A Prototype Sensor Node for Footstep Detection

Giorgos P. Mazarakis, John N.Avaritsiotis

Department o f Electrical and Computer Engineering
National Technical University of Athens (NTUA)
Athens, Greece
gemazar@mail.ntua.gr ,abari@cs.ntua.gr

Abstract-Persons moving over ground can be detected
from vibrations induced to soil in the form of seismic
waves which are measured by geophones or expensive
MEMS accelerometers. We are proposing a sensor node
that uses a low-cost bending mode piezoelectric
accelerometer, operating near its resonant frequency,
specially designed for footstep detection.
I. INTRODUCTlON
In the last years the advances in sensors and actuators,
microelectronics and wireless networking, has given a
significant boost in the development of sensor networks
that track real life phenomcna [l]. A lot of research is
being made across the world on wireless sensor network
applications for security, surveillance and force
protection. Seismic and/or acoustic detection and
tracking of personnel and vehicles is of major importance
in such applications [2,3].
Unlike other systems, sensor networks have certain
limitations on resources, such as power, computational
and networking capabilities that have to be calculated
'upon design. Furthermore, cost must be kept minimal
when designing an application where large number of
nodes is needed, such as boarder security or large area
monitoring. For example the use of a more expensive
DSP instead of a microcontroller will result in advanced
computational capability white having a drawback in
energy consumption and overall system cost.
l h e same rule applies to the sensing dements of the
node [1,4,5]. Seismic detection is being made using
commerciat geophones, piezoelectric accelerometers and
walking person, makes a decision for human presence
based on the frequency of the signal and the cadence of
the impacts. It utilizes a built in radio transceiver to
forward the result to a header node of the wireless sensor
network.
11. FOOTSTEP CHARACTERISTICS
Human activity generates vibrations that propagate
away from the source as seismic waves. Most energy is
distributed in Rayleigh waves (70 %), white diminishing
in amplitude as R-', and the remaining amount (30 %) is
transmitted by body waves (shear and compressional),
while diminishing in amplitude as K2 [10,12]. The signal
has also frequency dependent attenuation characteristics
~31.
A person walking on the ground produces a
number of impulses, as the foot hits the ground, which
propagate through soil as "seismic" waves. Footstep
signature characteristics are outlined below.
A . Inrpuhive Nature
A human's walk may be modeled as a series of
vertical impacts induced to soil by the foot of the walker.
These impacts are of short duration and occur on
intervals grater than the time needed for them to attenuate
[IO]. They result on the excitation of the ground at its
natural frequencies and travel away from the source on
the elastic half-space of the ground (Figure 1). Most of
the energy of such signal is distributed in the band of 10
to 100 Hz [12].
I- . - ______- ~-
__c

in earlier projects for Unattended Ground Sensors (UGS) 3

low-noise, micro-machined servo accelerometers
(MEMS) with performance comparable to geophones [6-
111. These sensors provide good results in seismic
detection having the drawback of significant cost and
size.
We have developed a node that uses a prototype low-
cost bending mode, piezoelectric accelerometer to detect
a human that walks within range and is configured to
operate near its resonant frequency for enhanced
sensitivity. The system detects impacts induced by a

0-7803-8801 -1/05/$20.00 (cl2005 IEEE. '_

415
B. Cadence
The rate that these impulses occur depends on the
walker (typically 2 Hz, varying fiom 0.9-1 Hz for slow,
cautious walking to 3.5 Hz for fast running) and it is
quite repetitive, providing a characteristic seismic
signature easily recognized in time domain series (Figure
2). This series of "spikes" can be distinguished from
other noise such as moving vehicles, wind blows or non
repetitive impulses. In this way the cadence of the signal
can be used to detect human presence in a simple,
power-aware, sensor node ( 1 1,121.
frequency (which is typically very high) and in some
cases they reach DC (MEMS) [ 6 ] .
Sensors that operate away from th,eir resonant
frequencies, in their linear region, provide accurate
measurements but loose in sensitivity that can be
achieved near resonance. We propose the use of a
prototype bending mode piezoelectric accelerometer for a
footstep detection node. The sensor -operates near
resonance since sensitivity is much more impoitant than
linearity in such an application. In this way, it is used as
an electromechanical pass-band filter than a vibration
sensor 14,151.

C. Sensor Design
The piezoelectric sensor was designed with the
following characteristics:
o Low power, simple design and signal conditioning
High sensitivity and increased resolution
Low noise
I
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e Low cost, small and PCB mount
Fig. 2. Series of fuutsteps with distinct, repetitive pattern
I t consists of a cantilever piezoelectric bimorph beam
with a concentrated seismic mass on the free edge and the
111. ACCELEROMETER
PIEZOELECTRIC
other edge is soldered on the PCB. The frequency
A . Basics
response of the sensor is shown in figure 3. The
resonance is measured at 380 Hz and the corresponding
A walking person produces ground acceleration of acceleration noise spectral density is equal to
10" to g while a moving vehicle to 10" g 1141. 250ng/&at 1 Hz [15]. A charge amplifier is used for
The use of most low-cost commercial accelerometers
the signal conditioning, built from two TLV2772 low-
installed in some motes is inappropriate for footstep
noise and low-power op-amps.
detection due to their poor resolution and sensitivity. The
fundamental noise limit of the accelerometer, which
determines the smallest acceleration that the sensor can
detect, is also an issue that must be dealt with when
choosing the appropriate sensor [IS].
In piezoelectric accelerometers the primary sensing
element is a piezoelectric element manufactured in a way
to produce an electrical signal when stressed by vibratory
forces. The three basic structural designs that are used in
accelerometers are corn pression, shear and flexuraI or
bending designs. Bending mode designs have lower
resonant frequencies and very high output (up to 100
V/g) and are mostly used in low frequency seismic
10"

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applications [ 141. Fig. 3. System frequency respome, (a) cont. line: Simulated response
(b) da5hed line: Measured response
B. Footstep detection sensor setup
Seismic sensors and accelerometers operate in their IV. NODE DESIGN
linear region, away from resonant frequencies.
Geophones operate in frequencies higher than the A. System Architecture
resonant, typically below 20 Hz, while piezoelectric or
Since energy i s one of the most valuable resources on
MEMS accelerometers operate below their resonant
a wireless sensor node, special care should be taken to

416
design a power-aware node .Our approach is to make'the V. RESULTS
footstep detection algorithm as lightweight as possible in
order to run efficiently on a system with limited A. Simirlation
computation capabilities like those provided by a The algorithm waz, first simulated and evaluated on a
microcontroller. The prototype node contains a PC using MATLAB using data sets of measured data
microcontroller with a built in 10 bit A D converter taken from the prototype sensors. Two versions of the
(ATMega32), the seismic sensor with its signal algorithm were tested.
conditioning circuitry and a wireless modem for
communications with other nodes and the head node The first is using an adaptive threshold that is
(portable computer) (Figure 4). calculated according to the noise of the signal using the
folfowing formula:
Seismic If S ( n ) is the signal and q ( n ) is the threshold, then
Microcontroller if S ( n ) 2 7 ; ( n ) then the threshold remains the same:
Atmel Mega32
Power
q(n ) = q ( n - I ) ,
if S(n)<q(n) then the threshold is updated according
to:
~l~(.)=(l-u>~ji(.-l).u~~(n)

$( n)=(I-a)q? (n-I)+a[ si (n)-p&I)] 2

Fig 4. Footstep Detection Node Architecture

( t ~ ) = / t(n-I)+Caj
i (t~)
B. Footstep detection algorithm
The footstep detection algorithm was designed to Where p i ( n ) and ai(.) are the mean value and
require minimum computations and minimum memory
resources. Furthermore, it was implemented using integer standard deviation of the signal accordingly. Coefficient
arithmetic and special care for limiting energy C is used to keep a constant low false alarm rate and a is
consumption was taken. The basic concepts of the a factor between 0 and 1 (Figure 5) [16].
algorithm are: ~. --- - __

Calculate the baseline of the signal and determine ..._............I ....

ti + .... ....-..,, .... .........
adaptive threshold levels above noise that follow
temperature drifts of the output.
Sample the Sensor at a slow rate and enters sleep
statc when there arc no significant vibrations.
When threshold is exceeded increase sampling
rate for correct frequency measurement.
Calculate the frequency of the signal. Ifit matches I"..................... i
;..... 1 .".,l
''___
.
._,. .....tim.illlll.i ..
the resonant frequency of the beam there is a .. 1-
. . . . . . . . . .i.... .......................
i
._
strong indication that the cause of the disturbance
is an impact.
Calculate pattem repeatability, which is the a 25 sec data set from a person valking in circles

cadence of footsteps. If three OF more "spikes" are The second is a lighter version of the previous
found and the sensor is excited at it's resonant algorithm using fixed -but reconfigurable thresholds
frequency, the system sends its decision for calculated from the mean value of the signal (Figure 6 ) .
footstep detection to the header node.

417
 a9
m I.“. ........
..I_ -............
....1. ”.l.l .........
t - 3”
Fig. 6. Fixed threshold for footstep detection algorithm calcukired on a
25 sec data set from a person walking in circles
The basic features of the algorithm are:
Calculate an initial baseline when there is no
vibration and follows the drift of the signal due to
temperature changes.
Apply fixed but reconfigurable thresholds to the
calculated baseline.
Calculate the frequency of the vibration and the
cadence of the footsteps. If the beam is vibrating at
its resonant frequency and the cadence of the
impulses is within the aforementioned limits the
system is informed that a walking person is
detected.
The two algorithms were tested using the same 25
second data set. For baseline calculation the adaptive
. threshold algorithm required about 380.000 operations
(including a square root calculation) while the fixed
threshold algorithm required about 30.000. The latter was
finally implemented on the node to conserve power but
the results of the simulation with the adaptive algorithm
were better as it follows the noise of the signal and
calculates a value for the threshold above it.
B. Field measurenrenfs
Two prototype nodes have been constructed to test the
performance of the system in real environment. A small
test-bed of two nodes that were wirelessly connected to a
header node was set on grassy terrain. A person was
asked to walk normally in circles of 6m and Ipm of
diameter and then to walk in a straight line starting SKI
from the nodes, passing I m from the nodes and continue
Sm from the other side. Measurements were repeated
with the person -running instead of watking. The results
were encouraging and the small network could detect the
walking/running man in most occasions and send the
decision to the header node.
VI. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTUREWORK
.....-............ .1 . ._,.... j
The resuIts from testing the system in real
environment showed that footstep detection can be
achieved using small and low-cost bending type
piezoelectric accelerometers and simple, energy-aware
algorithms running on a microcontroller. More work is
required in order to increase the range and sensitivity of
the sensor by lowering its resonant frequency and to
optimize the algorithms of the system for lower false
alarm rate. Frequency calculation using methods that
require little computations such as wavelets and
extracting bearing information from the network are also
.-.-A under consideration.
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