patterson insisted
Colonel Sturgis wrote the Chief: "There
on retention and enforcement of the
has evidently been a large amount of
recapture provision, affairs went from
plant acquired by the United States
bad to worse.97
. . . which should furnish a valuable
On 10 March, at Major Richardson's
prompting, General Robins appealed to 98
Memo, Robins for Somervell, 10 Mar 42.481 Part
I.
94 99
SOS Ltr SPAD 400.22 (5-19-42), 9 May 42. Memo, Patterson for Reybold, 18 Mar 42. 400.13
Opns Br Files, SOS. Part 4.
95 100
See pp. 426-27, above. (1) Memo, Robins for Madigan, 27 Mar 42,
96
Memo, Patterson for Reybold, 3 Dec 41. USW and 1st Ind, 27 Mar 42, thereon. USW Files, Misc
Files, Misc & Sub—Equip. and Sub—Equip. (2) TWX, Strong to Div Engrs,
97
(1) 3820 (Nat Def) Part 12A. (2) TWX, Reybold 1Apr 42. 481 Part I. (3) TWX, Robins to Div
to Div Engrs, 15 Jan 42. 400.7 Part 30. (3) 481 Part I. Engrs, 12 May 42. 481 Part 1.
THE MATERIALS BATTLE 545
headline: "Lumber supply adequate for a letter from "a dear old lady of the
war construction." A survey by the Deep South." After tracing her gene-
Timber Engineering Company had dis- alogy, the old lady offered him her
closed that "all requirements can readily favorite walnut tree. While praising her
be met." In February the magazine patriotism, Reybold declared: "She was
captioned an item: "War demand for under the erroneous impression that the
lumber unlikely to cause shortage." dire need was for trees. This is not the
The writer attributed to Styer the belief case at all. It is the lack of manpower in
that "with prudent handling, . . . the woods which causes the shortage of
there should be enough lumber to meet lumber." Contributing factors were
106
all needs without rationing, including scarcities of fuel, tires, and equipment.
lend-lease shipments abroad." As late as As the crisis deepened, Reed and his
23 April, the News-Record could report assistants fought doggedly to combat
that the latest WPB scarcity list made no the shortage. They launched a campaign
mention of lumber.104 Optimism was to purchase 250 to 300 million board feet
almost universal. The country's timber from retail lumber yards. They arranged
resources were practically limitless. Dur- to borrow lend-lease stocks held by the
ing 1941, the total lumber supply, British on the East Coast. Going into New
including imports, had amounted to 37 England, they bought up all available
billion board feet, and domestic produc- hurricane lumber. Moving north of the
tion had increased 14 percent over border, they purchased all the Canadian
1940. In December 1941 stocks on hand lumber they could find. Meanwhile, they
at mills and lumber yards approximated held auctions in Florida and Wisconsin,
17 billion board feet. Only the Forest states which had not previously entered
Service warned of a possible shortage, the supply picture. Little more than
and its warnings went largely un- temporary expedients, these measures
105
heeded. eased the pinch only briefly. At the end
As critical as it was unforeseen, a of April, Reed had a backlog of un-
lumber shortage developed suddenly in placed orders for 200 million board
the spring of 1942. Early in April Major feet—orders the lumber industry was
Reed detected a decided tightening of unable to absorb.107
the market. The situation deteriorated During April the Chief's office studied
rapidly as requirements shot upward not proposals for increasing supplies of lum-
only for building construction but for air- ber by altering specifications. By ac-
plane framing, ship decking and plank- cepting lower, rougher grades and by
ing, boxes and crates, ponton stock, and ordering random lengths and widths,
lend-lease shipments as well. Worst of all, buyers could reduce pressure on the
while demand rose sharply, production mills. But the sacrifice in quality would
actually fell. Explaining the drop in in- be severe. Moreover, as Stratton pointed
dustrial output, General Reybold cited out, use of random sizes meant increased
104 106
ENR, January I, 1942, p. 24; February 5, Maj Gen Eugene Reybold, "They Deliver the
1942, P. 3; and April 23, 1942, p. 55. Woods," The Timberman, June 1943, pp. 46, 10.
105 107
S Rpt 480, Part 14, 77th Cong, 2d sess (Dec 15, Memo, Groves for Clay, 28 April 42. 411.1 Part
1942), p. 2. 3.
THE MATERIALS BATTLE 547
waste.108 The decision was not one to Surgeon General, he O.K.'d concrete
be taken lightly. After a good bit of floors for TO barracks. Before long, tele-
soul searching, Zackrison gave the nod, types were on the way telling division
and Urquhart, Stratton, Strong, and engineers to build all interior partitions
111
Groves in turn approved. By the first of of wallboard. More such changes fol-
May, new instructions were ready for the lowed. The purpose was always the same:
field: buy all two-by-twos and two-by- to effect all possible savings of lumber
threes, all boards, all tongue and through substitution and redesign.
groove decking, all bridging, sills, plates, The question naturally arose: if lumber
and headers in random lengths; specify was hard to get, why not use more struc-
sizable posts and timbers rough; and, tural clay? Masonry interests, long dis-
because of its requirement for very long satisfied with their share of the program,
studs, avoid balloon construction. In took this opportunity to press their case.
general, all lumber except framing would Manufacturers, individually, through
be one grade lower than that normally their trade associations, and through
specified.109 At lumber auctions later on, their congressmen, besieged General
Sherrill took a ribbing for buying "ran- Reybold with demands for increased use
dom, random, random." His retort was of their products. As before, the Chief
apt: "There is more to this than meets offered assurances that clay products
the eye. At a given moment, ten thousand would receive every consideration, but
people scattered throughout the country he declined to make a basic change in
can cut 10,000 two-by-sixes, 24 feet policy. The old arguments against
long, in half a good deal quicker than masonry still held good: too costly and
half a dozen saw mills can cut the same too time-consuming. In many areas
110 112
10,000 pieces in half." skilled masons were none too plentiful.
The Engineers took further steps to Moreover, as Groves explained: "With
conserve lumber. Late in April Colonel the experience that we had had with
Groves wired the field: "Make such bricklayers, there was every natural reluc-
modifications in structural designs of tance to turn to masonry if its use could
113
mobilization type buildings as are prac- be avoided." Since 1941 the field had
ticable." Narrower joists and simpler had authority to substitute brick, tile,
framing were examples of what he had or concrete blocks for wood where the
in mind. On 13 May Colonel Stratton difference in cost and completion time
urged district engineers to substitute was not excessive. In the absence of more
concrete floors for wood floors in ware- definite instructions, district engineers
houses, messhalls, administration build- had to decide for themselves what was
ings, and other one-story structures. A
few days later, with the approval of The 111
(1) TWX, Groves to Div Engrs, 30 Apr 42. 652
(NAD).(2) TWX, Stratton to Div Engrs, 13 May 42.
108
Memo, Stratton for Strong, 8 April 42, Opns Br 400.8 Part 2. (3) Ltr, Hill to TSG, 20 May 42. 621
Files, Memos-Engrg Br. Part I. (4) TWX, Reybold to Div Engrs, n.d. 400.8
109
(1) Zackrison Interv, 19 Feb 65. (2) TWX, Part 2. (5) TWX, Reybold to Div Engrs, 13 Jun 42.
Groves to Div Engrs, 30 Apr 42. 652 (NAD). (3) 411.8 Part I.
112
OCE Circ Ltr 1556, 2 May 42. 411.8 Parts 3 and 4.
110 113
Sherrill, Lumber in the War, I, 3. Groves Comments, X, 7.
548 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
excessive. While some used masonry had been in progress, "days, nights, and
freely, most continued to prefer wood. Sundays," at the Peabody Hotel in
While others concentrated on con- Memphis, but M&E had yet to purchase
serving lumber, Groves tackled the prob- for forty projects. Heavy buying in
lem from a different angle. On 28 April, Wisconsin and Florida had exhausted
at Reed's suggestion, he asked General cuttings in those states for weeks to come.
Clay to petition the War Production Over the country as a whole, said
Board for a freeze order, "prohibiting the Deadrick, production was "about 15
sale of lumber to retailers or direct by percent off because of a shortage of tires,
producers to any but defense purposes."114 labor, and supplies." He continued:
On 13 May Chairman Nelson complied. Weather conditions have been particu-
A week later, the Engineering News- larly bad in all lumber producing areas this
Record informed its readers: "The order spring and summer; the demands of the box-
applies to softwood 'construction lumber' ing industry are conflicting increasingly with
produced by mills whose production dur- our program; the regulations issued by the
Office of Price Administration are hampering
ing the past three months has averaged production; the uncertainties of price ceilings
more than 5,000 board feet per day. Such and their interpretations are causing vendors
mills are forbidden to sell except to the to hesitate in accepting commitments; and,
Army, Navy, and Maritime Commission, to a somewhat minor degree, the shortage
or their contractors."115 Along with the of competent and trained help is preventing
us from securing all of the lumber which
order, Nelson issued instructions that might be located.117
lumber for all Engineer projects requiring
in excess of one million board feet would At project level, the pinch was becoming
be procured centrally. He coupled this tighter. The number of delays caused by
action with an appeal to loggers and lumber shortages rose steadily—from 88
sawmill operators to step up produc- in May, to 95 in June, to 101 in July.118
tion.116 Division and district engineers showed
All these measures notwithstanding, initiative in finding lumber to keep their
difficulties increased with the advent projects going. The work of General
of summer. On 29 June Walter T. Hannum and Lt. Col. Robert C. Hunter,
Deadrick of M&E's lumber unit informed the district engineer at Sacramento, was
Colonel Sherrill: "Our inability to an example. On a trip through the
place orders for our lumber require- Sierras, they noticed a number of small
ments . . . has now reached a very criticalsawmills deep in the woods. At Hannum's
point." Auctions were having disap- suggestion, Hunter sent men into the
pointing results. At Portland, Oregon, mountains in search of mills having no
the week before, bidders had walked out, government orders. The scouts located
leaving orders for 60 million board feet quite a few. By contracting for their out-
still unplaced. Since 22 June, another buy put, which averaged twenty to thirty
thousand board feet per day, Hunter
114
Memo, Groves for Clay, 28 Apr 42. 411.1 Part 3. was able to keep most of his jobs on
115
ENR, May 21, 1942, p. 56. See also TWX,
117
Reed to Div Engrs, 14 May 42. Memo, Deadrick for Sherrill, 29 June 42. Opns
116
(1) OCE Circ Ltr 1587, 11 May 42. (2) ENR, Br Files, Lumber.
118
May 14, 1942, p. 2. Summaries of Delaying Factors, May-Jul 42.
THE MATERIALS BATTLE 549
schedule. Hunter's methods were by have been introduced, orders have been
no means unique. Engineer projects issued, committees have been formed,
throughout the South drew heavily on resolutions have been passed, but less
the thousands of "peckerwood" or "cof- timber is being cut" WPB estimates put
fee pot" mills which dotted the great total production for 1942 at 33 billion
pine-producing region.119 The chief dif- board feet as against requirements of
ficulty was not in locating these small 38.7 billion. Reserve stocks were 18
mills and giving them orders. Rather it percent below last year's level. Log
was in keeping them from going under. production on the West Coast was off
At a WPB conference on 9 July, 10 percent, and important western plan-
Sherrill put forward a plan to aid small ing mills were closing for lack of workers.
producers. "East of the Plains," he said, Southern pine loggers, heavily depen-
"sixty-five percent of the lumber is pro- dent on truckers, were seriously hurt by
duced by mills cutting 20,000 feet or shortages of tires. Many southern mills
less daily." High operating costs were were operating below capacity, and
forcing many of these operators out of ceiling prices were forcing marginal pro-
business. Countrywide, labor was criti- ducers to the wall. A bad situation was
cal. Lumberjacks were leaving by the made worse by the lumbermen's in-
thousands for higher paying jobs in ability to replace worn-out equipment
cities. To relieve the situation, Sherrill or even to obtain spare parts. After re-
proposed that the government pay a viewing various proposed remedies—
bonus of two dollars for every thousand bonuses, subsidies, pay boosts, additional
board feet of lumber cut, the bonus in overtime, draft deferments, hikes in
no case to exceed $15,000 a year.120 ceiling prices, and priority assistance—
When he first heard about the plan, Robinson suggested that the Army or-
General Clay was heartily in favor of it, ganize logging battalions and send them
but after consulting his legal advisers, into the woods. Something had to be
he withdrew his support. A bill to provide done and done fast, he warned. The
a bonus for mill operators would have shortage was jeopardizing not just the
the appearance of "discriminatory class Army program but the entire war con-
legislation," Clay's attorneys told him, struction effort.122
and Congress would probably reject it If the Engineers had too little lumber,
as such.121 other war agencies had appreciably less.
As the lumber famine persisted, In a sellers' market that was increasingly
Colonel Robinson asked Somervell to congested and confused, conventional
take a hand. Noting that production had government purchasing methods were
fallen off alarmingly, the SOS control largely ineffective. The Engineers, with
officer told his chief on 12 August: "Bills their auction system, enjoyed a huge
advantage. By the summer of 1942, ac-
119
(1) Ltr, Hannum to Robins, 19 Sep 42. 411.1 cording to Colonel Sherrill, "they were
Part 3. (2) Sherrill, Lumber in the War, IV, 11-12.
120
getting the bulk of the lumber, and the
Memo, Sherrill for Clay, 10 Jul 42. 411.1 Part 3.
121 122
(1) Opns Br, Daily Log, 13 Jul 42. (2) Memo, Memo, Robinson for Somervell, 12 Aug 42.
Legal Sec, SOS, for Clay, 31 Jul 42. 411.1 Part 3. OCE, Proc Div, Lumber Br Files, Centralized Pur-
(3) Memo, Clay for Sherrill, 6 Aug 42. 411.1 Part 3. chases.
550 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
other branches in the Army and all the same type of lumber from Army projects
bureaus in the Navy were merely fol- at the Oakland and Boston ports. After
lowing in their wake—in effect, picking placing the Army's orders, Sherrill was
up little odds and ends that dropped out unable to place the Navy's. "In spite of
of the enormous haul of the Engineers." every effort, and they did make many
Also trailing in the wake were the Mari- efforts," he said, "the Engineers could
time Commission, the Defense Plant not find a home among lumber producers
123
Corporation, and other war agencies. for the three requirements within the
The Engineers came in for heavy criti- time limits imposed." Protesting naval
cism, as the impression gained that they officers took the matter to ANMB
had cornered the market. Chairman Eberstadt, who called in
Because the Engineer method was ef- Colonel Sherrill.
ficient and functioned cooperatively with This contest [Sherrill related] was so im-
lumbermen, battling almost insuperable odds portant and involved so much of what was
[Reybold commented], these lumbermen even then felt to be of far reaching conse-
declined to sell their product to other agen- quence that Mr. Eberstadt had practically
cies through the long and complicated pro- all of the high ranking members of ANMB
cedures ordinarily used. The fact that other present. We ended up day after day, however,
agencies could not purchase lumber was not at the same place—nowhere. . . . Ad-
due, then, to any monopoly the Engineers mittedly, the Navy had to have the lumber,
held, but solely to the lumberman's own still there was no one in the lower levels of
choice of124 those with whom he would do the Corps of Engineers with authority to
business. set aside its requirements to meet this con-
flicting demand of the Navy.
From time to time, Sherrill extended a
helping hand to other agencies, by plac- Finally, someone suggested that Moreell
ing orders for them at his lumber buys. telephone Somervell—which he did.
But, admittedly, he did so "perhaps a Somervell, in turn, called Reybold.
little grudgingly" and only when "the Could the Corps of Engineers fill the
purchase would not too greatly interfere Navy's requirement? Reybold countered
with the Engineers' own requirements."125 with a question of his own. Would
An appeal from Admiral Moreell to Somervell risk delaying the port projects?
General Somervell in mid-August 1942 Somervell agreed to take the risk and
dramatized the plight of the other agen- Reybold turned over the lumber. The
cies. Construction of the great floating affair had made a deep impression on
dry docks which would play a vital role Eberstadt. Clearly, this was no way to
in the war at sea was just getting under win the war.126
way. Needed for the purpose was 25 Turning for advice to one of the
million board feet of Douglas fir of a country's top lumbermen, Eberstadt
special grade, size, and fiber stress. The asked Frederick K. Weyerhaeuser to
Navy asked M&E to make the purchase. survey the situation and suggest a rem-
This request coincided with calls for the edy. On 18 August, after a six-day in-
123 126
Sherrill, Lumber in the War, II, 4. Ibid., II, 6-8. See also Memo, Robinson for
124
Reybold, "They Deliver the Woods," The Somervell, 12 Aug 42; and Memo, Rear Adm T. J.
Timberman, June 1943, p. 12. Keleher, ANMB, for Reybold, 18 Aug 42. 411.1 Part
125
Sherrill, Lumber in the War, II, 6. 3.
THE MATERIALS BATTLE 551
there would be no shortage of lumber for over to the Engineers.136 Explaining the
any of the agencies from then on."133 new setup to Colonel Farrell, Groves said:
On 20 August Eberstadt reported to "The Navy wasn't getting anything at
Patterson and Forrestal. "In order to all. And now I think we are going to be
get the lumber situation in hand," he able t o supply them a l l right . . . .
was moving to centralize procurement I don't anticipate any trouble, except, of
for the Army, Navy, and Maritime Com- course, it is a big headache." Pleased
mission in one organization—the Con- with the recent turn of events, he could
struction Division of the Corps of En- not resist adding: "It was quite a com-
gineers. He was also creating an ANMB pliment to us to have them come with
Lumber Advisory Board to referee dis- their hat in their hand and say, 'Please,
putes among the services and to main- will you get our lumber for us?' "137
tain liaison with the War Production Establishment of CPA triggered an-
Board. J. Philip Boyd of the Weyer- other crackdown on the field. On1
haeuser Company would head the ad- September General Reybold wired divi-
visory group. Although some details sion engineers: henceforth M&E would
were still vague—other agencies would buy all lumber. He left the field two
probably "be brought into this pic- loopholes, but they were relatively small:
ture"—Eberstadt asked approval of the temporary authority for local purchases
action taken thus far.134 Patterson and of up to one carload, and no prohibition
Forrestal accepted the plan in principle, on buying from retailers and distribution
135 138
and so did Donald Nelson. yards. Division engineers reacted
Arrangements were soon complete. sharply to the Chief's message. Pointing
At the insistence of the Bureau of Yards out that small mills could not afford to
and Docks, Eberstadt established a three- send representatives to Sherrill's auc-
man Lumber Advisory Board to rule on tions, General Hannum made it clear
questions of priority. Members were that he would continue to buy from them
Francis H. Van Riper (Maritime Com- direct.139 Alarmed lest he lose the right
mission), Commander Oscar L. Carlson to buy any lumber locally, Colonel
(Navy), and Colonel Sherrill (Army). Farrell protested to Groves: "Without
Boyd was consultant to the group. On1 that leeway, we would be completely
September 1942 ANMB formally de- bogged down." It was not the Chief's
signated M&E as the Central Procuring intention to impose unreasonable re-
Agency. Shortly, the War Shipping Ad- strictions on the field.140 Division and
ministration, the Veterans' Bureau, the district engineers continued throughout
Defense Plant Corporation, the U.S.
Coast and Geodetic Survey, and lend- 136
(1) Sherrill, Lumber in the War, II, 11-15.
lease also turned their lumber buying (2) ANMB Orgn Order 12 (Rev.), 1 Sep 42. (3) Opns
Br Files, Lumber.
137
Tel Conv, Groves and Farrell, 3 Sep 42. Opns
Br Files, MAD.
133 138
Groves Comments, VI, 12. TWX, Reybold to Div Engrs, 1 Sep 42. 411.1
134
Memo, Eberstadt for Patterson and Forrestal, Part 3.
139
20 Aug 42. USW Files, 411.1 Lumber. Ltr, Hannum to Robins, 19 Sep 42. 411.1 Part 3.
135 140
(1) Memo, Patterson for Eberstadt, 22 Aug 42. Tel Conv, Groves and Farrell, 3 Sep 42. Opns Br
Same File. (2) Opns Br Daily Log, 24 Aug 42. Files, MAD.
THE MATERIALS BATTLE 553
the war to pick up small lots of lumber. feet of lumber. (Table 18) The retention
Nevertheless, after 1 September 1942, of CPA as a permanent part of the post-
M&E made all large purchases. war defense establishment testified to its
Sherrill and company "delivered the success.
woods." Within a week after the creation But despite centralized procurement,
of CPA, Deadrick had found homes for the critical shortage persisted. Lumber
a number of large orders the Navy had became increasingly scarce as the war
been trying unsuccessfully to place for continued. From the fall of 1942 on,
several months. By mid-September Sherrill had to face a steadily widening
Sherrill could report purchases of 650 gap between supply and demand. He
million board feet "so far this month." could purchase no more lumber than the
Meantime, he disclosed, negotiations industry produced; and production did
were in progress to import lumber from not catch up with requirements while
Mexico and Brazil. Before the year was the war lasted.
out, a nationwide network of distribu-
tion yards was operative and a special The Last Ounce
office at Portland, Oregon, had taken
over the buying of Douglas fir for the The battle for building materials
Navy.141 Functioning effectively through- reached its climax in the summer and
out the war, the Central Procuring fall of 1942. As more and more war
Agency compiled an impressive record. plants went into production, as buildups
By V-J Day it had spent more than 1 .3 accelerated in Great Britain and Aus-
billion dollars for almost 26 billion board tralia, as preparations went forward for
large-scale offensives, the war entered a
141 new phase. As far as construction was
(1) Opns Br Daily Log, 7 and 18 Sep 42. (2)
Ltr, Robins to Hannum, 2 Oct 42. 411.1 Part 3. (3) concerned, the term "critical materials"
OCE Annual Rpt, 1943, pp. 44-45. was outmoded, for, as Zackrison as-
554 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
serted, the problem was no longer "one reliance on masonry intensified. In July
of critical materials but rather the con- Madigan suggested to General Clay
142
servation of all materials." Under the that it might be desirable to substitute
spur of necessity, General Robins or- "alternate materials" for wood.145 A
dered drastic steps to reduce the strain month later John L. Haynes of WPB
on supplies: lowering safety factors; tak- reminded General Robins that produc-
ing over hundreds of hotels and apart- tion of brick and tile was "considerably
146
ment houses; making greater use of in excess of demand." Meanwhile,
masonry; and, over the objections of manufacturers of clay products, stepping
The Surgeon General, double bunking up their campaign for a larger share in
barracks. All these measures had serious the Army program, hurled wholesale
drawbacks. Their adoption was proof of charges of discrimination at the En-
the Corps' determination "to squeeze the gineers.147 An inquiry by Senator Walter
last possible ounce of precious war ma- F. George on behalf of the Standard
teriel off the construction program."143 Brick and Tile Corporation of Macon,
The collapse of several structures at Georgia, helped bring matters to a head.
Fort MacArthur, California, when 14- Predicting that their plant would soon
inch railway guns fired test volleys there have "to close down on account of the
in the spring of 1942, underscored the competition . . . with an inferior
danger of lowering safety factors. Dating product (lumber)," Standard told the
from an earlier period, the buildings at Senator that 450 men would be thrown
MacArthur were a good deal sturdier out of work, "notwithstanding that lum-
than most of the new ones that were ber is scarce and very high and burned
going up. To disregard this warning took clay products have been abundant and
148
considerable courage. But after wrestling selling at much lower prices." In
with the problem and talking it over with mid-August General Robins unveiled
Major Hill, Zackrison came to the con- plans to "expand utilization of masonry
149
clusion—safety factors would have to be construction." How far he intended
lower. At his insistence, designers in- to go in this direction was not im-
creased stresses, spaced studs and rafters mediately clear.
farther apart, and specified shorter, Late in August Groves took up the
lighter members. The gamble was suc- question. Calling in Colonel Daley, he
cessful. The structures, unsubstantial asked for a resume of the Corps' ex-
though they were, held up for the dura- perience with masonry on ground forces
tion of the war.144 projects. At the same time, he asked
More widely discussed than Zack- Colonel Stratton to comment from an
rison's decision was a change in the
policy on brick and tile. As the lumber 145
Memo, Madigan for Clay, 14 Jul 42. Madigan
crisis worsened, pressure for heavier Files, SOS, Misc Memos.
146
Memo, Haynes for Robins, 10 Aug 42. 411.8
Part 4.
142 147
Address by Zackrison, 14 Oct 42. 411.8 Parts 3 and 4.
143 148
Address by Col Fowler, 27 Mar 42. Ltr, Standard Brick and Tile Corp., Macon,
144
(1) Tel Conv, Groves and George, 29 May 42. Georgia, to Senator George, 19 Aug 42. Incl with
Opns Br Files, MD-Dists. (2) Zackrison Interv, 27 Ltr, George to Reybold, 25 Aug 42. 411.8 Part 4.
149
Apr 65. (3) OCE, Engineering Manual, 1942, ch. XI. Ltr, Robins to Haynes, 19 Aug 42. Same File.
THE MATERIALS BATTLE 555
gineers had put the Statlers "in the purchased by the government included,
shade."153 besides the Stevens, the Biltmore at
The largest of O'Brien's hotel transac- Miami Beach, the Don-Ce-Sar at St.
tions involved the Stevens in Chicago. Petersburg, the Forest Hills at Augusta,
The biggest hotel in the world, the Georgia, and the Eastman at Hot Springs,
3,ooo-room, 22-story Stevens had been Arkansas. The yearly rent bill on leased
built in 1927 at a cost of $27 million. properties was $12.5 million. The annual
In June 1942, when General Arnold cost per man was $170, including main-
asked Groves and O'Brien to buy the tenance. Cantonments for 160,000 men
huge hotel, they demurred, arguing would have cost upwards of $100 million.
that the price would be too high and The cost of building Camp Polk had
eventual disposal would be too difficult. been $1,263 per man—or $253 per year
But when Arnold insisted he had to have over a five-year period. Substantial
the Stevens, they agreed to lease it. though the saving in dollars was, savings
Negotiations soon bogged down. The in time and materials were far more
owners' demands appeared excessive— significant. Commending the Army for
an annual rental of around $1 million its resourcefulness, the House Military
and $5 million more for rehabilitation Affairs Committee pointed out that
and new advertising upon termination using hotels had saved from 4 to 6
of the lease. Going to condemnation, months' time plus immeasurable quan-
156
O'Brien took possession on 1 August. tities of materials.
Some 9,700 air trainees moved in a short An avenue to greater savings had long
time later. While the case was awaiting been closed. In the spring of 1917, faced
trial, word came that the owners would with short mobilization deadlines and
sell if the price was right. They finally tight construction budgets, the Canton-
accepted $5.6 million.154 Whether, as ment Division had planned to halve the
Senator Byrd implied, the Army had peacetime space allowance—60 square
bought a white elephant, or whether, feet of floor and 720 cubic feet of air
as Patterson asserted, the purchase was space per man—by installing double-
"a sound one," only time would tell.155 decker bunks in barracks. Interposing
For many GI's, hotels served as train- immediate objections, Surgeon General
ing centers and hospitals. At peak the of the Army William C. Gorgas had
capacity of these establishments was convened a board of eminent physicians,
160,000 men. Representing an invest- including Dr. Victor C. Vaughn of
ment of $14 to $15 million, properties Michigan University and Dr. William
H. Welch of Johns Hopkins. Emphasizing
153
Rpt by O'Brien, 1943, sub: Status of RE Pro- the dangers of overcrowding, the board
gram. RE Br Files, Misc Rpts.
154
warned that the space allowance was
(1) Ltr, Ernest J. Stevens to Stimson, 21 Dec "altogether too small." Respiratory dis-
42, and related docs. 601.1 (Stevens Hotel) I. (2) Ltr,
AAF to CofEngrs, 5 Jun 42. 601.53 III. (3) Memo, eases would be "practically uncontrolla-
AAF for Somervell, 19 Jun 42. RE Br Files, Memos
156
for Gen Arnold. (4) 601.53 (Chicago, 111.) (Misc.) I. (1) Lorence, Logistics in World War II, Part
155
(1) Ltr, Byrd to Stimson, 15 Dec 42. 601.1 III. (2) Memo, O'Brien for Amberg, 2 Nov 44. 601.1
(Stevens Hotel) I. (2) Ltr, Patterson to Byrd, 16 Part II. (3) Business Week, October 9, 1943, p. 28.
Dec 42. 601.1 (Stevens Hotel) I. (4) Washington Times-Herald, July 29, 1943, p. A2.
AIRMEN EXERCISING ON GROUNDS OF STEVENS HOTEL
558 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
ble" if men were housed "too close to- gerous."159 This warning blocked the
gether." Prison inmates and flop-house move. A year later, when Somervell
denizens had more space than Littell tried to invoke the emergency clause in
planned to give the boys in uniform. In the Army Regulations, Magee coun-
conclusion, the board stated, "We be- seled against it. "Double-bunking," he
lieve that no sanitary advice is sound averred, "should never be resorted to
which does not provide for at least 500 and is prohibited by regulation."160
cubic feet of air space per man."157 Until the fall of 1942, the Surgeon's view
Secretary Baker approved the report of prevailed.
the medical men and directed Littell to In the spring and summer of 1942, as
use it as a guide. After the war, Army materials shortages became increasingly
Regulations prohibited overcrowding, for- desperate, the Engineers pressed hard
bade double bunking, and prescribed for reductions in space allowances. At a
an allowance of 60-720 per man, except high-level conference in May, Groves
in emergencies, when the minimum introduced the subject:
would be 50-500.158 We can decrease our efforts ... by
From the start of the rearmament the double bunking of our men in barracks. I
program, construction officers had ad- realize that this is very objectionable from
vocated double bunking and reductions the standpoint of the Medical Department
in space allowances—steps strongly op- perhaps, though it would be less costly in
life to the United States if we double-bunked
posed by Surgeon General Magee. In the men in barracks and diverted that effort
the summer of 1940, when Hartman sug- to a more useful field. I personally lived in
gested temporary double decking, Magee a double-bunk room quite a while, and I
entered an "emphatic protest against did not find it objectionable. What the medi-
any such practice." He warned: "From cal conditions will be here I am not prepared
to discuss.161
the standpoint of health such crowding
of men, particularly recruits, is dan- 159
Ltr, SGO to TAG, 6 Aug 40. SGO 427.4.
160
1st Ind, SGO to TQMG, 22 Sep 41, on Ltr, AAF
157
Medical Board Rpt, 14 Jun 17. SGO 621-1 to SGO, TQMG, and CofEngrs, 10 Sep 41. QM 621
(Bks for EM). (63-Man Bks).
158 161
(1)Memo, Actg CofS for TQMG, 14 Jun 17. Min, Engr Production Conf, 22 May 42. 337
AG 2595123. (2) AR 40-205 15 Dec 24, par. 19. (Engrs, Corps of).
THE MATERIALS BATTLE 559
Six weeks later General Robins asked tific observation and experience. These
Somervell to cut allowances to 50 requirements are essential if high rates
square feet of floor and 450 cubic feet for infectious diseases are to be pre-
of air space, and, as a temporary measure, vented." General Magee "urgently rec-
to sanction further reductions to 40-375. ommended that no change be made
Robins furnished data showing how much . . . except where this expedient
the capacity of various barracks would must be taken by a field commander to
increase.162 (Table 19) Somervell referred meet a temporary situation."163
Robins' letter to The Surgeon General, The Engineers persisted. After dis-
who promptly protested: "The housing cussions with Somervell, Groves in-
requirements as laid down . . . vestigated the possibility of double bunk-
have been carefully arrived at by scien- ing barracks at staging areas. On 22
August he reported that the overall
162 163
Memo, Robins for Somervell, 4 Jul 42. 621 1st Ind, 11 Jul 42, on Memo, SOS for TSG, 8 Jul
Part I. 42. SGO 621-1 (Double Bunking).
560 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
capacity of camps serving the New York, sewer lines could probably carry the
Boston, and Hampton Roads ports of load. Once again, Somervell went fur-
embarkation could be augmented from ther than Groves had recommended. On
117,486 to either 143,753 or 233,172, 21 October, with General Marshall's
depending on which formula was ap- approval, he slashed space allowances
plied. To avoid additional construction, to 40 square feet at all Army installa-
he recommended the 50-450 formula tions, except replacement training cen-
rather than the 40-375. But Somervell ters, reception centers, and schools,
wanted to go all the way. Rejecting where 50 square feet would be the mini-
Groves' proposal, he asked the Chief of mum. He suspended the conflicting
Engineers to study the matter per- paragraph of the Army Regulations and
164
sonally. "This was rather typical of on 31 December 1942 published a new
Somervell," Groves asserted. "Whenever regulation, incorporating the change.
he found that he and I were not in At a stroke, Somervell had increased
agreement on a matter such as this, he housing capacity nearly 50 percent.167
would ask Reybold to study it personally, As General Magee had feared, the res-
fully aware that Reybold would always piratory disease rate rose sharply, reach-
go along with him."165 On 8 September ing a peak in January 1943, and there-
Reybold expressed his agreement with after "diminishing slowly but progres-
Somervell's view. Ten days later Somer- sively." According to Magee, the reduc-
vell cut the space allowance at staging tion in space allowances, though not the
areas to 40-375.166 only factor, was "one of the most impor-
168
Meanwhile, the Engineers pushed on tant elements in the whole situation."
toward their goal of double bunking the At a conference held at the New War
entire military establishment. In a mem- Department Building on 28 September
orandum to Somervell, which he prepared 1942, General Robins and his staff heard
for Reybold's signature in mid-Septem- Colonel Hardin summarize their efforts
ber, Groves urged an across-the-board to save materials. Before a large and
reduction to 50 square feet per man. At distinguished audience (among those
major ground troop stations alone, he present were Patterson, Knudsen, Eber-
claimed, the change would make room stadt, Clay, and Harrison), Hardin
for nearly 400,000 additional men. Mess- spoke of simplifying designs, finding
ing, recreational, and administrative fa- substitutes for scarce commodities, pool-
cilities would pose no problems; hos- ing supplies and equipment, procur-
pitals could add wings or expand into ing materials necessary to carry on the
converted quarters; and even water and
167
(1) Memo, Reybold for Somervell, 21 Sep 42.
164
(1) Memo, Groves for Somervell, 22 Aug 42. 600.1 Part 14. (2) Groves Comments, XIII, 3. (3)
600.1 Part 14. (2) Memo, Somervell for Reybold, WD Ltr AG 600.12 (9-21-42) OB-S-SPRMC-M, 21
26165Aug 42. 600.1 Part 14. Oct 42, sub: Reduced Space Allowances at Posts,
166
Groves Second Draft Comments, XVII, I. Camps, and/or Air Force Stations. (4) AR 40-205,
(1) Memo, Reybold for Somervell, 8 Sep 42. 31 168Dec 42, par. 10.
600. 1 Part 14. (2) Memo, SOS for CofEngrs, 1st Memo Ind, 22 Mar 43 on Memo, ASF to
SGO, . . . 18 Sep 42. 600.1 Part 14. SGO, 14 Feb 43. AG 600.12.
THE MATERIALS BATTLE 561
work, taking over civilian properties, and tation, the veterans of the materials
making more intensive use of the military battle could feel reasonably certain they
plant.169 As they listened to the presen- had done all they could. There was
169
Min, Engr Production Conf, 28 Sep 42. 337 little else anyone could do, short of cut-
(Engrs, Corps of). ting the size of the program.
CHAPTER XVII
Wartime Contracts
War imposed tremendous burdens on on 17 December 1941, Patterson au-
the American construction industry. thorized him to negotiate contracts of
Between December 1941 and August $5 million and under without approval
1945, the Corps of Engineers called upon and to decentralize procurement to the
private architect-engineers and con- "greatest extent compatible with ef-
structors to undertake emergency con- ficiency and proper safeguarding of the
tracts totaling $8.5 billion—one third public interest,"2 Reybold, extending
of all new construction performed in the the authority of the field, empowered
United States during that period.1 War- division engineers to approve negotiated
time demands taxed the nation's build- contracts of $5 million or less and dis-
ing capacity to the utmost. As more and trict and area engineers to negotiate
more firms accepted urgent work and contracts in amounts up to $2 million
as tight labor and materials markets and and $1 million, respectively. A few
rigid government controls added to months later, he increased the ceiling
construction risks, contractors became for districts and areas to $3 million.
increasingly difficult to obtain. Only by During March 1942, he enlarged the
offering more liberal terms and by tap- duties of district offices to include selec-
ping industry's reserve capacity could tion of contractors for negotiated agree-
the Engineers assemble the technical ments. Adopting procedures similar to
and managerial talent they needed to those used by the Construction Advisory
get the job done. In meeting his wartime Committee and the Contract Board,
responsibilities as Chief, General Reybold districts began collecting data on con-
sought contracting methods that were tractors.3 Recalling how he went about
at once effective and expedient. the task of selection, one district en-
During Reybold's administration, de- gineer said:
centralization was greater than before. I set up standards for making recom-
Division and district offices, experienced mendations based on size of firm; availability
in awarding advertised and small nego- of heavy equipment and its condition; finan-
tiated agreements, ought, he felt, to han- cial situation; previous experience; adequate
dle all but the largest contracts. When, key personnel, etc. These standards were
weighted as they were made and 1st choice
1
(1) ASF, Statistical Review: World War 11, p. 84, was given to the firm with the highest score.
Appendix C. (2) Historical Statistics of the United
2
States, 1789-1945, p. 168. The $8.5-billion total TWX, Patterson to Reybold, 17 Dec 41. 3820
does not include Manhattan District contracts, (Natl Def) Part 12.
3
discussed in ch. XX, below. Nor does it include (1) OCE Circ Ltr Adm 45, 22 Dec 41. (2) Bruner,
approximately $550 million in war-related civil Outline of Authorizations, 30 Oct 46. (3) OCE Circ
projects. Ltrs Constr 226 and 346, 2 Jan and 7 Mar 42.
WARTIME CONTRACTS 563
With the heavy political pressure behind time. . . . His directive, however,
various firms, we found it 4 highly advisable was sound because of the tremendous
to keep these records on file.
political capital which was being made
Decentralization enabled General by Senator Truman and others with
Robins to consolidate contracting groups their erroneous charges about fixed
within the Construction Division. On fees."8 There was another factor the
15 March 1942, he abolished the Con- Chief had to weigh. Cost-plus-a-fixed-
struction Advisory Committee and the fee contracts required detailed super-
Contract Board, and assigned their duties vision. To accomplish all or most of the
to the new Construction Contract Board, huge wartime program by fixed-fee was
composed of Lt. Col. William M. McKee administratively impossible.
(chairman), Harry W. Loving, Richard
H. Tatlow III, Forrest S. Harvey, and Cost-Plus-A-Fixed-Fee
Alonzo J. Hammond, all of whom had
expertise in choosing contractors or By 1942 many were ready to call a
negotiating contracts. The new board halt to fixed-fee contracting. Unfavor-
helped district engineers with selection able and often one-sided publicity had,
but otherwise confined its activities to by this time, rendered cost-plus-a-fixed-
contracts involving $5 million or more fee synonymous in the American mind
and to agreements for industrial design with favoritism, extravagance, and
and construction.5 waste. Small contractors and specialty
While "delegating down" selection groups opposed the fixed-fee system
and award to Robins and the field, on the grounds that it favored big busi-
Reybold kept a firm hand on policy.6 ness.9 Congressional investigators, put-
Thoroughly pragmatic, he professed a ting much of the blame for the high cost
strong preference for fixed-price con- of defense construction on fixed-fee con-
tracts. In fact, he termed them not only tracts, recommended banning them
"more economical" but also "more ex- "except in unique cases."10 On 1 Jan-
peditious," and he issued instructions uary 1942 the Engineering News-Record
to make awards on a fixed-fee basis only divulged that Judge Patterson wanted
when a fixed-price letting was "im- "most, if not all, military construction
possible."7 His motive was partly politi- done under lump sum or unit price con-
cal. As Groves explained: "Lump sum tracts." Rumor had it that "fear of
contracts were not more expeditious, nor Congressional investigations" was "back
were they more economical at the of this attitude."11 The Army, to a con-
siderable extent, could now satisfy de-
4
Ltr, Sturgis to authors, 23 Oct 63.
mands of fixed-fee opponents. Improved
5
(1) OCE Circ Ltr 1331, 7 Mar 42. (2) WD Press planning techniques, more liberal pro-
Release, 7 Mar 42: New Constr Contract Bd. EHD
8
Files. (3) Memo, Hq, SOS, for Reybold, 8 May 42. Groves Comments, XI, 1.
9
OCE Legal Div Library, Instrs Re FF Contracts, Ltr, Chairman James E. Murray, S Small
Book I. Business Comm to Amberg, 5 Feb 42. 333.1 (Small
6
Reybold Interv, 12 Mar 59. Business Firms on Constr Contracts).
7 10
(1) 1st Ind, 19 Aug 42, on Memo, Hq, AAF, for H Comm on Mil Affs, 77th Cong, 2d sess, H
Reybold, 17 Aug 42. 686 (Airfields) Part 58. (2) Rpt 2272, p. 6.
11
Ltr, Reybold to Amberg, 9 Mar 42. 333.1 Pait 3. ENR, January 1, 1942, p.11.
564 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
curement regulations, and new con- combined fixed-fee and fixed-price. Colo-
tracting methods assured wider use of nel Sturgis told how he used this ap-
fixed-price agreements. But if the need proach:
for fixed-fee contracts had abated, the
In May 1942, lump sum pressure became
time had not yet come for a complete very heavy on the field. At this time I received
return to fixed-price. a directive for a regulating depot in northern
The Corps of Engineers made fre- Louisiana for urgent completion to prevent
quent use of fixed-fee contracts during a gigantic railroad jam in the very busy
the early months of the war. Munitions port of New Orleans. This site was located
in a wet forest and was none too good.
plants accounted for the bulk of fixed-fee Therefore, I tried another contract approach.
work, but a few camps, staging areas, This involved a CPFF contract for roads,
depots, and airfields also were built by drainage, and utilities. In the meantime
that method. With industrial projects, (about 6 weeks), high quality specs were
the Army had neither the time nor the drawn and invitations to bid for lump sum
information necessary for planning. Sev- contracts were advertised. Surprisingly low
bids resulted for the remainder of the above-
eral other factors contributed to the use ground work, including warehouses, engine
of fixed-fee contracts during this period. "roundhouse," barracks for the operating
First, many companies, already over- personnel, and so forth. I believe that this
extended, turned down agreements in- resulted mainly from the CPFF contract
volving great risk or requiring large having first removed the risks by construction
of those features (roads, utilities, etc.) which
amounts of capital. Second, using arms were the most uncertain, as well as the careful
and services exerted pressure in favor of and complete plans and specs upon which
the faster method. Third, the need for the contractor, in his bid, could depend.
reducing a backlog of unawarded con-
tracts provided impetus toward fixed- Sturgis regarded the success of this
fee contracting.12 method as "a very valuable 'lesson learned'
Doing part of the work by fixed-fee for the future."13
could speed up whole projects. Fixed- During the period of most intensive
price directives often gave the field little building activity, from 1 December 1941
more than a week to prepare plans and to 1 September 1942, the Engineers
specifications and advertise for bids. Since negotiated fixed-fee contracts totaling
it usually took 3 to 4 weeks to survey a almost $800 million.14 In selecting fixed-
site and analyze topographic and geo- fee contractors, Colonel Groves placed
logic data, invitations were frequently so a premium on experience. He con-
incomplete and full of errors that most sidered architect-engineers who were
prospective bidders backed away. Those "highly qualified specialists in their
who did bid asked prices that were sky respective fields, . . . the only com-
high. A practical solution to this problem panies capable of completing the neces-
15
sary complicated designs on time."
12
(1) Somervell's Testimony, 11 Feb 42. In H
Comm on Appns, 77th Cong, 2d sess, Hearings on
13
Supplemental National Defense Appropriation Bill for 1942, Sturgis Comments on Purchase Procedure,
p. 17. (2) Ltr, Arnold to Reybold, 17 Aug 42. 686 Incl with Ltr to authors, 23 Oct 63.
14
(Airfields) Part 58. (3) Memo, OCE for SOS, 27 Constr PR 56, 31 Aug 42, p. 296.
15
Nov 42. 400.13 Part 4. (4) Memo, Control Br, SOS, Ltr, Groves to Architect-Engrs Assn, NYC, 6
for Somervell, 14 May 42. 600.914 PartI. Feb 42. 163 (Natl Def) Part 2.
WARTIME CONTRACTS 565
Builders who had creditably completed sibility on the CQM; but, even so,
one emergency job held an advantage Somervell insisted on trying it out at a
in securing another. As a result, firms few jobs. After Pearl Harbor, when
that had defense experience got pref- Groves found it impossible to speed work
erence over firms that, before the emer- under this setup, he arranged to complete
gency, might have seemed better quali- the projects under construction-manager
fied. contracts.
Robins and Groves needed every
qualified contractor they could get. The onThis system [as he described it] was based
having competent construction organi-
Army alone was awarding contracts, zations manage the actual construction, but
both fixed-fee and fixed-price, at a they were required to contract, preferably
monthly rate of $400 million. The Navy on fixed unit price or fixed lump sum bids,
and other federal agencies meanwhile for as much work as possible. They could
claimed a large share of available talent.16 also let some of the work, such as piping, on
a fixed-fee basis. They could also work on
Yet many high-caliber engineering and cost basis themselves. Their total fee was set
construction firms were not participating in accordance with the anticipated manage-
fully and some were not participating ment effort. If the work which had originally
at all. "This," Groves explained, "was been estimated to be let out on a fixed-price
basis to another contractor was actually per-
due to the Administration policy, which formed by the construction manager's or-
was in accord with Congressional de- ganization, there was no increase in fee al-
sires that this work be carried on by or- lowed. 18
visable to advertise the project as a single construction more difficult and more nearly
unit or to break it up into its component impossible [Groves noted in February 1942].
52 In the matter of procurement alone, the
parts." Those who chose the first course steady increase in the number of materials
had trouble obtaining even the feeblest which are difficult to obtain and the steadily
competition. To illustrate, two combina- increasing number of items whose distribution
tions bid on Camp Gruber, Oklahoma. must be controlled by the Government makes
The low bid exceeded the Engineer es- contract work today . . . a very dif-
ferent operation from that to which the
timate of $24 million by $4 million, and country and the industry have been accus-
the high, by $10 million. Breakdowns, tomed in the past.55
on the other hand, produced a fairly large
number of bids and more reasonable These obstacles might have proved
prices. Therefore, on 11 February 1942, insuperable had Congress not passed
General Robins told the field to split up the War Powers Act of December 18,
all sizable cantonment projects and per- 1941, under which the President could
mit contractors to bid on as many in- authorize any government department
crements as they wished. By making the to make, modify, or amend contracts
ceiling on increments identical with the "without regard to the provisions of the
divisions' $5-million contracting au- law" when "such action would facilitate
thority, he further decentralized awards. the prosecution of the war." Congress
Robins' order brought more contractors placed but two limitations on the powers
into the camp-cantonment program.53 of the President; it prohibited percentage
Even when plans were available and contracts and forbade violation of the
bids were incremental, standard fixed- laws regulating profits.56 On 27 Decem-
price contracts were too slow, inflexible, ber 1941, Roosevelt delegated his au-
and risky for a period of emergency. With thority under the act to Secretary
the declaration of war, prospects for Stimson.57 To induce contractors to take
ordinary fixed-price bids had turned fixed-price jobs, the government had to
from bad to worse. Dresser estimated assure them that if they did not make a
that contingency items accounted for profit they would at least break even.
25-33 percent of bid prices in the first War Powers legislation enabled the
quarter of 1942.54 More than ever, con- Engineers to offer this assurance.
tractors feared unexpected delays that Immediately after Pearl Harbor, field
might make them liable for damages offices in areas of possible enemy attack
and unanticipated costs that might put had trouble obtaining satisfactory bids.
them in the red. Some worried about Banks and other lending institutions re-
uninsured losses from enemy attack. fused to stake contractors in potential
danger zones. Subcontractors and sup-
Every change produced by the war effort pliers were hesitant about dealing with
makes the continuation of normal methods of
fixed-price contractors. The few firms
62
Ltr, Leavey to SAD, 20 Dec 41. 652 (Camp
65
Pickett). Memo, Groves for Amberg, 26 Feb 42. 333.1
63
(1) 652 (Camp Gruber) I. (2) 685 (Camp Cong Investigations Folder: General Rpt of Im-
Atterbury). (3) TWX, OCE to NPD, 11 Feb 42. provements on Constr Procedures.
56
652 (Portland DO). 55 Stat. 839.
64 57
(1) Smith, The Army and Economic Mobilization, OCE Circ Ltr 1048, 12 Jan 42, and Incl, 30
pp. 287-88. (2) Dresser Interv, 2 Apr 57. Dec 41.
572 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
that did compete for prime contracts principles of law, a contractor who
included enormous contingency items failed to finish on time was liable for
in their bids. The cause of this predica- damages even though his contract was
ment was unmistakable: destruction by silent on the point.60
the enemy was a noninsurable risk, and By extending contractors' performance
fixed-price agreements, unlike fixed-fee, time, Reybold gave them more positive
gave contractors no protection against relief. Extensions had previously been
uninsured losses. In the War Powers possible under the Delays-Damages
authority to modify contracts, General clause, which permitted the contracting
Reybold found a means of reassuring officer to grant additional time when
bidders. His adoption of a fixed-price delays resulted from "unforeseeable
clause guaranteeing reimbursement for causes beyond the control and without
enemy-inflicted damages permitted con- the fault or negligence of the contrac-
61
tractors to resume their normal relation- tor." The somewhat ambiguous lan-
ships with creditors and subcontractors guage of this provision might rob a con-
and to lower their bids. The clause tractor of an extension to which he was,
served until March 1942, when Congress in all fairness, entitled. Besides, it led
set up the War Damage Corporation, to endless squabbles with the General
with which contractors could insure Accounting Office. To eliminate any
themselves against loss or damage result- question of legality and to cut through
ing from enemy operations.58 administrative red tape, Reybold de-
The Chief soon turned the War cided to bypass the Delays-Damages
Powers authority to a broader purpose— provision and grant extensions pursuant
that of suspending penalties for delayed to the War Powers Act, amending con-
performance. Contractors beset by priori- tracts to extend performance time when-
ties regulations, transportation tie-ups, ever a contractor had "attempted, in
and labor shortages despaired of meeting good faith, to complete his War con-
completion dates. Yet their contracts tract within the time specified."62 Some
made them liable for liquidated damages, Engineers felt his policy was too liberal.63
an amount assessed for each day of delay Be that as it may, generous use of War
in lieu of actual damages, as required by Powers extensions lightened administra-
law. Seeking to remove his contractors tive work and won greater co-operation
from this untenable position, Reybold from industry.
on 9 July 1942 deleted the liquidated Just as the War Powers Act made
damages provision from all construction possible extensions of time, so it opened
contracts.59 This proved to be only a a way to correct mistakes that crept into
half-measure, for by well-established hurriedly written agreements—mistakes
60
OCE Circ Ltr 2347, 1 Apr 43.
58 61
(1) Ltr, Reybold to Representative R. E. U.S. Standard Form 23, Art 9, 14 Sep 40 (Rev.),
Thomason, 31 Dec 41. 600.1 Part 11. (2) Memo, sub: Contract (Constr).
62
Reybold for Somervell, 16 Jun 42. 161 I. (3) TWX, Lt. Col. Josef Diamond, Comments on Con-
OCE to Div Engrs, 2 Jan 42. 3820 (Natl Def) Part tracts and Claims, 28 Mar 44. 616 Part 6. Cited
12. (4) 56 Stat. 175. (5) OCE Circ Ltr 1962, 19 Aug hereinafter as Diamond, Contracts and Claims.
63
42.59 Ltr, MRC to Dist Engrs at Memphis, Vicksburg,
OCE Circ Ltr 1805, 9 Jul 42. and New Orleans, 13 Apr 45. 161 (LMVD).
WARTIME CONTRACTS 573
that oftentimes meant the difference be- accept military jobs and carry them
tween profit and loss. Before the war, through. New companies and marginal
the General Accounting Office had producers, too inexperienced for fixed-fee
authority to remedy mutual mistakes or work and too weak for regular fixed-price
those made by the government, but contracts, entered the field. Default be-
neither the Comptroller General nor the came a thing of the past. Reduced con-
courts could cancel out a contractor's tingency items reflected the extent to
error. After passage of the War Powers which the Army assumed contracting
Act, the War Department could amend risks. More costly than its prototype, the
contracts "to correct not only mutual new agreement nevertheless supplied
mistakes, but also unilateral mistakes, incentives that brought the building
that is, mistakes made by the contractor industry to peak production. It also
alone." The Engineers made frequent helped to mollify critics of cost-plus-a-
use of this authority to release contrac- fixed-fee contracts.
tors from erroneous bids and to avoid
involved dealings with the General Ac- Competition and Negotiation
counting Office.64
The War Powers authority also en- If the Engineers wished to allay hard-
abled the Engineers to subsidize con- ships, they also wished to hold down
tractors who were in financial trouble. contract prices. The question was how
Caught between rising costs and his to do it. General Robins sought the
commitment to perform at a fixed price, answer in a continuation of the quasi-
a contractor might do one of two things: competitive system of award used during
default or risk bankruptcy. Either course the defense period. On 5 January 1942
was bad from the government's point he announced that the Corps would open
of view. The first interrupted construc- fixed-price contracts to public competi-
tion and the second reduced the already tion "unless to do so would jeopardize
scant supply of builders. As a matter of the interest of the United States." Award
self-interest, the Engineers adjusted con- would ordinarily go to the lowest quali-
tract prices upward whenever losses fied bidder; but if no bid was reasonable,
threatened. At worst, contractors came negotiators would go to work. When
66
out even. haste precluded public advertisement,
An important result of the War the Corps would solicit bids from a num-
Powers Act was a lump sum contract ber of prequalified firms and negotiate
that approached the fixed-fee in flexi- with the low bidder.66
bility and absence of risk but did not Two months after Robins' announce-
come under the law that held fixed-fee ment, the War Production Board pre-
profits to 6 percent. More liberal pro- scribed a different procedure. On 2
visions induced more contractors to March 1942 Donald Nelson discarded
formal advertisement in favor of negotia-
64
Diamond, Contracts and Claims.
65
tion. Emphasizing the need for speed
(1) Ibid, (2) Testimony of Gen Somervell, 23
Jun 43. In S Comm on Appns, 78th Cong, 1st sess,
66
Hearings on Military Establishment Appropriation Bill for OCE, Memo for the Information of Architect-
1944, P. 33. Engineers and Contractors, 5 Jan 42. EHD Files.
574 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
needed for a tougher job, the Engineers became the exception rather than the
rule.75
71
might bargain with another firm.
Suspension of formal advertisement Mandatory negotiation roused fierce
had an immediate effect on bonding opposition, and one of the earliest at-
policies. Before the emergency, the law tacks centered on the new bonding
required government contractors to fur- policy. A riot of protest greeted the
nish bid, performance, and payment announcement that bonds would be
bonds.72 These bonds provided a check waived. Surety companies, whose busi-
on irresponsible bidders, protected the ness was mainly with government con-
United States against default, and guar- tractors, petitioned for reinstatement of
anteed payment of contractors' obliga- bonding requirements. They questioned
tions. Contractors passed the expense of if the Army could assess contractors'
bonding on to the government in their financial responsibility as well as exper-
contract prices. As early as April 1941, ienced underwriters, and they recom-
Congress sanctioned the waiver of bonds mended bonding as the best means of
on fixed-price contracts.73 As long as weeding out contractors who might
open competitive bidding was the rule, default. More objections came from
Patterson refused to exercise this au- materialmen and equipment dealers, who
thority but the negotiation order re- for many years had depended on bonding
versed his attitude. Bid bonds had no companies to establish their customers'
application outside the competitive credit. Prevented by ceiling prices from
system, and careful prenegotiation checks recouping losses on one transaction by
of contractors' qualifications reduced the higher profits on another, they refused
need for performance and payment bonds. to supply contractors not covered by
76
On 28 May 1942, Somervell directed the payment bonds. Faced with a boycott,
chiefs of supply services to waive per- Somervell on 28 August 1942 modified
formance and payment bonds when the his earlier directive by instructing the
contractor was "capable and experi- services to require payment bonds except
77
enced" and financially sound.74 Ac- from blue-chip companies. But not
cordingly, General Reybold told di- until the construction program was
visions and districts to discontinue bid almost over did the Army reinstate the
bonds entirely and to waive performance requirement for performance bonds.78
and payment bonds where such action More formidable opposition to nego-
would facilitate the war effort. Waiver tiation soon developed. Under the old
made possible savings in time, money, system of public advertisement, con-
and administrative effort and paved the tractors obtained most of their informa-
way for use of small firms unable to meet
requirements of surety companies. Bonds 75
OCE Circ Ltr 1786, 4 Jul 42.
76
(1) Ltr, Dist Engr, Atlanta, Ga., to the Div
Engr, SAD, 10 Aug 42, and 1st Ind, SAD to OCE,
71
(1) OCE Circ Ltr 1559, 4 May 42. (2) Ltr, 13 Aug 42. 188 (Atlanta DO) Part 1. (2) Resolution,
Reybold to Pres., MRC, 15 May 45. 161 (MRC) Building Material Dealers' Credit Assoc., Portland,
Part 1. Ore., 5 Aug 42. 168 (Portland DO).
72 77
(1) 20 Stat. 36. (2) 22 Stat. 487. (3) 49 Stat. 793. (1) TWX, OCE to SAD, 10 Sep 42. 168 (Atlanta
73
55 Stat.147 DO) Part 1. (2) OCE Circ Ltr 2046, 19 Sep 42.
74 78
SOS, PR 19-T, May 28, 1942. Diamond, Contracts and Claims.
576 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
tion on job possibilities from notices in relations with the construction indus-
trade journals and from plan rooms try.81
operated by the AGC and construction Expressing a desire to go along with
news services; public openings guar- the industry, Robins promised to resume
anteed impartial award and gave con- public competition "as soon as the con-
tractors an opportunity to compare ditions permit." But, he explained, "Un-
their quotations with competitors'. Man- der War Production Board Regula-
datory negotiation stopped federal ad- tions ... we cannot go into
vertising and made plan rooms un- formal advertising."82 Throughout the
necessary as a means of government con- Corps, pressure was mounting in favor
tact with prospective contractors. Gen- of a change. By 1944, many felt that
eral Reybold pointed out that "a public mandatory negotiation was indefensible.
bid opening would seriously hamper, if Robins' special assistant, Douglas I.
not entirely defeat, whatever oppor- McKay, summed up the case for a
tunity the contracting officer might change:
have ... to reach a fair price
with the apparent low offerer."79 Thus, The time has come to revert generally to
formality in respect to the opening of
the wartime system of award cut con- bids. . . . Else, bidders will be dis-
tractors off from information they con- couraged, and their responsiveness to our
sidered essential to the conduct of their invitations will decline. Also, it will be in-
business and deprived trade publica- creasingly difficult to know or gage the fair
tions of a major source of revenue.80 market value of work awarded . . . and
The AGC and the trade press cam- finally, I believe that public reaction to
continuance of the informal system of quoting
paigned against this threat to their com- (where it can be avoided without substantial
mon interests. Construction journals ran and obvious detriment to the Government's
articles implying that the Corps juggled interests) will be adverse and will lead to
proposals in order to give contracts to suspicions of impropriety or worse no matter
83
favored firms. Local AGC chapters how unjust those suspicions may actually be.
pressed district engineers to relax the Toward the end of March 1944, al-
secrecy surrounding negotiations and though Nelson's order was still in force,
asked Congressmen to intervene. The General Robins summoned division en-
1943 AGC convention adopted a resolu-
tion favoring a return to open competi-
tive bidding and petitioned Nelson to 81
(1) Ltr, Constr Div, OCE, to Div Engr, UMVD,
withdraw his order. This situation not 21 Aug 42. 333.1 (St. Louis DO). (2) Memo, Antes
only subjected the Engineers to un- for Kuldell, 24 Mar 44. 163 (NED). (3) Notice, Ark.
Chapter, AGC, Little Rock, Ark., to Members and
favorable publicity, but it also hurt their Assoc. Members of Chapter, 11 Jun 45. 163 Part 15.
(4) Ltr, Memphis Chapter, AGC, Memphis, Tenn., to
Rep Clifford Davis, 25 Mar 44. 161 Part 6. (5) Memo,
79
(1) Ltr, Reybold to Senator David I. Walsh, 11 Adm Div, OCE, for Chief, Purchases Div, ASF, 27
Jul 45. 163 Part 15. Jul 43. 161 Part 4.
80 82
(1) Ltr, Memphis Chapter, AGC, Memphis, Robins' Testimony, 7 Jun 42. In H Comm on
Tenn., to Representative Clifford Davis, 25 Mar 44. Appns, 78th Cong, 1st sess, Hearings on Military
161 Part 6. (2) Memo, Antes for Robins, 24 Mar Establishment Appropriation Bill for 1944, p. 332.
83
44. 163 (NED). (3) Memo, Reybold for Somervell, Memo, McKay for Robins, 27 Mar 44. 163
20 Jul 45. 163 Part 15. (NED).
WARTIME CONTRACTS 577
components—profit and cost. Cost was gotiation clauses. Upon the organization
by far the more important from a budge- of the Services of Supply in March,
tary standpoint. Nevertheless, through- General Somervell set up a cost analysis
out the war public attention focused on section to look into earnings by war
profits. contractors.91
The problem was not new. Virtually Meanwhile, Congress was talking of
every war in history had had its profit- tighter limitations. Several bills to re-
eers, and the most recent, World War I, strict contractual earnings failed during
had produced its crop of war millionaires. the winter of 1941-42. Stimson,
From time to time since the 1918 Armis- Somervell, and Robins opposed these
tice, Congress had considered the ques- measures, maintaining that the excess
tion of war profits. The munitions in- profits tax gave the government ample
dustry investigations of the 1930's gave protection and that any further limita-
rise to sentiment in favor of taking the tion on profits would make contractors
profit out of war. Efforts to restrict earn- less willing to accept work.92 Represen-
ings on military contracts resulted in the tative Francis Case finally forced the
Vinson-Trammell Act of 1934, which issue when, on 28 March 1942, he suc-
limited profits on naval vessels and air- ceeded in amending an appropriation
craft to 10 percent of the contract price, bill to include a flat 6-percent limita-
and in the Act of April 3, 1939, which tion on contractual profits.93 Opposing
extended the Vinson-Trammell law to this measure as unworkable and unwise,
army aircraft. With the defense program, the War and Navy Departments pointed
Congress set profit ceilings for various out that a flat 6-percent limitation was
types of contracts, including those al- grossly unfair—6 percent on a $50,000,000
ready covered and fixed-fee construction contract was a handsome profit, while
agreements. Passage of the excess profits the same percentage on a $100,000 job
tax on 8 October 1940, however, was its was peanuts; and they questioned if there
first move toward uniform control of were enough accountants in the country
90
emergency profits. to check profits on all federal contracts.
After Pearl Harbor the problem as- Underlying their objections was the belief
sumed more serious proportions as war- that statutory limitation of profits was
time demands broadened opportunities
for unconscionable gains. The War De- 91
(1) Patterson's Testimony, 19 Mar 42. In H
partment began to study ways of limiting Comm on Naval Affs, 77th Cong, 2d sess, Hearings on
contractual earnings. Under Secretary Profits on Naval Contracts, pp. 2479-82. (2) Memo,
Patterson thought the ideal solution lay SOS for Reybold, 3 Jul 42. 161 Part 1. (3) Memo,
OCE for SOS, 19 May 42. 600.93 (Airfields) Part 5.
in close pricing, but unpredictable costs (4) Somervell's Testimony, 31 Mar 42. In S Comm on
made this almost impossible. Early in Appns, 77th Cong, 2d sess, Hearings on Sixth Supple-
1942 the Engineers pioneered in profit mental National Defense Appropriation Bill for 1942, pp.
24-25.
control, by experimenting with rene- 92
(1) QM 600.1 (Contracts-Misc) IV. (2) Memo,
Somervell for Stimson, 24 Oct 41. QM 161 1941. (3)
90
(1) Robert P. Patterson, "Renegotiation," Ltr, Stimson to Chairman, H Ways and Means
Dun's Review, January 1943, p. 8. (2) 48 Stat. 505. (3) Comm, 19 Jan 42. 161 I.
93
53 Stat. 560. (4) 54 Stat. 677. (5) 54 Stat. 1003. (6) S Subcomm of the Comm on Appns, 77th Cong,
Smith, The Army and Economic Mobilization, p. 351. 2d sess, Hearings on H R 6868, Part 2, p. 22.
WARTIME CONTRACTS 579
San Francisco, Dallas, Atlanta, Chicago, see if the company in question had held
New York, and other cities where Robins contracts with other government de-
had established Division Price Adjust- partments. If it had, the War Depart-
ment Boards. Division engineers issued ment Board, in co-operation with similar
public invitations, and local chapters of boards in the other departments, de-
the AGC and AIA notified their mem- cided which agency had primary in-
bers. Attendance, Loving estimated, terest in the case. Karker turned each
"ranged from about 250 to more than case assigned to the Army over to the
600 contractors, architects, engineers, service with which the contractor had
and supply contractors who evidenced done the largest volume of business, or
considerable interest in this controversial in the case of construction contracts to
legislation." Commenting on the value the Corps of Engineers. At first, the
of these get-togethers, he wrote: Loving Board handled larger and more
At each meeting I attempted to explain complicated cases, and referred simpler
the reason for the legislation and general ones, those to be renegotiated on an in-
provisions of the Renegotiation Law and dividual contract basis, to the divisions.
principles to be followed ... in our But as time went on, Loving began giving
dealings with firms or individuals assigned many of the tougher overall renegotia-
to the Chief of Engineers for statutory rene-
gotiation. ... In my opinion these tions to the divisions as well.112 "As a
meetings tended to dispel the fear of con- matter of fact," he pointed out, "at the
tractors and resulted in a greater degree of height of the program, we assigned many
cooperation than might have resulted had cases to Division Price Adjustment Boards
we not attempted to explain the law and our without knowing at the time the as-
philosophy and manner in which we would
administer the law.110 signment was made whether the con-
tractor would be renegotiated on an
Neither Loving nor anyone else could individual contract or overall basis."113
overcome industry's opposition to the More and more of the work load shifted
renegotiation statute, which most con- to the field. Before long the divisions
tractors regarded as a scheme to strip were renegotiating 90 percent of the
them of their earnings and to leave them cases assigned to the Engineers.114
practically broke. But Loving was able All Engineer Price Adjustment Boards
to offer assurance that the Corps would followed the same general procedure. A
111
make every effort to be fair. contractor selected for renegotiation had
The Army's price adjustment organi- to turn in balance sheets dating back a
zation worked from the top down. The number of years. If his figures seemed
services reported cases showing or likely questionable, his accounts received a de-
to show excessive profits to Chairman
Karker of the War Department Price 112
(1) Memo, Constr Div, OCE, for WDPAB, 10
Adjustment Board. Karker checked to Aug 42. 161 Part 1. (2) Pamphlet, WDPAB (Rev.),
20 Nov 42, sub: Principles, Policy, and Procedure
to be Followed in Renegotiation. EHD Files. (3)
110
Comments of Harry W. Loving on MS, 1955. OCE Circ Ltr 2089, 10 Oct 42.
113
Cited hereinafter as Loving Comments. Loving Comments.
111 114
(1) Interv with Herbert E. Foreman, 26 Jan (1) Memo, Loving for Reybold, 5 May 43. 161
62. (2) Speech by H. W. Loving at Adolphus Hotel, Part 3. (2) Ltr, Reybold to GLD, 10 Sep 43. 161
Dallas, Tex., 14 Dec 42. Loving Papers. (GLD)Part I.
582 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
tailed audit. Company records plus infor- and published a renegotiation manual.117
mation gleaned from other sources Congress at length adopted legislation
guided the Engineers in arriving at a which smoothed away other difficulties.
tentative basis of settlement. When a But some troubles disappeared only
board found no evidence of excessive when the volume of construction de-
profits, it dropped the case; otherwise, itclined and fewer renegotiation cases
called the contractor into conference. clogged the price adjustment system.
Two or three meetings usually produced Perhaps the most persistent problem
a voluntary settlement, but when a con- was that of personnel. The Engineers
tractor balked, the board set the amount sought men with broad experience and
he had to refund by unilateral decision. uncommon ability for price adjustment
The Engineers might force recalcitrant jobs—attorneys, businessmen, accoun-
contractors to relinquish excessive profitstants, and former comptrollers of large
by withholding payments still due them. corporations.118 General Robins wanted
Settlements concluded on a group or men possessing "judgment, analytical
individual contract basis went to Reybold ability, tact, firmness, patience and
119
for approval; those involving overall personality." Persons with the requisite
115
profits, to Patterson. qualifications might earn as much as
Renegotiation went slowly at first. $50,000 per year in private industry; yet,
By May 1943, the Engineers had settled top price adjustment jobs carried a
less than 20 percent of the cases assigned salary of $5,600. Many prominent men
to them; and to make matters worse, nevertheless agreed to serve as civilian
assignments more than doubled during price adjusters; others accepted the few
June. Renegotiation gained momentum commissions Loving was able to offer.
throughout the summer, but efforts to Still, renegotiation suffered throughout
eliminate the staggering backlog failed. from a chronic manpower shortage.120
A number of factors contributed to the Karker's mode of operation placed an
lag in price adjustment work. The En- unnecessary burden on the Engineers'
gineers could not obtain enough quali- slim renegotiation staffs. His War De-
fied personnel; untried procedures fre- partment Board assigned cases without
quently proved inadequate or unduly first making sure that profits were ex-
complicated; contractors often refused cessive. Almost three-quarters of the
to co-operate; and the Karker Board cases forwarded to the Engineers re-
failed to furnish criteria for construc-
116
tion contracts. In time, Loving and 117
Loving Comments.
118
his associates developed workable rules Ltr, OCE, Adm Div to NAD, 27 Apr 43.
210.3 (Engrs, Off, Chief of) Part I.
119
Memo, Robins for Patterson, 8 May 43. 161
115
(1) WDPAB Instructions, PAB-2, 20 Nov 42. Part 3.
120
EHD Files. (2) Ltr, Loving to GLD, 6 Nov 42. 161 (1) H Comm on Naval Affairs, 78th Cong, 1st
(GLD) Part I. (3) Incl with Memo, WDPAB for sess, Hearings on H Res 30, Vol II, Jun 1943, pp.
OCE, 15 Sep 43. 161 Part 5. (4) Memo, Purchases 1231-36. (2) Testimony of Maurice Karker, Chair-
Div, SOS, for Reybold, 16 Sep 42. 161 Part I. man, WDPAB, 23 Jun 43. S Comm on Appns, 78th
116
(1) Memo, Robins for Patterson, 8 May 43. 161 Cong, 1st sess, Hearings on H R 2996, p. 134. (3)
Part 3. (2) Ltr, Adm Div, OCE, to MAD, 5 Jul 43. Memo, Price Adj Sec, OCE, for Mil Personnel Br,
161 (MAD). (3) Memo, Loving for WDPAB, 18 Sep Adm Div, 19 May 43. 210.3 (Engrs, Off, Chief of)
43. 161 Part 5. Part I.
WARTIME CONTRACTS 583
vealed no outsize earnings, and the renegotiation law facilitated price ad-
time, money, and effort that went into justment. Decentralization reduced the
investigations were wasted. By demand- number of reports to Karker. The Re-
ing numerous detailed reports, Karker negotiation Act of 1944 swept away many
further reduced the effectiveness of the remaining obstacles: it appreciably cut
Engineer effort.121 Perhaps a partial ex- the caseload by excluding contractors
planation of the Karker Board's per- whose business with the government was
formance was to be found in one con- less than $500,000 a year and by per-
struction man's description of its per- mitting exemption of certain fixed-price
sonnel: "young attorneys who had been contracts; and it expedited renegotiation
somebody's assistant."122 Like Loving, by requiring contractors to file reports
Karker had trouble finding assistants on their wartime business.125
who were equal to renegotiation tasks. Absence of a yardstick for measuring
Contractors often added to the strain. excessive profits was the most formidable
Many unintentionally delayed proceed- obstacle to renegotiation of construction
ings by furnishing incomplete informa- contracts. Criteria adopted by Congress
tion. Hope that Congress might repeal and the heads of government depart-
or amend the renegotiation statute caused ments were aimed at manufacturers
others to drag their feet. A firm might rather than at builders.126 Failure to
postpone its renegotiation conference by define fair profits on construction work
failing to supply the required informa- caused serious complications, for it left
tion and then stall proceedings in- the Price Adjustment Boards without
definitely with endless questions and a guide to use in selecting cases for re-
needless debate.123 Loving later said of negotiation, in fixing a reasonable profit,
this situation: and in justifying their decisions, and it
It is true that many contractors resisted prevented contractors from figuring in
renegotiation in the beginning and that a advance how much profit they would be
few resisted to the bitter end. On the other able to retain.127 Loving attributed two
hand, persistence on our part and a change "major troubles" of price adjustment
in personnel conducting renegotiation finally to lack of criteria: first, a fear on the part
resulted in a meeting of minds as to extent
of refund that should be made. As I of contractors that they and their com-
recall ... in the latter part of 1944, petitors would receive unequal treat-
there were less than 60 cases where we were ment caused "procrastination, extended
unable to reach a settlement and which we argument, and post-renegotiation criti-
had 124
to refer to higher authority for resolu- cism"; and, second, occasional disap-
tion.
New regulations and an amended 126
(1) Memo, OCE for Dir of Purchases, ASF, 29
Apr 43. 161 Part 3. (2) Memo, USW for Chiefs of
121
(1) Ltr, Loving to GLD, 10 Nov 43. 161 (GLD) Supply Services, 8 May 43. 161 Part 3. (3) 58 Stat. 78.
Part 2. (2) 1st Ind, 11 Jan 44, on Memo, Renegotia- (4) OCE Circ Ltr 3314, 16 Sep 44.
126
tion Div, ASF, for Reybold, 3 Jan 44. 161 Part 6. (1) 58 Stat. 78. (2) Joint Statement WD, ND, TD,
(3) Memo, Loving for WDPAB, 18 Sep 43. 161 Part 5. and MC, pp. 7-8.
122 127
Foreman Interv, 26 Jan 62. (1) Memo, Contracts and Claims Br, Adm Div,
123
(1) Ltr, Loving to GLD, 3 May 43. 161 (GLD) OCE, for Proc and Distrib Div, SOS, 16 May 42.
Part I. (a) WD Press Release, 26 Jul 43. EHD Files. 161 (Sacramento DO). (2) Ltr, MtD to OCE, 2
124
Loving Comments. Nov 42. 161 (MtD) 5/42-12/42.
584 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
proval by reviewing authorities of settle- This standard applied to fixed-fee archi-
ments, made "in light of existing gen- tect-engineer as well as construction
eralities as to 'excessive profits,' " created contracts.
confusion and delay and required nego- The problem of fixed-price profits was
128
tiators to begin all over again. less easy to solve. Here, the Engineers
Left largely to their own devices, the had no existing standard of reasonable
Engineers gradually evolved workable earnings as they had in the schedules of
formulas for construction contracts. They allowable fixed fees; their task was to
recognized that the difference between create one. To help with this job, Loving
reasonable and excessive profits would called on experts in government, indus-
vary widely, depending on the character try, and the professions. He asked di-
and size of the project; on the time, vision and district engineers, members
capital, and equipment required; on the of OCE, and a number of independent
risk and the amount of subcontracting contractors what they thought would
involved; and on the contractor's per- constitute a reasonable, and what an
formance record. The fee or profit on excessive, profit under emergency con-
fixed-fee contracts derived from these ditions. He conferred with representa-
very factors, with the obvious exception tives of the American Society of Civil
of the performance record. The En- Engineers and the American Institute of
gineers therefore adopted the attitude Architects on the question of architect-
that if the fee matched the War Depart- engineer profits and queried profes-
ment schedule, and if the contractor had sionals about their prewar earnings. On
performed satisfactorily, the contract the basis of this information, he drew
would not be renegotiated. They main- four schedules showing the range of
tained: allowable profits for architect-engineer,
The contractor who by reason of having a building, utility, and heavy construc-
highly efficient organization, and by superior tion contracts. These schedules were
management was able to keep his nonreim- merely guides; the allowable profit
bursable expenses at a comparatively low depended upon the "facts and cir-
point and thereby conserved a higher pro- cumstances" of each case. Although costs,
portion of his fee as profit, should not be
penalized by having his profit considered as hazards, capital investment, and equip-
excessive, because it was higher than that ment all entered into their decisions,
of other contractors with similar contracts, Price Adjustment Boards gave particular
especially since in all probability the very weight to contractors' efficiency and the
elements of high efficiency and superior amount of work sublet.130
management which resulted in those higher
profits had resulted in ... reduced By late 1944, when ill health forced
costs, higher quality of workmanship, and Loving to resign, the hardest part of the
earlier beneficial use.129 job was over, and the Engineer ma-
chinery was functioning smoothly. Con-
128
Ltr, Loving to Dir Purchases, ASF, 17 Apr 43. tractors had already refunded many
161 Part 3. millions and the total would continue
129
OCE, Dir of Readjustment, Price Adj Div, to rise. Presenting Loving with the
History of Renegotiation of War Contracts under the
Renegotiation Acts of 1942 and 1943, 31 May 46,
130
pp.30,33,40, and 34. 161 Bulky. Ibid., pp. 30-33 and 42.
WARTIME CONTRACTS 585
emblem for Exceptional Civilian Ser- excess profits, fixed-price earnings were
vice, General Reybold praised his work 14.4 percent of total contract prices be-
in formulating workable price adjust- fore renegotiation; fixed-fee were 2.5
ment procedures and his success in carry- percent. Price adjustment reduced these
ing out "an extensive national program figures to 9.63 percent and 1.80 percent,
to obtain understanding and acceptance respectively. Cases cleared by the Price
of the Renegotiation Act by the con- Adjustment Boards, in other words, those
131
struction industry." Succeeding Loving which showed no excessive profits, were
in turn were Lt. Col. Carl M. Sciple, perhaps more typical. Here, fixed-fee
Col. John B. Heroman, Jr., and Forrest contracts yielded earnings of 1.76 per-
S. Harvey, all of whom served with cent; fixed-price, earnings of 5.65 per-
distinction. cent.133
By May 1946 the Engineers had re- At the same time that it reduced the
captured $114,296,000 in construction overall cost of construction, renegotiation
profits. For every dollar recovered, they narrowed the differential between fixed-
paid out two cents in overhead. Rene- price and fixed-fee profits. With the war-
gotiation of almost 10,000 cases had re- time scarcity of construction talent and
vealed 1,187 instances of excessive profits the extreme pressure for getting projects
on fixed-price contracts and five on fixed- promptly under way, lump sum con-
fee. The fixed-fee contracts, amounting tractors could sometimes make a killing.
to a total of $249,285,000, had originally The pay for fixed-fee work was low even
shown profits of $5,351,000. Renegotia- by peacetime standards. Yet, by and
tion recovered $879,000. The fixed-price large, it was the fixed-fee contractors who
contractors selected for renegotiation carried the heavier burdens and achieved
had earned $304,787,000 on contracts the greater speed. Furthermore, con-
totaling $2,120,518,000. Renegotiation trary to a widely held belief, the cost of
cut their profits by $113,317,000.132 fixed-fee construction was generally no
Price adjustment revealed a wide dif- higher, and in many cases was lower,
ference between levels of profit on fixed- than the cost of comparable lump sum
fee and fixed-price jobs. In cases showing work. Viewed in this light, the contro-
versial renegotiation program seemed
131
equitable.
WDPress Release, n.d., sub: Civilian Award
to Harry W. Loving. Loving Papers.
132 133
OCE, History of Renegotiation, pp. 52 and 55. Ibid., pp. 52-53.
CHAPTER XVIII
1 2
Historical Statistics of the United States, 1789-1945, Transcript, Engineers Production Conference,
pp. 168 and 12. 22 May 42, p. 61. 337 (Engrs, Corps of).
CUTBACK AND CONTINUATION 587
requirements the precedence over all others From the Engineer viewpoint, efforts
they would be bound to take actions which to ease the burden were too feeble and
would have serious effects on our democratic
institutions.3 too late. The War Production Board, like
its predecessor agencies, seemed unable
At the forefront of the drive to halt or unwilling to choke off nonessential
civilian projects was the Corps of En- work. Priorities control was largely in-
gineers. Hard pressed to meet military effective; jobs somehow managed to
requirements, construction officers de- struggle along with little or no priority
plored the draining away of resources assistance. Not until March 1942 did
by "nonessential" jobs. Stating the Corps production authorities try a fresh ap-
position, Colonel Groves declared: "The proach. On the 17th WPB Chairman
program as a whole is just too big for Nelson decreed: "No new construction,
accomplishment . . . . I t i s t oexcept o strictly military construction proj-
big because of four things lacking, labor, ects, shall be undertaken unless approved
materials, equipment, and manage- by the War Production Board as essen-
ment." Projects having little or nothing tial to the war effort or to public health
to do with the war—"everything that or safety."5 Accordingly, on 9 April, he
every community wanted that they issued a limitation order setting cost
could tie into the war effort by any ceilings on jobs which could be started
stretch of the imagination"—continued without WPB permission: $500 for resi-
to proliferate. Road building was going dential projects; $1,000 for agricultural;
strong; a $1.1-billion public highway and $5,000 for recreational, institu-
program was taking more than 350,000 tional, and industrial. He placed no
tons of steel at a time when the Engineers restrictions on work for mining and oil
were economizing on steel "to the point producing industries. As materials be-
where it hurts and hurts and hurts." came increasingly scarce, WPB lowered
Another cause for concern was the grow- the ceilings for various classes of work.6
ing demand for civilian war housing; if As a result of the limitation order, ci-
the trend continued, more than 500,000 vilian construction declined steeply but,
family units and 600,000 dormitory ac- the Engineers believed, not steeply
commodations would ultimately be pro- enough.
vided. Many programs undertaken in When the order came out, moves
the name of "civilian health and safety" were under way to trim fat from war
should, in Groves' opinion, be either cut requirements. On 13 March Col. Joseph
down or cut out. He appealed for L. Philips and Cmdr. Horatio G. Sickel,
"greater effort ... to eliminate all joint heads of the ANMB Priorities Di-
work not indispensable to the war." vision, issued a call for action. Huge
Meanwhile, General Robins went on facilities programs were being launched
record: "We do not mind doing what "without sufficient thought as to the
we have to do. We do not ask for heaven consequences," they told the board's
but just a little lessening of the burden."4
5
CPA, Minutes of the War Production Board, January
3
Nelson, Arsenal of Democracy, pp. 359-60. 20, 1942, to October 9, 1945 (Washington, 1946), p.
4
Transcript, Engineers Production Conference, 30. Cited hereinafter as Minutes of the WPB.
22 May 42, pp. 46-51, 60, and 42. * CPA, Industrial Mobilization for War, Part I, p. 396.
588 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
tion, raw materials, and other matters On 20 May 1942, 9 days after
which would be necessary for him to the committee's formation, Chairman
make an intelligent decision."10 Con- Harrison unveiled the "Directive for
fronted with Patterson's opposition, Wartime Construction," a policy state-
Nelson backed down. ment afterward described as "one of
In lieu of the board proposed by the most important . . . issued dur-
Nathan and Sickel, he created the Com- ing the war."15 Written by Harrison,
mittee on Facilities and Construction, and signed by Stimson, Knox, and
under the chairmanship of William H. Nelson, the directive laid down princi-
Harrison, his director of production. To ples which would henceforth govern all
serve with Harrison, he named Rear construction coming under the Army,
Adm. Howard L. Vickery of the the Navy, and WPB. No project was to
Maritime Commission; Admiral Moreell, start unless one of these agencies certi-
together with two civilian Navy officials; fied that it was urgently necessary to the
and, for the Army, Generals Knudsen, war effort. Even then the sponsor would
Campbell, and Echols and Mr. have to show that he had made every
Madigan.11 The committee's task, as possible economy in design and that
Patterson understood it, was "to review sufficient labor, materials, equipment,
the present facilities program and to power, transportation, and housing were
devise a workable scheme for passing on available. Enforcement was left to the
12 16
new facilities." In his instructions to agencies themselves. Presenting the
Harrison, Nelson cited a recent letter directive to General Reybold, Madigan
from the President, restating his Janu- emphasized "how fast we operate" and
ary goals. "Other facilities necessary in "what kind of service we can give the
our war effort," Roosevelt had written, Corps of Engineers."17 The speed was
"but not essential to this program must impressive and the service, beneficial.
be deferred until their construction can By the fall of 1942, Colonel Hardin
be undertaken without detriment to the could report that the directive had
13
program." According to Nelson's inter- "done great things in providing the
pretation, the President's meaning was materials ... to carry on our
"that no projects be undertaken which necessary work, kept the program
do not clearly contribute to the produc- down, . . . expedited construction,
tion of finished munitions by the middle conserved materials, and reduced
of I943-" How the preponderantly costs."18
14
military Harrison committee would ap- During the summer of 1942, under
proach the problem was soon apparent. the guidance of the Harrison committee,
10
Ltr, Patterson to Nelson, 8 May 42. USW Files, the armed services restudied their fa-
Misc & Sub, Constr.
11 16
Minutes of the WPB, p. 86. McGrane, The Facilities and Construction Program,
12
Ltr, Patterson to Nelson, c. 10 May 42. Anderson p. 83.
16
Files, Folder 1: New Facilities. Incl, 20 May 42, with WD Ltr AG 600.12
13
Ltr, Roosevelt to Nelson, 1 May 42. WPB-PD (5-30-42) MO-SPAD-M, 1 Jun 42.
17
File, 212 (Production Objectives) 1940-42. Transcript, Engineers Production Conference.
14
Memo, Nelson for Harrison, 11 May 42. WPB-PD 22 May 42, p. 63.
18
File, 221.31 (Facilities Expansion Program—Admin- Transcript, Engineers Production Conference,
istration). 28 Sep 42, p. 10.
590 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
cilities and construction needs. The July 1942 helped weaken Nelson's faith
Army lowered its objectives considerably, in his impartiality. By late summer, the
deleting dozens of lines from the Ord- WPB Chairman had concluded that
nance plant construction program, sus- sterner measures would be necessary
pending virtually all work on seacoast to force the military into line.21
defenses, eliminating most family units Early in September Nelson stripped
from the civilian war housing program, the power to assign priorities from the
and curtailing private plant expansions Army and Navy Munitions Board.
sponsored by the War Department. In Henceforth WPB would review re-
addition, the Chief of Engineers deferred quests for priority and a complete bill
river and harbor improvements estimated of materials would have to accompany
to cost more than $50 million. All told, every application.22 Anguished cries
the War Department saving was about from military spokesmen greeted this
$1 billion. Cutbacks by the Navy, prin- move. Typical of the Engineer reaction
cipally by the Bureau of Ships, matched was Colonel Sherrill's outburst:
those by the Army almost dollar for The power to decide whether a priority
dollar.19 rating is to be issued carries with it the de-
This record notwithstanding, the com- cision whether the project will be con-
mittee failed to win Nelson's confidence. structed. . . . This power will in some
"Naturally," Groves observed, "the more cases carry with it indirectly decisions on
military strategy. It is conceivable that delay
Harrison learned of the problems of the in starting and completing certain projects
military, the more difficult it was for him may decide the outcome of a battle or delay
not to support them; and, in the same military plans due to lack of certain ma-
way, the more he learned of the WPB terials.
recommendations, the more difficult it The Army and Navy are entrusted with the
fate of the nation and the lives of its men. If
became not to slice them."20 Compared the War Production Board fails, the war is
with reductions in military programs, not lost, but if the Army and Navy fail, the
cuts sustained by WPB were modest. war is lost. Therefore, in the construction
Deferred as a result of the Harrison re- program why add to our difficult battle
view were WPB-sponsored projects es- against time.23
timated to cost approximately $400 In a memorandum for General Clay,
million—about one-fifth of the Army- Groves took the same stand. Objecting
Navy total. Nevertheless, as the com- to "direct control of design and speci-
mittee threw out power-generating fa- fications by the War Production Board,"
cilities, transmission lines, and plants he pointed out: "The question of what
for producing coke, pig ingots, and semi- agency shall make the determination of
finished goods, Nelson came to regard it the need for munitions is involved to a
as a tool of the military. Harrison's degree."24 Protests by the Engineers,
appointment as a brigadier general in
21
(1) Memo, Ross for Dickinson, 13 Nov 42. (2)
19
(1) Thomson and Mayo, Procurement and Supply, CPA, Industrial Mobilization for War, p. 392.
22
p. 63. (2) 635 Part 2. (3) Constr PR's. (4) 800.52 CPA, Industrial Mobilization for War, p. 259.
23
1942-45. (5) Memo, Ross for Dickinson, 13 Nov 42. Memo, Sherrill for Groves, 9 Sep 42. 161 (Pref
WPB-PD File, 221.2. Ratings) II.
20 24
Groves Comments, XIII, 11. Memo, Groves for Clay, 12 Oct 42. 410 I.
CUTBACK AND CONTINUATION 591
SOS, and ANMB had no effect. Nelson $1 billion by states, counties, and munic-
held to his decision.25 ipalities; and $700 million by private
On 21 September he took another step enterprise. On 29 September Patterson
toward curbing war construction. With made his move. Citing Reybold's figures,
the consent of the Army, the Navy, and he advised Nelson: "I am firmly of the
the Maritime Commission, he abolished opinion that a great part of this work can
the Harrison committee and, in its place, be deferred without impairment of the
set up the Facility Clearance Board. war effort and without injury to the
Clothed with authority to screen in- health and safety of the community in-
dustrial projects estimated to cost $1 volved."27 Replying for WPB, Eberstadt
million or more, the new board was agreed that a great deal of unnecessary
headed by Ferdinand Eberstadt, who construction was in progress and that it
had resigned as chairman of ANMB ought to stop.28 The ax-wielding as-
to become WPB Vice Chairman on signment would be carried out by a new
Program Determination. Col. Gordon body, the Facility Review Committee,
E. Textor, an Engineer officer on loan representing WPB, the Army, the Navy,
to WPB, would be acting chairman in and the Maritime Commission. En-
Eberstadt's absence. The membership, gineer officers took a prominent part in
drawn originally from the armed services the work of the committee. Col. Thomas
and the Maritime Commission, soon F. Farrell served as chairman and Lt.
broadened to include additional repre- Col. Richard H. Tatlow, as War Depart-
sentatives from WPB. In October Nelson ment member.29
extended the board's authority to all Meantime, the long-simmering con-
classes of construction and lowered the flict over broad production goals was
26
monetary ceiling to $500,000. No longer coming to a boil. By the fall of 1942 total
would military men screen military proj- military requirements for 1943 had
ects. The system proposed by Nathan climbed to $115 billion.30 Basing his
and Sickel in the spring of 1942 was an opinion on WPB studies, Chairman
accomplished fact. Nelson said this objective was far too
While Nelson was tightening his con- ambitious. Although military leaders
trol over military construction, Patterson conceded that he might be right, they
was preparing a counterassault. Late refused to lower their sights. There was,
in August he asked the Chief of En- they argued, no harm in trying. Nelson
gineers to find out how much civilian emphatically disagreed.
construction was under way throughout
Setting up a production program which
the country. Within a month Reybold goes substantially beyond the limits of feasi-
had the answer—$3.1 billion worth: bility [he explained] does not merely mean
$1.4 billion by the federal government; that the economy will be subjected to a
25 27
WPB-PD File, 411.33 (Constr Progr-Mil) Feb Memo, Patterson for Nelson, 29 Sep 42, and
42-Oct 46. Incls thereto. USW Files, Misc & Sub, Constr beg
26
(1) Joint Dir, WPB, WD, ND, and Maritime Dec.
28
Com, 21 Sep 42. WPB-PD File, 071.5001 (Fac Ltr, Eberstadt to Patterson, 7 Oct 42. Same file.
29
Clearance Bd, WPB). (2) WPB Gen Adm Order WPB Gen Adm Order 2-61, 17 Oct 42.
2-61, 17 Oct 42. 30
CPA, Industrial Mobilization for War, pp. 284-85.
592 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
greater strain than it can bear; it means also to construction. Declaring that decisive
that military requirements and strategic action could no longer be deferred, he
plans themselves will be involved in a con-
fused and incalculable production tangle, pointed out that building work pro-
and that the very ends which the oversized gramed through 1943 would absorb be-
program 31sought to achieve are likely to be tween one-fifth and one-quarter of the
defeated. war effort. Construction on so vast a
Impelled by this logic, he decided to scale would cut deeply into production
force a showdown. of military and essential civilian goods.
At a conference on 6 October, Nathan Even "most essential" synthetic rubber,
presented the case for cutting back re- high-octane gasoline, aluminum, steel,
quirements. Questioning whether any and aircraft programs would suffer.
economy could devote more than half of With most basic needs already taken
its productive capacity to war, he pointed care of, the time had clearly come for
out that the proposed program for 1943 phasing out construction. Accordingly,
"would absorb not less than 75 percent he was making drastic cuts in the pro-
of the national product." According to grams of the Tennessee Valley Authority,
Nathan's Planning Committee, "an out- the Federal Works Agency, and the In-
side and all-out and stimulating objec- terior Department. At the same time, he
tive" for the coming year would be $75 was asking the Secretaries of War, Navy,
billion for munitions and construction Commerce, and Agriculture and the
and $18 billion for other war expendi- Chairman of the Maritime Commission
tures. Raising the cry of civilian inter- for lists of projects which could "be
32
totaling only $76.2 million received its amounted to approximately $10.3 billion
veto—the board, by its very existence, and was 85 percent complete. A year
discouraged would-be sponsors of ques- later the figures were $10.8 billion and
tionable projects. From $13.4 billion in 98 percent. The monthly value of work
1942, expenditures for new construction placed declined steadily and so did total
in the United States dropped in 1943 employment. New projects were fewer
to $7.7 billion. Projects unrelated to the and generally smaller than before.38 The
war accounted for most, though by no undertaking launched in 1940 by The
means all, of this reduction.35 Quartermaster General was drawing to a
Late in November 1942 the Joint close. In his role as Chief of Construction,
Chiefs of Staff announced a reduction General Robins faced a twofold task—
in the munitions and construction goal winding up the emergency program and
for 1943— from $93 billion to $80 billion. adapting his organization to radically
Among the scaled-down items was con- altered conditions.
struction for the Army, which was shaved The roster of key construction officers
31 percent, from $3.2 billion to $2.2 reflected the transition from homefront
billion. This curtailment, purportedly, preparations to offensive warfare. Over-
effected "all possible economies."36 Sub- seas duty claimed most of the physically
sequent revisions of the army supply fit Regulars on Robins' staff, among
program cut construction objectives even them Colonels Hardin and Strong. A
further. From the end of 1942 until V-J secret mission of highest priority claimed
Day, the total approved cost of the Army Colonel Groves, and Colonel Lewis an-
construction program increased by only swered a summons from the Air Trans-
$1.8 billion. By early 1943 the flow of port Command. To assist him in direct-
new directives had slowed almost to a ing the still sizable program, Robins was
trickle.87 fortunate in having Colonel Farrell and
Colonel Antes, both of whom had worked
Topping Out closely with Groves. To take charge of
Repairs and Utilities, he was able to
As construction moved overseas, as obtain Col. Rudolph C. Kuldell, a 1912
major efforts went toward securing world- West Point graduate who had resigned
wide supply lines and providing forward from the Corps in 1920 to engage in
bases for global offensives, the buildup private business. To head up Rivers,
in the United States entered its final Harbors, and Flood Control, he called
phase. On the first anniversary of Pearl on Col. George R. Goethals, son of the
Harbor, the war construction program great general and a retired Engineer of-
ficer. Former civilian employees now in
(1) McGrane, The Facilities and Construction uniform helped fill the urgent need for
36
Program, pp. 118-19, 140. (2) Historical Statistics of the officers. And, flouting the words of the
United States, 1789-1945, p. 168.
Incl with Memo, JCS for WPB, 27 Nov 42. old barracks ballad, "no promotion this
36
WPB-PD File, 212 (Production Programs—Objec- side of the ocean," a few young Regulars
tives). See also Millett, The Army Service Forces,
pp. 219-20; and Smith, The Army and Economic
38
Mobilization, p. 156. Constr PR's, Dec 42, pp. 2-7; and Dec 43, pp.
37
ASF, Statistical Review, World War II, p. 11. 5-10.
594 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
remained at their desks. Touched by the Brig. Gen. Charles Keller, who at 75 was
dedication of these young officers, the oldest active officer in the U.S.
Reybold reflected: "They really sacri- Army.
ficed to stay with the job."39 Despite a high turnover in key per-
Within the districts and divisions, sonnel, the organization proved effec-
leadership was passing to the Engineer tive. In the first nine months of 1943
home guard. A study of the Pacific construction valued at $1.7 billion went
Division in December 1942 was reveal- into place and nearly 12,000 projects
ing. Responsible for all construction west reached completion. Although most of
of the continental divide, General Han- the completed jobs were minor ones
num depended heavily on senior Regu- costing less than $500,000, approxi-
lars. Overseeing division suboffices at mately 900 were major undertakings,
Salt Lake City and San Francisco were ranging in cost from $500,000 to more
Col. Edward M. George, 62, and Col. than $100 million. Headliners included
John R. D. Matheson, 55, who kept Camp Shanks, New Jersey, a $4O-million
going despite poor health. Holding other staging area for the New York Port of
key positions in the organization were Embarkation; the $60-million Pentagon
Colonels Richard Park, 60, Elmer G. Building with its extensive system of
Thomas, 62, Clay Anderson, 63, and roads and parking lots; the Sunflower
Herbert J. Wild, 67. Backing up these Ordnance Works, a $130-million TNT
men were a few troop-age Regulars plant at Eudora, Kansas; and scores of
awaiting orders overseas, several former other multimillion-dollar installations.
Engineer officers recalled to active duty, Among the significant achievements of
and a score of Reservists. This pattern this period were the Cleveland Aircraft
was repeated throughout the Engineer Assembly Plant, which included the
Department. Replacing Scott as head largest all-timber building in the world,
of the Southwestern Division was Col. and a plant for centrifugal casting of
Robert R. Neyland, Jr., a 1916 West gun barrels at Watertown Arsenal, the
Point graduate who had resigned from first of its kind. A noteworthy technical
the Corps in 1936 to coach football at breakthrough was the successful paving
the University of Tennessee. Releasing of concrete runways in near-zero wea-
40
younger men for combat were Col. ther.
Jarvis J. Bain, who stayed on beyond For sheer physical difficulty, few en-
retirement at Memphis, and John H. gineering feats could match the building
Peil, a long-time employee of the Rock of the Mountain Home Air Base in south-
Island District, who was commissioned western Idaho. Scheduled originally for
a lieutenant colonel. Many others rallied the spring of 1943, the start of this proj-
to the cry of "Essayons" (the motto of ect was advanced to December 1942,
the Corps), among them Col. Rufus W. when the crash of a B-17 demonstrated
Putnam, namesake and descendant of
a Revolutionary Chief Engineer, and
40
(1) Constr PR's. (2) ENR, March 11, 1943, p.
86; and April 22, 1943, pp. 67-70. (3) ASF, Annual
Report for the Fiscal Tear 1943 (Washington, 1943), p.
39
Reybold Interv, 12 Mar 59. 181.
CUTBACK AND CONTINUATION 595
the urgent need for an emergency landing field in the world with runways so long
field in the Boise area. Transferring a and so sturdily built.41
huge fleet of equipment from the recently The startup at the Holston Ordnance
completed bomber base at Pocatello and Works in the spring of 1943 symbolized
throwing onto the job a crack local high- a notable achievement. With two widely
way contractor, J. A. Terteling & Sons, separated manufacturing areas (one for
the Portland District Engineer, Col. raw materials and one for explosives),
Donald J. Leehey, set a target date of 15 dozens of major buildings (most of brick
March for the principal runways. and reinforced concrete and some 8
Stratton rushed the latest information stories tall), a vast transportation net-
on winter construction to the area en- work (31 miles of railroads, 59 miles of
gineer, Maj. Oliver A. Lewis. Battling roads, and 4 massive bridges), and out-
snow, sleet, and high winds, the con- sized utilities systems (capacity for 2
tractor's forces began dozing out the million pounds of steam per hour and
10,000-foot airstrips. Thick blankets of nearly 500 million gallons of water per
straw and sand protected the subgrade. day), the plant was a tremendous under-
With the thermometer hovering around taking. Problems were many: a dearth of
10°, paving went forward. Heated ag- design information, an element of fric-
gregate, liberal use of calcium chloride, tion between the architect-engineer-
insulated tank trucks, tarpaulins, straw, manager and the principal subcontrac-
and salamanders—Terteling used every tor, the district engineer's seeming re-
known means to prevent damage by luctance to crack the whip, a weak
freezing. With these techniques, he fin- priority rating, a scarcity of equipment,
ished the job on time. Awarding the and a persistent shortage of labor. Both
Army and Navy "E" to the contractor,
an officer of the Second Air Force ques- 41
(1) 686 and 686.61 (Mountain Home Airfield),
tioned whether there was another bomber (2) The Constructor, October 1943, p. 39.
596 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
Creedon and his successor, Otto F. General Robins took special pride
Sieder, kept the job under close scrutiny. in two record-breaking projects, the
So did Colonel Hall, the division en- bomber modification centers at Tulsa
gineer. With help from Washington and and Oklahoma City. Comprising huge
Columbus, the project straightened out. hangar-like fireproof structures of con-
Progress, poor at first, steadily improved. crete and steel, these new plants bore
Completed line by line in the spring of $4-million price tags and carried "im-
1943, the plant was producing at full mediate" completion dates. When the
design capacity—170 tons of RDX directives reached him late in April 1943,
daily—by July. In another five months, the Tulsa District Engineer, Col. Francis
this capacity more than doubled. Depth J. Wilson, was battling floods along the
charges and blockbuster bombs con- Arkansas River. With rail traffic at a
taining superexplosives from the Holston standstill, he flew in company officials
plant were crucially important in sweep- and began negotiations. Within 24 hours,
ing Hitler's U-boats from the Atlantic he had signed contracts for the architect-
and in pulverizing German war in- engineering—with two St. Louis firms,
dustries.42 J. Gordon Turnbull and Sverdrup &
Parcel, for the Tulsa plant, and with the
42
(1) 635 (Holston OW). (2) Memo, W. E. O'Brien Austin Company of Cleveland for the
for Groves, 13 Aug 42. Opns Br Files, Holston OW. Oklahoma City job. Before the month
(3) Insp Rpt by Col Strong, 21 Oct 42. Opns Br was out, structural steel was on order and
Files, Insp Rpts, Col Strong. (4) Memos, Sieder for
Strong, 14 Jan and 27 Feb 43. Opns Br Files, Memos grading had begun. By late May the
—Mun Plant Sec. (5) ENR, July 25, 1946, pp. 64-69. principal construction contractors were
CUTBACK AND CONTINUATION 597
the situation was getting out of hand. units whose skilled workers and officers are
In an Army-wide directive on 15 April, drawn in large numbers from the ranks of
47
the construction industry.
Secretary Stimson laid down the law:
"Spartan simplicity must be observed. And in an article for the July issue of
Nothing will be done merely because it The Constructor, he explained:
contributes to beauty, convenience, com- The volume of war construction at home
fort, or prestige. Property should be kept this year will reach but about 30 percent of
in serviceable condition but not beyond last year's total of more than five billion dol-
that level."44 Attempting to plug an oft- lars. Much of this year's building is already
used loophole, Somervell defined main- in place. Outside of a number of prisoner-
tenance as "work which is regular and of-war internment camps and a few general
hospitals and other relatively small projects,
recurring and which is continuous in little war construction is in view for the re-
48
the sense that it is not terminable on the mainder of the year.
completion of a specific project."45
Construction budgets, employment
Largely as a result of this crackdown the
number of new starts on minor projects figures, and monthly totals of work
placed told a similar story. In June 1943,
dropped 66 percent during the latter
half of 1943. when he appeared before the House and
Senate Appropriations Committees to de-
Statements by the Chief of Engineers
fend the Engineer budget for the coming
mirrored the decline, of stateside con-
struction. Speaking to officer candidates fiscal year, Reybold requested no new
construction money. Instead he asked
at Fort Belvoir in April 1943, General
for authority to carry over $530 million
Reybold said:
from the previous fiscal year and to use
The mission of the Army's Corps of Engi- it in winding up the program. The same
neers is developing with the progress of our act that granted this authority provided
attack. We are finishing up the biggest job
of emergency construction the United States $580 million for maintaining the nearly
49
has ever seen. Now we're moving on to a completed military plant. The down-
job of construction overseas. . . . We've ward trend was depicted graphically in
got a date with a certain paperhanger; and General Robins' reports. During the
46
an Engineer keeps his appointments. calendar year 1943, both the monthly
Addressing a meeting of the major value of work placed and the total field
construction trade associations in New employment fell approximately 80 per-
York City early in June, he stated: cent. (Charts 20 and 21)
Changes in OCE attended this shrink-
The scene is shifting from areas of prepara-
tion here at home to the actual theaters of age. During the first five months of 1943,
war, where there lies ahead a tremendous the strength of the Construction Division
task for construction workers. Most of the 47
construction activities and responsibilities Quoted in The Constructor, June 1943, p. 27.
48
Maj. Gen. Eugene Reybold, "Construction Gets
are being transferred to foreign shores, and Its Passport," The Constructor, July 1943, p. 103.
most of the work must be done with troop 49
(1) H Subcomm of the Comm on Appns, 78th
Cong, 1st sess, Hearing on Military Establishment
44
WD Memo W100-10-43, 15 Apr 43. Appropriation Bill for 1944, 7 Jun 43, p. 330. (2) S
45
ASF Memo S100-9-43, 8 Jun 43. Subcomm of the Comm on Appns, 78th Cong, 1st sess,
46
Quoted in The Military Engineer, May 1943, p. Hearings on H R 2996, 24 Jun 43, pp. 148-49. (3) 57
246. Stat. 347.
CHART 20—DOLLAR VALUE OF WORK PLACED DURING 1943
(IN MILLIONS BY MONTH)
dropped from 1,712 to 1,010. Early in streams bridged to bear the advancing arms
April, Robins discontinued the Opera- and armies of Democracy, roads constructed,
water facilities provided, storage and repair
tions Branch and set up the following depots raised, and harbors deepened, mine-
branches in its place: Fortifications, fields and entanglements cleared for the
under Colonel Burton; Materials and advance of our troops, obstacles set up in
Equipment, under Colonel Sherrill; Mili- the path of the enemy—a thousand jobs
tary Construction, under Colonel Person; that call for the type of specialists who have
been employed in the construction industry.51
Munitions Plants, under Mr. Sieder;
Rivers and Harbors, under Colonel With the thousands of "tough, trained
Goethals; and Safety, under Mr. construction men" and skilled equip-
Blanchard. A month later, when Burton ment operators who responded to this
took over as district engineer at Phila- call, the Corps was able to increase the
delphia, Fortifications merged with Mili- work power of every Engineer bat-
tary Construction. A more sweeping talion.52 Meantime, Reybold's journey
change occurred late in May when had another, unlooked for, result. Dis-
Robins lifted the Engineering Branch covering on visits to division and district
out of the Construction Division and offices that service commanders were
set it up as an independent division, encroaching on his jurisdiction, the Chief
responsible for research and development took prompt action.
as well as for construction engineering.50 In a monitory message to division
Behind these adjustments lay the nar- engineers, he stressed loyalty to the
rowing scope of the building program. Corps. As construction diminished and
The next reorganization would take work in the field offices slackened, dis-
place in a somewhat different context. trict engineers were taking on more jobs
In the spring of 1943, General Reybold for the service commands. Lines of de-
launched a nationwide campaign to marcation between engineer divisions
enlist construction workers for overseas and directorates of Real Estate, Repairs
service with Engineer units. Ac- and Utilities were becoming less dis-
companied much of the way by Presi- tinct. Still rankling over a recent loss of
dent Oscar B. Coblentz and Managing authority (the power to assign post
Director Herbert E. Foreman of the engineers now belonged to service
AGC, he visited New York, Boston, commanders) and highly suspicious of
Chicago, Dallas, Los Angeles, San Somervell's intentions (the recent change
Francisco, Portland, and Salt Lake City in name from Services of Supply to
to address the following appeal to "the Army Service Forces—what did that
men who want to help engineer the portend?), Reybold issued a ukase against
forthcoming victory—the men who want "entangling agreements" and "informal
to help get this war over as soon as arrangements cutting across command
possible": channels." Faced with a choice of
Airdromes must be built all over the world, demobilizing or joining forces with the
50 51
(1) Constr PR's, Dec 1942, p. 8; and May 1943, Quoted in The Constructor, June 1943, p. 27.
p. 26. (2) OGE Memo 290, 7 Apr 43. 020 (Engrs, See52 also Ibid., August 1943, pp. 25, 42-43.
Off, Chief of) Part I. (3) OCE Memo 302, 11 May 43. Maj. Gen. Eugene Reybold, "Construction at
Same loc as (2). (4) OCE GO 13, 21 May 43. War," The Constructor, March 1944, p. 38.
CUTBACK AND CONTINUATION 601
service commands, the Engineer Depart- So why the service command should not be
ment would demobilize.53 a little War Department, self-contained,
Late in July, at a conference in Chi- carrying out all the functions in those service
commands that we in turn are responsible
cago marking the first anniversary of the for ... is still pretty difficult to an-
service commands, Reybold reached an swer in the negative.
54
impasse with "Somervell and his tribe."
The threat was clear. If Somervell's plan
In a curtain-raising speech which set
went through, the Corps of Engineers
the tone of the meeting, General
and the other technical services would
Robinson inveighed against the atti-
cease to exist.55
tude of "some technical services" that
Immediately upon his return to Wash-
"they cannot discharge the responsi-
ington, General Reybold set about erect-
bility for their functions without direct
ing roadblocks. By early August his
supervision of all their so-called personnel
staff had completed a detailed analysis
in the field." Service commanders were
more specific. Referring to the recent of the conference minutes and had
ban against "informal arrangements," prepared an elaborate defense of the
Engineer position. A 40-page com-
one of them complained: "We had a
munique was soon in the hands of every
very fine system . . . . On in-
key official in the Corps.56 Before the
structions of the Chief of Engineers, this
end of the month, Reybold had adopted
was discontinued." Confronted by his
a plan to transfer procurement of supplies
critics, Reybold refused to budge. When
and equipment for Engineer troops from
one commander asked him point-blank,
regional purchasing offices to the "river
"Should division engineers and their
and harbor divisions." This move would
activities be placed directly under the
not only strengthen the Engineer De-
jurisdiction of service commanders?"
partment but would also place Engineer
his answer was a categorical "no"; he
reminded his questioner that the En- procurement beyond Somervell's control,
since civil works was entirely outside
gineer field had "many things to do
his jurisdiction.57 To penetrate the se-
aside from the military." Noting this
crecy imposed by Somervell on ASF
disagreement, Somervell declared:
planners required some undercover work.
General Eisenhower and General Mac- But Reybold and his fellow service chiefs
Arthur and a good many other people have kept abreast of what was going on.
been given complete responsibility for all
activities that transpire within the ter- Amid rumors that General Marshall
ritorial limits of their command; and that would be "kicked upstairs" to take
being the case, there is no justifiable reason command in Europe and that General
why the same principle should not apply in Somervell would become Chief of Staff,
the service commands. the service chiefs leaked the reorgani-
It is to be remembered that in each one
of these service commands there is far more zation scheme to Congress. Remarks in-
activity now than there was in the whole 55
War Department before the war. Transcript, Conf of CG's, Svc Comd's, at
Chicago,
56
Ill., 22-24 Jul 43, pp. 98, 47, 303, 383.
Ltr, Control Br, OCE to Div, Br, and Sec
53
Ltr, Reybold to Div Engrs, 16 Jun 43. EHD Chiefs, OCE, and Div and Dist Engrs, 2 Aug 43.
Files. EHD Files.
54 57
Reybold Interv, 12 Mar 59. OCE Circ Ltr 2516, 24 Aug 43.
602 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
58
89 Cong. Rec. A3987.
59
William K. Hutchinson, "Army Shake-up Plot 60
Perils 16 Commands," written for the International
Henry L. Stimson and McGeorge Bundy,
News Service as it appeared in the Washington Times- On Active Service in Peace and War (New York: Harper
Herald, September 25, 1943. Reprinted in 89 Cong. & Brothers, 1947), p. 452-
61
Rec. A.4001-02. See also Millett, The Army Service Verbatim Rpt, Meeting with Gregory and
Forces, pp. 408-11. Hastings, p. 29.
CUTBACK AND CONTINUATION 603
the size of their administrative force by Deputy Chief, General Robins focused
almost 50 percent.62 his attention on the more than half a
As the field organization shrank, more million Engineer troops serving around
responsibility shifted to temporary of- the world. Reporting directly to him
ficers. To be sure, only top Engineer were the two Assistant Chiefs of En-
professionals were division engineers. gineers—for War Planning and for Mili-
Exemplifying the type of man selected tary Supply. The position of Chief of
for these posts was Brig. Gen. Roscoe C. Construction disappeared from the
Crawford, a former commandant of the charts, and the Construction Division
Engineer School. Crawford took over split into three independent divisions:
the Missouri River Division early in Military Construction, under Colonel
1944, after Pick departed for the China- Kuldell; Civil Works, under Colonel
Burma-India Theater. In this period, Goethals; and Real Estate, under Colo-
however, the majority of district en- nel O'Brien.64 (Chart 22) Although they
gineers were of a different breed. By came under Robins' supervision, these
1944 Reservists, most of them long-time divisions required but little of his time.
employees of the Corps, headed three- For the duration, their work would be
fifths of the districts. According to of secondary concern.
Reybold, there was one difficulty with Writing to a Los Angeles businessman
these uniformed civilians: many had early in 1944, Colonel Antes stated:
been under officers so long that they As long as the war continues, a certain
were hesitant about making decisions. amount of routine war construction is antic-
Nevertheless, the Chief observed, most ipated. . . . However, the trend is
rose to the occasion and did "a bang up definitely downward, the dollar value of
job."63 As insurance against failures in new work authorized during December
1943 having been only 12 percent of that
the districts, he relied on a small group authorized during January 1943. This down-
of troubleshooting Regulars, former ward trend will be accelerated as the mili-
Quartermaster officers who were experts tary program proceeds; and, barring serious
in contract construction but lacked ex- military reverses, the prospects are that new
perience with troops and Engineer vet- war construction in 1944 will show a steady
65
decline from even the present levels.
erans who were unequal to the rigors of
service overseas. This forecast proved accurate.
In the Washington headquarters, con-
struction was further de-emphasized. Late Programs
On 1 December 1943, General Reybold
streamlined his organization to insure As the United States entered its third
maximum support for the fighting forces. year of war, homefront preparations
Moved up to the newly created post of were virtually complete and in the
62 64
(1) Memo, Antes for Kuldell, 19 Jan 44. EHD (1) OCE Memo 395, 24 Nov 43. (2) Blanche D.
Files. (2) Ltr, Robins to Div Engrs, 7 Apr 44. 323.3. Coll, Jean E. Keith, and Herbert H. Rosenthal,
(3) 323.4 Nov 42-May 44. (4) OCE Circ Ltr 3203, The Corps of Engineers: Troops and Equipment, UNITED
31 Jul 44. (5) Annual Rpts of Mil Activities, OCE,1 STATES ARMY IN WORLD WAR II (Washing-
Jul 43-30 Jun 44, p. 95; and 1 Jul 44-30 Jun 45, ton, 1957), pp. 216-19.
p. 126. 65
Ltr, Antes to C.O. Ducker, 11 Jan 44. EHD
63
Reybold Interv, 12 Mar 59. Files.
CUTBACK AND CONTINUATION 605
theaters crucial offensives were at hand. approval.68 When field commanders pro-
Since July 1940, the Quartermaster tested that requests bogged down in the
Corps and the Corps of Engineers had seemingly endless channels of the War
constructed an $11-billion military plant Department, Somervell told them: "I
in this country, providing more than have attempted to interpose all the red
1,800 command installations (training tape possible—and that is a lot." He
centers, airbases, supply depots, staging went on to explain:
areas, ports of embarkation, general I cannot stand up before the country and
hospitals, harbor defenses, and POW before Congress and justify the expenditure
camps) and 2,200 industrial facilities of millions of dollars for construction work
(manufacturing plants, proving grounds, which is desirable but which does not have
66
shops, and laboratories). From the anything to do with winning the war; and
so I have adopted what is admittedly a very
great base in the United States, American cumbersome, fabian policy of delay in the
armies were advancing toward a de- hope that eventually you will get tired of
cisive test of strength with the Axis asking for new construction and quit . . . .
forces. With the coming invasion of There will be no question of delay if the
Europe in mind, General Reybold spoke matter is really necessary. Where it is a
question of putting a fur lining in the swim-
for the Engineer Department: ming pool, we are certainly going to take a
Home front problems become small long time before we do it.69
. . As our men go forth to the
toughest and bitterest task in our his- The policy succeeded. During the last
tory, . . . . o u r dominating, driving 20 months of the war, excluding secret
determination is to back the fighting front, projects, expenditures for construction
to speed the hour of triumph, to reduce the came to only $843 million, a sum not
awful toll of war—and to preserve and appreciably greater than the value of
strengthen the liberties and freedoms for
which 67American men at this moment are work placed in the single month of
dying. July 1942.
By early 1944 construction activity had
Mindful that unnecessary homefront sunk to about the level recorded for
projects were still afoot, General Robins October 1940, a level not substantially
imposed restraint by centralizing ap- exceeded during the remaining months
provals in Washington. On 2 December of war. (Chart 23) At the beginning of
1943 he withdrew the division engineers' 1944 Colonel Kuldell carried on his
authority to approve minor jobs. Fol- books unfinished construction amounting
lowing Robins' lead, Somervell soon es- to $143 million. (Table 20} Of 2,108 un-
tablished even stricter controls: all proj- completed jobs, only 142 would cost
ects costing more than $1,000 needed $50,000 or more.70 During the first
certification by the Chief of Engineers quarter of 1944, construction authori-
and clearance from the Commanding zations averaged $26 million per month.
General, ASF; all those costing $10,000
or more had to have the Chief of Staffs 68
(1) OCE Circ Ltr 2626, 2 Dec 43. (2) ASF
Circs 78, 18 Mar 44; 178, 13 Jun 44; and 271, 23 Aug
66
WD, Quarterly Inventory: Owned, Sponsored and 44.69
Leased Facilities, 31 Mar 44, pp. 3-4. Transcript, Service Command Conf, at Ft.
67
Maj. Gen. Eugene Reybold, "Construction at Leonard Wood, Mo., 27-29 Jul 44, p. 67.
70
War," The Constructor, March 1944, p. 58. Constr PR, 31 Dec 43, pp. 5-6.
CUTBACK AND CONTINUATION 607
Most of the new projects were extensions had to go under cultivation. Late in
to runways, conversions of barracks for 1943, Under Secretary Patterson told
the Women's Army Corps, minor alter- Reybold: "The acquisition phase of the
ations at munitions plants, and additional War Department's land program has
warehousing and open storage. By far the now been accomplished." Patterson
largest project undertaken in this period asked the Engineers to "scrutinize pres-
was a $10.2-million intertransit air depot ent utilization of our military installa-
at Alameda, California—a vast complex tions to determine which properties, if
of railroads, sidings, warehouses, wharves, any, may be excess or surplus to present
and deepwater docks—which was to serve needs, and, where indicated, return such
as a principal supply point for the final properties to private ownership or oc-
offensives against Japan. Also worthy of cupation."72 By early 1944 the Real
mention were 1,400 flexible gunnery Estate Division was disposing of surplus
training devices, known as Poorman holdings. Roughly 165,000 acres of idle
trainers, to be installed at 48 airfields. agricultural land owned by the War
Invented by Maj. Fred S. Poorman of Department were going under lease to
the Engineering Division, OCE, these farmers. Dozens of tactical airfields, anti-
trainers increased gunnery accuracy from aircraft artillery sites, harbor defenses,
71
30 to 75 percent. and other protective installations—in-
No less marked than the shrinkage cluding even Fort Brady, Michigan,
in construction was the altered charac- which guarded the vital locks at Sault
ter of O'Brien's real estate operations. Sainte Marie—were changing hands.
As the induction rate slowed and over- Several military reservations, the largest
seas deployment accelerated, the demand of which was a 17,000-acre tract near
for troop housing diminished. As the Toccoa, Georgia, were up for sale or
possibility of enemy attacks became in- transfer. Many of the hotels leased in
creasingly remote, defensive installations 1942 had already reverted to their own-
seemed less needful. As food shortages ers; and the Corps had auctioned off the
threatened the home front, more land
72
Memo, Patterson for Reybold, 4 Nov 43. RE
71
(1) Constr PR's, Jan-Mar 44. (2) 614 Part 2. Div Files, Gen Corresp—W. Z. Bowie, 1944.
608 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
Stevens Hotel in Chicago for $5.3 mil- Association of Building Owners and
lion, only $300,000 less than the pur- Managers went on record: "Not only
chase price—a small markdown, con- has the work of the Real Estate Branch
sidering that the Air Forces had occu- been conducted efficiently and with
pied the building for more than a year. dispatch, under the pressure of insistent
Except those serving as hospitals, the war needs, . . . but this has been
remaining hotels were soon to be let done in a spirit of fairness and considera-
73
go. tion for those whom this program has
Cancellation of the hotel leases evoked necessarily inconvenienced."76
angry protests from owners. Military Scarcely had the Miami hearings
tenants had left once proud properties ended before demands arose for a full-
in sad condition. Plaster had been scale inquiry into another matter. Early
damaged, woodwork marred, windows in February the Philadelphia Inquirer
cracked, and mirrors shattered. Re- headlined the news: "Congressmen Seek
peated scrubbings with GI soap had Probe of Pentagon Cost." Calling the
ruined hardwood floors. Looters had building "Somervell's Folly," and al-
smashed in doors and plundered store- luding to "fabulous spending, waste,
rooms. Evidence of hard usage and of and skullduggery," members of the
vandalism was widespread. Dissatisfied House Ways and Means and Appropria-
with restoration settlements offered them tions Committees rallied behind Con-
by the Engineers, owners appealed to gressman Engel, who was winding up a
the Truman Committee. At hearings in five-month personal investigation of "the
Miami during January 1944, witnesses city with the roof on top."77 In a speech
aired their grievances against the Corps. before the House on 29 February 1944,
After pressing claims for additional Engel fixed the total outlay for the proj-
damages, they charged that the original ect at roughly $86 million, $51 million
leases were grossly unfair and had been more than originally appropriated, and
obtained by intimidation and decep- he taxed responsible officials with "an
tion.74 Published in March 1944, the utter disregard ... for the wishes
committee report contained the first of Congress." In a second speech one
serious criticism of the Corps' wartime week later, he replied to a recent War
activities. "The manner in which the Department statement that the Pentagon
hotel acquisition program was carried would pay for itself in 8 to 14 years by
out," the report concluded, "resulted in marshaling figures to show that in 50
many injustices which the War Depart- years operating deficits would run the
ment has shown little inclination to cost to the taxpayers to nearly $250
correct."75 This judgment did not go million.78 Among the military, Engel's
unchallenged. Expressing "substantial allegations produced some consterna-
disagreement" with the committee's tion. Breaking faith with Congress was
findings, the president of the National an unpardonable offense.
73 76
(1) Constr PR, 31 Mar 44, p. 39ff. (2) RE Div Ltr, Pres, Natl Assn of Building Owners and
Files, Leasing. (3) 601.1 (Stevens Hotel) II. Managers, to Truman, 10 Mar 44. 601.1 Part 10.
74 77
Truman Comm Hearings, Part 21, passim. Philadelphia Inquirer, February 7, 1944, p. I.
75 78
S Rpt 10, Part 16, 78th Cong, 2d sess, p. 132. 90 Cong. Rec. 2102-10 and 2289-92.
CUTBACK AND CONTINUATION 609
lion. Barely more than 100 major jobs for this weapon from theater commanders.
were under way at the time; noteworthy Experience on the Italian front during the
winter of 1943-44 showed that expenditures
among them were a large climatic of heavy artillery ammunition had been
hangar at Eglin Field, Florida, designed underestimated.
to test aircraft under extreme tempera-
tures; a research center for biological In an effort to meet this emergency,
warfare at Camp Detrick, Maryland; General Campbell stepped up produc-
two huge postal concentration centers tion, cut training allocations, stripped
to handle the flood of mail moving his depots bare, and borrowed from the
through the New York and San Fran- Navy. But these measures proved in-
cisco ports; and three sizable industrial adequate. After the Normandy landings,
plants—one for making phosgene, at shortages of large artillery and mortar
Monsanto, Tennessee, one for manu- shells threatened to blunt the Allied
facturing stick powder, at the Badger drive across France. Clearly, additional
Ordnance Works in Wisconsin, and one capacity was necessary.85
for forging 155-mm, shells, at Fontana, By mid-1944 the Engineers had a
California.84 Although the volume of crash program on their hands. At a
construction would remain small, briefing for the new chief of Military
Bragdon's was to be a challenging as- Construction on 21 July, Sieder gave a
signment. rundown of the projects: seven facilities
A shortage of heavy ammunition pro- for forging and machining shells; sizable
vided the first and greatest test of his additions to the Badger, Radford, and
leadership. Believing that the war in Sunflower powder works; enlargement
Europe would be mobile and that the of the Alabama and Kankakee TNT
jungles of the Pacific area would restrict plants; and expansion of two dozen
the use of big guns, military planners had shell, bomb, and bag loaders. To cost
slashed shell requirements in November roughly $100 million, this work carried
1942 and again in February 1943. By late an end-of-the-year completion date.
1943 the output of ammunition was more During the next several months, the size
than meeting the demands of theater of the program more than doubled, as
commanders. As stocks accumulated, the Bragdon got orders to build more shell
Chief of Ordnance took steps to reduce casing factories, to reactivate standby
production and by the end of the year plants, and to add or convert lines at
had shut down a score of plants, dis- project after project. How much of this
mantling some, placing some in standby capacity would be available before Ger-
status, and converting some to other use. many surrendered? How much would be
Early in 1944, the situation changed. needful in the war against Japan?
Dubious about launching so large an
It became evident [Somervell reported] effort so late in the European war,
that heavy artillery was destined to play a
far larger role than had been anticipated. Somervell ruled that most of the muni-
Effective use of the 155-mm, gun in the
North African campaign and in the Pacific 85
ASF, Annual Report for the Fiscal Tear 1944
against the Japanese increased the demands (Washington: 1944), pp. 8-10. For a detailed account
of the heavy ammunition crisis, see Thomson and
84
Constr PR's, Apr-Jun 44. Mayo, Procurement and Supply, pp. 144-50.
CUTBACK AND CONTINUATION 611
tions jobs would stop dead when Ameri- ress. The materials pinch had eased by
can armies crossed the Rhine. Until then and manpower had become the
then, Bragdon and Sieder were to go all- number one homefront problem. As
out.86 appeals for help came in from the field,
Cutting corners saved time. Disre- Robins went to work. He enlisted aid
garding policy, Bragdon awarded fixed- in rounding up mechanics from the
fee contracts for four-fifths of the proj- Building Trades Department of the AFL;
ects and at ten of the largest jobs per- he established trailer camps at remote
mitted architect-engineer-managers to locations to provide worker housing;
do all work with their own forces. Des- and he paid transportation costs from
pite objections from finance officers, points of recruitment to project sites.
Sieder commenced construction before Meanwhile, a step proposed by Sieder
funds were available from Ordnance. and acceded to by Ordnance—the can-
Pleading necessity, he called attention to cellation of automatic sprinkler systems—
a recent directive for reactivating a eliminated requirements for several
partially dismantled TNT plant. The thousand critically scarce pipefitters.
project involved replacement of ma- When the situation continued serious,
chinery and equipment, restoration of General Robins asked Somervell to place
buildings, and renovation of corroded the plant program on the urgency
piping. "The cost of this work," said list. Robins pointed out that the list in-
Sieder, "obviously could not be deter- cluded all items the plants manufac-
mined until after detailed investigations tured but, illogically, not the plants
were made in the field. Meanwhile, themselves. Although Somervell refused
however, it was perfectly advisable to to go all the way, he did consent to list
purchase materials and start work on the five most troublesome projects—
the rehabilitation." Had he waited for a Gopher, Badger, Indiana, Cornhusker,
detailed estimate and a formal allot- and Susquehanna. Believing that the
ment of Ordnance funds, several weeks other jobs could probably get along all
would have been lost.87 If such methods right, Robins let the matter rest.89
raised eyebrows, they also produced In the midst of their drive to expand
results. By October work was under way industrial capacity, the Engineers re-
at nearly three dozen projects and several ceived another big assignment—to pro-
new lines were already producing.88 vide more bases for B-29's. Reaching
By 1944 shortages of labor were the quantity production during 1944, the
chief impediment to construction prog- long-range "Superfortress" was des-
tined for a decisive role in the war
86
(1) Memo, Sieder for Bragdon, 21 Jul 44.
against Japan. Beginning in October
Munitions Plants Br Files, 1944 (Gen). (2) Constr 1944, the directives accumulated: for
PR's, Aug-Sep 44. (3) Min, ASF Staff Conf, 26
Sep 44. 337 (ASF Staff Confs).
87 89
Memo, Sieder for Bragdon, 7 Oct 44. Munitions (1) Memo, Sieder for Bragdon, 25 Nov 44.
Plants Br Files, 1944 (Gen). Munitions Plants Br Files, 1944 (Gen). (2) Ltr, Rey-
88
(1) Constr PR, Oct 44, pp. 15-20. (2) Memo, bold to Div Engrs, 18 Dec 44. 671.3 Part 3. (3) Memo,
Bragdon for OCofOrd, Ammo Div, 26 Oct 44. 635 Robins for ASF, 13 Oct 44. 600.1 (Labor) Part 5.
Part 4. (3) Memo, OCofOrd, Ammo Div, for Brag- (4) Memo, Labor Rel Br for Barker, 8 Jan 45. Labor
don, 27 Oct 44. 635 Part 4. Rel Br Files, General.
612 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
there are other ways to build runways, bility; and no maintenance except re-
and we, the Engineers, would not go for pairs of bomb damage. In short, air-
that kind of thing."7 While disclaiming strips were to be safe for all-weather
any intention of providing runways that operations, 24 hours a day, by B-19's.10
were "not entirely satisfactory" to the General Schley proposed to meet the
Air Corps, Colonel Hardin argued that Air Corps requirements, but to do so
ground conditions at each site ought to in accordance with principles of sound
determine the type of construction. More- engineering and scrupulous economy.
over, he pointed out, competition be- When Schley retired as Chief of En-
tween asphalt and cement would serve gineers on 1 October 1941, a broadly
the public interest. In an appeal to G—4 conceived investigative effort was under
on 25 July, he asked that engineering way. Formulated by the Engineering
decisions be left to the Engineers. Stating Section, OCE, under William H.
that asphalt pavements could be de- McAlpine, this effort had a five-fold
signed to carry even the heaviest planes, purpose: insure adequately designed air-
he insisted that surface textures could ports; eliminate wide variation in de-
be altered to increase frictional resistance signs; limit the use of unproved theories;
and surface colors, lightened to enhance maintain competition between ma-
visibility. And, he contended, high-type terials; and lay the basis for further de-
asphalt runways could be maintained velopment of pavement criteria through
almost as cheaply as concrete.8 De- behavioral studies. The overall objec-
ciding in favor of the constructing agency, tive was to write a new chapter in civil
the G-4, General Reybold, handed down engineering. Assigned to this mission
the ruling: airmen would state their func- was a sizable team of investigators. The
tional requirements and Engineers would Corps' civil works experience came into
take it from there.9 play, as experts in hydraulics, hydro-
As outlined by General Brett on 8 meteorology, earthworks, and founda-
August 1941, the functional require- tions attacked airfield problems. As-
ments were rigorous indeed. Runways sisting Kemp and McFadden in Wash-
were to have the following character- ington were two of the Corps' foremost
istics: inherent strength to carry wheel technologists, hydraulic engineer Gail
loads up to 100,000 pounds; a stress load A. Hathaway and soils engineer Thomas
value of 500 pounds per square inch A. Middlebrooks. Undertaking a series
under impact; safeguards against "any of special studies was the research staff
weakness caused by infiltration of water of the Waterways Experiment Station
into the subgrade"; high skid resistance (WES) at Vicksburg, Mississippi, headed
in wet weather and high visibility at by Gerard H. Matthes. Conducting tests
night; low crown, to reduce the hazard and experiments were district offices
of ground looping, and low rolling fric- throughout the country. Because the
tion; freedom from loose particles; dura- civil organization could not provide all
the needed skills, McAlpine brought in
7
Plank Interv, 5 Dec 50. specialists from outside; among these
8
Memo, Hardin for Reybold, 25 Jul 41. AG 658
(11-1-40).
9 10
WD Ltr AG 658 (6-18-41) MO-D, 4 Aug 41. 1st Ind, Brett to Schley, 8 Aug 41, on (9) above.
AIRFIELDS FOR VERY HEAVY BOMBERS 617
recruits were James L. Land, a mainstay point. A science of great antiquity, road-
of the Alabama State Highways Depart- building had made rapid strides since
ment since 1910, and Walter C. Ricketts, 1900. With the advent of the motor car
a chemical engineer who had worked for in the first years of the century, gravel
the Asphalt Institute. A number of and macadam surfaces designed for
prominent consultants also joined in the horse-drawn vehicles and for the myriad
endeavor. Continuing his predecessor's bicycles of the Nineties proved inade-
policy, the new Chief, General Reybold, quate. The decade 1904-1914 wit-
gave the program vigorous support. nessed construction of more than 10,000
During the autumn of 1941, research miles of bituminous roads. As trucks be-
went forward on many fronts. Aware gan to claim a share of the nation's
that drainage was critically important transport, demands arose for rigid pave-
and that broad pavements and nearly ments. Between 1909 and 1925, the
level grades would complicate this as- total mileage of concrete highways in the
pect of airport engineering, McAlpine United States increased from 5 to more
told Hathaway to develop criteria for than 30,000. These developments spurred
handling surface runoff and asked WES research. State highway departments
researcher Audley A. Maxwell to push and leading universities co-operated in
investigations of subsurface pipe. Know- studies of pavement design.12 The federal
ing that thousands of acres would have government took a hand, promoting
to be carpeted with grass, he consulted investigative programs through the
experts in turf culture and set out to Bureau of Public Roads, established in
mechanize planting. At his request, Dr. 1916, and the Highway Research Board,
John Monteith, Jr., agronomist for the set up under the National Academy of
U.S. Golf Association, furnished advice Sciences in 1920. The Portland Cement
on seeding, sodding, and fertilizing, and Association, organized in 1916, and the
farm equipment manufacturers devel- Asphalt Institute, founded three years
oped a special grass planting machine later, sponsored systematic inquiries into
for use at airports. Seizing the earliest techniques of highway engineering. Be-
opportunity for tests with a very heavy cause their problems were similar—a
plane, McAlpine asked Colonel Kelton single-engine trainer had about the same
for detailed reports on pavement per- wheel load as a heavy commercial
formance under the XB-19. The Chief truck—early airport designers employed
provided money for analyzing subgrades the methods of highway engineers. But
and base courses and for evaluating with the coming of very heavy bombers,
runway strengths at every field visited military engineers had to re-examine
by the experimental bomber. Mean- these methods and to pioneer a new
time, placing greatest emphasis on prob- technology.
lems of greatest difficulty, McAlpine In line with Brett's strong preference
stepped up efforts to formulate criteria for concrete, the Engineers gave close
for adequately designed pavements.11 attention to rigid pavements. After talk-
Highway practice was the starting 12
Kenneth B. Woods and John E. Baerwald,
11
(1) 686 (Airfields) Parts 40-45. (2) 618.34. (3) "Roads and Streets," Encyclopedia Britannica (1959
Ltr, Hardin to Kelton, 21 Oct 41. 686.61 1941-45. ed.), XIX, 344-46.
618 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
ing matters over with his staff, chief had developed unique technical capa-
engineer McAlpine outlined the prob- bilities. Organized in 1934 as part of the
lem. Would principles used in building Muskingum River project were two la-
concrete roads hold good for concrete run- boratories whose contributions gained
ways, taxiways, and aprons? Would quick recognition. Pioneer work in the
conventional methods of slab design and use of air entraining agents, curing mem-
standard formulas for pavement thick- branes, and portland cement substitutes
nesses be applicable? More specifically was done by the Concrete Laboratory
and most important, would the classic under Bartlett G. Long. A versatile con-
analysis of Harald M. Westergaard, struction man, trained in architecture
Harvard's Dean of Graduate En- and experienced in hydraulics and hy-
gineering, provide a rationale, a theoreti- drology, Long had a small but highly
cal "handle," for designing heavy duty competent staff of chemists and civil
airfield pavements? A set of formulas engineers. Important advances in foun-
for determining stresses produced in dation engineering were scored by the
slabs by rolling loads, the Westergaard Soil Mechanics Laboratory. The first
analysis took into account subgrade of its kind in the United States, this
reactions, concrete strengths, and tire laboratory was headed by Robert R.
contact areas. Publishing his theory Philippe, an alumnus of MIT, who had
first in 1926, when trucks were the yard- studied under Karl Terzaghi, the father
stick, Westergaard had extended it in of soil mechanics. Philippe's talented
1939 to cover the heavier wheel loads young deputy, Frank M. Mellinger, held
and larger tire imprints of big com- engineering degrees from Princeton and
mercial planes.13 Essentially a theorist, Carnegie Tech. Nearing completion in
a man who did his work sitting at his the Cincinnati suburb of Mariemont was
desk, Dean Westergaard was concerned a large modern structure designed to
more with the validity of his analysis house both laboratories. Only a few miles
than with its application. Explaining his away, at the division's downtown head-
attitude, he told one engineer: "I have quarters, Evan P. Bone, a specialist in
developed a theory and it is mathemati- Westergaard's analysis, stood ready to
cally sound, but whether it fits the facts aid in research on airfield pavements.
of nature is up to you to prove."14 To Moreover, the big air force installation
verify Westergaard's theory by experi- at Wright Field, with its own scientific
ment was McAlpine's primary goal. staff and its own Engineer district, seemed
Quite logically, he decided to center an ideal place to conduct experiments.
the investigation in Colonel Hall's Ohio Prepared in collaboration with Philippe
River Division, where an extensive pro- and Long, McAlpine's investigative plan
gram of flood control begun in the 1930's called for large-scale tests at Wright and
13
for control tests at Langley Field, Vir-
(1) H. M. Westergaard, "Stresses in Concrete
Pavements Computed by Theoretical Analysis," ginia.15
Public Roads, April 1926, pp. 25-35. (2) H. M.
15
Westergaard, "Stresses in Concrete Runways of (1) Frank M. Mellinger, "The Ohio River
Airports," Proceedings of the Highway Research Board, Division Laboratories," The Military Engineer, May-
1939, pp. 197-202. Cited hereinafter as HRB Proc. June 1956, pp. 196-99. (2) Ltr, Hall to Schley,
14
Interv with Robert R. Philippe, 22 Sep 66. 30 Aug 41, and Inds thereon. AAF 611 "D."
AIRFIELDS FOR VERY HEAVY BOMBERS 619
In September 1941 teams of investi- blocks. Then, using a hydraulic jack and
gators and truckloads of instruments a bearing plate, they applied this load in
converged on the test sites. The Water- successive increments until the pavement
ways Experiment Station sent crews of failed. They tested centers, edges, and
skilled technicians. The Portland Ce- corners of slabs in this way and meas-
ment Association sent observers. A trio ured vertical deflections at various dis-
of consultants came from leading uni- tances from the loads. Lt. Col. Robert
versities: Professor Kenneth B. Woods, R. Neyland, Jr., the Norfolk District
a distinguished authority on highway Engineer, followed a similar procedure
engineering, from Purdue; Dr. Nathan at Langley Field, where a 6-inch con-
M. Newmark, a structural engineer and crete apron had been laid on a sandy
researcher in applied mechanics, from silt subgrade some years before. Samples
Illinois; and Dr. Frank Baron, a disciple taken from the pavements went to the
of Dean Westergaard, from Yale. An Concrete Laboratory for analysis. Mean-
impressive array of equipment was on while, drop tests and experiments with
hand: accelerometers, geophones, strain planes landing on lime-coated runways
gages, and specially built pressure cells were yielding more accurate information
had come from Vicksburg; thermohms, about tire imprints.18 As they correlated
extensometers, bearing plates, hydraulic results from field and laboratory tests,
jacks, cranes, trucks, and miscellaneous researchers saw that they had hold of a
tools, from various other elements of "very, very wonderful handle."19 Theo-
the Corps; a phototheodolite, from the retical values obtained by the Wester-
Civil Aeronautics Authority; and a drop gaard method were virtually the same as
test rig and a late model bomber, from values obtained from actual tests.
the Air Corps. Plans received a final By late 1941 a convenient tool was in
check. Early in October, tests began.16 the hands of project engineers at work
"To measure the reactions of a pave- on the new Lockbourne Army Air Base,
ment under a set of idealized conditions near Columbus, Ohio. Early in October,
as assumed by Westergaard's theory" before field experiments were fully under
was the first order of business.17 At way, Evan Bone began a series of intri-
Wright Field the district engineer, Lt. cate calculations. Using Westergaard's
Col. James B. Newman, Jr., directed a equations, he developed a family of
series of experiments on a 7-inch rein- curves, entirely theoretical in origin.
forced concrete apron, constructed 12 Then, as data became available from
years earlier on a clay subgrade. the tests at Wright and Langley, he
Newman's men first loaded a frame of proceeded to refine these curves. "Theo-
steel I-beams with 60 one-ton concrete retical analysis adjusted by experience"
was Philippe's description of the finished
16
(1) Robert R. Philippe, "Structural Behavior of product. After finding the modulus of
Concrete Airfield Pavements—The Test Program,"
HRB Proc., 1944, pp. 25-28. (2) OCE, Resume of
18
Investigations and Development of Pavement Design (1) Rpt, Wright Field DO, Feb 44, sub: Airfield
Procedures and Temporary Landing Surfaces, 1 Nov Pavement Evaluation, Wright Field, Dayton, O.
44, app. A, pp. 8-9. Cited hereinafter as Resume of 686.61 (Wright Fld). (2) Résumé of Investigations,
Investigations. app. A, pp. 8-9. (3) 686.61 (Langley Fld).
17 19
Philippe, op. cit., p. 25. Philippe Interv, 22 Sep 66.
620 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
21
soil reaction, k (the technical term the load on paved surfaces. The evi-
for the rigidity of the subgrade), an dence left little room for doubt. Yet air-
engineer could readily determine from men and plane designers were slow to
Bone's curves the required pavement embrace the concept.
thickness for any wheel load up to Concurrent with tests on rigid pave-
60,000 pounds. The curves were soon ments were tests on flexibles. A pliable
in use throughout the Corps. But official material with virtually no tensile
blessing awaited fuller proof. Only after strength, asphalt offered far greater
further tests with different sets of vari- difficulties than concrete. Bituminous
ables would the curves find a place in surfaces do not support superimposed
the Engineering Manual.20 loads but simply transmit the loads to
Perhaps the most remarkable dis- the subgrade. On unstable foundations,
covery made in this early period had to these surfaces deteriorate rapidly, rutting,
do with the landing impact of aircraft. bulging, and weaving under traffic.
In the past engineers had designed Hence, with asphalt pavements, the
commercial runways to withstand heavy bearing capacity of the soil, its deflection
jolts when planes touched down. "Wheel tolerance or resistance to deformation,
load times an impact factor of 1.25 or is a make-or-break proposition. Among
1.50" had been the general rule. But highway engineers, there was little agree-
early observations of the XB-19 brought ment as to how flexible pavements ought
this method into question. Landing at to be designed. Various methods were in
March Field in June 1941, the super- vogue, all of them empirical and none
bomber caused no damage to the pave- of them proved for wheel loads beyond
ment. Only when the ship slowed down 12,000 pounds.22 Because the problem was
did cracks appear. At other airfields in the primarily one of soils, McAlpine turned
Los Angeles area the story was the same. it over to his soils experts, Thomas A.
Reasoning that net forces were at work, Middlebrooks and George E. Bertram.
engineers theorized that the buoyancy Both veteran flood control engineers,
or wing lift of rapidly moving planes these men possessed a wealth of prac-
markedly reduced the stress on runways. tical experience with earthworks and
Colonel Hall's soils engineers tested this foundations. Moreover, both were solidly
theory at Dayton Municipal Airport on grounded in the theory of soil mechanics.
8 October 1941 using a B-26 Martin Middlebrooks had done graduate work
Marauder. With Philippe in the bom- in the new science under Terzaghi at
bardier's seat, the pilot made repeated MIT; Bertram, under Dr. Arthur
near-crash landings on a concrete strip. Casagrande at Harvard.
Accelerometer readings, photographs Their early efforts were exploratory.
by high-speed cameras, and measure-
21
ments of tire imprints furnished ample (1) Manual, OCE, Engrg Sec, Sep 1941, Design
of Airport Runways, pp. 13-14. (2) Philippe, op. cit.,
proof: the greater the speed, the lighter pp. 25-26, 28, and 33. (3) Philippe Interv, 22 Sep 66.
(4) Final Rpt, ORD, "Dynamic Loading of Concrete
20
(1) Final Rpt, ORD Labs, Jan 1946, sub: Test Slabs, Wright Field Slab Tests," Aug 1943.
22
Investigation of Concrete Pavements on Different T. A. Middlebrooks, "Design of Flexible Pave-
Subgrades, pp. 15 and 23-25. (2) Philippe Interv, 22 ment Foundations," Roads and Streets, March 1943, p.
Sep 66. 45.
AIRFIELDS FOR VERY HEAVY BOMBERS 621
After a precursive look at the methods They would not measure the effects of
of state roads departments, their first repetitive loads and they would not
surmise was that load bearing tests might measure shear. Nor would they show
be the answer. Widely used in highway what would happen when the soil be-
24
work, these tests were also applied by neath a pavement became saturated.
designers of earth dams and embank- In time perhaps they could be made to
ments. Going out into the field, Middle- work, but there was no time. With Land,
brooks and Bertram launched a series of Middlebrooks and Bertram were in-
experiments with bearing plates. Initial vestigating other methods favored by
trials were at Williamsburg, Virginia, various states—California, North Dakota,
on flexible sections in the State Highway Kansas, and several others. But their
system. The two researchers tried out "ideas were not formulated sufficiently to
plates of different sizes, different rates fix on a method of design." Recalling
of loading, and different ways of in- where they stood on the eve of Pearl
terpreting results. Then, learning that Harbor, Bertram said, "We were rather
heavy commercial planes were breaking groping at the time."25
up asphalt pavements at Tri-Cities Air- By early December 1941 further, more
port near Bristol, Tennessee, Bertram sophisticated tests were in preparation.
went there to find out why. Within a At Langley Field, Colonel Neyland was
short time, he and Middlebrooks knew readying fourteen experimental asphalt
what they were up against. The problem sections of varying thicknesses on various
was much tougher than they had an- types of base courses. At Wright Field,
23
ticipated. the new district engineer, Lt. Col. Henry
In a paper presented to the Highway F. Hannis, was pouring nine specially
Research Board in December 1941, designed concrete slabs, some on natural
summarizing their findings, they reported subgrades and some on gravel. Several
two important discoveries. First, al- eminent professors were collaborating
lowable deflection for asphalt bomber on theoretical phases of the work. Top
strips would be far smaller than for as- civilian engineers of the Louisville and
phalt roads. Their experiments had Pittsburgh Districts were standing by
shown this deflection to be not 0.5 to help conduct the tests. A large rubber-
inch, as specified by the Asphalt In- tired Tournapull was on the way to
stitute, but a mere 0.2 inch. And this Langley, where it would simulate rolling
figure applied only to static loads. "It pressures of heavy bombers; and the
must be recognized," the writers pointed XB-19 was soon to fly from the West
out, "that for a large number of repeti- Coast to take part in the Wright Field
tions the allowable deflection will ap- experiments.26
proach 0.1 inch." Second, load bearing Shortly after Pearl Harbor, Colonel
tests had proved unsatisfactory. So far
they had failed to give a realistic picture 24
Thomas A. Middlebrooks and George E.
of a soil's capacity to resist displacement. Bertram, "Field Investigations for Flexible Pave-
ment Design," HRB Proc., 1941, pp. 137-41.
25
Bertram Interv, 30 Sep 66.
23 26
(1) Ibid. (2) Interv with George E. Bertram, 30 686.61 (Langley Field, Va.) and (Wright Field.
Sep 66. Ohio).
622 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
big problems were scientific, not ad- scored the gravity of the Engineers' as-
ministrative. There was no way to ease signment. Convinced that bombardment
the strain on researchers striving des- was the "main job" of the air force, Gen-
perately to score a technological break- eral Arnold resolved to carry the war
through. to the enemy by attacking key targets
deep in hostile territory. Large forma-
Breakthrough and Advance, 1942-1944 tions, daylight raids, and precision bomb-
ing were important features of his pro-
In the weeks following Pearl Harbor, gram. High-altitude, long-range aircraft
as efforts to reinforce Hawaii and to were essential weapons.32 By early 1942
develop a life line to Australia threw a assaults on Germany by British- and
crushing load on West Coast airfields, Egyptian-based B-29's were part of the
the urgent character of the research Allied design for victory in Europe.
task was emphatically affirmed. On Superfortress strikes against Japan were
General Arnold's orders every available left to the more distant future, when the
B-17 was to move to the Pacific war defeat of Hitler was assured and a foot-
zone as soon as possible. Before long, hold in the western Pacific was regained.
dozens of the big Flying Fortresses, most Earmarked for quantity production be-
of them straight from the factory, were fore it was airborne, the B-29 came to be
converging on the Sacramento Air Depot known as "the three-billion-dollar gam-
33
to be readied for combat. Airstrips in ble." In opting for the untested model,
the area took a pounding. At Mather Arnold wagered heavily on Boeing's
and McClellan Fields, near Sacramento, ability to deliver an airworthy ship. He
construction crews worked around the also counted on the Engineers to provide
clock, patching damaged pavements with serviceable training fields and opera-
blacktop by night and putting in new tional bases.
concrete runways by day. At Hamilton When Lt. Col. James H. Stratton re-
Field, near San Francisco, the staging ported for duty in December 1941, the
point for planes enroute to the Pacific, Chief's office was in a bind. Beginning
concrete slabs laid some years earlier on his new assignment as head of the En-
a fill of bay mud started to disintegrate.31 gineering Branch, Stratton found only
These difficulties warned of large-scale fragmentary data on airport design.
trouble ahead, for the B-17's weighed Hathaway had outlined a scientific
only half as much as the very heavy method for predicting maximum rainfall
Superforts of the future. and computing peak runoff for any area,
Plans for strategic air offensives under- and a preliminary bulletin on the re-
quired hydraulics capacity of storm
31
(1) Wesley F. Craven and James L. Cate (eds.), drains had gone to the field. The Water-
Plans and Early Operations, January 1939 to August 1942, ways Experiment Station had tested
The Army Air Forces in World War II, Vol. I, (Chicago:
U. of Chicago Press, 1948), pp. 193 and 332. (2) subsurface pipes of various types and a
USEO, Sacramento, Calif., Rpt on Evaluation of table prescribing minimum required
Carrying Capacities of Airfield Pavements, Sacra-
32
mento Air Depot, Dec 1943. (3) OCE, Airfield Pave- Arnold, Global Mission, pp. 290-91 and 316.
33
ment Failure Reports, Dec 1943. (4) Interv with Craven and Cate, Matterhorn to Nagasaki, pp.
O. James Porter, 16 Sep 66. 6-11.
624 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
Within an hour or two after his ar- room"40 the tentative design curves were
rival, Porter was deep in conversation little better than educated guesses. The
with Middlebrooks and Bertram. They interval they bridged was vast and the
found that their ideas were far apart. concept they embodied was crude. (Chart
When the discussion stretched on fruit- 24) Used successfully on California high-
lessly for several days, Stratton sent for ways for more than a decade, CBR had
Dr. Casagrande. A world renowned never been tested on airports. Still, there
figure in the field of soil mechanics and appeared to be no safer course. Professor
foundation engineering, the Harvard Casagrande "would not endorse a notion
professor modestly described his role unless he was reasonably sure of his
as that of "a catalyst." Stratton, more grounds." Of that Stratton was certain.
accurately, called him "the heart and Moreover, his own experience with air-
soul of our inquiry into the use of CBR." fields in the Southwest gave him con-
After lengthy talks with Middlebrooks fidence "that we were on the right
41
and Porter, Casagrande suggested a track." With several hundred new air
procedure. Extrapolating Porter's curves stations already on order and directives
was the first order of business. Each man for hundreds more in prospect, he could
went off to work alone. Using different not afford to shilly-shally. Deciding for
methods, they plotted tentative curves the California method, he plunged reso-
for wheel loads up to 70,000 pounds. lutely ahead.
Comparing notes the next morning, they The test program was labeled "crash."
found that their results were close. But Early in March 1942, Stratton issued
as Porter later put it, they were not yet rush orders to five division engineers.
ready "to spread the curves around." Four were to investigate prewar com-
That afternoon, they began blocking out mercial runways which had been down
a series of tests for checking their ex- long enough for subsoil moisture to
trapolations. Details were soon complete. equalize. Colonel Bragdon in the South
Before the week was out, Stratton had Atlantic was to choose an airstrip built
agreed to the plan. Porter was soon on sandy clay, a fairly good subsoil;
back in Sacramento, but not for long. Colonel Scott in the Southwestern, one
According to his wife's count, he was on lean black clay, a rather poor foun-
away from home on missions for the dation; Colonel Elliott in the Upper
Corps for 300 days out of the next 365.39 Mississippi Valley, one on Fargo clay,
In adopting CBR, Colonel Stratton a highly plastic material; and Colonel
assumed a calculated risk. Extrapola- Besson in the Missouri River, one on a
tion is always something of a gamble, porous subgrade subject to frost action.
and in this instance the odds were long Tournapulls with wheel loads of 12,500 to
and the stakes were high. Likened by 50,000 pounds would be towed over the
one humorist to lines drawn "in a dark pavements until failure occurred or
10,000 runs had been made. Each ex-
39
(1) T. A. Middlebrooks and G. E. Bertram, periment would test one point on the
"Adaptation to the Design of Airfield Pavements,"
Trans. ASCE, 1950, pp. 468-70. (2) Ltr, Stratton to
40
authors, 28 Dec 67. (3) Ltr, Casagrande to authors, Interv with Thomas B. Pringle, 6 Sep 66.
41
3 Jan 68. (4) Porter Interv, 16 Sep 66. Ltr, Stratton to authors, 28 Dec 67.
628 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
extrapolated curves. Broader in scope Porter and company set a blazing pace.
and critically important was the task On 10 March Bertram arrived in Sacra-
given Colonel Hannum in the South mento and gave the signal to begin. Next
Pacific Division. At Stockton air base, morning, bright and early, a crew was
near Sacramento, Porter would conduct out taking borings at the site. By the
a crucial test. Stockton's original runway, 13th deflection gages were in place and
built by the city in 1936, had failed Porter was taking readings as a light
during the winter of 1940-41 under the training plane idled its engine, revved up,
weight of light Army trainers. An aban- and taxied over the pavement. By the
doned taxiway nearby, constructed at 20th the surface had developed hairline
the same time and along the same lines— cracks and Porter had seen enough to
the subgrade was adobe, the base course know that the pavement was incapable of
was six inches of compacted sandy loam, withstanding deflections of 0.1 inch or
and the surface was a seal coat of emul- even of 0.05. Construction of the test
sified asphalt—remained intact. The plan track started the following day. Built to
was to make tests on the taxiway and on Porter's specifications (a thoroughly com-
a special, Porter-designed section to be pacted base course of sand and gravel,
built atop it. The purpose was to vali- increasing gradually in thickness from 6
date a wide range of points on the tenta- inches to 4 feet, was topped by 3 inches
tive curves and to verify premises on of asphaltic concrete), the section was
allowable deflection and effects of repeti- complete on the 24th. Tests proceeded
tive loads. Hannum was to see to it that rapidly, first with Tournapulls exerting
Porter lacked nothing in the way of wheel loads of 5,000, 10,000, 25,000, and
support. Stratton's appeals to the five 40,000 pounds and then with a B-24
divisions for "expeditious action" were Liberator bomber, provided by Colonel
couched in terms of urgency.42 Colonna. By early April the experiment
Strenuous endeavors produced quick had shown that the extrapolated curves
results. In almost no time, Stratton had were fairly accurate and that allowable
telegrams reporting the progress of tests deflection was in hundredths rather
on commercial runways at Dothan, than in tenths of an inch. Further con-
Alabama; Corpus Christi, Texas; Fargo, firmation came from Dothan, Corpus
North Dakota; and Lewistown, Mon- Christi, Fargo, and Lewistown.44 Asked
tana. Soon communiques were coming later if Stockton and the other tests pro-
in from Middlebrooks, who functioned duced any surprises, Porter smiled and
as traveling co-ordinator for this phase said, "Not for me they didn't, but for
of the program.43 Meantime, at Stockton, thousands of engineers they did."45
On a Monday morning early in April,
Porter faced a skeptical group, the senior
42
(1) Ltrs, Stratton to Div Engrs, SAD, 5 Mar 42;
and SWD, UMVD, and MRD, 7 Mar 42. All in
44
400.112 (Airfields) 1942. (2) Ltr, Stratton to Div (1) Résumé of Investigations, app. A, pp. 1-3. (2)
Engr, SPD, 4 Mar 42 and Incl thereto. 400.112 J. F. Redus, Jr., "Other Accelerated Traffic Tests,"
(Airfields) 1942. (3) O. J. Porter, "Test Section, Trans. ASCE, 1950, pp. 520-25. (3) USEO, Sacra-
No. 1, Stockton Field, California," Trans. ASCE, mento, Calif., Report on Stockton Test Section, 20
1950, pp. 485-94. Sep 42. Porter Papers.
43 45
400.112 (Airfields) 20 Nov 42. Porter Interv, 16 Sep 66.
AIRFIELDS FOR VERY HEAVY BOMBERS 629
soils men of the engineer divisions who and teach their district soils groups the
had come to Sacramento for a 5-day California method.46
course in the California method. After The news from Sacramento created
giving them an illustrated talk on high- quite a stir in professional circles. Passed
way failures, he showed them through by word of mouth, reports of the meeting
his laboratory. That afternoon the class produced raised eyebrows and sharp
looked on as he demonstrated the CBR demurrers. Professors, researchers, and
test. He wet a sample of soil, compacted state highway officials were frankly du-
it in a cylindrical mold, forced a piston bious. Most foundations experts took a
into the soil, and measured the load re- "wait-and-see" attitude. The Air Corps'
quired. Expressed as a percentage of the Buildings and Grounds Division was "in-
47
load required to penetrate crushed stone, clined to be skeptical," and the Navy's
this measurement was the CBR value of Bureau of Yards and Docks was openly
48
the compacted sample. Next, he placed opposed. Critical remarks were aimed
the specimen in a tank of water to soak at Porter, who heard himself described
for four days, explaining that the satu- as "that guy who wants a base course
49
rated sample would simulate the worst halfway up the door." Some engineers
condition that could develop under a likened his method to the technique of
pavement. A second penetration test the ancients, who determined the weight
would give its bearing value. Practice a bridge could bear by loading it to
sessions in the laboratory, lectures on soil failure. Probably the most strenuous ob-
sampling and boring techniques, a tour jections came from the Asphalt Institute.
of the Stockton test site, and a buffet At several conferences with Middlebrooks
supper at Porter's ranch were packed and Bertram, institute representatives
into the next three days. At a meeting argued unsuccessfully for thicker asphalt
Thursday evening, the students chal- pavements and thinner base courses
50
lenged the professor. The discussion than Porter prescribed. All those who
went on far into the night and continued challenged the Corps' approach received
the following day. Styling himself the the assurance: "It has never been the
"principal objector," Philippe afterward policy of the Engineer Department to
explained his stand. "Engineering starts standardize to the extent that research
with theory," he declared, and the and development would be stifled and
California method had no foundation
whatever in theory. "You stuck a plunger
in a hunk of soil," he said of the bearing 46
(1) Verbatim Rpt, USEO, Sacramento, Calif.,
test. In reply to his critics Porter pointed Lecture Course on California Method, 6-10 April
out, "We are not contending that this 1942. (2) Philippe Interv, 22 Sep 66.
47
tentative design is accurate, but that it Trans. ASCE, 1945, p. 735.
48
is the simplest and most practical method 462-63. Proc., 1944, pp. 68-70; and 1945, pp.
HRB
now available." Middlebrooks, who had 49
Porter Interv, 16 Sep 66.
flown out from Washington to help wind 50
(1) Norman W. McLeod, "The Rational Design
up the course, took the same line as of Bituminous Paving Mixtures," HRB Proc., 1949,
Porter. Relaying Stratton's orders, he pp. 107 and 158-59. (2) HRB Proc., 1942, pp. 138-
43. (3) Ltrs, Prévost Hubbard to Stratton, 5 May
told the men to return to their divisions and 3 Jun 42. 686.61 (Langley Fld).
630 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
CONFERENCE AT STOCKTON TEST TRACK, CALIFORNIA. Front row (left to right): Col.
Henry C. Wolfe, Harald M. Westergaard, Philip C. Rutledge. Back row (left to right): Arthur
Casagrande, Thomas A. Middlebrooks, James L. Land, 0. James Porter.
cies, industrial research laboratories, state moved ahead with impressive speed.
highway departments, and individual Under great pressure, three teams of
experts—came a wealth of useful infor- experts toiled to digest a mountain of
mation. Further confirmation of Wester- information and put it into usable form.
gaard's basic analysis and a revised set of One group, composed of Middlebrooks,
concrete thickness curves were major re- Haines, Pringle, and Ricketts, tackled
sults of rigid pavement investigations. A the complexities of pavement design; a
new concept of pavement section design second, consisting of Albert L. Cochran
was another: because troughing disturbed and Howard M. Williams, Hathaway's
subgrades and bases, the thickened edges chief assistants, focused on drainage; and
favored by highway engineers were lim- a third, made up of Monteith and Grau,
ited to longitudinal expansion joints and dealt with turf and other vegetation. The
free sides; and because keyed joints were writers sweated over their assignments.
seldom properly installed, they were ruled "It was a big job," Hathaway recalled.59
out almost entirely. Fresh light on the Pringle, a driving force in the whole
problem of critical deflection and a endeavor, put in sixty hours a week or
clearer understanding of the effects of more at his desk and worked at home
repetitive loads were significant gains nights and Sundays. Colonel Stratton
in the flexible area. The question of and his executive, Major Hill, also did
landing impact was settled once and for a lot of homework, reviewing and
all, when observations of the XB-19 editing draft manuscripts in their quar-
verified the winglift theory. Meteoro- ters after hours. These efforts were highly
logical studies, analyses of materials productive. Under ordinary circum-
strengths, appraisals of compaction meth- stances, preparing a technical manual
ods, reports on curing techniques, guide- is a slow, deliberate process. Spurred
lines for classifying soils, and pointers on by the war emergency, Stratton and
establishing and maintaining turf—con- his associates turned out ten publications
tributions in many fields increased the in as many months. Together with
fund of knowledge. A flurry of prelimi- special pamphlets on wearing courses,
nary bulletins and circulars issued in the bituminous mixes, and concrete paving,
spring of 1942 quickened the already they issued four basic texts—three new
brisk demand for comprehensive manu- chapters in the Engineering Manual and a
als.58 comprehensive handbook for Aviation
A heavy task, the manual writing Engineer Battalions.60
58
Of the supplements to the Engineering
(1) USEO, Providence, R. I., Rpt of Pavement Manual, the chapter on airfield drainage
Bearing Tests at Bradley Field, Windsor Locks,
Conn., 12 Sep 42. OCE (MC), Civ Engrg Br Files. was the most nearly definitive. Hailed
(2) Robert R. Philippe, "Structural Behavior of as "a major contribution from the
Concrete Pavements—The Test Program," HRB
59
Proc., 1944, pp. 25-35. (3) USEO, Sacramento, Interv with Gail A. Hathaway, 17 Jun 66. See
Calif., Rpt on Stockton Test Section, 20 Sep 42. also Pringle Interv, 14 Feb 67; and Interv with
Porter Papers. (4) Ltr, USEO, Tulsa, Okla., to Albert L. Cochran, 21 Feb 67.
60
Reybold, 29 Oct 42. 400.112 (Airfields) Nov 42. (5) (1) Engineering Manual, chs. XX and XXI (1942)
1st Ind, 10 Mar 42, on Ltr, USEO, Los Angeles, and XXII (1943). (2) OCE, Constr Div, Guide
Calif., to Reybold, 31 Jan 42. 686 (Airfields) Part Specs Pamphlets, Sep 42-Jan 43. EHD Files. (3)
49A. TM 5-255 Aviation Engineers, 31 Dec 42 (Tentative).
AIRFIELDS FOR VERY HEAVY BOMBERS 633
61 63
David S. Jenkins, in "Military Airfields, A Engineering Manual, ch. XX (1942).
64
Symposium," Trans. ASCE, 1945, 743. Verbatim Rpt, Engineering Conference on
62
Engineering Manual, ch. XXI (1942). Paving, Dallas, Tex., 25 and 26 Mar 43. 600.95.
AIRFIELDS FOR VERY HEAVY BOMBERS 635
the opposition to Porter's ideas stemmed south, and some urged postponement
from misunderstanding: some engineers until spring; but to no avail. At the Air
seemed to think that he was recom- Forces' insistence, grading and paving
mending a five-foot-thick base of crushed operations went forward in the face of
stone.71 And much of it was highly sub- snow, sleet, heavy gales, and subzero
jective: after all, the Asphalt Institute temperatures.73 To men at the job sites,
was interested in selling asphalt, and exhortations from the Chief's office to
here came a man who said: "Put a thin employ "sound engineering practices"
coat of asphalt on top of this 'stuff' and often seemed unrealistic.74 Most tried
you've got it made."72 Still there was a gamely to go by the Manual, but a num-
good chance that Porter could be wrong. ber gave it up as a hopeless task. "In
Until the question was finally settled, many cases," an observer noted, "caution
flexible pavements would be Stratton's was thrown to the wind."75
chief concern. In the hope of averting gross mistakes,
To many a hard-pressed project en- McFadden kept a troupe of trouble-
gineer, the deliberations of the Highway shooters on the road. So ceaseless were
Research Board were academic. De- Porter's travels that General Hannum
mands by air commanders for utmost proposed commissioning him a colonel
speed, exerted with ever greater ur- in the Corps, a proposal vetoed by
gency as long-delayed expansion plans Reybold and Stratton on the grounds
matured, created an unhappy situation. that under the Army system he could be
In the fall of 1942, near the end of the transferred "God-knows-where." The
construction season, directives appeared discomforts of transcontinental train trips
for more than a hundred major air proj- were among Pringle's vivid memories
ects to be operational as soon as possible. of this period. Middlebrooks, Haines,
Largest and most challenging of the new Leslie, and Ricketts also spent consider-
undertakings were several dozen bases able time trekking back and forth across
for heavy bombardment training. Con- the country. At many projects, all was
centrated in the region of the Second Air going well. At many others, a bit of
Force, the northern Great Plains and the sound advice was enough to set matters
Pacific northwest, these bases ranged in right. But occasionally the travelers un-
size from a $1.7-million unit training covered egregious blunders. At three
center at Redmond, Oregon, to the huge satellite fields in Montana—Cut Bank,
$15-million airdrome at Mountain Glasgow, and Lewistown—Porter learned
Home, Idaho. Protests greeted the de- that frozen materials had gone into the
cision to carry on construction through base course fill: spring thaws would surely
the harsh northern winter. Some officers take these airfields out. At a job in eastern
suggested relocating the fields farther Nebraska, Pringle watched, amazed, as
71 73
(1) O. J. Porter, "Foundations for Flexible 686.61 Project Files
74
Pavements," HRB Proc., 1942, pp. 100-123 and T. A. 1st Ind, OCE to Hannum, 22 Dec 42, on Ltr,
Middlebrooks and G. E. Bertram, "Soil Tests For Arnold to Reybold, 21 Dec 42. 686.61 (Moses Lake
Design of Runway Pavements," Ibid., pp. 144-54, AAF, Wash.).
75
and discussion thereon. (2) Porter Interv, 16 Sep 66. H. J. Lichtefeld and R. M. Haines, "Airfield
72
Philippe Interv, 22 Sep 66. Pavement Evaluation," HRB Proc., 1944, p. 36.
AIRFIELDS FOR VERY HEAVY BOMBERS 637
popular highway theory that no slab orate test track at Lockbourne Field,
should be thicker than 8 inches (honey- the Engineers were winding up major
combing and temperature warping would air force construction in the United
ruin slabs of greater thickness, this States. By the spring of 1943, General
thinking ran), the Corps was relying Robins could point to more than 1,100
on thin base courses to undergird rigid military and civil airports completed
pavements.82 Philippe's results indicated under his direction. In a commendatory
that such bases under concrete paid little letter to the Chief of Engineers, Gen-
benefit for the magnitude of loading eral Arnold expressed his "keen appre-
involved. Twice he submitted research ciation" for the "fine support" given the
proposals to Washington, and twice he Army Air Forces. Commenting on the
was turned down. Reflecting the posi- vast size and complexity of the under-
tion of most paving engineers, McFadden taking, Arnold noted that the program
and Land dismissed Philippe's concept had "been prosecuted with outstanding
as a "pet idea."83 Stratton, also skepti- efficiency and dispatch."86 Equally grati-
cal, challenged the concept on tech- fying to the Engineers was the boast of
nical grounds. Even to Colonel Hall's Maj. Gen. Davenport Johnson: "The
sympathetic eye, Philippe's request for Second Air Force has some of the finest
$47,000 appeared inopportune. Dis- airfields in the world."87 From his
cussing the matter with Reybold in headquarters at Spokane, Washington,
March 1943, Hall took an equivocal Johnson would oversee the training of
stand. combat crews for very heavy bombers.
Beyond any question [he advised the After a series of reverses, the XB-29
Chief], the additional information secured passed its final flight tests in June 1943,
will be worth $47,000 to the engineering and in July Boeing delivered 7 planes,
profession and the aeronautical industry. the first of more than 3,700 Superforts
Whether, in the present state of the Army's to be produced before V-J Day. Com-
construction program, it will be worth
$47,000 to the war effort is a matter which menced in the fall of 1943 at 4 fields
the Division Engineer does not feel justi- near Salina, Kansas, the training of
fied in attempting to settle.84 very heavy bombardment groups ex-
panded to take in operations at 40 major
Not until a few rigid pavements failed
airbases by the late spring of I945.88
did the picture alter. Then, Middle-
The advent of the B-29, the biggest
brooks, who had Robins' ear, intervened
bomber employed by the United States
decisively. By summer Philippe had
85 in World War II, ushered in a new phase
$150,000 to spend for research.
of air force-engineer collaboration.
As Philippe made plans for an elab-
Danger signals flashed by air com-
manders in the summer of 1943 launched
82
Trans. ASCE, 1945, p. 676. the Corps on a large undertaking. Early
83
Memo, Land for McFadden, 19 Apr 43. Mc-
Fadden Reading File, 1943. in June, Maj. Gen. Barton K. Yount of
84
3d Ind, 18 Mar 43, on Ltr, Stratton to Hall, 20
86
Aug 42. 411.8 (ORD). Ltr, Arnold to Reybold, 13 Jun 43. 686 Part 2.
85 87
(1) Ltr, Stratton to Hall, 4 Jun 42, and Ind Quoted in 86, above.
88
thereon. 411.8 (Airflds) Part 1. (2) Ltr, Stratton to Craven and Cate, Men and Planes, pp. 208-9
Hall, 20 Aug 42, and Inds thereon. 411.8 (ORD). and 164.
640 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
the Air Training Command complained actual strength of paved surfaces, Pringle
to Arnold that fields in his command did quickly drafted a directive. Issued on
not perform as advertised; some did 5 August 1943, this order set forth pro-
better and some, worse; which could cedures and priorities. Using CBR for
take B-29's was any man's guess.89 Other flexible and plate bearing tests for rigid
air force generals voiced similar com- pavements, each division engineer would
plaints: runways designed for Super- evaluate the load-carrying capacity of
fortresses were going to pieces under pavements within his jurisdiction. How
lighter planes, and pavements intended much punishment could a given airstrip
for medium bombers were standing the take? Where could the training of B-29
test of heavies. The explanation was not groups continue year in and year out?
hard to find. As McFadden pointed out, Where could very heavy bombers land
war construction was a "hurry-up job," occasionally? Although fields intended
and "in many cases the progress chart for Superfortresses would come first,
took precedence over engineering judg- every military airport would eventually
ment." Hence, design strength and actual receive a rating based on the strength
strength were seldom equivalent.90 The of its principal runway. Knowing that
question was not whom to blame but many pavements would require "beefing
how to get out of the predicament. Con- up," McFadden took a cue from highway
cerned about the Corps' good name, engineers, who frequently used overlays
General Hannum gave the matter care- (asphalt "retreads" and "second-story"
ful thought. Fully loaded, the new B-29's slabs) to strengthen roads. Prescribing
weighed 140,000 pounds, 20,000 more the same treatment for runways, taxi-
than originally anticipated. No airfield ways, and aprons, he nevertheless re-
in the country was designed to with- minded Stratton that highway experi-
stand a gross load of more than 120,000 ence was no sure criterion for airfield
pounds. Moreover, inexperienced pilots design: only through research could the
were landing heavy planes on any black- Corps develop sound techniques. While
top surface that looked to be safe. Visu- McFadden blocked out an investigative
alizing fatal crack-ups and damaged program, Pringle took charge of the
runways, Hannum urged the Chief to evaluation project. By mid-1944 the
determine the actual load-carrying ca- Air Forces Installations Directory listed
pacity of all military airfields, and, when the strength of runways at more than
necessary, to reinforce them.91 600 airports, and scientists from the
Having seen the crisis coming, University of California, under contract
Stratton's advisers were prepared to to the Corps, were experimenting with
meet it. Ready with a plan for gaging overlays at Hamilton Field.92
As Superfortress groups began training
89
Ltr, Yount to Arnold, 3 Jun 43. 686.61 May-
92
Jul9043. (1) Ltr, Hq, AAFTC, to Div Engr, SWD, 25 Jun
Gayle McFadden, "Evaluating the Load- 43 and Inds thereon. 686.61 (SWD). (2) Ltr, Stratton
Carrying Capacities of Military Airfields," Civil to Div Engrs, 5 Aug 43. 686.61 (ORD). (3) Memo,
Engineering, April 1945, pp. 167-69. McFadden for Stratton, 2 Jul 43. McFadden Reading
91
Ltr, Hannum to Reybold, 7 Jun 43. 686.61 (PD) File, 1943. (4) AAF Installations Directory, 1 Jul 44.
Part 1. (5) 686.61 (Hamilton Fld) Part 1.
AIRFIELDS FOR VERY HEAVY BOMBERS 641
near Salina in the fall of 1943, the course made possible a more aggressive strategy.
of the war was shaping their strategic Committing the new weapon to the
mission and future logistical needs. Long- Pacific war, President Roosevelt decreed
awaited and eagerly sought by air com- that missions would be flown first from
manders in all theaters, the B-29 ap- China and later, when footholds were
peared after the tide in Europe had secured in the Western Pacific, from
turned. Enemy forces in North Africa island bases nearer Japan.94 In these
had met defeat. Italy had capitulated. remote and backward areas, engineers
Hitler's invasion of Russia was ending would have to provide airdromes for the
in disaster. And Allied plans were firm- giant planes.
ing up for the big cross-Channel opera- On a sultry evening in August 1943,
tion in mid-1944. Meantime, the British- six men gathered at the Washington-
American bomber offensive against Youree Hotel in Shreveport, Louisiana,
Festung Europa was gathering momen- to consider how to accomplish the task.
tum. Bremen, Hamburg, Hannover, Five of the perspiring conferees were
Frankfurt—one by one the great civilians: McFadden, Middlebrooks, and
German cities were undergoing devastat- Haines had come from Washington,
ing raids. After a mass attack by Philippe from Mariemont, and Turnbull
B-17's on Polish and East Prussian tar- from Vicksburg. The sixth man was
gets in October 1943, Prime Minister Capt. George E. Bertram, since Sep-
Churchill confidently declared: "We tember 1942 an officer on the staff of
shall, together, inexorably beat the life the Air Engineer, Brig. Gen. Stuart C.
out of industrial Germany and thus Godfrey. Disclosing plans for stationing
hasten the day of final victory."93 On B-29's in India and staging them from
the other side of the globe, in the far advance fields in China, Bertram pre-
Pacific, industrial Nippon was virtually viewed the tough construction job ahead.
unscathed and the day of Allied victory He traced the thin supply line halfway
seemed far distant. The roads to Tokyo around the world and beyond the peaks
stretched thousands of miles, through of the Himalayas, and he pictured the
hostile seas and past concentric barriers slim local resources—coolie labor, primi-
of island strongholds or through the dif- tive tools, and low-grade materials. At
ficult terrain and enemy-occupied areas Godfrey's request, Stratton had promised
of the Asiatic mainland. Offensives under to help find ways of cutting through these
way in the Southwest and Central Pacific obstacles. A revolutionary feature of the
were little more than preliminary thrusts, new bomber—its dual wheel landing
aimed at attaining a position of readi- gear—might offer a partial solution.
ness for the eventual full-scale assault on Adopted by Boeing at the Corps' sug-
Japan. And much of the activity in the gestion, this wheel design would, in
China-Burma-India Theater was directed theory, distribute the weight more widely
toward keeping the Chinese in the war. and thus reduce the load on airfield sur-
By bringing the Japanese home islands faces. Growing out of the Shreveport
within bombing range, the Superfortress
94
Craven and Cate, Matterhorn to Nagasaki, pp. 9-
93
Quoted in Arnold, Global Mission, p. 484. 26.
642 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
success by all concerned, the course was termine concrete thickness requirements)
given repeatedly until mid-1944. As and their ingenuity (lacking standard
Aviation Engineers, the 400 graduates equipment, Kenerson used shell cases
made good use of their knowledge at and C-ration coffee cans in CBR and
airfield projects around the world.97 compaction tests) increased their chances
Returning in late 1943 from a tour of success.99 Breakthroughs scored by
of war theaters, General Reybold spoke the Engineer Department in foundation
with pride of the advancing fighter and and pavement design were having world-
bomber line. Picturing airfields of vir- wide application.
tually every type, from turf to reinforced Prize-winning papers by Stratton and
concrete, built by Engineer units in Hathaway, published by the American
every quarter of the globe, he told one Society of Civil Engineers in January
audience: "What we have learned in 1944, reported the department's findings.
our civil works program about soil Bracketed under the title "Military
strengths . . . has contributed to Airfields, A Symposium," these articles
feats of military engineering which have made nonsense of the cliché that who-
astonished the world."98 Secrecy pre- ever could design a road could design
cluded any mention of a prodigious en- an airdrome.100 "A most welcome con-
gineering feat soon to be attempted in tribution to general engineering knowl-
the Far East. At the turn of the year, edge," wrote a prominent consulting
Colonel Kenerson was in Western China's engineer. "Important and timely," a
Szechwan Province, designing four B-29 Columbia professor said. "Impressive,"
staging fields to be built on telford prin- "thorough," and "indispensable" were
ciples by a conscript workforce of among the terms employed by other
300,000 coolies. Far to the south, on the expert commentators. Replying to critics
other side of the "Hump," in the plains of the Corps' empirical approach, one of
west of Calcutta, Lt. Col. Kenneth E. Arnold's generals called to mind the old
Madsen was making plans for five saying about the proof of the pudding:
Superfortress bases, complete with "Almost without exception," he stated,
8,500-foot concrete runways to be paved "the facilities have met the exacting re-
by Aviation Engineers enroute from the quirements of the Army Air Forces."101
United States. Both officers had studied Predicting a great spurt of progress in
soil mechanics (Kenerson was a class-
mate of Philippe and West Pointer 99
(1) Brig. Gen. Stuart C. Godfrey, "The Airfields
Madsen had earned an M.S. at MIT of the Far East," The Military Engineer, January 1945,
in 1939), and both had recent experience pp. 17-23. (2) Col. George Mayo, "Airfields 'Custom
on major airfield projects (Kenerson in Built' by Aviation Engineers," Civil Engineering,
April 1945, p. 174. (3) Col. Kenneth E. Madsen,
Brazil and Madsen in Trinidad). Their "Army Engineers and the Superfortress," The
knowledge of advanced techniques Military Engineer, October 1944, pp. 332-34. For a
(Madsen conducted load tests to de- detailed account of construction of the B-29 fields in
China and India, see Dod, The War Against Japan,
pp. 428-31 and 439-47.
97 100
352.11 (Harvard University). Proceedings of the American Society of Civil Engineers,
98
Address before the Mississippi Valley Flood 1944,
101
pp-27-89.
Control Assn at New Orleans, La., 21 Dec 43. EHD Trans. ASCE, 1945, pp. 758, 809, 737, 751, 752,
Files 776, and 734.
644 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
early 1944 Consolidated-Vultee was signed for the heaviest wheel loads but
promising an early flight test, if a test costs would be prohibitive. Convinced
site could be found. But the Engineers that planes of the future would have to
informed Arnold that the huge six-en- be tailored to fit the fields rather than
gine plane, with a gross weight of vice versa, that multiple wheel assemblies
300,000 pounds and only two main were the answer, they planned their
wheels, would break through any pave- research accordingly.107
ment in the country.106 To design and A million dollars would go into the
build fields for the new bomber was the first year's effort. At Stockton Field, the
next major objective. newly formed O. J. Porter Company,
Cost was the great impediment. For soon to become internationally known
a plane of such enormous weight, "hell for its work in foundation engineering,
for stout" construction standards—super- would undertake its first job, laying a
compaction, top quality base materials, flexible section of 26 different items over
reinforced concrete, and durable asphalt several different subgrades. At Lock-
wearing courses—were a must. Com- bourne Field, where traffic tests on the
pounding difficulties and pushing up big oval concrete track were nearing
requirements was the giant bomber's completion, Philippe would build an
landing gear, with its two 110-inch experimental mat, containing 9 slabs
wheels, which made for larger payload varying in thickness from 12 to 24 inches,
and longer range but also imposed ex- some plain, some reinforced, and some
tremely heavy burdens on runways. Es- with "second story" overlays. At fields
timates for beefing up a single airfield in Florida and Alabama, teams from the
to take the XB-36 ran to nearly $7 Savannah and Mobile Districts would
million. Seeking criteria that were eco- prepare additional experiments with
nomically feasible as well as technically overlays. Meantime, one of the Corps'
sound, the D-day conferees agreed to a gifted civilians, William E. Sidney of
plan of action. Using proved methods, the Pittsburgh District, inventor of the
they would extrapolate the CBR and Sidney gate for dams, would take on
Bone curves for wheel loads up to the tough assignment of devising a test
150,000 pounds and then verify interpo- rig two and one-half times as heavy as
lations by experiment. Meantime, they the largest commercial earth mover and
would launch collateral investigations equipped with interchangeable single,
with a view to finding better ways of dual, and twin tandem wheels. Until
compacting base courses, testing for Sidney's rig was ready, research would
shear strength in soils, vibrating con- focus on ingenious small-scale models
crete, designing asphalt mixes, establish- designed by Evan Bone.108 Likening the
ing turf, and controlling dust, and, in
107
fact, to elevating the whole state of the (1) Min of Conf in OCE, 6 Jun 44. 686.61 Part
5. (2) 686.61 (Muroc Fld) Part 1.
art. The steepest obstacle they foresaw 108
(1) OCE Résumé of Investigations for Develop-
was budgetary. Pavements could be de- ment of Military Construction Design Procedures,
June 1950, app., pp. 8-10, 19-21, and 23-24. Cited
106
(1) Craven and Cate, Men and Planes, pp. 243- hereinafter as Résumé of Investigations, II. (2)
46. (2) Ltr, CG, AMC, to Arnold, 13 May 44, and 686.61 Parts 4 and 5. (3) 686.61 1941-45 (c). (4)
Inds. 686.61 1941-45. 686.61 (ORD).
CHART 26—WHEEL LOADS AS COLUMNS OF CONCRETE, 3 FEET 8 INCHES IN DIAMETER.
Source: Ralph A. Freeman and O. James Porter, "Flexible Pavement Test Section for 300,000 Lb. Airplanes, Stockton, California,'
HRB Proc, 1945, p. 26.
AIRFIELDS FOR VERY HEAVY BOMBERS 647
B-36 wheel load to the weight of a large crete slabs; and a series of papers ex-
locomotive carried on one tire, or to a ploring avenues to a rational method
column of concrete 3 feet 8 inches in for flexible pavement design. Each piece
diameter and 100 feet tall (Chart 26), of the mosaic depicted progress (Porter's
Porter explained that researchers were jumbo roller made supercompaction fea-
centering attention "on the landing gear sible); and each mirrored an important
to be used, since the type selected would need (crashes by cadet pilots who tried
greatly affect the pavement design re- to land on dust clouds fifty feet above the
quirements for 300,000-lb. airplanes."109 ground emphasized the value of turf,
Thoroughgoing and deliberate, the mulch, and stabinol). But no aspect of
inquiry fanned out in many directions. the program was more striking and
Illustrative of its diversity were a 120- significant than activity in cold regions
ton roller devised by Mr. Porter; an ex- research.110
perimental patch of zoysia grass in Dr. Until late in World War II, the
Monteith's front yard; the "whiffen- Engineers' knowledge of frozen soil was
poofer," a mulching machine developed scarcely scientific. At airfield jobs in
by the Southwestern Division; "stabinol," northern states where winters were
a dust palliative produced by the Her- severe, they employed highway methods
cules Powder Company; a sheaf of to combat frost action, insulating sub-
reports evaluating drainage systems at grades with blankets of well-drained
major air bases; several comprehensive sand and gravel. The cost at a single proj-
studies of high pressure tire imprints; a
new set of formulas for stresses in con- 110
(1) Airports: Design, Construction, Maintenance.
Reports delivered at the Forty-Second Annual
109
Ralph A. Freeman and O. J. Porter, "Flexible Meeting, American Road Builders Association,
Pavement Test Section for 300,000-lb. Airplanes, Chicago, Ill., Jan 16-19, 1945. (2) Résumé of
Stockton, California," HRB Proc., 1945, p. 24. Investigations, II, pp. 11-13, 32-33, and 36-38.
648 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
ect might amount to several hundred research "most important and urgent."112
thousand dollars. Results were some- The Corps response was prompt and
times good and sometimes poor; why, no vigorous. Beginning at Dow Field near
one knew for certain. In northwestern Bangor, Maine, frost investigations mush-
Canada, along the route of the Alcan roomed to include observations and tests
highway, and in the Alaskan interior, the at ten northern air bases, experiments
Engineers encountered a phenomenon in the cold room at Harvard University,
with which few outside the Soviet Union and complex theoretical studies—all
had any experience—permanently fro- guided by the chief of the Boston District
zen ground or "permafrost." This fro- Soils Laboratory, Harvard-trained soils
zen layer underlay vast areas of the engineer William L. Shannon. Beamed
arctic and subarctic, in some places ex- initially toward the Merzlotovedenie
tending down as far as 1,000 feet into Institute at Moscow, the repository for
the earth's crust. Since time immemorial, a wealth of data gathered in Siberia
the permafrost had maintained a delicate since the 17th century, permafrost in-
thermal balance with nature. But as quiries shifted course when plans for an
civilization moved northward and con- Engineer mission to Russia fell through;
struction machinery invaded the hyper- wholesale translations of Soviet publica-
borean wilderness, this balance was dis- tions at the Stefansson Library in New
turbed. Mudflows, landslides, cave-ins, York City, tests and measurements at
gullies, cracks, and blisters confounded three Alaskan air bases, collection of
would-be builders. Early successes were meteorological data by subarctic weather
achieved the hard way, by trial and stations, geological explorations north
error. Postponed while the Corps took of the Yukon, and efforts to locate perma-
central problems first, studies of frost frost by aerial photography and geo-
and permafrost began in a small way physical methods soon comprised the
during 1943, when the Missouri River program. Casagrande, Rutledge, and
Division looked into failures caused by Woods were sage advisers on cold re-
heaving and thawing at several airfields gions undertakings. Several eminent
and the Chief's office brought out a scientists also co-operated, the most
primer on permafrost, compiled from active being Dr. Siemon W. Muller,
Russian sources. A year later the En- professor of geology at Stanford. Two
gineer Department was deep in an en- universities participated: Purdue sifted
deavor to develop principles for building clues to the presence or absence of per-
on permafrost.111 mafrost and Minnesota probed into the
Pointing to the North Pole as the thermal properties of soil.113 Started on
future center of strategy, General Arnold a crash basis, studies of frost and perma-
in the spring of 1944 labeled cold regions 112
Memo, Engrg & Dev Div, OCE, for Asst
CofEngrs for War Planning, 22 Jun 44. McFadden
111
(1) Memo, Middlebrooks for Stratton, 26 Oct Reading File, 1944.
113
42. McFadden Reading File, II. (2) 686.61 (MRD). (1) Résumé of Investigations, II, pp. 40-42
(3) Siemon W. Muller, Permafrost or Permanently and 44-47. (2) Col. Lynn C. Barnes, "Permafrost:
Frozen Ground and Related Engineering Problems, Special A Challenge to Engineers," The Military Engineer,
Report, Strategic Engineering Study 62. Mil Intel January 1946, pp. 9-11. (3) 686.61 Parts 4-7. (4)
Div, OCE, Washington, D.C., August 1945. 686.61 1941-45. (5) 686 (Permafrost) Part 1.
AIRFIELDS FOR VERY HEAVY BOMBERS 649
Atomic Mission
At a quarter of eleven on the morning dinary size and scope; and its $2-billion
of 6 August 1945, the White House expenditure. Early radio broadcasts told
solemnly announced: "Sixteen hours ago where the powerful new explosives orig-
an American airplane dropped one inated—at the Clinton Engineer Works
bomb on Hiroshima, an important in Tennessee and the Hanford Engineer
Japanese Army base." More powerful Works in the State of Washington.4 News-
than 20,000 tons of TNT, the bomb was paper tributes to the genius of the bomb's
an atomic bomb capable of wiping out developer, Dr. J. Robert Oppenheimer,
1
whole cities. The statement produced appeared side by side with tributes to
a general sensation. A wave of exultation the driving force of the "atom general,"
swept the United States: the war was Maj. Gen. Leslie R. Groves of the Corps
practically over; the boys would soon of Engineers. References to other promi-
be home. In London, where the story nent Engineer officers—Reybold, Styer,
eclipsed all other news, a reporter noted: Robins, and Farrell—found their way
"The world has changed overnight."2 into dispatches; and Nobel laureates in
Aboard the cruiser Augusta, on his way physics shared the limelight with hitherto
back from the Potsdam Conference, obscure Engineer colonels.5 The castle
President Truman told a throng of emblem of the Corps was coupled in-
cheering sailors: "This is the greatest separably to the armillary symbol of
3
thing in history." Altering the course of the atom. Yet many people at the time
civilization and opening a new era in the failed to understand fully why the castle
life of mankind, the release of atomic was so prominently displayed. In the
energy was a titanic task. Its achieve- two decades that followed, many schol-
ment was a triumph for scientists, in- ars also failed.
dustrialists, and engineers. The bomb was the product of a re-
As Hiroshima lay silent beneath a pall markable set of circumstances. First,
of smoke and dust and the world mar- and basic, was the industrial power of
veled at the scientific feat, the public the nation: the huge concentrations of
learned about the Manhattan Engineer capital goods and the great fund of
District: its hidden cities, secret plants,
4
and secluded laboratories; its extraor- Statements by Truman and Stimson, August 6,
1945. Reprinted in New York Times, August 7, 1945,
p. 7.
1 5
New York Times, August 7, 1945, p. 4. © 1945 (1) Baltimore Evening Sun, August 6, 1945, pp.1
by The New York Times Company. Reprinted by and 3; and August 7, 1945, p. 3. (2) New York Times,
permission. August 7, 1945, pp. 1-3 and 6; and August 8, 1945,
2
Ibid., p. 3. pp. 2-3 and 6. (3) Albuquerque Journal, August 7,
3
Truman, Memoirs, I, p. 421. 1945, pp. 1-2.
ATOMIC MISSION 651
MED: Origins and Early Efforts gifted organizer. A polished and gracious
man known to subordinates as "Gentle-
A summons from the Chief to Col. man Jim," an officer who coupled firm-
James C. Marshall, on 17 June 1942, ness with tact, he was a leader rather
set the project going. District engineer than a driver. His record at Syracuse
at Syracuse, New York, Marshall was an spoke well for his methods. Responsible
esteemed member of the Corps. A 1918 for a $250-million civil-military program;
West Point graduate, he had had a well- including a dozen major war construc-
rounded career: duty with troops in tion projects, he could report virtually
France and Panama; service with the all jobs on or ahead of schedule in June
New York, Puerto Rico, and Binghamton 1942. Reybold's message to him bore
Districts; study at the Engineer School the stamp of urgency. Checking with
and the Command and General Staff key assistants and making several long-
College; four years as an instructor at distance telephone calls, he got impor-
the Military Academy; three years with tant matters squared away. By midnight
the Engineer Board at Fort Belvoir; two he was enroute to Washington.6
years as head of the New York State Twenty-four hours later, in a room
Barge Canal Improvement; and a tour at the Willard Hotel, Marshall sat, taut
in the Civil Works Division, OCE. Over 6
(1) Col Marshall's Diary, 17 Jun 42. EHD Files.
the years he had built a reputation as a (2) Ltr, Marshall to authors, 15 Jan 68. (3) Interv
good executive, sound engineer, and with Francis R. Deland, 5 Jan 68.
652 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
and weary, puzzling over the contents split and the impact of this news on the
of a folder labeled "S-1." He had had world of physics; the eager activity at
a strenuous day: an all-night drive to American universities—the spurt of theo-
New York City; an early morning con- retical speculation about chain reactions,
ference with Colonel Dunn, the Division atomic power, and atomic bombs and
Engineer; an American Airlines flight the unaided struggle for experimental
to Washington; a serious talk with proof; Albert Einstein's letter to
General Styer at the Munitions Building; Roosevelt, which brought Uncle Sam
and, finally, a grave session with Robins into the enterprise in the fall of 1939;
and Groves at the Chief's office. The and the nuclear research or S-1 program
S-1 folder belonged to Styer, who had carried forward under government aus-
handed it over with the explanation that pices since that time. He learned, more-
Marshall had a new job: to form an over, where the program stood. By the
Engineer district and construct plants spring of 1942, the fact was plain:
for atomic fission bombs. Abstruse and atomic bombs might be possible. S-1
baffling, Styer's papers mentioned sev- scientists claimed to know in principle
eral of the country's leading scientists; how to make the bomb stuff; in fact it
revealed the enormous destructive po- seemed that they might be able to turn
tential of a rare uranium isotope, U-235, the trick several ways, separating U-235
and of a recently discovered transuranic from the far more abundant isotope
element, plutonium; outlined four possi- U-238 by electromagnetic, gaseous dif-
ble methods of achieving quantity pro- fusion, or centrifugal methods, and pro-
duction of one or the other of these ducing plutonium by bombarding na-
fissionable materials; and put the cost tural uranium with neutrons. So far,
of the entire program at roughly however, none of these processes had
$90,000,000. "I spent the night without advanced beyond preliminary labora-
sleep trying to figure out what this was tory stages; none had proved superior
all about," Marshall afterward related. to the rest; and none had yielded as
"I had never heard of atomic fission, but much as a microgram, though kilograms
8
I did know that you could not build were needed to make bombs. Marshall's
much of a plant, much less four of them, task was unprecedented: from labora-
for $90,000,000. "7 tory instruments to huge industrial
The next day Marshall gained a
clearer understanding of his mission. 8
(1) Marshall Diary, 19 Jun 42. (2) Ltr, Bush to
From talks with General Styer and Dr. Roosevelt, 17 Jun 42, and Incl thereto. MED-HB
Vannevar Bush, who headed the Office File, Folder 6. (3) For a discussion of developments
prior to mid-June 1942, see Richard G. Hewlett and
of Scientific Research and Development Oscar E. Anderson, Jr., A History of the U.S. Atomic
(OSRD), and from documents they Energy Commission, vol. 1, The New World, 1939-1946
showed him, he learned the outline of (University Park, Pa.: Pennsylvania State U. Press,
1962), pp. 9-71, cited hereinafter as Hewlett and
the story: the German discovery late in Anderson, The New World; and Henry D. Smyth,
1938 that the uranium atom could be A General Account of the Development of Methods of Using
Atomic Energy for Military Purposes under the Auspices
7
(1) Ltr, Marshall to authors, 15 Jan 68. (2) of the United States Government, 1940-1945 (Washington,
Marshall Diary, 18 Jun 42. (3) Interv with Gen 1945), pp. 2-58. Cited hereinafter as Smyth, Atomic
James C. Marshall, 19 Apr 68. Energy for Military Purposes.
ATOMIC MISSION 653
tion. Colonel Hall in Cincinnati and put it.15 Scouts for OSRD had been over
Colonel Worsham in Chicago alerted the ground earlier and had sent back
their division staffs to stand by for site glowing reports. But, like all professional
directives. In Manhattan, Colonel Dunn engineers, Marshall wished to be on the
rented space for the new district down- safe side. Jouncing over back country
stairs from North Atlantic Division head- roads around Harriman, Dayton, and
quarters and placed his organization Athens, he ruled out several locales. One
at Marshall's disposal. Talks with Dr. site was too rugged, another too remote,
Compton and other scientists clarified a third subject to flooding. Then, along
plans for leasing a thousand-acre tract the Clinch River southwest of the little
in the Argonne Forest southwest of town of Clinton and a few miles down-
Chicago and building a plutonium pilot stream from Norris Dam, he found
plant there and for subletting part of it astride Roane and Anderson Coun-
the heavy water plant at Trail to E. B. ties—a hundred-square-mile rectangle
Badger & Sons of Boston. An all-day of marginal farmland with a washboard
negotiating session on 29 June produced terrain, an area of wooded ridges and
a letter contract with Stone & Webster. lonely hollows. The population was
A visit next morning to General Clay sparse and real estate values were low.
had encouraging results: a friend and Watts Bar Reservoir was fairly close,
classmate of Marshall, Clay agreed to and two railroads, the Louisville &
help obtain a high priority rating and Nashville and the Southern, ran nearby.
to use his good offices in breaking pro- There were some drawbacks, to be sure:
curement bottlenecks. At this point, outcroppings of rock foretold costly exca-
Marshall and Nichols confronted a major vations; and TVA could promise ade-
decision—choice of the main manu- quate power only if it could procure
facturing site. On the afternoon of the additional hard-to-get generators. Some-
30th, after a last-minute chat with where, no doubt, there was a better lo-
Groves, they took the 5 o'clock train for cation, perhaps in the Columbia River
Knoxville.14 Valley near the Corps' own Bonneville
Early the next morning they checked Dam. Yet, on the whole, Clinton seemed
in at the Hotel Andrew Johnson, where a reasonably good choice.16 Marshall
they met four Stone & Webster men and headed back East, full of plans and
Captain Blair. After a briefing by of- purpose.
ficials of the Tennessee Valley Authority Nichols and Blair continued on to
(TVA), the party spent the better part the Metallurgical Laboratory, the cryp-
of two days exploring the foothills of tically named center for plutonium stud-
the Cumberlands west of Knoxville, ies at the University of Chicago. In two
looking for a spot that met their require- days there, they covered a lot of ground.
ments: power, water, transportation, Conferring with Dr. Compton and his
and special topography—"four isolated
sites in one big isolated site," as Marshall 15
Marshall Interv, 19 Apr 68.
16
(1) Marshall Diary, 1-3 Jul 42. (2) Hewlett and
Anderson, The New World, pp. 76-77. (3) Arthur H.
14
(1) Marshall Diary, 26-30 Jun 42. (2) Interv Compton, Atomic Quest: A Personal Narrative (New
with Gen James H. Stratton, 21 Feb 68. York: Oxford U. Press, 1956), pp. 154-55.
656 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
colleagues, they learned what the "Met man who really understood" the scien-
Lab" was up against. Organized early tists' problems.19
in 1942 under Compton's direction, a Rejoining Marshall in Washington,
team of eminent researchers was seeking Nichols and Blair were caught up in a
a way to transmute uranium into plu- surge of activity: working with Stone &
tonium on a large scale as quickly as Webster to tie together myriad loose
humanly possible. Key to the success ends (a detailed survey of the Tennessee
of this endeavor were the experiments site stood high on the agenda); insuring
of Enrico Fermi, the gifted Italian Nobel vital supplies of uranium ore (on orders
laureate who had fled Fascist tyranny from the Chief, Engineers in north-
in 1939- With uranium oxide and western Canada sent barges to the
graphite, Fermi was struggling to build Eldorado mine, near the Arctic Circle
a chain reacting "pile." Theoretically, on Great Bear Lake); negotiating con-
the pile would go critical when it reached tracts for purified uranium oxide and
a certain size, that is, it would chain uranium metal (the producers were the
react and in the process produce plu- Mallinckrodt Chemical Works, Metal
tonium within the parent uranium. Hydrides, and Westinghouse Electric);
Chemistry would do the rest. "Any fool planning a village for the main industrial
can separate two elements," Compton site (Stratton's files yielded blueprints
assured the Engineers.17 But the theory developed by the Corps for family hous-
of the pile still lacked a demonstration. ing at Ocala, Florida, and Passama-
Shortages of pure materials hampered quoddy, Maine); furnishing the New
Fermi's efforts. Moreover, he needed York office and establishing a protective
space; the University was crowded and, security system there (Vanden Bulck,
besides, the populous southside of Chi- with help from Colonel Dunn, quickly
cago was no place to be tinkering with accomplished the job); pursuing a scheme
chain reactions. Shouldering responsi- to substitute silver for critically short
bility, Nichols marked out boundaries copper in Professor Lawrence's process
for the experiment station site in the (thousands of tons of conductive metal
Argonne Forest, arranged for Worsham would go into the giant coils and bus-
to lease the land rent free from Cook bars) ; trying to think of a suitable cover
County, and sketched preliminary con- name for the project (Somervell's sug-
struction plans for Stone & Webster.18 gestion, "DSM" for Development of
He also took on the duty of providing Substitute Materials, satisfied virtually
wanted supplies. Most important, he got no one); and preparing a table of or-
off on the right foot with Met Lab ganization (Marshall expected to have
leaders. Describing what proved to be 62 officers under his command by the
a happy and fruitful relationship, end of the year).20 For a time at least, all
Compton later portrayed Nichols as went well.
"straightforward and courageous," "a
19
Compton, Atomic Quest, pp. 95, 106.
20
(1) Marshall Diary, 6-15 Jul 42, passim. (2)
Groves, Now It Can Be Told, pp. 15-16. (3) Ltr,
17
Nichols Interv, 18 Feb 64. Marshall to Reybold, 18 Jul 42. 320.21 (Manhattan
18
(1) Ibid. (2) Marshall Diary, 6-7 Jul 42. DO).
ATOMIC MISSION 657
Then, in mid-July, the project re- occupied the 72-inch pole gap. Enthu-
ceived a setback: assignment of an AA-3 siastic and confident, Lawrence explained
priority. To Marshall and Nichols, the to Marshall how the apparatus would
news seemed incredible; surely, the S-1 work: in the strong magnetic field, ions
effort rated higher than the Pennsyl- of uranium gas zipping through the
vania Ordnance Plant. But a talk with vacuum at tremendous speeds would
Clay convinced them that there had tend to separate according to mass,
been no mistake. The atomic bomb was heavier particles describing longer arcs
a long shot. Gambling on it too heavily than lighter ones, and U-238 and U-235
might risk losing the war. Extremely ending up in different receptacles. Two
urgent programs—airplanes, naval ves- smaller calutrons were already in opera-
sels, cargo ships, landing craft, synthetic tion. To be sure, their yield was minus-
rubber, and high-octane gasoline—were cule and their product was highly impure;
in desperate conflict for materials. Only nevertheless, they were getting tangible
essential weapons slated for early pro- results. A mass production plant pat-
duction could claim AA-1 and AA-2 terned on this method would be ex-
priorities. The special triple-A rating tremely large and costly, but it would
was reserved for breaking bottlenecks. almost certainly succeed. When Law-
Under ANMB rules, AA-3 was the rence spoke of trying to improve the
highest possible classification for plant process to effect economies, Marshall
construction jobs. Clay saw no reason for told him to "quit worrying about ex-
making an exception of DSM; in fact, he pense"—the Army would pay the tab.
discouraged any move to upgrade the Summoning representatives of Stone &
project. Deeply disappointed, Nichols Webster, the colonel put them to work
consulted Reybold, who gave him this with the Berkeley scientists on pre-
advice: let the issue ride awhile, wait liminary plant designs. Encouraged, he
for trouble to appear, and, then, launch noted in his diary: "Lawrence's method
a determined drive for top priority.21 is ahead of the other three methods and
If Marshall was downcast, his mood should be exploited to the fullest extent
22
soon changed. Visiting the Radiation without delay."
Laboratory of Professor Lawrence in Immediately upon his return to Wash-
the third week of July, he felt his spirits ington, he asked for a gross appraisal
rise. High on a hill overlooking the of the Clinton site. O'Brien promised a
Berkeley campus and San Francisco Bay, rough estimate "about the middle of
in a newly built domed structure, a next week" and he was as good as his
mighty "calutron," a scaled-up adapta- word. On 29 July he gave Marshall a
tion of the California physicist's original cost breakdown. Eighty thousand acres
cyclotron, was taking form. Its magnet, at $30 per acre, plus improvements,
the world's largest, measured 184 inches crops, severance damages, and con-
in diameter and towered 20 feet above tingencies—the figures added up to ap-
the floor. A C-shaped vacuum tank proximately $4 million. Obtaining right-
21
(1) Marshall Diary, 13 Jul 42. (2) Jones,
22
MANHATTAN, ch. III, pp. 38-43. (3) Hewlett and Marshall Diary, 20-21 Jul 42. See also Smyth,
Anderson, The New World, pp. 72-75 and 78-79. Atomic Energy for Military Purposes, pp. 139-41.
658 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
of-entry would take about ten days. augured ill success for the whole atomic
Colonel Hall's real estate men were undertaking. Again and again, Marshall
ready to start at once, but Marshall and Nichols tried and failed to wring a
delayed giving them a green light until higher overall priority from General
he could pin down the S-1 Executive Clay and, through Bush and Conant,
Committee. Lawrence was insisting on to enlist Donald Nelson's aid. Without
a West Coast site for the big electro- full top-level support, all the projected
magnetic plant. Fermi's crucial experi- plants could not be built in time to be
ment at Chicago was still months away. of value in the war; and no such support
Gaseous diffusion and centrifugal separa- was immediately forthcoming. Sensing
tion had only theoretical feasibility. Be- that they might have to focus on a single
fore he laid out millions in public funds process, the Conant committee deliber-
and uprooted hundreds of families, ated, refusing to go all-out on Lawrence's
Marshall intended to have a fixed pur- method until Fermi's experimental re-
pose in view.23 The scientists wanted the sults were in.25 As planning bogged down
Tennessee tract but could not say, in a morass of scientific indecision,
specifically, what for. Recalling his or- Marshall endeavored to make headway
deals with them, Marshall said: "When in other areas.
you get six or seven Ph.D.'s and three Moving to Manhattan, he began shap-
or four Nobel Prize winners around the ing his command. By early August
table, you know, they are up in the staffing was in full swing. A dozen of-
clouds." Impatient, he told them "that ficers in the Syracuse District were
if they didn't hurry up and make up awaiting orders to join their former chief
their minds what they wanted to de- and various hand-picked civilians were
velop, we might not need a site; the preparing to take commissions in the
war would be over." His sarcasm had Corps. A versatile group formed the
no discernible effect.24 nucleus of the new district. Among the
A darkening cloud of uncertainty men drawn from Syracuse were Lt. Col.
overhung the project. Striving for an John M. Harman, a Regular with 24
early start at Trail, Badger & Sons ran years' service; Maj. Thomas T.
into trouble as work on components for Crenshaw and Capt. Joseph F. Sally,
the heavy water process stalled, while both successful area engineers on big
shops completed longer standing orders emergency projects; Capt. James F.
with the same AA-3 priority. Badger's Grafton, a crack operations man who
case had disturbing implications, for, had overseen construction of the Whitney
although Trail would be an auxiliary Point Dam near Binghamton, N.Y.;
plant (its product was a possible substi- Capt. Benjamin K. Hough, Jr., a keen-
tute for graphite in the pile), its plight minded soils engineer who had studied
under Terzaghi at MIT; and 1st Lt.
23
(1) Marshall Diary, 23, 24, and 31 Jul and 3 Harold A. Fidler, a young D.Sc. from
Aug 42. (2) Apps. of Site Sel and Land Acq for CEW, MIT who had worked with Hough at
15 Jun 45, Exhibit F-1. 601.1 (CEW). (3) Min,
Meeting of S-1 Exec Comm, 30 Jul 42. AEC Files.
25
(4) Nichols Interv, 18 Feb 64. (1) Marshall Diary, 17 Jul-26 Aug 42, passim.
24
Marshall Interv, 19 Apr 68. (2) Hewlett and Anderson, The New World, pp. 78-81.
ATOMIC MISSION 659
the Ithaca Soils Laboratory. The search matching men and duties, Marshall
for talent extended well beyond the appointed Harman his administrative
Mohawk and Susquehanna watersheds. officer, put Kelley in charge of engineer-
With assists from General Reybold and ing, and gave Johnson the Washington
William H. Harrison, Marshall was able assignment. In addition, he sent
to recruit Wilbur E. Kelley, senior en- Crenshaw and Fidler to the Radiation
gineer for the Panama Canal, and Allan Laboratory, Grafton to the Met Lab,
C. Johnson, a highly trained architect Hough to Stone & Webster's hometown,
on loan to WPB from the American Tele- Boston, and Sally to British Columbia.
phone and Telegraph Company, and As head of the St. Louis office, Ruhoff
to make them both captains in the Corps. carried on his vital work at the Mal-
Another valuable find was Capt. John linckrodt plant.27 Still small but growing
R. Ruhoff, the Mallinckrodt Company's steadily, the Manhattan District was a
brilliant young director of inorganic going organization by late August.
research, recently called to duty with After reading the first progress report
the Chemical Warfare Service and from MED on 26 August, Reybold
shortly to be transferred to the Engineers. expressed his satisfaction with the proj-
As the ranks started to swell, Marshall ect. Since mid-June the atomic program
moved to place the organization on a had come a long way. At Berkeley, Stone
firm footing. & Webster had completed blueprints
On 16 August 1942 General Reybold for an electromagnetic pilot and con-
formally established the Manhattan Engi- struction was all set to go. At Chicago a
26
neer District (MED). Selected by Met Lab building was rising on the
Groves and Marshall, the tag word University campus and survey crews
"Manhattan" provided an effective were busy at the Argonne Forest site.
cover, since ordinary Engineer districts Although pinched for materials, the
took the names of their headquarters job at Trail was moving ahead. Even at
cities. Judged by Corps standards, the Columbia, where Urey and his col-
new supersecret setup was unusual. Un- leagues had still to work out kinks in the
like other districts, MED had no geo- gaseous diffusion and centrifuge proc-
graphic boundaries and its areas were esses, construction plans were begin-
far apart: at Boston, Chicago, St. Louis, ning to take form. Two major supply
Berkeley, and Trail. Alone among dis- problems were clearing up: Marshall
trict heads, Colonel Marshall had the was about to close a deal with the
authority of a division engineer and Treasury for some 6,000 tons of silver;
reported directly to the Chief. Another and Nichols was in touch with Edgar
peculiar feature was the Washington Sengier, a far-sighted Belgian mining
Liaison Office, opened on the sixth magnate, who had 1,250 tons of Congo
floor of the New War Building to ensure uranium ore cached in a warehouse on
concerted action with WPB, SOS, and Staten Island. Marshall was prepared
other high-level agencies. Carefully
27
(1) OCE, GO 33, 13 Aug 42. (2) MED Circ
Ltr A-1, 16 Aug 42. 323.7 (MDO). (3) Ltr, NAD to
26
Officially: Manhattan District, U.S. Engineer Reybold, 8 Aug 42, 210.3 (MDO). (4) MED SO 1,
Department. 21 Aug 42.
660 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
to break remaining logjams. Fed up with Francisco, the S-l Executive Committee
academic shilly-shallying, he recom- put an end to much of the uncertainty
mended immediate acquisition of at that had surrounded the project. Urged
least part of the Tennessee tract. Tired on by Nichols and Crenshaw, who
of taking no for an answer on priorities, attended as observers, the scientists voted
28
he proposed to go over Clay's head. to center production at the Tennessee
Achievements drew less notice from site, make a prompt beginning there,
Dr. Bush than things left undone. and push plans to break ground for the
Haunted by the fear that Hitler was big electromagnetic plant around the
winning the contest for the bomb, the first of the year. 30 In Washington, mean-
OSRD chieftain was intolerant of delay. while, another major decision came to
Apprehensive about the Tennessee site light. Emerging from a Thursday morn-
and the MED priority, he mistook de- ing session with the House Military Af-
liberation for foot dragging and pru- fairs Committee, Groves bumped into
dence for passivity. Feeling that the proj- Somervell, who told him: "The Secre-
ect needed more aggressive leadership tary of War has selected you for a very
and more effective status in the Army, important assignment . . . . I f
he discussed with Generals Marshall you do the job right, it will win the war."
and Somervell and others the formation Groves, whose heart was set on going
of a policy committee that would com- overseas, blazed with indignation, for he
mand respect, a body composed of high- guessed correctly that the job involved
placed military men and eminent ci- "that thing," the atomic bomb31—a
vilian scientists; and he spoke of ap- "pipe dream," as he saw it, with little
pointing a prestigious officer, preferably chance of fulfillment. Reporting to Styer
Styer, as overall director. When at the Pentagon later that morning, he
Somervell mentioned Groves as the received some rosy promises: a promo-
right man for this post, Bush cold- tion, an easy task (merely to build a few
shouldered the suggestion. So uncertain, plants), and virtual independence.32 Un-
so precarious, yet so fraught with awe- mollified, he reproached Styer for "let-
some possibilities, the atomic effort ting me get hooked into this."33 Then,
undoubtedly needed a strong hand and unheralded, he called on Bush, who
a resolute will to lead and guide and push froze as the burly colonel introduced
it through. Bush intended to take one himself. Groves' stock soon rose. Good
step at a time: first, choose the com- soldier that he was, he zealously obeyed
mittee and, then, name the general to his duty. Before the week was over, he
carry out its will.29 But Somervell, adroit had given the go-ahead on the Ten-
as ever, outmaneuvered him.
The week of 13 September was a 30
decisive one for MED. Meeting at (1) Min, Mtg of S-1 Exec Comm, 13-14 Sep 42.
AEG Files. (2) Marshall Diary, 13-14 Sep 42. (3)
scenic Bohemian Grove near San Compton, Atomic Quest, pp. 150-54.
31
Now It Can Be Told, pp. 3-4.
28 32
(1) Marshall Diary, 26 Aug 42. (2) Marshall Interv with Gen Groves, 28 Apr 67.
33
Interv, 19 Apr 68. Leslie R. Groves, "The Atom General Answers
29
(1) Hewlett and Anderson, The New World, His Critics," The Saturday Evening Post, June 19,
pp. 81-82. (2) Nichols Interv, 18 Feb 64. 1948, p. 16.
ATOMIC MISSION 661
far the most massive contribution came telligence and counterintelligence, all
from the Engineers. Construction was scientific research, and design of the
the central task, and the Corps' con- weapon itself, and eventually encom-
struction capability had never been passed matters of international rela-
greater. Men, money, machinery, ma- tions, high-level policy, and atomic
terials, wide-ranging technical and ad- strategy. Much of his time was taken
ministrative services—"Everything we up by "numerous, all-important de-
wanted, we got," Groves related, "and cisions, seemingly insuperable problems
we got it willingly."41 A distinctive fea- and fantastic controversies."43 His ac-
ture of MED was its "very limited or- count of MED, Now It Can Be Told, fo-
ganization," a feature that evidenced cused largely on these. "The bulk of the
the firm support provided by the En- project," he wrote, "moved ahead by
gineer Department.42 dint of the hard work and the feeling
An admirer of General Sherman, of urgency of everyone concerned and
Groves believed in traveling light, and without requiring any personal super-
he held with Sherman that "a small staff vision on my part."44 Construction,
implies activity and concentration of which accounted for roughly 90 cents of
purpose." From a modest, sparsely fur- every dollar spent, received compara-
nished suite on the fifth floor of the New tively little space in his book.
War Building, he steered the vast atomic The fall of 1942 witnessed lively ac-
endeavor almost single-handed. His prin- tivity in the Clinch River Valley of
cipal assistant was his girl Friday, Mrs. Tennessee. On 24 September, the day
Jean M. O'Leary. Saluted good-humor- after Groves formally assumed com-
edly as Major O'Leary by MED wags, mand, he and Marshall made a thorough,
the pretty, spunky widow was his de final reconnaissance of the site. Four days
facto executive officer. Not until early later an attorney from the Ohio River
1945, when General Farrell returned Division opened an office in Harriman
from CBI, did Groves have a deputy. and began mapping the area. On 6 Oc-
Aided mainly by Mrs. O'Leary and a tober he filed a declaration of taking with
few picked men drawn from the Con- the Federal Court at Knoxville and
struction Division, he played what he obtained immediate possession. Like vir-
described as the impresario's role in "a tually all mass condemnations, this one
two-billion-dollar grand opera with thou- caused a furor—protest meetings, ap-
sands of temperamental stars in all walks peals to Washington, and congressional
of life." The story was epic and the stage inquiries. Acquisition proceeded all the
was worldwide. Limited at first to plant same. "Really child's play," Marshall
construction and engineering, Groves' termed it. 45 By mid-November U.S.
responsibilities rapidly ballooned to take marshals were tacking notices to vacate
in security and press censorship, in- on farmhouse doors, and within a week
41 43
Groves Interv, 11 Feb 64. Groves, "The Atom General," p. 16.
42 44
Leslie R. Groves, "Development of the Atomic Groves, Now It Can Be Told, pp. xiii-xiv.
45
Bomb," The Military Engineer, June 1946, pp. 233-34. Marshall Interv, 19 Apr 68.
664 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
46
or two residents were leaving. Con- orders, signed by Marshall, specified a
struction crews came in right behind partly developed site surrounded by hills
them. On the scene since October the in a thinly settled area of the southwest,
area engineer, Maj. Warren George, where a community of 250-450 persons
and Stone & Webster's project manager, could live in isolation. His mission was
T. Cortlandt Williams, were set for a the outgrowth of conversations between
fast start. Key men were arriving daily. Groves and Dr. J. Robert Oppenheimer,
Materials were on order. An employment the young Berkeley professor who spear-
office in downtown Knoxville was open headed studies of the physics of the
for business. From the contractor's Boston bomb. "The first job was to make the
headquarters plans and blueprints were stuff," Oppenheimer related. "But in
flowing to the project. At the Chiefs hope that would come out all right, we
office in Washington Colonel Barker had to have a place where we could
was pressing for prompt wage determina- learn what to do with it."49 After travel-
tions and General Robins was circulariz- ing thousands of miles, part of the way on
ing the Corps for surplus equipment, horseback, consulting district engineers
supplies, and personnel. Late in Novem- along his route, Dudley narrowed the
ber dirt began to move. Before long con- search to the Santa Fe area. On 16
struction forces were spreading out to November he showed Groves and
provide temporary utilities, improve Oppenheimer a spot that fitted their
primitive roads, run a rail connection to stated criteria: Jemez Springs, a village
the Louisville & Nashville at Elza, and of 500 on the floor of a canyon in
erect the project's first big structure, the the Jemez Mountains. Oppenheimer
47
main administration building. promptly objected that the tall sur-
Even before a spade was turned at rounding cliffs "would give his people
Clinton, the Engineers were moving claustrophobia," and the houses, simple
toward their ultimate objective, the Indian and Mexican dwellings, would be
weapon itself. Late in October 1942, a too humble for them; while Groves noted
Regular with the Syracuse District, Maj. that the site might be subject to flooding.
John H. Dudley, received a special as- The party then drove east and on up a
signment, "to make a survey for an in- steep, narrow dirt road to the exclusive
stallation of unnamed purpose."48 His Los Alamos Ranch School. On a mesa
46
jutting out from the Jemez Mountains
(1) Marshall Diary, 24 Sep 42. (2) Groves,
Now It Can Be Told, pp. 25-26. (3) Apps. of Site Sel and overlooking the upper Rio Grande
and Land Acq for CEW, 15 Jun 45. 601.1 (CEW). (4) Valley, the 790-acre site was impressive
601.1 (CEW) Parts 1 and 2. (5) H Subcomm of the in its solitude and scenic grandeur. The
Comm on Mil Affs, Transcript of Hearings at
Clinton and Kingston, Tenn., 11-12 Aug 43. attractive campus, with its log and stone
601.1 (CEW). buildings and well-kept grounds, offered
47
(1) Gavin Hadden (comp.), Manhattan District comforts and amenities taken for granted
History, Book I, Vol. 12. AEC Files. Cited here-
inafter as MD Hist. (2) Hewlett and Anderson, by the well-to-do. Oppenheimer indi-
The New World, pp. 116-17. (3) Ltr, Marshall to
49
George, 21 Oct 42. 161 (MDO). (4) Ltr, Robins to Oppenheimer's Testimony, 12 Apr 1954. In
Div Engrs, 20 Nov 42. 600.1 (MDO). (5) 600.1 U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, Hearings in the
(MDO) (Labor) Part 1. Matter of J. Robert Oppenheimer (Washington, 1954),
48
Ltr, Dudley to authors, 5 May 68. p. 28. Cited hereinafter as AEC, Oppenheimer Hearings.
ATOMIC MISSION 665
cated that this was it. Groves and Dudley up."52 The need for haste was keenly
put their heads together. Except for the felt by General Groves. Although leading
road, the setup seemed ideal: the owners scientists thought of putting a bomb
were anxious to sell; the water supply together as a few months' work, Groves,
was adequate for 500 people; and there thinking as an engineer, took nothing
was plenty of room for expansion. They for granted: the widest possible margin
made their selection then and there.50 of safety might not be wide enough.53
Speed was the byword at Los Alamos. For all their brilliance, the academic
Responding to a signal from the Chief's scientists often seemed naive and im-
office, the Albuquerque District snapped practical to hardheaded military en-
into action. Zia Project, named, fittingly gineers. As theorists "they were wonder-
enough, for the Sun God of the Pueblo ful," Colonel Marshall said; but as doers
Indians, promptly claimed the services he rated them low.54 Nichols, who
of engineers, appraisers, and attorneys. agreed with Marshall, chuckled over
By 21 November early reports were in. the scientists' self-esteem. One day, on a
On the 23d the district engineer, Col. visit to Chicago, he found Fermi's group
Lyle Rosenberg, obtained right-of-entry. speculating how to design concrete, how
Hand carried from Robins to Somervell to keep the water content in. "This was
to Patterson on the 25th, the formal site typical," he commented. "It's true of
directive gave Colonel Neyland of the most scientists. They're outstanding and
Southwestern Division authority to ac- they are geniuses in one aspect, so they
quire the ranch school and environing think that in every other aspect, in every
forest and grazing lands—54,000 acres other trade or profession, they can be
in all. Signed by Groves as Robins' dep- equally proficient if they only try."55
uty, a title he continued to use until mid- Groves, on entering the project, was
1943, the work directive came out on the appalled—"horrified" was his word—
30th. Five days later Rosenberg awarded by the visionary nature of the enter-
a secret contract to the M. M. Sundt prise. An all-round lack of concrete re-
Construction Company of Tucson. sults, postulates taken as truths, key cal-
Sundt's deadline was short: a scientists' culations accurate to a factor of 10, mis-
enclave, complete with dwellings and takes in simple mathematics—impres-
laboratories, fenced and tenanted by sions gained on a tour of the laboratories
mid-May.51 This schedule reflected the spurred him to action.56 Deciding to
urgency that surrounded the project, "wash out" the centrifuge ("We didn't
the pressure, which Oppenheimer noted, know whether that would ever work,"
"started at the beginning and never let
52
AEC, Oppenheimer Hearings, p. 30.
50 53
(1) Ibid., pp. 12 and 28. (2) Ltr, Dudley to (1) Stephane Groueff, Manhattan Project: The
authors, 5 May 68. (3) Groves, Now It Can Be Told, Untold Story of the Making of the Atomic Bomb (Boston:
pp. 61 and 64-67. Little, Brown & Co., 1967), pp. 41-42. (2) Groves,
51
(1) Jones, Manhattan, ch. IV, pp. 28-31 and Now It Can Be Told, p. 60.
54
ch. VII, pp. 36-39. (2) 601.1 (Los Alamos, N.M.- Marshall Interv, 19 Apr 68.
55
Zia Project). (3) Ltr, Robins to Somervell, 25 Nov Nichols Interv, 18 Feb 64.
56
42, and Patterson's approval thereon. MED Files. (1) Groves, Now It Can Be Told, pp. 19 and 40.
601 (Santa Fe). (4) Ltr, Groves to Rosenberg, 30 (2) Groves Interv, 27 Apr 67. (3) Groueff, Man-
Nov 42. MED Files. 600.1 (Santa Fe) thru 1944. hattan Project, pp. 17-39.
666 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
in late 1944 or early I945.67 It was a complicated, and supremely urgent, the
desperate undertaking, fraught with task called for exceptional feats of en-
perils and uncertainties. Contrary to all gineering, organization, and manage-
industrial experience, the plan made no ment. To create a new industry normally
provision for pilot plants. "With every- took many years. From test tube to mass
thing else the Corps built in the way of production, the development of nylon
munitions plants," Marshall emphasized, had spanned a decade; yet the nylon
"you would have a pilot plant until you process was simple compared with any
perfected the process. But not in the for fissionable materials. According to
Manhattan District."68 So raw was the informed estimates, the electromagnetic
concept of gaseous diffusion that no one plant at Clinton "in peacetime would
as yet knew how to make the barriers or easily require 10 to 15 years";72 yet this
porous membranes that were the very was but one of three major plants under-
heart of the process. "Nothing like this taken by the Manhattan District. To-
had ever been attempted before," Groves gether, the Clinton and Hanford En-
reflected, "but with time as the con- gineer Works comprised the largest crash
trolling factor we could not afford to construction job in history. Under the
wait to be sure of anything. The great compelling stimulus of war, a genera-
risks . . . simply had to be ac- tion of effort was compressed into a
cepted."69 period of little more than two years.73
The chance that Hitler's Germany With remarkable swiftness, the peace-
might gain the nuclear prize prompted ful, rural Clinch River Valley of Ten-
the attempt and justified the risks. Mind- nessee was transformed into a mammoth
ful that the fate of mankind hung in the construction project, dusty, noisy, and
balance, President Roosevelt at the turn pulsing with activity. Early in 1943 bull-
of the year committed the nation un- dozers swept through the area, clearing
reservedly to a concentrated drive for trees, demolishing sheds and shanties,
the bomb.70 and cutting broad roadways where nar-
row country lanes had served. In the
Clinton and Hanford northeast corner of the reservation, on
the slopes of Black Oak Ridge, laborers
To design and build the great manu- battered subsurface rock to trench sewer
facturing complexes in the States of and water lines for a residential com-
Tennessee and Washington was, as munity. To the south in East Fork Val-
Groves styled it, "the most exacting con- ley, alongside a new four-lane turnpike,
71
struction job of the entire war." Vast, carpenters erected plywood huts to house
construction workers. Still farther south,
67
(1) Memo, Groves for Rcd, 11 Nov 42. MED beyond the crest of Pine Ridge, in the
Files. 334 (Committees). (2) Memo, Conant for meadowlands of Bear Creek Valley, sur-
Groves, 9 Dec 42. Same File. (3) Compton, Atomic
Quest, p. 145.
68 72
Marshall Interv, 19 Apr 68. Thomas R. Thornburg, et al., "Men and
69
Groves, Now It Can Be Told, p. 72. Materials for a $427,000,000 Job," ENR, December
70
Hewlett and Anderson, The New World, pp. 114- 13,73 1945, p. 126.
Unless otherwise indicated the following section
71
Groves, "The Atom General," p. 16. is based on MD Hist, Books II and IV.
ATOMIC MISSION 669
veyors staked out base lines for the great building the semiworks, had his office
electromagnetic plant. Some six miles in an abandoned school; and John O.
to the southwest, on the Bethel Valley Merrill, whose architectural firm,
Road, work gangs prepared the site for Skidmore, Owings & Merrill, had been
the plutonium semiworks. On the low selected in February to design the com-
ground of neighboring Happy Valley, munity, had his in a deserted farmhouse.
near the spot where Poplar Creek flowed The other teams continued working
into the Clinch, engineers scanned a out of Knoxville until 15 March, when
5,000-acre tract with a view to building the project's main administration build-
the gaseous diffusion plant there. (Map 4) ing, dubbed "The Castle," was ready for
Although no earth would move in Happy occupancy. By then, construction was
Valley for several months, mid-winter well under way.74
groundbreakings at other points in the From the window of his office in the
Clinton site marked the opening of what Castle, Colonel George could view a
would be one of the stiffest battles of the fair-sized city in embryo. Red brick
war. chimneys brightened the woods on Black
Directing field operations were four Oak Ridge; and freshly dug founda-
organizations, each with an arduous tions in East Fork Valley marked the
mission to perform. Having general sites of apartment houses, dormitories,
oversight of the entire project was eating places, commercial buildings,
MED's Tennessee Area, headed by schools, a hospital, a theater, a post
Lieutenant Colonel George. Trained office, a firehouse, and a police station.
in two professions, engineering and law, Begun by Stone & Webster and carried
George relied initially on a small, close- forward by Skidmore, Owings & Merrill,
knit staff: Maj. Paul F. Rossell (En- the master plan for town development
gineering); Capt. Samuel S. Baxter showed originality and skill. Roads and
(Town Planning); Capt. Thomas J. streets followed winding routes along
Rentenbach (Procurement); and several natural grades, reducing cuts and fills
others. Except Baxter, an official of the and adding charm and grace. Clusters
Philadelphia Public Works Department of stores and supermarkets with large
until the war, all were former Corps adjoining parking lots were prototypes
employees. Carrying major managerial of the shopping centers that would dot
responsibility was Stone & Webster's postwar America. Cafeterias outfitted
project force under Cortlandt Williams. with Automat equipment would feed
An able, dedicated construction man, 2,000 diners per hour. Structural de-
associated with the firm since 1923, signs were streamlined and distinctive.
Williams pulled in seasoned experts from Believing that high-class quarters were
other company jobs. Headquartered essential to attract high-caliber people,
briefly at the Hotel Andrew Johnson, Colonel Marshall insisted that every
George and Williams soon took over a
large converted garage in downtown 74
(1) Intervs with Thomas J. Rentenbach, 21
Knoxville. Two smaller groups, ar- Nov 68; and T. C. Williams, 26 Sep 68. (2) William
J. Nash and O. L. Persechini, "The First 1,000 Days,"
riving later, set up shop at the site. Monsanto Magazine, February 1946, p. 5. (3) Groueff,
DuPont's James D. Wilson, in charge of Manhattan Project, p. 165.
ATOMIC MISSION 671
house have a fireplace and a porch. Since town center and provided utilities for a
time was short, manpower scarce, and population of 12,000, O'Driscoll & Grove
many materials were critical, a family of New York City built the first thousand
unit developed by the John B. Pierce houses on the ridge.75
Foundation seemed just right for the pur- Over behind the hills, in Bear Creek
pose. Featuring prefabricated "cemesto" Valley, men strained to meet a sterner
panels, consisting of fiber board with challenge: construction of Y-12, the
asbestos-cement bonded to both sides, huge electromagnetic plant. Scientif-
and slotted wooden posts, the unit made ically, industrially, in every way, the
use of available materials and permitted
assembly-line construction. Cemesto, 75
(1) Ernest A. Wende, "Building a City from
combined with brick instead of wood, Scratch," ENR, December 13, 1945, pp. 149-50. (2)
also figured in Merrill's plans for attrac- George O. Robinson, The Oak Ridge Story (Kingsport,
Tenn.: Southern Publishers, 1950), pp. 47-51- (3)
tive, modern, low cost schools. While Groueff, Manhattan Project, pp. 162-66. (4) Marshall
Stone & Webster pushed work in the Interv, 19 Apr 68. (5) Williams Interv, 26 Sep 68.
672 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
plant represented a daring leap from dwelt upon the desperate need for
laboratory scale and methods. Research uranium that had undergone irradia-
was still in progress and equipment only tion in a pile and thus contained plu-
partially designed when excavation be- tonium; until this need was met, plan-
gan on 18 February 1943. Bundles of ning for the chemical separation plants
drawings received from Boston gave at Hanford would be handicapped.
project manager Williams a rough idea X-10 would meet other needs as well;
of what he was to build: three, and although not a true pilot, it would never-
possibly four, huge concrete and masonry theless provide a practical demonstra-
structures to house the separation proc- tion of the basic production process and
ess; two chemistry buildings for prepar- offer a means for training operating
ing feed material and recovering the personnel. As blueprints emerged from
final product; a development plant, DuPont's Wilmington drafting rooms,
complete with experimental calutrons; the construction task assumed fixed di-
plus utilities, roads, spur tracks, store- mensions. Comprising the heart of the
houses, shops, a foundry, and numerous semiworks would be an experimental
other supporting facilities. The plans air-cooled pile, underwater storage, an
showed the general layout, size, and underground canal, and a series of cells
profile of the process machinery: fan- for chemical separation—all shielded
tastic "race tracks"—enormous ovals by thick concrete walls and all operated
formed by many jumbo magnets; vacuum by remote control. Other major struc-
systems larger and more powerful than tures would include laboratories, shops,
any heretofore dreamed of; and rube a training school, and subterranean
goldberg phantasmagorias of pipes and tanks for radioactive waste. When con-
valves. But many particulars were lack- struction forces started work in Febru-
ing, among them designs for vacuum ary 1943, two veteran field engineers
pumps, ion sources, and receptacles. were on the scene: DuPont project
And troublesome questions were un- manager Wilson and Captain Grafton,
answered; for instance, would two stages recently transferred to Clinton from
of separation, Alpha and Beta, be re- Chicago. Both had tackled tall jobs be-
quired or would Alpha alone do the fore, but never a job like this. Key
job. Although details were fuzzy, scientific decisions were still up in the
Williams pushed construction with all air and the deadline for completion was
77
possible speed, for if the project was big "next fall."
and complicated, it was, above all, The buildup at Clinton was remark-
urgent. Groves wanted one racetrack in ably swift. Suddenly, in the early months
operation by July.76 of 1943, the hidden project in Tennessee
Far smaller than Y-12 but scarcely became a loadstone for war-scarce man-
less critical was the semiworks or X-10 power and supplies. Talks with regional
plant in Bethel Valley. Explaining his labor leaders paved the way for a vigor-
decision to undertake this project, Groves ous recruiting drive. Assists from the
77
(1) Groves, Now It Can Be Told, pp. 78-79. (2)
76
Hewlett and Anderson, The New World, pp. Hewlett and Anderson, The New World, pp. 194-97.
142-52. (3) Ltr, Grafton to authors, 11 Nov 68.
ATOMIC MISSION 673
War Manpower Commission, the U.S. tion of New York City, and D. W.
Employment Service, and Colonel Winckelman of Syracuse. Long lines of
Barker's staff in OCE helped to assure automobiles passed through the heavily
success. Construction forces mushroomed guarded gates each morning and eve-
despite the need for at least a limited ning. Working conditions were still primi-
security check on every applicant. The tive (tank wagons hauled drinking water
largest payroll, Stone & Webster's, from the town of Clinton seven miles
jumped from 1,000 men in January to away and circus tents housed canteens),
7,300 in April. Intensive courses in yet evidence of progress was all around.
welding and other trades eased shortages The main line connection with the
of skilled workers; and women drafts- Louisville & Nashville, completed and
men, rodmen, and chauffeurs gave the in use; a rambling frame laboratory, oc-
job a boost. While early recruitment was cupied by Met Lab scientists; deep ex-
largely local, procurement was country- cavations in the plutonium separation
wide. From towns and cities in nearly area; foundations under way for two
every state, shipments converged on the Y-12 process buildings; a pump house
whistle-stops of Elza and Oliver Springs. and a filter plant rising near the Clinch
Freight cars jammed sidings for miles River—these were among the highpoints.
around and traffic clogged highways, as To Colonel Marshall, a frequent visitor,
thousands of tons of materials and hun- the job appeared to be going fairly well.
dreds of machines and vehicles flowed To Groves, who showed up every other
into the area. Materials bought by the week or so for a predawn parley and a
contractors, purchases made centrally rigid inspection, the pace seemed fast
by Colonel Sherrill, and surplus trans- but not nearly fast enough; he main-
ferred by Captain Rentenbach from other tained a steady drumbeat for greater
Corps jobs nearly swamped the project. speed.
Receiving and checking and distribu- Meanwhile, two thousand miles north-
tion were major operations. Labor gangs, west of Clinton, near the big bend of the
some composed entirely of Negro women, Columbia River, a second produc-
worked around-the-clock unloading, and tion complex—the Hanford Engineer
carpenters put up the first of fifty big Works—was coming under develop-
78
warehouses. ment. Groves' mid-January decision to
Spring found construction moving for- acquire 670 square miles of semiarid
ward amid rain and mud. Subcontrac- land in south central Washington had
tors' nameboards dotted the site—Clinton prompted brisk activity: subsurface ex-
Home Builders of Charlotte, Foster & plorations by the Seattle District; a power
Creighton Company of Nashville, Har- survey by Giroux and a site reconnais-
rison Construction Company of Pitts- sance by Zach; establishment by the
burgh, Transit-Mix Concrete Corpora- Portland District of a real estate office
at Prosser; large-scale purchases of ma-
78
(1) Williams Interv, 26 Sep 68. (2) Notes of terials and equipment by Colonel Sherrill
Conf, Groves, Lawrence, Lotz, et al., 24 Apr 43. MED and DuPont; calls from the Chief's of-
Files, 337 LC. (3) Thornburg, et al., "Men and
Materials," ENR, December 13, 1945, pp. 126-28. fice to the field for surplus steel, relay
(4) 411.5, 412.42, 413.8, andnda 453-3 (CEW). rail, electric wire, trucks, tractors, loco-
674 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
motives, and myriad other items; and and croplands along the winding river;
countless meetings in Washington, and the gray expanse of undulating
Wilmington, Chicago, and New York. tableland bounded on the south by the
By mid-March preliminaries were well Rattlesnake Hills. At evening sessions in
advanced. Temporary offices at the Gray Pasco, Groves reviewed the layout: three
Building in Pasco buzzed with new huge reactors spaced miles apart on the
arrivals: Colonel Matthias, who had right bank of the river; two chemical
volunteered for the post of area engineer; separation areas some distance to the
Lt. Col. Harry R. Kadlec, his highly south; a big construction camp at Han-
regarded deputy; Gilbert P. Church, ford; a plant for making uranium slugs
DuPont's project manager; Leslie S. and testing pile materials midway on
Grogan, his field superintendent; and the Richland-Hanford road; and a town
large supporting staffs. A petition in for operating personnel at Richland.
condemnation had sailed through the (Map 5) Meantime, at after-dinner meet-
Federal Court at Spokane; a hook-up ings with the real estate group at Prosser,
with the Bonneville-Coulee power grid O'Brien went over acquisition plans.
was in the works; arrangements were At Groves' suggestion, he kept two second-
firming up to restrict flights over the ary requirements in mind, minimum
area; the architect-engineer for the op- publicity for the project and maximum
erators village, G. A. Pehrson of Spokane, co-operation with the President's "Food
was ready to start work; and the general for Victory" program. With construction
layout for the entire project was falling planning barely begun, there was no
into place.79 need to bear down. Partly to soften
Late in March Groves and O'Brien owners' protests and partly to salvage
spent two days at the job, going over the growing crops, O'Brien told his men to
ground and settling details. With Church rely mainly on negotiation, hold off
and Matthias, they covered many miles; eviction notices as long as possible, and
northwest from Pasco to Richland, a let farmers and orchardmen bring in
hamlet nestled in the Y formed by the their harvests. Later, when bumper
conflux of the Yakima and the Colum- crops raised asking prices and sellers'
bia; then on over parched dirt roads, resistance stiffened, Groves regretted this
through wide stretches of sand and sage- leniency, for the Hanford acquisition
brush, to the villages of White Bluffs proved to be long and litigious.80
and Hanford. From a butte opposite As the magnitude of the construction
White Bluffs, above the blue Columbia, job became apparent, pressure began to
they commanded a good view of the mount. Planned on the same basic prin-
roughly circular site: the steep-faced ciples as the Clinton semiworks, the
Saddle Mountains on the northern rim; Hanford project was nonetheless for-
the narrow zone of irrigated orchards midably dissimilar; the 112-acre site in
79
(1) Matthias Diary, Feb-Mar 43. (2) 410, 411.5,
80
412.42, 451.2, and 453.7 (HEW). (3) Ltr, Matthias to (1) Matthias Diary, 24-25 Mar 43. (2) Memo,
OCE, 8 Mar 43. 413.8 (MDO). (4) Ltr, Matthias to O'Brien for Amberg, n.d. EHD Files, Leasing. (3)
authors, 28 Apr 64. (5) TWX, Marshall to Reybold, Groves, Now It Can Be Told, pp. 76-77. (4) Jones,
5 Mar 43. 210.3 (MDO). MANHATTAN, ch. VIII, pp. 44-88.
676 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
Bethel Valley was tiny compared with task of plant construction would start
the vast sweep of prairie north of Pasco, in the summer.81
and the Clinton pile's expected power Although dwarfed by Clinton and
output of 1,000 kilowatts shrank to insig- Hanford, other industrial construction
nificance beside the 250,000 kilowatts jobs were pressing and important. On
of each Hanford pile. There were other Colonel Marshall's crowded itinerary
marked differences also. Unlike the were Milwaukee, Wisconsin, where the
Clinton midget, the giant reactors at Allis-Chalmers Company was expanding
Hanford would be water-cooled, a cir- to manufacture pumps; Niagara Falls,
cumstance that raised such varied prob- New York, where the Electro Metal-
lems as rust prevention and streamlife lurgical Company was erecting facilities
preservation. The remoteness of the to cast uranium ingots; and spots in
Hanford tract was another exceptional Alabama, Colorado, Indiana, Iowa,
feature; since the nearest city of any size, Michigan, New Jersey, and West Vir-
Yakima, was 40 miles away, recruiting, ginia. Of the various auxiliary plants,
transporting, housing, and feeding the those for heavy water were perhaps most
workforce would take a lot of doing and noteworthy. The possibility of failure
so would keeping up morale. Massive with graphite piles dictated Groves'
industrial structures, heavily shielded to decision in November 1942 to augment
confine radiation and designed for opera- supplies of heavy water. At his request,
tion by remote control, a permanent town DuPont engineers took the matter in
for 17,000, a construction camp for hand. After weighing possible produc-
40,000, plus administration buildings, tion methods, including the electrolytic
depots, shops, laboratories, test facilities, process used at Trail, they backed dis-
pumping stations, filtration plants, and tillation as the surest and quickest,
hundreds of miles of roads, railroads, and though not the most economical. Soon
transmission lines—the scope of the un- plans were afoot for distillation units at
dertaking was impressive. The best way three Ordnance works having excess
to meet the challenge was to tackle it steam capacity, Morgantown, Alabama,
head-on. Bringing machinery and ma- and Wabash River, plus an electrolytic
terials from other Corps projects, re- finishing plant at Morgantown. A "horse-
cruiting labor throughout the northwest, back guess" put the cost at about $28
opening gravel pits and obtaining con- million. Started by DuPont in January
crete batch plants, establishing bus con- and February 1943, the projects raced
nections with nearby towns, erecting to meet close deadlines—partial opera-
tion by mid-summer and final comple-
barracks and tents at Hanford, inaugu-
tion by the end of the year.82 With many
rating food service, letting contracts for 81
(1) Franklin T. Matthias, "Building the Han-
Richland Village, studying how to safe- ford Plutonium Plant," ENR, December 13, 1945,
guard the Columbia River salmon, and pp. 118-24. (2) Matthias Diary, Apr-May 43.
82
(1) Hewlett and Anderson, The New World, pp.
pushing "hard and fast" on roads and 292-94 and 104. (2) MD Hist, Book III. (3) Ltr,
railroads—all these activities proceeded DuPont to Groves, 17 Mar 43, and Incl. MED
during the spring of 1943. By May, 1,300 Files, 600.12 (P-9). (4) Memo, Nichols for Groves,
17 May 43, and related docs. MED Files, 161. (5)
men were at work. With luck, the main Interv with Harry S. Traynor, 7 Nov 68.
ATOMIC MISSION 677
are," Groves replied. "Who gives the gressional probe into land acquisition.
orders?" "You do." Nevertheless, as Another was administrative: a per-
time went on, the general exerted more sonality clash between George and
and more authority. At one point, Williams, in part smoothed over after
Marshall told him, "There is no need Blair took command of Clinton on 15
for both of us here; I want out." Groves May and George became his construc-
demurred, but finally agreed: "O.K., at tion officer.86 But these problems, how-
the first opportunity." Absorbed in his ever vexing, were relatively minor. The
work, Marshall soon forgot the con- really big ones flowed from the com-
versation; and, apparently, so did Groves. plexities of the engineering task.
The two men pegged along, disagreeing Foundations for the Y-12 process
occasionally, but never reaching an buildings proved to be a rugged under-
impasse. Too big to harbor grudges, taking. From the beginning, some dif-
they pushed toward their common goal.85 ficulty seemed inevitable. "Everybody
Both kept an anxious eye on Clinton, knew the place was faulted," Williams
a healthy project on the whole, but not pointed out; and because of the many
immune to trouble. By May 1943 the heavy magnets, load concentrations
job was bounding ahead. The atmos- would be quite high and permissible
phere was one of challenge and excite- settlement, practically zero. With due
ment, and the spirit was enthusiastic. precaution, Stone & Webster mobilized
The construction camp was filling up, a crack team of foundation engineers,
as recruiting centers throughout the captained by Lynnwood Kerr, one of
South funneled workers to the site. A the best men in the business.87 Early in
ten-hour shift and a partial second shift 1943 Kerr sent William F. Swiger, a
kept equipment running from dawn to young Harvard-trained soils technolo-
dusk, and unloading crews grappled with gist, down from Boston to take core-
hundreds of incoming freight cars. Three borings and dig test pits. On the north
thousand houses were under construc- side of Bear Creek Valley, Swiger found
tion on Black Oak Ridge, and water underground formations of Conosauga
and sewer lines were advancing at the shale, an excellent support for heavy
rate of one mile per day. In the Y-12 structures. On the south side, where the
area, dozens of structures, among them main process buildings were to go, he
a recently authorized Beta process build- came upon less favorable conditions:
ing, were going up, and the development uptilted beds of deeply weathered lime-
plant, started in mid-April, was already stone. After rejecting several alterna-
roofed. The plutonium semiworks was tives, Kerr adopted a procedure which
right on schedule. Good progress not-
withstanding, the job produced its share 86
(1) Interv with Edward J. Bloch, 13 Nov 68.
of headaches. Two were political: a (2) G. E. Crosby and P. B. Streander, "Water Supply
and Sewage Works for the Atomic Bomb City,"
strained relationship with the Governor ENR, December 13, 1945, p. 154. (3) Traynor
of Tennessee and an impending con- Interv, 7 Nov 68. (4) Williams Interv, 26 Sep 68.
(5) Ltr, Blair to authors, 24 Jan 1969. (6) 601.1
(CEW) II. (7) Ltr, Marshall to Blair, 5 Jul 43. 161
85
(1) Marshall Interv, 19 Apr 68. (2) Nichols (CEW).
87
Interv, 18 Feb 64. Williams Interv, 26 Sep 68.
680 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
worked nicely for the first two Alpha barriers or membranes with countless
buildings: stripping the surface, grouting submicroscopic holes, pumps and seals
seams and joints, and founding footings of revolutionary design, new coolants
on this "dental work." When exca- and lubricants, corrosion-proof materials,
vating crews removed the overburden vacuum tightness, surgical cleanliness,
at the site of Alpha III, he faced crueler and watchmakers' tolerances were items
obstacles: irregular boulders up to 30 in the engineer conspectus. Moreover,
feet in diameter, lodged closely together the Columbia scientists, at odds with
and imbedded in soft clay. "Here," he one another, inspired Groves with far
wrote, "was real trouble, so serious that less confidence than the ebullient
time and labor expended in attempting Lawrence team or the coolly competent
to excavate to suitable foundations only Met Lab group. Bright spots in the pic-
made conditions appear more hopeless." ture were "Dobie" Keith and his
Eventually, he opted for an unorthodox "can-do" associates, whose initial prog-
method, a military engineer's expedient ress was reassuring, and the Union
proposed by Groves. Leaving the rock Carbide engineers, who were moving
where it was, he flushed out the muck into operational planning. As develop-
with firehoses and then poured a heavy ment of component parts went forward
concrete mat, two to three feet deep in (soon the barrier remained the chief
some spots, eight feet in others, which unsolved riddle) and as construction
amalgamated the whole mass into one drawings multiplied (the total would
firm solid base. Conventional engineer- eventually reach 12,000), Groves made
ing or not, the trick succeeded. The job a bold commitment. In mid-May
was well and swiftly done.88 Marshall signed a letter contract with
When earthmovers started work in the J. A. Jones Construction Company
Happy Valley on June 2d, the atomic for the largest steam-electric power plant
project passed another milestone. Picked ever built. Within a fortnight, Jones'
by the Lewis Committee as the method men were on the scene.
most likely to succeed, gaseous diffu- High-geared and high-priced, the
sion—K-25 in code—was also the most power plant project exemplified the
disheartening. Based on Graham's Law, don't-spare-the-horses spirit of MED.
the process was beautifully simple in Scheduled for completion in 10 months,
theory—when uranium hexafluoride gas the $185-million generating station was
was pumped against porous membranes, an added safeguard, another hedge
the lighter U-235 molecules would tend against misfortune. The decision to build
to pass through more easily than the it rested on the scientists' belief, later
heavier U-238—but making it work proved unfounded, that a momentary
industrially was a herculean labor. Thou- outage would shut down K-25 produc-
sands of separation stages, millions of tion for many weeks and also on the
kilowatts of electricity, unique metallic reasoning that since TVA current, com-
ing by wire, was subject to interruption
88
Lynnwood Kerr and Paul Brown, "Process by storms and sabotage, locally generated
Buildings Over Faulted Rock," ENR, December 13,
1945, pp. 129-31. See also Ltr, William F. Swiger to current was a necessity. A difficult under-
authors, 18 Nov 68; and Groves Interv, 11 Feb 64. taking at best, construction of the plant
ATOMIC MISSION 681
was rendered more difficult by unfavor- the ratio of skilled to common labor was
able site conditions and wartime short- far too high—hampered operations. But
ages. By bringing in top-notch subcon- despite drawbacks, construction moved
tractors, among them the A. S. Shulman ahead. Experienced subcontractors rein-
Electric Company of Chicago and The forced DuPont: among them, Guy F.
Foundation Company of New York; by Atkinson of San Francisco, Twaits-
commandeering boilers and turbines in- Morrison-Knudsen of Los Angeles,
tended for Commonwealth Edison's new and Hankee-James-Zahniser & Warren
Fiske Street Station in Chicago; and by of St. Paul. Additions to project staffs
vigorous expediting, MED leaders helped strengthened management and a stream
the cause along. Within a short time, of visitors from Chicago, Wilmington,
the job was booming.89 Assigned to and Washington gave advice and sup-
Clinton in late July as K-25 construc- port. By mid-summer preparations were
tion officer, Maj. William P. Cornelius virtually complete and shovels were
found the powerhouse "fairly well es- scooping out foundations for the piles.91
tablished."90 Abruptly, on 20 July 1943, the Man-
The same vim was evident at Hanford, hattan District underwent a change in
which was fast taking on the atmosphere leadership. Colonel Marshall was in the
of a wild West frontier town. An inten- Governor's office at Nashville, when a
sive recruitment program, launched in rush call came through to him from
the spring of 1943, had unexpectedly Groves. "Congratulations," said the gen-
quick results. Barred from the industrial eral and blurted out the news: Marshall
areas of Washington and Oregon by the was getting a brigadier's star and going
War Manpower Commission, DuPont to command Camp Sutton; Nichols was
agents fanned out through the Great taking over as district engineer. Shocked
Plains, enlisting hundreds of workers each and indignant, Marshall concluded, de-
week. Coping with the influx of new em- spite Groves' denials, that he was being
ployees—a total of nearly 10,000 in May, fired. General Reybold soon put the
June, and July—kept Church and matter to him in a different light: noting
Matthias on the go. Providing room and that Marshall was overdue for a well-
board was an especially arduous task, deserved promotion and that his current
since local custom demanded that men post did not call for one, the Chief had
bunk two to a room and have table serv- asked Groves to release him.92 In a
ice at meals. Maintaining order and touching message, Marshall bade fare-
arousing enthusiasm were no easy mat- well to MED:
ters. Many of the workers were rough My change in assignment has come about
and tough and far from the restraining through no desire for such a change on my
influences of family and friends. Brawling, part. . . .1 feel that we have the finest
drunkenness, and thievery in the bar-
racks called for dexterous handling. 91
(1) Matthias Diary, May-Sep 43. (2) Groves
Moreover, an unbalanced workforce— Interv, 11 Feb 64. (3) Ltr, DuPont Explosives Dept
to Nichols, 4 May 43. MED Files. 161 (DuPont).
89 92
John D. Watson, "Building a Power Plant in (1) Marshall, Office Diary, 20 July 43. EHD
10 Months," ENR, December 13, 1945, pp. 141-44. Files. (2) Marshall Interv, 19 Apr 68. (3) Groves,
90
Interv with Col William P. Cornelius, 15 Nov 68. Now It Can Be Told, p. 29.
682 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
organization in the Corps of Engineers, onepurchasing; Stone & Webster paid out
that the Chief of Engineers and others in a total of $260,000,000 to vendors and
authority familiar with our work know is DuPont's Hanford field office alone
doing a fine job . . . . The district has
a long task ahead of it, but I know that a placed 42,000 orders. Even so, many
continuation of the wholehearted efforts essentials came courtesy of the Corps:
being put forth by all of you . . . will the Central Procuring Agency bought
produce the results expected by the War 80 percent of the lumber and the bulk
Department. of the rail and reinforcing steel; districts
93
Adios.
and divisions unearthed divers hard-to-
His departure gave Groves a freer hand. get items; and most construction ma-
Almost immediately, district headquar- chinery was recaptured surplus. While
ters moved from New York to Tennes- hundreds of expediters helped speed
see, a switch the general had long urged deliveries, the prime troubleshooter was
on Marshall. Although most stayed on, Captain Johnson of the Washington
some members of the old guard left for Liaison Office. Manhattan's assigned
overseas and men of Groves' own stamp priority, AA-3 until March 1943 and
came in to replace them. Going out of AA-2x thereafter, though effective or-
channels became more or less routine. dinarily, often proved too low. At least
Informal and unmilitary, the system 50 calls for help reached Johnson every
worked successfully because the officers week. With the super triple-A rating,
involved were more intent on getting the always in reserve, he could, and re-
job done than on asserting prerogatives. peatedly did, edge out competing war
In particular, Nichols' forbearance won programs. "We were notorious for rob-
the admiration of associates. To many of bing people," said Nichols. Victims,
them the smooth, level-headed, thor- unable to fathom the atomic secret, com-
oughly competent young officer was the plained bitterly. Soothing "gripes on
hero of the piece. interference caused by our work" be-
In both the widely separated areas came one of Johnson's routine duties,
which were the principal scene of its and, occasionally, Groves, Patterson,
mysterious construction activities, the or Stimson had to damp down discon-
Manhattan District faced similar basic tent.94 Strained and stringent though it
problems, differing in detail, but alike was, the procurement effort succeeded.
in the complications caused by wartime One way or another, the Army and its
scarcities. Mere statistics spoke volumes; contractors kept the crucial projects well
combined requirements for Clinton and supplied.
Hanford included 360,000,000 board Manpower, not matériel, was the
feet of lumber, 1,200,000 cubic yards of agonizing headache. At the peak of
concrete, more than 75,000 tons of construction, Hanford employed 45,000
structural steel, and 22,500 pieces of workers; Clinton, 47,000. With millions
equipment. Contractors did most of the
94
(1) Ltr, Johnson to Marshall, 16 Mar 43. MED
Files. 201 (General). (2) Nichols Interv, 18 Feb 64.
93
Ltr, Marshall to All Employees, 23 Jul 43. EHD (3) WPB Files. 411.33 (Constr Projects-Mil). (4)
Files. MED Files. 400.1301 (Priority).
ATOMIC MISSION 683
in the armed services and in defense views, and more. These measures helped
plants, mustering these forces was no subdue unrest but could not dispel it.96
mean feat. Although contractors did Progress surveys in the fall of 1943
most of the brush beating, Engineers showed much good work accomplished
also played an influential role. Colonel but much more still to do. At Hanford
Barker's dedicated efforts earned Groves' the first pile building, a massive, window-
encomium: "a key man to the success less cube, was rising from the desert amid
of the undertaking."95 Full co-operation a jumble of related structures; parts of
from war manpower authorities, all-out the fabrication and testing center were
support from leaders of the building already in use; two large excavations,
trades, timely wage boosts in critically abandoned temporarily for want of
short crafts, and diplomatic arbitration manpower, told where the separation
of disputes were among his contribu- plants would stand; the sprawling con-
tions. Other loyal helpers were General struction camp, a patchwork of bar-
Robins, who pressed the district en- racks, tents, and trailers, could accom-
gineers into service as recruiters, and modate 13,000 persons; and Richland,
Lt. Col. Edward A. Brown, Jr., of OCE, the white collar village, was home to
who assisted in forming elite Special several hundred families. At Clinton,
Engineer Detachments, made up of where Crenshaw had succeeded Blair,
technically educated GI's, to take over a great deal of construction was in place.
scientific chores for which civilians were The community of Oak Ridge, named
unobtainable. Barely less troublesome by Colonel Marshall, was a rapidly
than problems of recruitment were prob- growing city, managed by the newly
lems of stability and morale. Turnover formed Roane-Anderson Company. La-
was abnormally high at both Clinton bor camps flourished at three locations,
and Hanford; many weeks new hires did and development of utilities, roads, and
little more than match dropouts. Ab- railroads was proceeding apace. The
senteeism was flagrant and discontent semiworks was nearing completion and
was widespread. Gripes commonly heard would produce its first plutonium, a tiny
at construction camps could not explain amount but enough to experiment with,
the situation; but some observers felt before the end of the year. The Y-12
that secrecy could. In the dark as to end project was going like a house afire. Many
products, workers tended to view the minor structures were in service and the
plants as colossal boondoggles. A desire first Alpha racetrack was undergoing
for war work was a frequent reason for trial runs. Far behind the other processes,
quitting. Nichols' labor relations man, K-25 was the longshot in the race for
Lt. Col. Curtis A. Nelson, applied every bomb stuff; not until September did
known remedy—appeals from Reybold 96
(1) Ltr, Robins to Div and Dist Engrs, 26 Oct
and Robins, patriotic posters and Army 43. 600.1 (MDO) (Labor) Part 1. (2) 220.3 (MDO).
displays, recreation and entertainment (3) 320.22 (MDO). (4) 600.1 (CEW) (Labor).
programs, complaint periods, exit inter- (5) 600.i (HEW) (Labor). (6) Message, Robins to
Workers at CEW, 25 Nov 43. 330.11 (CEW). (7)
Message, Reybold to Men and Women of CEW,
95
Groves Interv, 11 Feb 64. 10 Feb 44. 201.21 (CEW).
684 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
excavation for the main gaseous dif- the scientists' toes, they would have just
fusion plant get under way. Two de- run wild with little changes." As the
cisions around that time eased the pres- first process building neared completion
sure on K-25 and tightened the squeeze in September 1943, Stone & Webster
on Y-12. Encouraged by recent improve- fought a tough bout, unscrambling equip-
ments in Lawrence's method and know- ment delivered out of sequence and
ing that the final, upper stage of K-25 rushing installation. With masons still
would require tremendous engineering at work on the opposite end of the
efforts, Groves resolved, first, to use dif- structure, cranemen hoisted the heavy
fusion to carry separation only part way magnets into place and specially trained
and, second, to double the size of the mechanics began final assembly of the
electromagnetic plant.97 Asked after- number one racetrack. When the power
wards how he reacted to this news, was turned on in mid-October, project
Cortlandt Williams pointed to a small leaders received a hard blow. During
bronze figure of Sisyphus at his incessant trial runs, the 14-ton vacuum tanks crept
labor. inches out of line and, more serious, the
Scientifically the least elegant of all magnet coils showed a tendency to
the processes and industrially the least ground. Baffling at first, the mystery of
efficient, Y-12 put constructors through the tanks cleared up when someone re-
a cruel ordeal. Embracing more than 160 membered Maxwell's Third Equation;
separate buildings and a still crude obedient to the laws of physics, the oval
technology, the plant construction job, racetrack was trying to pop out into a
in Williams' phrase, was the "most circle. Anchored securely, the tanks
complicated ever." The killing pace, the stayed put. The mystery of the coils
novel industrial equipment, and the proved harder to fathom. Not until
ultra high standards of workmanship 5 December, when Groves ordered a
were harrowing enough, but variable magnet broken open, was the cause
plans were even worse. As researchers at apparent: Major Kelley reached in and
Berkeley scored repeated breakthroughs, scooped out rust and scale by the handful.
engineers at Clinton strove frantically to Grumbling about inexcusable careless-
stabilize design. Because electromagnetic ness, his own as well as others', Groves
separation was a batch method, design ordered drastic action: tear down the
could be frozen by units or groups of racetrack and send the magnets back to
units, and Groves soon insisted on doing the factory for cleaning and rebuilding;
so despite Lawrence's rebuke: "That's erect a pickling plant and pickle every
the stupidest thing I've heard yet."98 piece of pipe; install filters and do what-
Contending that successive freezes made ever else was necessary to eliminate con-
the difference between "chaos and ability taminants from the system.99 The job
to get the job done," unit chief Kelley was in critical straits, and these were dark
explained: "Had Groves not stepped on days for the Y-12 team.
Brighter days were slow in coming,
97
(1) Hewlett and Anderson, The New World, pp.
215-16, 219, and 159-61. (2) Matthias Diary, Sep-
99
Nov 43. (3) Robinson, Oak Ridge Story, p. 50 ff. (1) Interv with Dr. Wilbur E. Kelley, 14 Oct 68.
98
Williams Interv, 26 Sep 68. (2) Groves, Now It Can Be Told, pp. 103-06.
ATOMIC MISSION 685
as ill luck dogged the enterprise and country, stayed on. Meantime, appar-
morale sagged. Electrical failures, me- ently to take the heat off, Stone &
chanical breakdowns, shortages of spare Webster hired Frank R. Creedon, who
parts, and many minor hitches and had left the Construction Division in
delays hampered round-the-clock efforts late 1942 to join the synthetic rubber
to get the second racetrack running. program, as resident manager at Clinton.
Using a favorite technique, Groves tried Brusque and bearish, Creedon offended
to revitalize the project by injecting new the suave company executives, and even-
blood. Lt. Col. John S. Hodgson, a tually matters reached a point where he
prominent contractor in civil life, re- or Cortlandt Williams had to go.
placed George as construction officer, Williams went. Rating Creedon's per-
and Maj. Walter J. Williams, who had formance as "miraculous," Groves cred-
a brilliant record on big Ordnance plant ited the hard-driving methods they both
jobs, took charge of the original Y-12 espoused.100 Miracles worked by any
area. The recently appointed head of 100
Ltr, Groves to Creedon, 17 Feb 45. MED
the Y-12 extension, Maj. Mark C. Fox, Files. 201.22 (Ltrs of Appreciation and Commenda-
one of the best area engineers in the tion).
686 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
means were welcome at Y-12, for fresh J. A. Jones began the main separation
obstacles loomed at almost every turn. plant in September 1943, about the
One was especially forbidding. By the same time that Ford, Bacon & Davis of
spring of 1944 several racetracks were New York broke ground in the condi-
in operation, but much of their product tioning area. Both firms placed ace men
remained inside trapped in tubes and in charge: company executive Edwin
piping or buried in the mess of dust and L. Jones headed the Jones setup; and
metal flakes that splattered vacuum tank Charles C. Whittlesey, who had just
walls. Concentrating on the physics of completed a $60,000,000 synthetic rub-
separation, Lawrence had given too ber plant at Charleston, West Virginia,
little attention to the chemistry of re- was project manager for Ford, Bacon &
covery. Dismantling the calutrons every Davis. The job demanded all their ex-
week or two and scouring or scraping pertise, for it raised many perplexing
their parts upped the yield somewhat problems that "called for excursion far
but not greatly. Assaults on the problem into the unknown."103 The contractors
were nightmares of frustration, of testing adopted striking innovations, for in-
one design and then another, installing stance, streamlined methods of surveying,
pipe by the mile and then ripping it out dropped-in caissons for the powerhouse
again. Weeks went into months and still substructure, compacted fill foundations
there was no answer.101 Twinkling over for the separation plant, and temporary
his understatement, Groves reminisced, partitions and movable electric substa-
"It wasn't easy to bring the magnet tions to give the conditioning plant
around."102 built-in flexibility. All the same, the
Bringing around gaseous diffusion was project was a grind. "Clean as a sur-
no cinch, either. The main K-25 process geon's forceps" and "vacuum tight as
building, a four-story U-shaped affair a thermos bottle" were phrases Jones
measuring more than one mile from end and Whittlesey would not soon forget.
to end, was the largest in the whole Devising adequate cleanliness controls,
Manhattan Project. Small by com- evolving special welding techniques, and
parison, but a major undertaking in developing leak detection tests were
itself, was the so-called "conditioning" taxing assignments. And waits for plans
plant which would thoroughly clean all from Kellex were nerve-wracking ex-
parts and preassemble process units. periences. Patience, ingenuity, and hard
With the great steam-electric power- work had results. By the spring of 1944,
house, laboratories, shops, labor camps, Cornelius could report steam in the
and other appurtenances, K-25 covered powerhouse boilers, part of the con-
nearly eight square miles. Already at ditioning plant in operation, and, on the
work on roads, railroads, and utilities, main plant, foundations in, steel frame-
work going up, and crews at work on the
101
(1) Hewlett and Anderson, The New World, first separation stages. But barriers, the
pp. 163-64 and 294-96. (2) Groueff, Manhattan
Project, pp. 236-37. (3) Kelley Interv, 14 Oct 68.
(4) Leslie R. Groves, "Development of the Atomic
103
Bomb," The Military Engineer, June 1946, p. 237. Groves, "Development of the Atomic Bomb,"
102
Groves Interv, 11 Feb 64. The Military Engineer, June 1946, p. 237.
ATOMIC MISSION 687
FIRST PILE AREA AT HANFORD, WASHINGTON, JUNE 1944. Pile building is at right center.
Oak Ridge was already the fifth largest him was the thought of a longer war and
city in Tennessee and Richland was longer casualty lists. Most men would
almost as big as Walla Walla. Still, the have cracked under such pressure. For-
ultimate goal was a long way off. The tunately, Groves was not the worrying
only major plant in operation was a type, and never, even inwardly, did he
painfully slow producer and the other lose heart. Faithful to the Corps motto,
two were question marks. Time was "Essayons," he kept trying. "There was
growing short; D-day in Europe had only one thing to do," he said, "do our
come and gone and the tentative date best and that we did."109
for invading Japan was October 1945. When he found a steep path straight
Failure to fulfill the MED mission— ahead, he detoured along a route re-
to perfect the weapon and use it stra- jected as impracticable early in the race
tegically against the enemy—would, for the bomb. On the day of his appoint-
Groves knew, trigger a congressional 109
Groves, Speech before the nth Armored Div,
investigation to end all congressional 16 Aug 47. MED Files. 201 (Groves, L. R., Lt. Gen.)
investigations. Far more disturbing to (Misc.).
ATOMIC MISSION 689
ment in September 1942, he had visited sufficient to provide the necessary steam.
the Naval Research Laboratory in Wash- No one at that time thought of carrying
ington to learn what he could about the process only part way. In June 1944
liquid thermal diffusion, a separation such a thought occurred to Oppenheimer.
process under development there. View- Telephoning Groves, he suggested in the
ing the apparatus, a tall, externally double talk they always used that they
cooled tube with a steam heated cylinder had missed the boat; a small thermal dif-
inside, he was unimpressed. True, the fusion plant could produce enriched
experimental model seemed to work; feed which would double the yield of
but a full-scale plant was unthinkable. Y-12.110 "Absolutely right," Groves
Its cost would be at least two billion promptly agreed; the big question was
dollars, and so insatiable would be its "how fast can we build it." After check-
appetite for fuel that the output of all
the country's coal mines might be in- 110
Groves, Now It Can Be Told, pp. 23 and 119-20.
690 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
ing the Navy's progress, he brought in thermal diffusion plant, code-named
the H. K. Ferguson Company as AEM. S-50 and known locally as the "Fox
Then he sent for Colonel Fox, handed farm," the pace was breakneck; for
him the project, and deliberately pro- example, structural steel was taken off
voked his rage in order to extract from one day, ordered the next, and rolled
him the utmost in effort. On the crucial the third. At Hanford the pace was
point of completion time, Groves stated literally killing; early in July the deputy
that the job could be finished in six area engineer, Colonel Kadlec, died of a
months, to which Fox assented, where- heart attack, an apparent victim of
upon Groves came back with the breath- strain and pressure. Likening the con-
taking dictum: "I'm not going to give struction workers to combat soldiers,
you six months; you have to do it in Patterson summed up the MED credo:
three."111 Bitter in his reaction, Fox de- every day saved in getting the job done
nounced Groves as a "double-crosser" would shorten the war by at least one
114
and complained to Nichols, "This is day.
impossible."112 Groves never let up. Remaining obstacles toppled one by
Terming the three-month deadline "rea- one. Phenomenal exertions by manu-
sonable," he wrote to Fox: "I think you facturing firms culminated as shipments
can beat it."113 of vital parts reached Clinton: zirconium
Renewed determination infused the insulators, which signaled the end of
whole atomic project. Insistent appeals Y-12 electrical failures, from the Coors
to war manpower and war production Porcelain Company; 48-foot copper and
authorities earned MED first call nation- nickel columns, the principal items of
wide on labor and an AA-1 priority on S-50 process equipment, from the
materials. Dismantling operations at sur- Mehring & Hanson and Grinnell Com-
plus munitions plants released hard-to- panies; nickel-plated, corrosion-proof
get components. Furloughs for plumbers pipe, essential for K-25, from the labora-
in the armed services and extra induce- tories of Blasius Bart, developer of the
ments for civilian electricians eased Corps' metal mirror searchlights; and,
shortages in critical trades. Enlisted most happily, the first diffusion barriers,
strength of the Special Engineer De- from Houdaille-Hershey's Decatur plant,
tachments soared to more than 3,100 built originally for one process and
men. Construction surged ahead at recently converted to another. A two-
Clinton in the summer of 1944, as year effort by DuPont to can uranium at
37,000 workers pushed the two main last bore fruit; aluminum-jacketed slugs
separation plants toward completion and would be ready when the time came to
builders in the town of Oak Ridge as- load the Hanford piles. Construction,
sembled hundreds of new-model pre-
114
fabricated houses. At the recently begun (1) MED 400.1301 (Priority). (2) 400.225
(CEW). (3) Groves, Now It Can Be Told, pp. 99-102.
(4) 600.1 (HEW) (Labor) I. (5) 220.3 (MDO).
111
Groves Interv, 11 Feb 64. See also Memo, (6) Lt. Col. Mark C. Fox, "Thermal Diffusion Plant
Nichols for Groves, 11 Oct 44. MED Files, 337 LC. Built Rapidly," ENR, December 13, 1945, p. 133. (7)
112
Interv with Col Mark C. Fox, 19 Mar 69. Matthias Diary, 2 July 44. (8) Message, Patterson to
113
Ltr, Groves to Fox, 3 Jul 44. MD Hist, Book VI, Men and Women of Hanford, 10 July 44. MED
Appendix D1. Harrison-Bundy 80-MD Proj.
ATOMIC MISSION 691
uranium gas through the first stages of living conditions, cloak-and-dagger se-
the cascade revealed defects in pumps curity, the ever-present uniforms, and an
which required last-minute modifica- almost eerie atmosphere, coupled with
tion. While trial runs were under way the great practical difficulties of pro-
at other plants, Y-12 came into its own. ducing the bomb, kept the scientists on
Aided by Ruhoff, who swapped jobs with edge. For the officers who commanded
Kelley in September 1944, Tennessee there, the post was a sore trial. The
Eastman engineers had whipped the construction men who toiled there knew
bugs out of the chemical purification the place as "The Hectic Hill of the
processes. By March 1945, all plants Sun God."
were in operation, production was on Even by MED standards the setup
the rise, and bulk quantities of bomb on the Hill was strange. A scientific
stuff were in prospect.118 laboratory operated by the University
At Clinton and Hanford all was ending of California and an Army installation
well. The final, climactic scenes of the under the Chief of Engineers, Los Alamos
atomic drama would take place else- had two heads, a civilian director, Dr.
where. Oppenheimer, and a commanding of-
ficer, initially Colonel Harman.120 The
dividing line between them, tolerably
clear in theory, was in fact somewhat
Most secret and sensitive of all MED blurred, for both had a hand in security
projects, Los Alamos or Zia was also and both were concerned with welfare
the most turbulent.119 Conceived as an and morale. On paper, neither at first
ivory-towered physical laboratory with had anything to do with construction,
a staff of 150 scientists and technicians, which was the province of the Santa Fe
the remote mountain hideaway devel- Area, established for the purpose at
oped by rapid fits and starts into a Groves' request by the Albuquerque
quasi-military compound jammed with District; but actually both entered into
7,000 people whose purpose embraced it. What was even more anomalous, the
ordnance, metallurgy, and engineering project lay outside normal channels of
as well as physics. Perched high on the command. Deeming secrecy most vital
Pajarito Plateau, amid a scenic wilder- there, Groves sealed off Los Alamos from
ness, the mesa smouldered with discon- the rest of MED. Leaving only routine
tent. Crises were recurrent and intense. administrative matters to Marshall and
An out-of-the-way location, improvised Nichols, he ran the show himself. "You
plans, wartime shortages, and a never- might say," he stated, "that Los Alamos
changing deadline—"as soon as possible" was right under my thumb all the
—made construction hard going. Austere time."121 Few details were too small to
interest him, and his often quick de-
118
(1) Hewlett and Anderson, The New World, cisions were authoritative. Likened by
pp. 299-300. (2) Kelley Interv, 14 Oct 68.
119 120
Unless otherwise indicated the following section (1) Ltr, Groves to Somervell, 27 Feb 43. MED
is based on MD Hist, Book VIII; and USEO, 322 (Los Alamos). (2) Groves, Now It Can Be Told,
Albuquerque, N. M., Zia Project, Compl Rpt,1 PP. 53-54.
121
Dec 43, and Supplement, 1 Apr 44. Groves Interv, 11 Feb 64.
694 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
one resident to "an absentee landlord, heimer found the general waiting for
mysterious and unseen,"122 Groves ex- them miffed because they were five
ercised control by means of frequent minutes late.125 Groves' impatience was
visits and constant telephone calls. infectious. Referring to the breakneck
For M. Eugene Sundt, as for Oppen- pace at other war projects, Shepard's
heimer, the winter of 1942-1943 "had assistant, Capt. James A. Loughridge,
hardly hours enough to get Los Alamos said, "But this was even faster."126
established."123 While the physicist "A terrible job, involving many dif-
combed the nation's campuses, seeking ficulties," was Groves' capsule summary
recruits for "Oppie's army" and begging of Zia project.127 Nearly all the familiar
or borrowing laboratory gear, the con- wartime problems plagued constructors
tractor's project manager sped prepara- on the Hill—manpower shortages, sup-
tions at the site. Arriving at Santa Fe on ply bottlenecks, shipping snarl-ups, and
1December, Sundt began a whirlwind the like; and these Sundt took in stride.
buildup, renting space at 215 Water But some of his troubles were highly
Street, cornering local materials markets, unusual. Access to the site was limited at
transferring men and equipment from a first. At the headmaster's insistence,
nearly completed company job at Camp Secretary Stimson agreed to let the
Luna near Las Vegas, staking out a Ranch School finish out the term. Until
thousand-man construction camp, and classes ended in late January, faculty and
sending for his uncle, an architect, to students were in the workmen's way.
set up a drafting room and start cranking Planning was spasmodic and sometimes
out plans. No sooner had the area en- slipshod. Change orders to the contract
gineer, Capt. Hubert L. Shepard, opened came thick and fast, 70 in 11 months;
shop in the Bishop Building on 9 De- and scientists with little engineering
cember than Sundt had him tracking sense masterminded designs for technical
down generators, pumps, boilers, and buildings.128 The worst headache by far
other scarce items.124 When Willard C. was transport. From the railhead at
Kruger & Associates of Santa Fe signed Santa Fe, the haul was 35 miles by one
on as architect-engineers in late De- backcountry route and 46 by another.
cember, bulldozers were already roaring The last eight-mile stretch was a trucker's
up and down the mesa scooping out nightmare, a hazardous climb up a
roads and foundations. Among Kruger's narrow, unpaved, cliffside road, with
early recollections of the job was an en- hairpin turns and grades up to 14 per-
counter with Groves; early one morning,
125
after working until two or three o'clock (1) Peggy Pond Church, The House at Otowi
Bridge (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico
the night before, Kruger and Oppen- Press, 1959), p. 83. (2) M. E. Sundt, Zia Project
Notes (MS), 1969. EHD Files.
126
Interv with Col James A. Loughridge, 28 Jun
122
Bernice Brode, "Tales of Los Alamos," LASL 68.
127
Community News, June 16, 1960, p. 6. Groves Interv, 11 Feb 64.
123 128
AEG, Oppenheimer Hearings, p. 12. (1) Ltr, Stimson to A. J. Connell, 1 Dec 42.
124
(1) Ltr, J. K. S. Walter to M. E. Sundt, 15 EHD Files. (2) Ltr, Shepard to M. M. Sundt Constr
Mar 69. EHD Files. (2) F. E. Baumer, Los Alamos, Co., 1 Jan 43. EHD Files. (3) Contract W-911-
1943 (MS), 1969. EHD Files. (3) Interv with M. 911-eng-1667, 5 Dec 42, and supplements. (4) Groueff,
Eugene Sundt, 4 Feb 69. Manhattan Project, pp. 197-98.
ATOMIC MISSION 695
cent; "not a road but an obstacle course," hired his own architect, Bernis E. Brazier,
Sundt pronounced it.129 Vehicles took a to design a school.132 The technical area
merciless beating. Only "by the Grace became a scene of conflict, as scientists
of God and an abundance of welding rod, occupied laboratories that were still
ingenuity, and baling wire," said one under construction. Some mornings,
company official, was the maintenance craftsmen would arrive for work to find
problem "ever solved."130 Through God's entries barred and Sundt's superinten-
Grace and man's improvisation ("They dent would swear "like a sailor" over
called us 'substitute and laminate,' " time lost.133 Colonel Harman soon clashed
Sundt remembered), other problems got with Oppenheimer. With the arrival
solved, too. Spring found the once lovely of 250 troops, Engineers and MP's, and
mesa strangely transformed by drab the formation of a most unmilitary town
apartment units, bleak TO barracks, council, the rift widened. On visits to
makeshift laboratories, and forbidding Groves' office Oppenheimer learned to
chain-link fences. The job was generally know Lt. Col. Whitney Ashbridge, a
ahead of schedule and by mid-May com- Philadelphia patrician, MIT graduate,
pletion seemed assured. and Corps Reservist, who had attended
Discord racked the infant community. the Ranch School. In May, when
Hustled to New Mexico ahead of time, Oppenheimer suggested that Ashbridge
several hundred civilians converged on be assigned to Harman's staff, Groves
Los Alamos between mid-March and went him one better. On the 31st
early May. Their first reactions ranged Ashbridge began a tension-filled, 18-
from indignation to despair. Mindful month tour as commanding officer on
134
that war demanded sacrifices, Groves had the Hill.
decreed no frills. "These scientists will With the new commander came or-
like anything you build for them," he ders to expand. Added missions—bomb
told Marshall. "Put up some barracks. stuff purification and ordnance-ballis-
They will think they are pioneers out tics work—and corollary staff increases
here in the Far West."131 Like it the spurred a topsy-like growth. Housing
scientists did not. Paper-thin walls, in- for a population that would double,
adequate wiring, and old-fashioned cook- redouble, and double again before the
stoves; no sidewalks, no telephones, no end of the year, enlarged water and
gas, no bathtubs except in the group of power supplies, a modern 8-room school,
Ranch School houses christened "Bath- an air conditioned and dustproof chemi-
tub Row," and, worse, no school. One cal-metallurgical laboratory, and a
wife wept when she saw her new home; proving ground at Anchor Ranch a few
another bolder woman reportedly chal- miles to the south were major features of
lenged Groves to prepare dinner on her
"Black Beauty" range; and Oppenheimer 132
(1) Lansing Lamont, Day of Trinity (New York:
Atheneum, 1965), pp. 49-50. (2) Brode, "Tales of
129
(1)Ltr, J. S. Sundt to SWD, 1 Feb 45. MED Los Alamos," June 2, 1960, p. 7; and June 30,
161. (2) Sundt Interv, 4 Feb 69. 1960, pp. 5-7.
130 133
Answers to Questionnaire, William E. Naumann Loughridge Interv, 28 Jun 68.
134
to authors, 3 Mar 69. (1) M. E. Sundt, Zia Project Notes. (2) Interv
131
Marshall Interv, 29 Apr 68. with Col Whitney Ashbridge, 3 Mar 64.
696 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
the fast burgeoning program. Fresh Jemez, and San Ildefonsos each went off
vitality infused the job. Col. Reuben E. in a body for their tribal dances. "No
Cole, newly appointed engineer at Al- sooner would one group return from the
buquerque, reinforced the area office Corn Dance," John Sundt complained,
with long-time district stalwarts, in- "than it would be time for the Antelope
cluding crack expediter Capt. Frank E. Dance of another group, . . . [or]
Wilson. Company president John S. the Harvest Dance, or Rain Dance, or
Sundt moved with a large retinue to Snake Dance." Similarly, the farmers
Santa Fe to stay with the job to the end. took leave to tend their crops.136 Mean-
Lowdermilk Brothers of Denver, under while, Brazier's activities gave rise to
contract to the New Mexico State High- awkward complications. His design for
way Department, started improving the the school proved costly, and when
tortuous road. A recruitment drive by Groves discovered this "glorious ex-
the Engineer Department and the unions travagance," the area engineer bore the
brought craftsmen to the Hill from points brunt of his displeasure and got orders
as far away as Omaha. A powerful Corps- to depart. With Oppenheimer's backing,
wide procurement effort worked miracles; Brazier cut a wider swath. Forming a
soon air shipment of materials was more separate construction division, he as-
or less routine, and Zia had more copper sembled a staff of about 250 men. He
than some construction veterans had and his associates issued orders on a
135
ever seen before. day-to-day basis, often disrupting the
The Hill grew more hectic as summer conduct of the job.137
wore on. Several hundred loads a day— For everyone at Los Alamos, water
freight from the railhead at Santa Fe, was a supercritical problem. According
brick from the local penitentiary, and to Indian belief, the spirits in the nearby
aggregate from the Rio Grande—moved sacred burial grounds had called upon
in over the now partially torn up road. the gods to doom White settlements in the
Truckers fought for every mile, battling area. In the early years of the Ranch
dust and detours. Fifty "damn good School, the gods played havoc with the
trucks" wore out and even the MED water supply. With the coming of the
priority could produce only second-hand Army in late 1942, they waxed wrathful
replacements. A far more accessible anew. Little snow fell that winter and no
project started in July, at Bruns General spring runoff filled the reservoir in Los
Hospital in Santa Fe, siphoned off men Alamos Canyon. Soon water was low. A
from Los Alamos. Indians and farmers hydrologist from the Albuquerque Dis-
of Mexican descent became mainstays of trict recommended a pipeline to the creek
Sundt's 3,000-man labor force. But nei- in Guaje Canyon, some six miles to the
ther worked full time. Hopis, Navajos, north; but Groves, on advice from Ray
135 136
(1) Ltr, Ashbridge to Cole, 26 May 43. (2) Ltr, J. S. Sundt to SWD, 1 Feb 45. MED Files
Ltr, Groves to Cole, 17 Jun 43. Both in Zia Compl 161.
137
Rpt, 1 Dec 43. (3) Ltr, J. S. Sundt to SWD, 1 Feb 45. (1) Brode, "Tales of Los Alamos," July 14,
MED 161. (4) Roundtable Discussion, J. A. Reming- 1960, p. 7. (2) Ltr, Ashbridge to Shepard, 10 Jul
ton with J. R. Brennand, J. A. Loughridge, R. O. 43, and related docs in Zia Compl Rpt, 1 Dec 43. (3)
Ruble, E. N. Sanchez, and F. E. Wilson, 4 Feb 69. M. E. Sundt, Zia Project Notes.
ATOMIC MISSION 697
was at hand. Col. Gerald R. Tyler, al- Tyler's regime was relatively peaceful.
ways steady and reliable, had just come Perhaps it was his firmness, tempered by
off the Alcan Highway. Groves' instruc- forthright exercise of justice and a saving
tions to Tyler were revealing: sense of humor, that calmed the ferment.
Presented with a list of demands by the
The scientists detest the uniform. They'll
make your life a hell on earth and will do town council, the newly appointed com-
everything they can to embarrass-you. When manding officer announced that he would
you start talking to them about property entertain requests, not demands. He
accountability, . . . they'll scream that added that the first person, man, woman,
you are a Fascist and that you are trying to or child, who threw hamburger onto his
regiment them. Your job will be to run the
post. Try to satisfy these temperamental desk would "go147 straight through my
people. Don't allow living conditions, family screen window." Knowing Groves well
problems, or anything
146
else to take their minds and enjoying his confidence, Tyler was
off their work.
146 147
Tyler, Resume of Instructions, Oct 44. Lamont, Day of Trinity, p. 64.
700 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
would cradle the bomb. By 15 July all years, and of my repeated, confident-
was in readiness.151 appearing assurances that such a thing
The predawn detonation on the 16th was possible and that we would do it."153
ushered in the Nuclear Age. The power Seen through any eyes, the shot was a
of the bomb exceeded all expectations. stunning success. For the good or ill of
The details were almost beyond belief: mankind, atomic energy was here to stay.
the huge fireball, mushrooming to a Reflecting on the Allied victory in
height of 10,000 feet; the massive cloud World War II, General Reybold counted
of radioactive dust, billowing up into the American construction power as a de-
stratosphere; the brilliant light visible cisive factor. Production of atomic bombs
at Santa Fe, 180 miles away; and the had been "primarily a problem of en-
"awesome roar which warned of dooms- gineering design and construction of
day." Witnesses reacted each in his own plants." Similarly, camps and canton-
way. Oppenheimer, a sensitive man and ments had been key to mobilization;
a student of Eastern religions, recalled a munitions plants, to rearmament; and
snatch of the Bhagavad-Gita: "I am be- airfields, to air superiority. The Ameri-
come Death, the destroyer of worlds." can achievement had amazed the world.
Fermi, coolly scientific, noted the "very The secret of this remarkable perform-
intense flash of light," the "sensation of ance lay in the rapid conversion of the
heat" on exposed parts of his body— rivers and harbors organization from
and then, by a simple experiment with peace to war, the consolidation of all
bits of paper, correctly measured the military construction under one agency,
force of the blast as 20,000 tons of TNT.152 and the skilled efficiency of the Army-
Groves' feeling was largely one of pro- industry building team. Knowledge of
found relief. "I personally thought of this secret offered hope for the future;
Blondin crossing Niagara Falls on his Reybold saw reliable construction power
tightrope," he recorded, "only to me as "the cornerstone of an enduring
this tightrope had lasted for almost three America."154 History seemed likely to
151
confirm his view.
(1) Ltrs, Groves to Cole, 8 Nov and 1 Dec 44.
MED 600.1 (Santa Fe) thru 1944. (2) Tyler Interv, 24
Feb 64. (3) LASL, Los Alamos: Beginning of an Era, 153 Memo, Groves for Stimson, 18 Jul 45. In Groves,
1943-1945 (LASL Brochure: n.d.), pp. 29-42. (4) Now It Can Be Told, app. VIII, pp. 438-39.
154
Lamont, Day of Trinity, pp. 94—95 and 120—23. Lt Gen Eugene Reybold, Engineers in World War
152
LASL, Los Alamos: Beginning of an Era, pp. 53-54. II: A Tribute, pp. 1, 2, 10.
Appendix
ARMY CONSTRUCTION IN THE CONTINENTAL UNITED STATES
1 JULY 1940-31 AUGUST 1945
(IN BILLIONS OF DOLLARS)
*This figure excludes approximately $3 billion expended for real estate and maintenance.
Source: (1) ASF, Control Div, Statistics Br, Statistical Review: World War II, p. 11. (2) Data compiled by Special Assistant for Plan*
and Policy, OCE, 1970. (3) Annual Reports of the Chief of Engineers, U.S. Army, 1940-45. (4) Gideon, History of Military Real Estate Pro-
gram, 1939-45. EHD Files. (5) OCE, O Dir Mil Constr, R & U Div, History of Repairs and Utilities, 1939-1945, p. 49.
Bibliographical Note
Unpublished documentary sources in material, (1) Convenience files main-
the National Archives provided the bulk tained by operating elements of the Of-
of the information presented in this book. fice, Chief of Engineers, were helpful in
First and basic were the construction tracing developments. Containing in-
records of the Corps of Engineers and formal memos, working notes, transcripts
the Quartermaster Corps. Comprising of telephone conversations, briefings,
letters, memorandums, circulars, re- logs, and diaries, these files often told
ports, minutes, manuals, plans, and the inside story. Some of these collections
other materials, and ranging in subject have been destroyed and screenings have
matter from high-level policy decisions made inroads on the rest. Photostats of
to the minutiae of on-site activity, these essential documents are preserved in the
records consumed countless hours of Engineer Historical Division. (2) Private
research and study. Less voluminous papers of participants also shed light on
but no less essential to the story were events. Those of Joseph A. Bayer, Harry
relevant records of other elements of W. Loving, Victor V. Martin, Maj. Gen.
the Army—the War Department Gen- Russell L. Maxwell, Lt. Gen. Samuel D.
eral Staff, the Army Air Forces, the Sturgis, Jr., Col. Elmer G. Thomas, and
Army Service Forces, and The Adjutant Col. Gerald R. Tyler afforded worth-
General's, Inspector General's, Medical, while insights. Exceptionally valuable
and Ordnance Departments—and of the was the Diary of Secretary of War Henry
Secretary of War, the Under Secretary L. Stimson for the years 1940-1945. The
of War (including two special collections, Martin and Sturgis papers are in EHD;
the Madigan and Ohly files), and the the Maxwell papers, in the U.S. Army
Joint Army and Navy Munitions Board. Military History Research Collection
For nonmilitary aspects of the building at the Army War College, Carlisle, Penn-
program, papers in the Franklin D. sylvania. The Stimson Diary is in the
Roosevelt Library, the records of the Henry L. Stimson Papers, Yale Univer-
U.S. Congress, and the records of the War sity Library. (3) Contemporary accounts
Production Board were indispensable. by participants provided important back-
All files except those of the Corps of ground information and pertinent detail.
Engineers bear identifying symbols in Especially valuable were Lt. Col. David
the footnotes. Federal Records of World B. Gideon, History of Military Real
War II, Volumes I and II, prepared by Estate Program, 1939-1945; Gavin
the General Services Administration, Hadden (comp.), Manhattan District
National Archives and Records Service, History; Gavin Hadden, The Pentagon
the National Archives (Washington: Project; Col. Walter E. Lorence, Logis-
1950-51), offers a general guide to re- tics in World War II: Engineer Phase;
searchers. Harry W. Loving, History of the Fixed
Supplementing official archival records Fee Branch; Harry W. Loving, History
was a welter of unpublished primary of the Construction Division, OQMG;
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE 705
and Construction Trades Department. Dunlop, John T., and Hill, Arthur D.
Reports of Proceedings, Annual Conven- The Wage Adjustment Board, Wartime
tions. Stabilization in the Building and Con-
Arnold, H. H. Global Mission. New York: struction Industry. Cambridge, Mass.:
Harper & Brothers, 1949. Harvard University Press, 1950.
Campbell, Lt. Gen. Levin H., Jr. The Fermi, Laura. Atoms in the Family: My
Army-Industry Team. New York: Whit- Life with Enrico Fermi. Chicago: The
tlesey House, 1946. University of Chicago Press, 1954.
Church, Peggy Pond. The House at Groueff, Stephane. Manhattan Project:
Otowi Bridge. Albuquerque: University The Untold Story of the Making of the
of New Mexico Press, 1959. Atomic Bomb. Boston: Little, Brown
Civilian Production Administration. In- and Company, 1967.
dustrial Mobilization for War. Washing- Groves, Lt. Gen. Leslie R. Now It Can
ton: 1947. Be Told: The Story of the Manhattan
————. Minutes of the Advisory Commission Project. New York: Harper & Brothers,
to the Council of National Defense, June 1, 1962.
1940, to October 22, 1941. Washington: Haber, William. Industrial Relations in the
1946. Building Industry. Cambridge, Mass.:
————. Minutes of the Office of Production Harvard University Press, 1930.
Management. Washington: 1946. Hewlett, Richard G., and Anderson,
————. Minutes of the Planning Committee Oscar E., Jr. A History of the United
of the War Production Board. Washing- States Atomic Energy Commission. Volume
ton: 1946. I: The New World, 1939-1946. Uni-
————. Minutes of the War Production versity Park, Pa.: The Pennsylvania
Board, January 20, 1942, to October 9, State University Press, 1962.
1945. Washington: 1946. Holt, W. Stull. The Office of the Chief of
Compton, Arthur H. Atomic Quest: A Engineers of the Army: Its Non-military
Personal Narrative. New York: Oxford History, Activities, and Organization. Bal-
University Press, 1956. timore: The Johns Hopkins Press, 1923.
Craven, Wesley Frank, and Cate, James
Howard, Donald S. The WPA and Federal
Lea (eds.). The Army Air Forces in
Relief Policy. New York: Russell Sage
World War II. Vol. I: Plans and Early
Foundation, 1943.
Operations, January 1939 to August 1942.
Vol. V: The Pacific: Matterhorn to Ickes, Harold L. The Secret Diary of
Nagasaki, June 1944 to August 1945. Vol. Harold L. Ickes. Volume II: The Inside
VI: Men and Planes. Chicago: Uni- Struggle, 1936-1939. New York: Simon
versity of Chicago Press, 1948-1955. & Schuster, 1954.
Crowell, Benedict. America's Munitions, Kreidberg, Lt. Col. Marvin, and Henry,
1917-1918. Washington: 1919. 1st Lt. Merton G. History of Mobiliza-
Davis, Nuel P. Lawrence and Oppenheimer. tion in the United States Army, 1775-1945
New York: Simon & Schuster, 1968. (DA Pamphlet No. 20-212). Washing-
Dimock, Marshall E. Congressional In- ton: 1955.
vestigating Committees. Baltimore: The Lament, Lansing. Day of Trinity. New
Johns Hopkins Press, 1929. York: Atheneum, 1965.
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE 707
Langer, William L., and Gleason, S. Risch, Erna. Quartermaster Support of the
Everett. The Challenge to Isolation, 1937- Army: History of the Corps, 1775-1939.
7940. New York: Harper & Brothers, Washington: 1962.
1952. Robinson, George O. The Oak Ridge
————. The Undeclared War, 1940-1941. Story. Kingsport, Tenn.: Southern Pub-
New York: Harper & Brothers, 1953. lishers, 1950.
Lenny, John J. Caste System in the American Roosevelt, Franklin D. The Public Papers
Army: A Study of the Corps of Engineers and Addresses. Samuel I. Rosenman,
and Their West Point System. New York: ed. Vols. VII-XI. New York: The
Greenberg, 1949. Macmillan Company and Harper &
MacMahon, Arthur W., et al. The Admin- Brothers, 1941-1950.
istration of Federal Work Relief. Chicago: Rosenman, Samuel I. Working With
Social Science Research Council on Roosevelt. New York: Harper & Broth-
Public Administration, 1941. ers, 1952.
McGrane, Reginald C. The Facilities and Sherwood, Robert E. Roosevelt and Hop-
Construction Program of the War Produc- kins, An Intimate History. New York:
tion Board and Predecessor Agencies, May Harper & Brothers, 1948.
1940 to May 1945 (WPB Special Study Smyth, Henry D. A General Account of the
No. 19). Washington: 1946. Development of Methods of Using Atomic
Miller, John Perry. Pricing of Military Energy for Military Purposes under the
Procurements. New Haven: Yale Univer- Auspices of the United States Government.
sity Press, 1949. Washington: 1945.
Millett, John D. The Works Progress Ad- Stimson, Henry L., and Bundy, Mc-
ministration in New York City. Chicago: George. On Active Service in Peace and
Public Administration Service, 1938. War. New York: Harper & Brothers
National Public Works Department As- 1947.
sociation. This Tells Why the Government Stone & Webster Engineering Corpora-
Should Have a Department of Public tion. A Report to the People. Boston:
Works. Washington: NPWDA, 1919. Stone & Webster Engineering Cor-
Nelson, Donald M. Arsenal of Democracy: poration, 1946.
The Story of American War Production. Thatcher, Harold W. Planning for In-
New York: Harcourt, Brace and Com- dustrial Mobilization, 1920-1940 (Quar-
pany, 1946. termaster Historical Study No. 4).
Paxson, Frederic L. America at War, 1917- Washington: 1943.
1918. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Com- Thompson, Paul W. What You Should
pany, 1939. Know About the Army Engineers. New
Purcell, Richard J. Labor Policies of the York: W. W. Norton & Company,
National Defense Advisory Commission Inc., 1942.
and the Office of Production Management, Truman, Harry S. Memoirs. Vol. I: Tear
May 1940 to April 1942 (WPB Special of Decisions. New York: Doubleday &
Study No. 23). Washington: 1946. Company, Inc., 1955.
Reybold, Lt. Gen. Eugene. Engineers In United States Army in World War II:
World War II: A Tribute. Fort Belvoir, Brophy, Leo P., Miles, Wyndham D.,
Va.: 1945. and Cochrane, Rexmond C. The
708 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
Chm Chairman
CIO Congress of Industrial Organizations
Circ Circular
CofEngrs Chief of Engineers
CofOrd Chief of Ordnance
CofS Chief of Staff
Comd Command
Comm Committee
Compl Completion
Conf Conference
Constr Construction
Corresp Correspondence
Gp Camp
CPA Central Procuring Agency, Civilian Production Administration
CPFF Cost-plus-a-fixed-fee
CQM Constructing quartermaster
CSC Civil Service Commission
CSigO Chief Signal Officer
CWA Civil Works Administration
DA Department of the Army
DCofEngrs Deputy Chief of Engineers
DCofS Deputy Chief of Staff
Def Defense
Dep Deputy
Dev Development
D/F Disposition form
Dir Director
Distr Distribution
Div Division
DL Department of Labor
DO District office
DPC Defense Plant Corporation
DS Disposition sheet
DSM Development of substitute materials
EHD Engineer Historical Division
Engrg Engineering
ENR Engineering News-Record
Equip Equipment
ExecO Executive officer
FBM Feet board measure
FCA Farm Credit Administration
FF Fixed-fee
Fin Finance
Fld Field
F.R. Federal Register
FWA Federal Works Agency
712 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
NA National Army
NAD North Atlantic Division
Nat National
ND Navy Department
NDAC Advisory Commission to the Council of National Defense
NED New England Division
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS 713
NG National Guard
NPD North Pacific Division
NPWDA National Public Works Department Association
O Office; officer
OASW Office of the Assistant Secretary of War
OCE Office, Chief of Engineers
OCMH Office, Chief of Military History
OCofAC Office, Chief of the Air Corps
OCofOrd Office, Chief of Ordnance
OCofS Office, Chief of Staff
OD Ordnance depot
ODCofS Office, Deputy Chief of Staff
OEM Office for Emergency Management
OIC Officer in charge
OP Ordnance plant
OPA Office of Price Administration
OPM Office of Production Management
Opns Operations
OQMG Office of The Quartermaster General
ORD Ohio River Division
Ord Ordnance
Orgn Organization
OSRD Office of Scientific Research and Development
OTIG Office of The Inspector General
OUSW Office of the Under Secretary of War
OW Ordnance works
OZCQM Office of the Zone Constructing Quartermaster
RA Regular Army
Rad Radiogram
R&H Rivers and Harbors
714 CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
R&R Routing and record
R&U Repairs and Utilities
Rcd Record
RDX Research department explosive (cyclonite)
RE Real Estate
Reorgn Reorganization
Reqmts Requirements
RFC Reconstruction Finance Corporation
Rpt Report
SAD South Atlantic Division
SCQM Supervising constructing quartermaster
Sec Section
Secy Secretary
SGO Surgeon General's Office
SGS Secretary of the General Staff
SO Special orders
SOS Services of Supply
Sp Special
SPAB Supply Priorities and Allocations Board
Sup Supply
Svc Service
SvcC Service command
SW Secretary of War
SWD Southwestern Division
TAG The Adjutant General
TD Treasury Department
Tel conv Telephone conversation
Telg Telegram
TIG The Inspector General
Tng Training
TO Theater of Operations
T/O Table of organization
Tps Troops
TQMG The Quartermaster General
TVA Tennessee Valley Authority
TWX Teletype message
UMVD Upper Mississippi Valley Division
USED United States Engineer Department
USEO United States Engineer Office
USES United States Employment Service
USO United Service Organizations
USW Under Secretary of War
WAAC Women's Army Auxiliary Corps
WCD War College Division, War Department General Staff
WD War Department
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS 715
WDPAB War Department Price Adjustment Board
WDGS War Department General Staff
WES Waterways Experiment Station
WPA Works Progress Administration
WPB War Production Board
WPD War Plans Division, War Department General Staff
ZCQM Zone constructing quartermaster
UNITED STATES ARMY IN WORLD WAR II