1. Conditional sentence.

Name of structure: Conditional sentence. Type 0: Conditional sentences are made up of

two clauses: a main clause and a subordinate clause embedded in it. The subordinate
clause, also known as the “if clause”, contains a proposition that states a condition to be
fulfilled, whilst the main clause states what happens if the condition is fulfilled. This
conditional is used to talk about events or situations that can occur at any time, but most
commonly in the present, and their results. The result of the 'if clause' is always the main
clause. We can make a zero conditional sentence with two present simple verbs (one in the
'if clause' and one in the 'main clause').

- Form: If + present simple (or any other present) ... + present simple (or other present
tenses).

Name of structure: Conditional sentence.Type 1: Conditional sentences are made up of

two clauses: a main clause and a subordinate clause embedded in it. The subordinate
clause, also known as the “if clause”, contains a proposition that states a condition to be
fulfilled, whilst the main clause states what happens if the condition is fulfilled. Conditional
type one is also known as a real or open conditional because both the condition to be
satisfied and the outcome are real.

- Form: Subject+ if + present tense + future expression. The most common form is:
[Subject+ if+ present simple+ ‘will’+ verb in the bare infinitive form.]

Name of structure: Conditional sentence.Type 2: Conditional sentences are made up of

two clauses: a main clause and a subordinate clause embedded in it. The subordinate
clause, also known as the “if clause”, contains a proposition that states a condition to be
fulfilled, whilst the main clause states what happens if the condition is fulfilled. Conditional
type two has two uses. First, we can use it to talk about things in the future that are possible
but unlikely to happen. Second, we can use it to talk about something in the present that is
impossible.

- Form: Subject + if + past tense + ‘would’+ infinitive

Name of structure: Conditional sentence. Type 3: Conditional sentences are made up of

two clauses: a main clause and a subordinate clause embedded in it. The subordinate
clause, also known as the “if clause”, contains a proposition that states a condition to be
fulfilled, whilst the main clause states what happens if the condition is fulfilled. In these
sentences, the time is past, and the situation is contrary to reality. It is used to refer to
situations in the past. An action could have happened in the past if a certain condition had
been fulfilled. In a Type 3 conditional sentence, the tense in the ‘if’ clause is the past perfect,
and the tense in the main clause is the perfect conditional: the perfect conditional of any verb
is composed of two elements: would + the perfect infinitive of the main verb (=have + past
participle) Form: If + past perfect + ‘would have’

CONDITIONAL TYPE _ In this case, the

conditional sentence
type _ is used to express
__: it is stating a ___
event with a (likely
outcome). This means
that it is describing what
 is going to happen
provided that the
condition is fulfilled

Este habla del type

1 hay que cambiar lo q
esta describing

2. Passive voice: para el cuadro.

Long passives: contains a “by-phrase” which specifies the agent of the action or other
semantic role. Passives are used to focus on the issue rather than on what causes it.
Aspect:
Form: Subject + to be + past participle of the main verb + by + agent

We make the passive form of verbs in all tenses by using “be” in the appropriate tense
followed by the past participle of the main verb.

We use passive voice when we want to be less direct, or more polite in a formal situation,
when we want to describe general feelings, opinions and beliefs, when we want to change
the focus of the sentence, in order to put the new information at the end of the sentence to
improve style.

Short passive or agentless passive. Passives are used to focus on the issue rather than on
what causes it.
Aspect:
Form: Subject + to be + past participle of the main verb (+ by + agent)

We make the passive form of verbs in all tenses by using “be” in the appropriate tense
followed by the past participle of the main verb.

We use the short passive voice when: the agent is not relevant or not known, when the
agent is obvious from the context or from general knowledge, sometimes we know the
identity of the agent but we don’t want to mention it because we don’t want to blame a
specific person, or we want to avoid personal responsibility, when the subject is very long.

FORM ACTIVE PASSIVE

 MODAL VERBS Candidates must answer All the questions must be
all the questions answered
verb + be + past
participle

They have to take a test

A test has to be taken

MODAL PERFECTS Someone might have It might have been

stolen it. stolen
verb + have been + past
participle

The jury ought to have He ought to have been

convicted him convicted

REASONS TO USE THE PASSIVE

We want to change the focus of the sentence, when who or what causes the action is
unknown or unimportant or obvious or 'people in general' (agentless, the agent is not
specified. We can know it from the context), in factual or scientific writing, in formal
writing instead of using someone/ people/ they (these can be used in speaking or
informal writing), in order to put the new information at the end of the sentence to
improve style, when the subject is very long.

3. Predicative adjectives. Predicative adjectives are used to describe the state or quality of
a thing. They are generally GRADABLE and can be modified by VERY.

Compare:
The silence was broken by the village crier Passive construction
The wire is always broken Predicative Adjective: It is describing a state.

3. REPORTED SPEECH.
Short description: Reported speech is used to report what people say, believe, think, etc.
To report we commonly make changes in vocabulary and grammar.

Form: Subject + reporting verb + reported statement.

Uses: The reported speech is used to report what somebody else said – To report the
original saying or though in a different place – To report the statement at a different time.

The reported speech is used in this example to report _________

In this case, the writer uses reported speech because______________
The actual spoken statement would be ___________
What can you add about the tense of the reporting verb?

When we are reporting what somebody else said we change personal pronouns, or use
other nouns to make the reference clear: I love it here.' becomes: She told me she loved it by the
sea

When we are reporting the original saying or thought in a different place we change words
referring to place or other things that are no longer there: 'I only got here yesterday.' becomes:
She said she had only got here on Wednesday

When we are reporting the statement at a different time we change tenses and words
referring to time: 'I love you.' becomes: He said he loved me.

We usually report orders using verbs such as ask, tell, forbid, etc. with a to-infinitive:
He told me to be there at nine o'clock sharp.

We report questions using verbs such as ask, want to know, etc. with wh-clauses or if-
clauses: He asked me where I'd been.

Tenses of the reported verb:

We usually report what was said in the past, we normally use a Past tense for the report
verb: Last night in a television address, the President claimed he'd done nothing wrong.
We use a future form to guess the future: I'm sure he'll say he's too tired. What do you think
the judge's decision is going to be?
We often use Past Continuous to report gossip, or to repeat what somebody else has just
said: Nikos was saying you're thinking of leaving.
We may use a report verb in a Present tense if we feel the original statement is still
relevant: John says he's on his way and will be here in twenty minutes. (= reporting a phone
message)

2) Reported past tenses: When reporting a statement or question that referred to the past,
we commonly use Past Perfect: He told me he'd been working all day. (= original: 'I've been
working all day.')
Where the time relationship is obvious, we can report past events with Past Simple rather
than Past Perfect: The paleontologist claimed the world had begun /began earlier than originally
thought.
Sometimes, we keep the original tenses, especially if the report verb is Present tense: Oh,
by the way, Tony says he's going to be a bit late. (= He told me he's been working all day. reported
the same day)

3) Reported present tenses: We may use Past tenses to report Present tenses if they refer
to things that are no longer relevant: Jo said she felt sick. (=she isn't any longer)
But, we can use Present tenses if the statement is still thought to be relevant: Jo said she is
feeling sick. (= she still is)

4) Reporting modal verbs: For many modal verbs there is no difference between direct and
reported speech: 'I might go but I don't want to.' becomes: He said he might go but he didn't
want to. 'You shouldn't have eaten so much.' becomes: My wife said I shouldn't have eaten
so much. Those that can change (if necessary) are:
can: could
will: would
Must becomes: had to or was / were to (to express obligation)
May becomes: might
needn’t becomes: didn't need to or didn't have to/ wouldn't have to

4. MODAL VERBS

Form:
- Subject + auxiliary modal verb + bare infinitive verb
- Subject + auxiliary modal verb + perfect passive infinitive

Short desciption: Modals are one kind of auxiliary verbs. They appear either directly before
a main verb, or before the auxiliary verb “have”.
Modals do not vary for number, they go before the subject in questions, they do not have
infinitive forms, they do not have participle forms, and they are followed by the infinitive
without to.

The modal verb “________” expresses ________. This modal is used to _________.

“______” is a pure modal, and in this case is used in conjunction with ‘have been’. It has a
perfect aspect and it is in passive voice.
In this case, the rule of use is to reproach or reprimand.

Types of modals.
- Pure modals: can – could – may – might – must – shall – should – will – would
- Marginal modals: dare – need – ought to
- Semimodals: be going to – be supposed to – had better – had best – have got to
– have to.

5. COMPOUND ADJECTIVES.
“________” is a compound adjective, which means that it is formed by more than one word,
compressing information into two words. It is formed by a noun (____) and an –ed participle
(in this case, the –ed participle form of the irregular verb ‘_____’).
Compound adjectives are an abbreviated attribute used to describe a noun and they are
formed by two constituents forming a unit. Adjectival compounds are used to modify nouns
and can be formed by combining more than one word, resulting in a compact expression of
information. They function as attributive adjectives.
 6. NOUNS

Common/Proper, concrete/abstract, countable/uncountable noun in the plural/singular form:

Nouns are words that occur as the Head of a noun phrase and they commonly refer to
concrete, physical or abstract entities. Nouns do not show grammatical gender, but some of
them show gender by their suffix. Some nouns, like “____”, are more common in the
plural/singular form, and they take plural/singular verbs. The verb usually agrees with the
subject noun, even though those are separated. However, if the verb is far away, it can
agree with the complement of the subject.

The noun “______” is used because it is referring to _________. Since it refers to a physical
entity, it is a concrete noun. This is an uncountable noun because it refers to something
which cannot be counted, and it does not vary for number.

- Compound nouns: These are the combination of two nouns that are related.
The first noun classifies the second noun, it describes or tells us its purpose.
They can be written as a single word, in two separate words or two words joined
by a hyphen.

7. BE TO + BARE INFINITIVE SENTENCE. (FUTURE TIME)

The structure is that of a Be to in simple past + bare infinitive . This construction is used to
express formal arrangements in the future. The past form of the verb to be implies it is
expressed from a point in the past. This structure in the passage is used to talk about future
arrangements in the past. It has a simple aspect and it is an active voice.

8. GENITIVE

The genitive case is used to show the relationship between two nouns. It’s formed by the
addition of ‘s at the end of the first noun or by using the structure noun + of + noun.
In this sentence we use the genitive “_____”, which is written with an apostrophe ‘s + a
noun, form to express ______. In this case, ______ is used to express _____.

Forms:
- Noun + apostrophe + s
- Nouns ending with -s + apostrophe
- Noun + preposition of + noun (“the of structure”)

Types of genitives:
- Possesive genitive (my son’s wife/mrs johnson’s passport)
- Subjective genive (the boy’s application/his parents’ consent)
- Objective genitive (the family’s support/the boy’s release)
- Genitive of origin (the girls’ story/the general’s letter)
- Descriptive genitive (a women’s college/a summer’s day/a doctor’s degree)
- Genitive of measure and partitive genitive (ten day’s absence/the height of the
tower/ part of the problem)
 - Appositive genitive (the city of York/the pleasure of meeting you)

Uses:
· To refer to general ownership or possession of somebody’s home
· To refer to people, animals, relationships or human qualities
· To refer to location in time (but not with dates)
· To refer to the origin of sth, for example where it comes from or who made it
· To refer to a quantity or measure, for example of duration, distance or value
· In expressions for value/quantity with worth
· With the names of shoes, companies and people/places that provide a service
· In certain fixed expressions.

GENITIVE + OF STRUCTURE
· Both can describe ownership, origin and subject
· To avoid confusion: it is preferred the genitive for the origin, owner or creator // of
structure: for the subject or topic
I wasn’t convinced by the quarrel’s description of the witness
I wasn’t convinced by the witness’s description of the quarrel.

· Form: Possessive forms + preposition /// (have you seen the National Gallery’s
portrait of King Charles by Van Dyck? )

9. FUTURE FORMS

Future simple
Form: Will/won't + infinitive
Uses:
- We use this to talk about general predictions based on opinion, analysis or
judgment.
- We use this to predict an event which we think will happen because similar
events have happened in the past.
- We use this for decisions made at the time of speaking.
- We use this for future events that are certain to happen.
- We can use will/won't + infinitive to strengthen meaning, and to express
determination

Be going to + infinitive
Form: Be going to + infinitive
Uses:
- We use this structure to talk about prediction based on present evidence. When
there is evidence in the present to justify the prediction, we use be going to +
infinitive.
- We also use this structure with “be going to” when the prediction is often about
the immediate future.
- We use this for actions that we have already decided to do.
Future continuous
Form: will/won't be + -ing form
Uses:
- We use this form for a temporary action in progress at or around a particular point
in the future
- We use this form to talk about an action that will be in progress in the future; it
may have a result or make another action possible.
- We can use the future continuous to talk about events that are a result of or part
of an arrangement made in the past
- We can use the future continuous to emphasize the routine nature of an event.

Future perfect: SIMPLE and CONTINUOUS

Form future perfect simple: will/won't have + past participle
Uses:
- We use the future perfect simple to make predictions about actions which we
expect to be completed before a particular time in the future

Form future perfect continuous: will/won't have + been + -ing form

Uses:
- We use the future perfect continuous to talk about an action which will still be in
progress at a point in the future. It focuses on the duration of the action.
- It is also used for prediction of an action in progress, plans made in the past and
events that are part of a routine.

Present continuous and be going to

Form present continuous: am/is/are + -ing form of main verb
Form be going to: be going to + main verb
Uses:
- We use the present continuous to describe an event in the future which has
already been arranged by the time of speaking. The emphasis is on the
arrangement, rather than the speaker’s own intention
- We use “be going to” for the same reason, but there’s more emphasis on the
speaker’s intention. Even may or may not be arranged yet.

Present simple
Form: verb in present simple tense
Uses:
- We use the present simple to talk about an event that is part of a timetable,
usually with a time or date, the present simple suggests that the timetabled event
is totally fixed, but be due to suggests possible change, i.e. the event may
change. We also use it after certain expressions of time, e.g. as soon as.

Expressions for near future events

We use “be about to” to talk about an event that we intend or expect to happen in the near
future. The event may not be planned, but evidence in the present indicates that it will
happen.
We also use be on the point of and be on the verge of to talk about the near future. These
both means that something is very close to happening. They can be followed by either an
-ing form or a noun.

Expressions of probability and certainty:

We use be likely/unlikely to + infinitive to say that something in the future is

probable/improbable.
We can use be sure (bound/certain) to + infinitive to say that something is going to happen
or should have been expected

VERBS WITH FUTURE MEANING:

Decide - hope - promise - swear - intend (also + -ing)

FORM: Verb + to + infinitive
EJ: I hope to see everyone at the next Open Day.
Do you swear never to reveal this secret?
He intends to retire/retiring next year.

Anticipate - predict - envisage

FORM: Anticipate - predict - envisage
EJ: We anticipate congestion on all routes this weekend.
They predict rain tomorrow.
Do you envisage making any policy changes?

Arrange - expect - guarantee - plan - undertake

FORM: Verb (+ noun) + to + infinitive
EJ: We’re planning a break to get a bit of sun this winter.
We expect to promote trainees within three years.

Future in the past

Form: Was/were going to + infinitve
Uses:
- We use this form when we need to describe the future form from a viewpoint in
the past. The plan is not usually fulfilled
- We use it to make excuses for things we have not done
- We use the negative to talk about things we have done but did not intend to do.

Present / future form Past form

Present continuous Past continuous

Will/shall would

Will be + -ing form Would be + -ing form

 Will have Would have

Is/are about to/due to Was/were about to/due to

Is/are to Was/were to

10. TENSES

Present Simple
Uses:
- It is used to describe permanent situations or actions in the present
- It is used to describe facts or things that are generally true
- It is used to express opinions
- It is used to describe habitual actions
- It is used to describe a series of events or actions.

Present Continuous
Form: am/is/are + -ing form of main verb
Uses:
- Describe an action in progress or a temporary situation at the time of speaking
- To describe a repeated action during some time
- To describe picture, plots, anecdotes

Past Simple
Uses:
- express completed action in the past
- repeated actions
- sequence of actions
- a state in the past

Past Continuous
Form: was/were + -ing form of main verb
Uses:
- action in progress in the past
- background actions
- changing or developing actions
- interrupted action (with past simple)
- past arrangements
- requests/suggestions/questions

used to/would à is used to talk about actions that happened regularly in the past but no
longer happen or they happen with less frequency

Present Perfect Simple

Form: has/have + past participle
Uses:
 - to talk about states staring in the past that are still continuing in the present
- situations that happened in the past an may happen again
- completed actions in the past with present relevance

Present Perfect Continuous

Form: has/have been + -ing form of main verb
Uses:
- ongoing action in the past that is still continuing or just finished
- temporary situation
- explain a present result

Past Perfect Simple

Form: had + past participle
Uses:

11. QUESTIONS

Types of questions:

YES-NO questions:
Description: They expect, as an answer, an affirmation or negation.
Form: Operator + Subject + Rising Intonation

- Operator is an auxiliary – it can be a modal as well

- Neutral polarity à Yes-No questions use non-assertive forms (any, anyone,
anybody, ever, yet)
- Positive orientation à uses assertive forms (someone, somewhere, some)
- Negative orientation à uses “not” with assertive forms
Also - they contain an element of surprise or disbelief. They have a combination of a
positive and negative attitude (an old positive assumption and a new negative
assumption)

- Tag questions
Form: Operator + pronoun + with/without negative particle

- Declarative questions
These are an exceptional type of yes-no question. They are identical in form to a statement,
except for the final rising question intonation.

Wh- questions
Description: They expect as an answer some information
Form: Q-word + main verb + Subject
Q-words (interrogative words: who/whom/whose/what/which/when/where/how/why)

Alternative question
Description: They expect a reply to choose between the item presented in the question
Types:
- Alternative yes-no question à intonation is different – it contains a separate
nucleus for each alternative – in the last there’s a fall indicating list is complete
- Compound of two separate questions à a wh-question followed by an elliptical
alternative question of the first type

Exclamatory question
Is a question in form but is is functionally like an exclamation

Rethorical question
is one which functions as a forceful statement. A posstive rethorical question is like a strong
negative assertion and a negative questionis like a strong positive one.
Conditional sentences.

1) Name of structure: Conditional sentence. Type 0: Conditional sentences are

made up of two clauses: a main clause and a subordinate clause embedded in it.
The subordinate clause, also known as the “if clause”, contains a proposition that
states a condition to be fulfilled, whilst the main clause states what happens if the
condition is fulfilled.

Uses: This conditional is used to talk about events or situations that can occur at any time
and their results. We often use it for actions that always have the same result.

Form: Subject + If + present simple (or other present tenses) + present simple (or other
present tenses).

2) Name of structure: Conditional sentence. Type 1: Conditional sentences are

made up of two clauses: a main clause and a subordinate clause embedded in it.
The subordinate clause, also known as the “if clause”, contains a proposition that
states a condition to be fulfilled, whilst the main clause states what happens if the
condition is fulfilled.

Uses: Conditional type one is also known as a real or open conditional because both the
condition to be satisfied and the outcome are real.

- We use first conditional to describe possible future events or situation and their
result. Also to state a possible future event with a likely outcome.

- We often use first conditional for offers, suggestions and warnings.

Form: Subject + if + present tense + future expression.

The most common form is: [Subject+ if+ present simple+ ‘will’+ verb in the bare infinitive
form.]

Variations:

- If clause: present tenses + main clause: modal à Subject + If + present + modal

- If clause or variation + main clause: imperative, request, suggestion à Subject +

should + imperative

- Imperative + conjunction + main clause: shall/will

3) Name of structure: Conditional sentence. Type 2: Conditional sentences are

made up of two clauses: a main clause and a subordinate clause embedded in it.
The subordinate clause, also known as the “if clause”, contains a proposition that
states a condition to be fulfilled, whilst the main clause states what happens if the
condition is fulfilled.
Uses: Conditional type two has two uses. First, we can use it to talk about an unlikely future
event or situation. Second, we can use it to talk about an unreal current even or situation.

Other uses: giving advice – polite requests – desires/regrets.

Form: If-clause: past tense + main clause: would/should à Subject + if + past tense +
‘would’+ infinitive

Variations:

- Subject + if + was/were + would/should à for doubtful statements or purely

imaginary statements.

- If-clause: past tense + main clause: modal à imaginary consequences, ability or

possibility.

- If clause: were to/ was to + main clause: would/should

4) Name of structure: Conditional sentence. Type 3: Conditional sentences are

made up of two clauses: a main clause and a subordinate clause embedded in it.
The subordinate clause, also known as the “if clause”, contains a proposition that
states a condition to be fulfilled, whilst the main clause states what happens if the
condition is fulfilled.

Uses: Conditional type three is used to describe an unreal or imagined situation or event in
the past. Also, it can be used to talk about an action could have happened in the past if a
certain condition had been fulfilled. To speculate about a range of possibilities: what might
have been reasonably expected or what would have been completely impossible.

In a Type 3 conditional sentence, the tense in the ‘if’ clause is the past perfect, and the tense
in the main clause is the perfect conditional: the perfect conditional of any verb is composed
of two elements: would + the perfect infinitive of the main verb (=have + past participle)

Form: If-clause: past perfect + main clause: would have/should have à If + past perfect +
‘would have’

Variations

- If-clause: past perfect tense + main clause: modal à imagined consequences,

ability, possibility.

Extra notes on conditionals:

- We use wish/if only + past simple to express a desire for something to be

different in the present. The desire can be for something which is actually
impossible

- We use wish/if only + past perfect to express a regret about the past
- The “unreal” past à after a number of expressions (if only, it’s time, what if,
assuming, say, suppose, would rather, I wish) we use past tenses to describe
things in the present, past or future events which are imagined.