GENERAL ANATOMY

 The human skeleton is made of bones, cartilages and
ligaments
 At birth there are about  300 bones however,  as the
individual grows old some of the bone fused together
 An adult skeletal system is composed of 206 bones
supplemented in certain regions by pieces of cartilage
forming the framework of the body
 Bones are related to organs, muscles, blood vessels as
their nomenclature as sometimes based on the bones
near them.  
 They form also protection around organs associated
with the different system.
 Externally, we can use the bones for landmarks to
identify deep structures.
3. Blood Cell Production.
 Hematopoetic function because of the
presence of red bone marrow in spongy 
bones. 
4. Storage . 
 Stores fats which are present in yellow bone
marrow within the medullary cavity of long
bones.
Calcium salts of bones is a valuable mineral
reserve that maintain the normal
concentrations of calcium and phosphate ions
in body fluids.
5. Leverage. 

LEVER  - a rigid piece that transmits and modifies force

or motion
MORPHOLOGY OF THE HUMAN SKELETON

 bilaterally symmetrical with the typical vertebrae

CONSTITUENTS OF BONES
pattern of an axis, divided into segments for flexibility,
 have two pairs of limbs, pectoral and pelvic girdles, also 1. Organic Elements
divided into joined parts for locomotion, grasping, etc.
 The skull is the expanded and modified cranial end of 1/3 of the bone is made up of organic elements. It
the axis. gives toughness and elasticity of bones in the
 Osseocartilaginous sesamoid bones develop in some young.
tendons and ligaments.                               Carbohydrates
 All these elements are collectively termed as skeleton.                               Fats
                              Proteins
 
2. Inorganic Elements
FUNCTIONS OF BONES AND SKELETON
comprises 2/3 of the bone composition.
1.  Support.
Bone minerals are the inorganic constituents of the
 give shape and support to the body bone matrix. They confer the hardness and much
 individual bones or group of bones provide a of the rigidity of bone, and are the main reason
framework for the attachment of soft tissues that bone is easily seen on radiograph (bone has to
and organs be 50% mineralized to be visible on X-ray).  
                               Calcium Salts
2. Protection.
                               Phosphate
 skeletal elements protect against extraneous                               Carbonate
forces.                               Sodium
 skull acts as barrier of the brain external
assault.
BONES IN THE FRESH STATE PRESENT THE FOLLOWING
 ribs are commonly dubbed protective as they
CHARACTERISTICS:
reduce the risk of impact, and respiratory
movements depend upon the ribs.] a.  Periosteum

-vascular membranes covering most of the

surfaces of bones.
 GENERAL ANATOMY
a.  Intramembranous  (Mesenchymal  or Dermal bone)

         Functions of the periosteum:  forrmed by the  direct formation of condensed

                  protection mesenchyme.
                  nutrition  the intramembranous bone resembles spongy
                  repair and regeneration bone, further remodeling around the trapped
vessels can produce compact bones. 
b.  Articular Cartilage  several flat bones of the skull, and the lower jaw,
plate of cartilage which covers the articulating and clavicles are formed this way.
surface of bones. These surfaces are  that parts of  therefore they are found in flat bones and those
the bone which comes in contact with another that remain flat on maturation.
bone in a joint. 

c.    Endosteum b.    Intracartilaginous  or Substitution

(  Endochondral  bone)
a membrane that lines the medullary cavity of
long bones.  replacing a preformed cartilage model. 
 most human bones are preformed cartilages;
d.  Bone Marrow  in early fetal life a long bone is prefigured by a
rod of hyaline cartilage replacing a similar rod of
connective tissue found within bones.
condensed mesenchyme. 
          Types of Bone Marrow:
 
a. Red bone marrow -  concerned with
production of RBC Shapes of Bones

            b.  Yellow bone marrow – for the storage of fat. It
is found within the medullary cavities of long
bones
e.  Nutrient blood vessels  (nutrient artery)
enters thru the nutrient foramen to give
nutrition to bones.
Microscopic Appearance of Cut Surfaces
A.  Compact or Dense bone
Long bones
 Found in the limbs.
 Form a system of levers to sustain the weight of
the trunk and to confer the power of
locomotion.
 It is composed of shaft or diaphysis and two
epiphyses.  Between the epiphyses and
diaphysis is the epiphyseal line where the
growth and lengthening of bones occur.
 Includes:  clavicles, humerus, radius, ulna,
femur, tibia, fibula, metacarpals, metatarsals,
and the phalanges.

 These are hard and dense materials which
forms the layer of bone structure (lamellae) just
beneath the periosteum.
 the ivory surface of mature bone
 there are no spaces between osteocytes.   considered as the body of long bones.
B.    Trabecular  or Spongy  Bone
 the interior of mature bone ( also termed
cancellous or spongy bone)
 presence of spaces between   osteocytes filled
with red bone marrow.
Parts of Long Bones:
Shaft
 
 thick walled composed of compact bone, in
the center of which  is a large space called
the medullary  cavity  filled with yellow bone
marrow.
 medullary cavity is covered by a thin
membrane lining called the endosteum;  and
the outer lining is called the  periosteum.

  Epiphysis
 Developmental Origin
 GENERAL ANATOMY
 ends or extremities.  It is  
generally thicker and broader than the
diaphysis b.  Appendicular Skeleton  -   126 bones
 made up of spongy bone covered by a thin layer Upper Extremity -  64 Lower Extremity- 62
of compact bone.  Red bone marrow occupy
these spaces.   Clavicle  -  2   Pelvic  -  2
 Short bones   Scapula   -  2   Femur  -  2
  Humerus  -  2   Patella  -  2
 are generally cuboidal in shape.   Radius  -  2   Tibia  -  2
 Intended for strength and compactness.   Ulna  -  2   Fibula  -  2
 Its motion is slight and limited.   Carpals  -         16   Tarsals  -  14
 It is divided into a number of small pieces united   Metacarpals  -         10   Metatarsals-  10
together by ligaments.   Phalanges  -         28   Phalanges  -  28
 they typically have thin cortex of compact bone,
supported   by an interior which is wholly trabecular.  

1.  Aditus - entrance into a cavity

Flat bones
2.  Ala - wing-shaped projection or surface
 are those bones which are found where the
3.  Alveolus - deep narrow pit
principal requirement is either extensive protection
or the provision of broad surfaces for muscular -  cavity lined with mucus membrane
4.  Antrum
attachment. filled with air
 include the curved bones of the cranial vault, which -  passageway with complete walls
have trabecular bone (diploe)  ,  in variable 5.  Canal
surrounding it
thickness, enclosed between laminae (tables)  of
compact bone. 6.  Capitulum -  head-like rounded process
 occipital, parietal, frontal, nasal, lacrimal, vomer, -  smooth rounded enlargement
scapula, os coxæ (hip bone), sternum, and ribs. 7.  Condyle whose articular   surface is covered by
cartilage
 
8.  Cornua -  horn-like projection
Irregular bones -  sharp, smooth surface covered with
9.  Crest
 —include any element not easily assigned to the cartilage
foregoing groups. -  smaller projection situated above a
10. Epicondyle
 are irregular in size and shape and are usually quite smooth articular eminence
compact.
Anatomical Terms:

Location of Bones -  small, smooth surface covered with

11. Facet
cartilage
a.  Axial Skeleton   -    80 bones
12. Foramen -  hole or opening
skull 22
13. Fossa -  shallow depression
ear ossicle 6
14. Groove -  longitudinal depression
hyoid bone 1
15. Hamulus -  hook-like projection
vertebral column 26
ribs 12
sternum  1
GENERAL ANATOMY
16. Hiatus -  slit-like opening or gap

-  margin or rim of a groove, edge of

17.  Labrum
wider ridges
18. Lamina or
-  thin sheet of bone
lamella
19. Lingula -  tongue-like projection
20. Meatus -  passageway or short canal
21. Process -  any marked projection
22. Ridge -  slightly more prominent than a line

23. Squama -  scale-like projection of bone

24. Spina or spine -  sharp slender projection
25. Uncus -  hook-like projection
26. Tubercle -  a rough eminence
27. Tuberosity -  a larger and rougher elevation
28. Trochlea -  a pulley-shaped surface
29. Sulcus -  groove
30. Styloid -  a more pronounced spine
31. Linea -  low, narrow elevation