What is Philosophy?

Etymologically, the word "philosophy" comes from two Greek

words, philo meaning "to love", and Sophia, meaning "wisdom"

Philosophy is also defined as the science that by natural light of

reason studies the first causes or highest principles of all things.
Under this definition, four things are to be considered:

A. Science - It is called science because of the investigation is

systematic. It follows certain steps or it employs certain procedures.
In other words, it is an organized body of knowledge just like any
other sciences.

B. Natural Light of Reason - Philosophy investigates things, nor by

using any other laboratory instrument or investigative tool, neither on
the basis of supernatural revelation, otherwise it becomes theology.;
Instead, the philosopher uses his natural capacity to think or simply,
human reason alone or so called unaided reason.

C. Study of All Things - This sets the distinction between philosophy

from other sciences. All other sciences concern themselves with a
particular object of investigation.

For exapmle, anthropologists study human beings in relation with

society; sociologists study society, its form, structures, and functions;
botanists focus their attention to plants; linguists limit themselves to
language; theologians investigate about God; whereas, a
philosopher studies human beings, society religion, language, God
and plants, among other concerns.

The reason is that philosophy is not one dimensional or partial. In

short, a philosopher does not limit himself to a particular object of
inquiry. He questions almost anything, if not everything. It is
multidimensional or holistic.

D. First Cause of Highes Principle - A principle is that from which

something proceeds in any manner whatsoever. The First Principles:

Principle of Identity - whatever it is; and whatever is not is not;

everything is what it is. Everything is its own being, and not
being is not being
Principle of Non-Contradiction - It is impossible for a thing to be
and to be at the same time, and at the same respect.
Principle of Excluded Middle - a thing is either is or is not;
everything must be either be or not be; between being and not
being, there is no middle ground possible
Principle of Sufficient Reason - nothing exists without a sufficient
reason for its being and existence
Since its beginnings, however, the scope of philosophy has changed.
Early Greek philosophers studied aspects of the natural and human
world that later became separate sciences - astronomy, physics,
psychology and sociology. On the other hand, certain basic
problems - the nature of the universe, the standard of justice, the
validity of knowledge, the correct application of reason, and the
criteria of beauty - have been the domain of philosophy from its
beginnings to present. These problems are the subject matter of the
five branches of philosophy - metaphysics, ethics, epistemology,
logic and aesthetics.
WHY BECOME A PHILOSOPHER? ON ATTAINING A
COMPREHENSIVE OUTLOOK IN LIFE

One of the key elements in many educational reforms is diversity,

difference, and choice or other proposals that establish separate
curricular routes for different groups or individuals ( Castells et al.
1999)

Diversity is the difference that makes each person unique(i.e.

biology, ethnicity and culture, family life, beliefs, geography,
experiences and religion) Sometimes, we have difficulty in accepting
others because they are different from us. Such behavior may cause
us to limit a person's opportunities or can make the person feel
rejected or resentful.
Thus, educational challenge in the 21st century entails appropriate
acceptance of cultural and racial multiplicity. One does not engage in
harassment of any form.

A. Expanding Our Philosophical Frames: Western and Non-

Western Traditions

Many philosophers hold that there are three great original centers of
philosophy in the world - Greek (or western). Indian, and Chinese.
All three arose as critical reflections on their own cultural traditions.
Historically speaking, Asian classics of the INdians and the chinese
predate the oldest of Western classics. From the time of the Greek
triumvirate ( Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle) there was a reversal. The
Western thinkers started to indulge in feverish philosophical
speculation, whereas the Asian thinkers began diminishing
philosophical activity. In our present century, almost all the major
philosophical ideas emanate from Western thinkers (Quito 1991)

Certainly the culture of the "East" is very different from that of the
"West" ( primarily Europe and North America), but that does not
mean each culture is incapable of understanding certain features of
the other. If logic is no longer able to solve a life problem, Asian
mind resorts to intuition. From the very fact that it thinks in a cyclic
all-at-once-ness, it must resort to means other than the usual mental
processes applicable to the piecemeal and fragmentary.
One shuld not therefore be surprised at its propensity to
mysticisism, at its use of super-consciousness, or of the existence of
a third eye or a sixth sense. When the situation demands, it reverses
the logical patterns (Mitchell 2011).

B. Filipino Thinking: From Local to Global

It may sound presumptous to speak of "Filipino Thought" that the

PHilippines could not very well speak of a tradition such as that of
China, India, or Greco-Roman. Yet, for the Filipino, there has to be
"Filipino Thought" or none at all.

Like any other people , the Filipino must eventually take

consciousness of hiw own particular life and his world, his society
and his gods in the light of Truth, and thereby realize his proper
being (Reyes 1990). However, the pioneering attempts to formulate
a Filipino philosophy share the fate of most pioneering works: the
lack of refined tools and the lack of predecessors upon whom to
stand ( Mercado 1992), Nevertheless, Filipinos do have their own
philosophy.

THREE DIMENSIONS OF FILIPINO THOUGHT

1. Loob : Holistic and Interior Dimensions

Kagandahang-loob, kabutihang-loob and kalooban are terms that

show sharing of one's self to others. For Mercado(1992), interiority
mainifests itself in freedom. Loob puts one in touch with his fellow
beings. Great Philippine values, in fact, are essentially interpersonal.
The use of intermediaries or go-betweens, the values of loyalty,
hospitality, pakikisama(camaraderie, conformism) and respect to
authority are such values that relate to persons.

In short, the Filipino generally believes in the innate goodness of

the human being. Filipino ethics has an internal code and sanction
that flow from with itself. This ethics is more constant than other
legalistic moral philosphies that are rather negative. The Filipino, wh
ostresses duties over rights, has plenty in common with his Oriental
neighbors such as the Chinese and the Indian.
2. Filipino Philosophy of Time

Moreover, the Filipino - whether Ilokano(Ti tao kasla kulintaba, no

agtayab, ngumato, bumaba) or Kapampangan (Bie keti ang yatu,
mengari yang ruweda, mibabo, milalim, ing Dios nung buri na) (A
human being is like a bird who flies up and goes down) - proves that
he believes in the gulong ng palad (literally, wheel of fortune) and
hence, looks at life as a series of ups and downs (Timbreza 1992)

This philosophy of life makes the filipino an unmitigated

optimist. When the so called wheel of life is on the downtrend, he
looks to the future with hope because life's wheel cannot stay down
forever. When one weeps, one will surely smile. The Filipino looks
upon every event, fortunate or unfortunate, as fleeting or
transitionary.

"Life may be sorrowful, but precisely because suffering is ultimate

salutary, there is hope beyond suffering" (Timbreza 1996)

Time is considered cyclic. Gulong ng palad nonetheless blends well

with foreigh philosophical ideas in the Asian region. it approaches
karma of the Indians and yin and yang thought of the chinese.
Pakikisama, on the other hand, is close to the Chinese and
Japanese philosophy of "living in harmony with nature"

3. Bahala Na
The pre-Spanish Filipino people believed in a Supreme Being,
Batula or Bathala. Bathala is not an impersonal entity but rather a
personal being that keeps balance in the universe. Unlike the
Indiand and the Chinese, a human being can forge some personal
relationships wit this deity because Bathala is endowed with
personality. The Filipino puts his entire trust in this Bathala who has
evolved into the Christian God ( Mercado 2000). The Filipino
subsconsciously accepts the bahala na attitutde as a part of
life. Bahala na literally means to leave everything to God who is
Bathala in the vernacular. The bahala na philosophy puts complete
trust in the Divine Providence; it contains the elements of
resignation. Thus, the Filipino accepts beforehand whatever the
outcome of his problem might be (Mercado 2000).

Bahala na, on the other hand, is seen as fatalistic; sort of leaving

everything to God or to chance - such is the uncertainty of life. On
the other hand, fatalism is universal. The will of God/Allah, tao to the
Chinese, rta to the Indians and fate in Buddhism - all signify, in one
way or another, fatalism.

4. Filipino Thought and Values: Positive and Negative Aspects

It is believed, however, that the Philippine values and system, in line

with Filipino philosophy, are in dire need to be used as positive
motivation. However, as we consider our duty, it should not be
bounded by utang na loob (debt of gratitude) but to help to uplift the
life not only of one's own famiy (micro perspective) but of others as
well (macro perspective)

The Filipino gives great value to endurance and hard work as means
to economic self-sufficiency. this self-sufficiency refers not to
individual self, but to the family to which one owes a special debt of
gratitude for having brought him life and nurtured him. In this vein,
we should stress other positive Filipino values such as bayanihan or
helping others in times of need.
Bayanihan is another moving spirit of the Filipino people. Deep
down in the Filipino psyche, there exists the belief that whatever
good one has done will redound to one's benefit because a Suprem
Judge will dispense just compensation whether in this life or in the
next ( Mercado 2000). In short, despite the Western imposition of
dualism, Filipino philosophy should continue to strive for harmony
with nature and the absolute.

C. Philosophy: Transcending and Aiming for a life of

Abundance
Abundance is not what we gather but what we scatter.
Often, abundance is equated with materialism, but it is when we
raise our empty hands and surrender, when we do not grab, when
we are unattached to anything or anyone, when we offer oneself - all
these are abundance. Only if we have empty hands can we receive
full blessings.

Abundance is not what we keep but what we give away

To live an abundant life, one must pursue one's desires and inner
self. ONe must go after what fulfills, before making more money. It is
truly paradoxical because to be able to have, we must first let go. To
be able to acquire, we must first control ourselves.

Aguilar (2010) believes that to be abundant, we must learn to control

our appetites and desires, for they have impact on other people.
Harsh words, pollution and eating unhealthy foods are some
examples where our choices influence or affect not only ourselves
but others as we. In other words, there is karma in our thoughts ,
words and actions.

Abundance is not what we hold but what we share

Undoubtedly, money counts in our globalized society. However,
Aguilar(2010) reminds us that money should not matter much, for
every moment is a blessing. Even if one does not have money.
Abundance comes to the one who has money and heart, money and
values, money and relationships, money and deeper happiness.

Abundance is a choice
In pursuing dreams, there are people who can be negative regarding
your efforts and successes. Negative thoughts, emotions, and
people should be avoided. As we aspire for our dreams, we should
try our best to be positive in our thoughts, motives, and efforts. A
friend once said that when we look down, we only see our
misfortunes but when we look up, we realize that we are more
fortunate than others. Abundance is more of an effort of the heart
than mind alone (Aguilar 2010)

For Aguilar, to achieve, one must commit. However, Aguilar

theorizes that only the heart can commit. Abundance, therefore, is a
choice which translates to commitmment, determination, and
perseverance.

Abundance is to evolve into a higher being

It becomes clear that the concept of abundance covers both external
and internal life. We cannot truly live without materia lconsiderations
but externals are not all there are; values, for intance matter.

Thus to live in abundance means evolving to a higher being in

following one's mission; a deliberate or conscious desire to act upon
what can make us and others happy
What is philosophizing?

Philosophizing is to think or express oneself in a pohilosophical

manner. It considers or discusses a matter from a philosophical
standpoint. In phenomenology, truth is based on the person's
consciousness; while in existentialism, truth is based on exercising
choices and personal freedom; in post modernism, it is accepted that
truth is not absolute (i.e cultural) and in logic, truth is based on
reasoning and critical thinking

A. Phenomenology: On Consciousness

Who is Husserl?
Edmund Husserl founded phenomenology which is essentially a
philosophical method.

Phenomenology focuses on careful inspection and description of

phenomena or appearances defined as any object of conscious
experience that i, that which we are conscious of (Johnston 2006).
In Husserl's Logical Investigations, he argued against psychologism;
the thesis that "truth is dependent on the peculiarities of the human
mind" and that philosophy is reducible to psychology. The word
"phenomenon" comes directly from the Greek meaning
"appearance"

Immanuel Kant, German philospher, had used the same word to

refer to the world of our experience.

Phenomenology is the scientific study of the essential structures of

consciousness. By describing those structures, Husserl believes that
we can find certainty which philosophy has always sought. Husserl's
phenomenology is the thesis that conssciousness is intentional.
Every act of consciousness is directed at some object or another,
possibly a material object or an "ideal" object (e.g. mathematics).
The phenomenologist can distinguish and describe the nature of the
intentional acts of consciousness and the intentional objects of
consciousness, which are defined through the content of
consciousness.

B. Existentialism: On Freedom
What is existentialism?

Existentialism is more of an outlook or attitude supported by

diverse doctrines centered on certain common themes.

These themes include:

the human condition or the relation of the individual to the world

the human response to that condition
being, especially the difference between the being of person
(which is "existence") and the being of other kind of things
human freedom
the significance (and unavoidability) of choice and decision in
the absence of certainty
the concreteness and subjectivity of life as lived against
abstractions and false objectifications.

If we may generalize for just a moment, we might suggest that

the existentialists share a concern for the individual
and personal responsibility (Chambers 2001).

Existentialism is often thought to be anti-religious;

nevertheless, there has been a strong current of Christian
existentialism beginning with the 19th century Danish
philosopher Kierkegaard.
As the first existentialist, Kierkegaard insisted that the authentic self
was the personally chosen self, as opposed to public or "herd"
identity. Existentialism's relationship to phenomenology is a matter
of some controversy. However, some philosophers, such as Jean-
Paul Sartre, have employed phenomenological methods to arrive at
or support their specific variations on existential themes. Our
seaerch for truth by means of critical thinking is a rational choice.
Existentialism, with Sartre, a French philosopher emphasizes the
importance of free individual choice regardless of the power of other
people to influence and coerce our desires, beliefs and decisions.

Sartre argued that consciousness (being-for-itself) is such that it is

always free to choose (though not free not to choose) and free to
"negate"(or reject) the given features of the world. ONe is never free
of one's situation. Sartre tells us but one is always free to "negate"
that situation and to (try to) change it.

The notion of authenticity is not new. Socrates already concerned

himself with the authenticity of the self - the genuineness of his
thoughts and actions, "the good of his soul." He sought not mere
opinions but knowledge, self-knowledge in particular and prescribed
not just righ action but virtue. being "true to oneself". St.
Augustine was concerned with the spiritual nature of the "true" self
as opposed to the inauthentic demands of desire and the body. Jean
Jacques Rousseau was adamant about the ssential goodness of
the "natural" self in contrast to the "corruption" imposed by society
(Baird and Kauffman 1997)

C. Post modernism: On Cultures

Post modernism is not a philosophy. It is at best a holding pattern,
perhaps a cry of despair. It rightly talks aobut the world philosophy,
the philosophy of many cultures but such talk is not a philosophy
either (Shields 2012).

For instance, reality cannot be known nor described objectively by

postmodernists. The American philosopher Richard Rorty, notably
developing themes form pragmatism and certain quarters of analytic
philosophy and bringing these together with Continental themes,
challenged the modern rationalist presumption that philosophy or
any branch of knowledge can find secure foundations or achieve
genuine representation of reality.

Post modernists believe that humanity should come at truth beyond

the rational to the non-rational elements of human nature including
the spiritual. Postmodernists consider that to arrive at truth.
Humanity should realize the limits of reason and objectivism.
BEyond exalting individual analysis of trut. Post modernists adhere
to a relational, holistic approach. Moreover, postmodernists value our
existence in the world and in relation to it.

D. Analytic Tradition
"Can language objectively describe truth?" For the philosophers of
this tradition , language cannot objectively describe truth

For Ludwig Wittgenstein, an analytic philosopher, language is

socially conditioned. We understand the world solely in terms of our
language games - that is, our linguistic, social constructs. Truth, as
we perceive it, is itself socially constructed. Analytic philosophy is
the conviction that to some significant degree, philosophical
problems, puzzles, and errors are rooted in language and can be
solved or avoided by a sound understanding of language and careful
attention to its workings. Analysis refers to a method; owing a great
deal to the pioneers, Bertrand Russel, G.E. Moore, Wittgenstein, and
J.L. Austin.

Critics are apt to point these concerns-they might say - this fixation
with language and logic as one aspect of the trivialization of
philosophy with which they charge the analytic movement. In any
case, the last two to three decades have see, on the one hand,
increased self0searching as to the limitations of the analytic
approach and more efforts to apply it to such deeper questions
(Shields 2012)

E. Logic and Critical Thinking: Tools in Reasoning

Logic is centered in the analysis and construction of arguments.

Logic and critical thinking serves as paths to freedom from half-truths
and deceptions. Critical thinking is distinguishing facts and
opinions or personal feelings. IN making rational choices, first, we
suspend beliefs and judgement until all facts have been gathered
and considered. Though facts are important, critical thinking also
takes into consideration cultural systems, values and beliefs. Critical
thinking helps us uncover bias and pprejudice and open to new
ideas not necessarily in agreement with previous thought.
In general, there are two basic types of reasoning: deductive and
inductive. Inductive reasoning is based from observations in order
to make generalizations. This reasoning is often applied in
prediction, forecasting, or behavior. Deductive reasoning draws
conclusion from usually one broad judgement or definition and one
more specific assertion, often an inference.

Take for instance:

All philosophers are wise. (Major premise)

Confucius is a philosopher ( Minor premise)
Therefore, Confucius is wise (Conclusion)

What are Validity and Soundness of an Argument?

Based on the previous example (or syllogism), if the two premises
are constructed logically then the conclusioon must follow logically
the deductive argument is therefore valid. This does not necessarily
mean that the conclusion is true or false. Validity comes from a
logical conclusion based on logically constructed premises (Reed
2010)

Strength of an Argument
On the other hand, inductive arguments cannot prove if the premises
are true which will also determine the truth of the
conclusion. Inductive reasoning proves only probable support to
the conclusion. An inductive argument that succeeds in providing
such probable support is a strong argument. While an inductive
argument that fails to provide such support is weak, a strong
argument with true premises is said to be cogent. For example:

Person A: Do you think Congressman will be re-elected?

Person B: I doubt it . His district has become more conservative in
recent years. Also, 63% of the registered voters in his district are in
the opposition

This argument is both a statistical argument and a predictive

argument, which are two common patterns of inductive reasoning.
Also, the conclusion does not follow necessarily from the premises.
What are the characteristics of philosophical questions?

For Double (1999), although philosophy is an organized body of

knowledge, the subject matter of philosophy is questions, which
have three major characteristics:

1. Philosophical questions have answers but the answers remain

in dispute.
2. Philosophical questions cannot be settled by science, common
sense or faith.
3. Philosophical questions are of perennial intellectual interest to
human beings.

The methodology or method that philosophers use to address

philosophical questions is critical thinking.

Critical thinking is the careful, reflective, rational and systematic

approach to questions of very general interest. Critical thinking
means understanding of philosophy and refraining form merely
giving claims but through careful thought, one reasons through
argumentations. One tries to become a "philosopher because one
possesses and cherishes above the rest of humanity the "love of
wisdom" which is a part of all human nature and because one more
reflectively and critically brings to light and examines the largest and
widest implications of the life of all human beings.

For Maboloc and Pascua(2008), critical thinking is a lifelong process

self-assessment that further consists of:

defining, analyzing devising solutions

arriving at reasonable and informed conclusions
applying understanding and knowledge to new and different
problems
willingness to change one point of view
continually examining and re-examining ideas
willingness to say "I dont know"

What are the attributes of a critical thinker?

The attributes of a critical thinker include:

Looks for evidence to support assumption and beliefs

Adjusts opinons
Looks for proof
Examines problem
Rejects irrelevant and incorrect information

If one accepts one's limits or has the courage to say "I dont know"
then it becomes an honest appraisal of say, solving a problem. ONly
if one is able to be willing to change one's point of view based on
arising evidence and continually re-examining ideas, can a more
holistic perspective of truth be arrived at.

Critical thinking and logic are important tools to distinguish facts

from opinions. An opinion can be a belief or judgement that rests on
grounds insufficient to produce complete certainty. Itis a personal
view, attitude, or appraisal or personal feelings. Asking relevant
questions, assessing arguments and statements, looking for
evidence to support assumption and beliefs and deciding rationally
what to believe or not are important to evaluate opinions.

A fact is a statement that can be proven true or false. Opinions can

be based on facts or emotions and sometimes they are meant to
deliberately mislead others. Therefore, it is important to be aware of
the author's purpose and choice of langauage. Sometimes, the
author lets the facts speak for themselves.

Example of fact:
"With fewer cars on the road, there would be less air pollution and
traffic noise; therefore, the use of mass transportation should be
encouraged"

Sometimes the author may use descriptive language to appeal to

your emotions and sway your thinking

Example of opinion:
"Do you like looking at a smoggy view from a congested highway?
How do you feel about fighting road hugs and bumper to bumper
traffic everyday? Mass transportation is the solution to all these
problems."

Emotional language is neither right nor wrong, but the way in chich
it is used can be positive or negative; it is up to you to make
reasonable judgement about the material you are reading and to
draw your own conclusion. Therefore, when you read, it is important
to judge facts and opinions carefully in order to come to the right
conclusion. Ask yourself, "are the facts reliable?" ONce you answer
these questions, you may be on the right track for finding and
sticking to the facts.
A. Hinduism

What is Brahman?
At the heart of HInduism lies the idea of human beings quest for
absolute truth, so that one's soul and the Brahman or
Atman(Absolute soul) might become one. For the INdians, God
first created sound and the universe arose from it. As the most
sacred sound, the Aum (Om) is the root of the universe and
everything that exists and it continues to hold everything together.

According to HInduism, human beings have a dual nature: one is the

spiritual and immortal essence (soul); the other is empirical life and
character. Hindus generally believe that the soul is eternal but is
bound by the law of Karma (action) to the world of matter, which it
can escape only after spiritual progress through an endless series of
births. Hinduism holds that humanity's life is a continous cycle
(samsara). While it is the spirit is neither born nor does it die, the
body, on the other hand, goes through a transmigratory series of
birth and death.
Transmigration or metempsychosis is a doctrine that adheres to
the belief that a person's soul passes into some other creature,
human or animal. There will be no end to the cycle unless the
individual exerts real efforts to break away or liberate one's spirit
from the monotonous cycle. Different Hindu schools and sects have
diffierent views about the method of release (moksha) from this
transmigration.

Moksha, thus, is an enlightened state wherein one attains one's true

selfhood. Ultimate moksha leas the spirit out of the monotonous
cycle of life and death (samsara) to a state of "nothingness" (i.e. in
the context of physical being) where the bliss of being one with
Brahman compensates for all the sufferings the individual underwent
in his erstwhile existence in the physical world (Andres 1994) .
What are the four primary values?
Also common to all Hindu thought are the four primary values. In
order of increasing importance, they may be roughly translated as
wealth , pleasure, duty and enlightenment.

Wealth and pleasure are worldly values but when kept in

perspective they are good and desirable
Duty The spiritual value of duty or righteousness refers to patience,
sincerity, fairness, love, honesty, and similar virtues.
Enlightenment The spiritual value, though, is enlightenment, by
which one is illuinated and liberated and most importantly finds
release from the wheel of existence. Repeated existence is the
destiny of those who do not achieve enlightenment.

B. Buddhism:From Tears to Enlightenment

Who is Buddha?
Another major Eastern tradition is Buddhism, contained in the
teachings of its founder, Siddhartha Gautama or The Buddha . Out
of the life experience and teaching of highborn Prince Gautama of
The Sakya clan in the kingdom of Magadha, who lived form 560 to
477 B.c. sprang the religious philosoophy we know as Buddhism.
Turning away from Hindu polytheism and palace pleasures.
Gautama began searching for answers to the riddle of life's
sufferings, disease, old age and death. He explored Brahminic
philosophies then tried the rigors of asceticism, but all to no avail .
Finally, while resting and meditating in a grove of trees, he came to a
clear realization that the solution lays in his own mind (Puligandla
1997).

Reduced to its simplest form, the teaching Buddha has been set
forth traditionally in the "Four Noble Truths" leading to the
"Eightfold Path" to perfect character or arhatship, which in turn
gave assurance of entrance into Nirvana at death.

In the Four Noble Truths, Gautama taught:

1. life is full of sufferings

2. suffering is caused by passionate desires, lusts cravings
3. only as these are obliterated, will suffering cease
4. such eradication of desire may be accomplished only by
following the eightfold path of earnest endeavor

Briefly, these eight steps are:

1. right brief in and acceptance of the "Four told Truth"

2. right aspiration for one's self and for others
3. right speech that harms no one
4. right conduct motivated by goodwill toward all human beings
5. right means of livelihood or earning one's living by honorable
means;
6. right endeavor or effort to direct one's energies toward wise
ends
7. right mindfulness in choosing topics for thought
8. right meditation or concentration to the point of complete
absorption in mystic ecstacy

The way to salvation, in other words, lies through self-abnegation,

rigid discipline of mind and body, a consuming love for all living
creatures and the final achievement of that state of consciousness
which marks an individual's full preparation for entering the Nirvana
(enlightened wisdom) of complete selflessness.

In this state, the effects of the Law of Cause and Effect (Karma) are
overcomed; the Cycle of Rebirth is broken; and one may rest in the
calm assurance of having attained a heavenly bliss that will stretch
into all eternity. The Buddhist practice the four states of sublime
condition; love, sorrow of others, joy in the joy of others and
equanimity as regards one's own joy and sorrows.

The freedom of thought and intellectual independence of Buddhism

are unique in the history of religions. The Buddha insisted that no
one accepts his teaching merely ot of reverence for him but each
human being subjects the teaching to rigorous reflection and
analysis and accept it only after all doubts and perplexities are
overcome (Puligandla 2007)

C. St. Augustine of Hippo and St. Thomas Aquinas

In the 5h century, Augustine's writing is considered to be the most
influential in the early medieval period. For Augustine (354-430 CE),
philosophy is amor sapiential, the love of widom; its aim is to
produce happines. However, for Augustine, wisdome is not just an
abstract logical construction; but it substia tially existent as the
Divine Logos. Hence, philosophy is the love of god; it is then,
religious. Teachings of Christianity are based on the love of God,
which Augustine's Aquinas' and Anselm's arguments are basically
rooted.

For Augustine, Christianity, as presenting the full revelation of the

true God is the only full and true philosophy. However, we can love
only that which we know. When comes this knowledge of God? it
begins with faith and is made perfect by understanding. All
knowledge leas to God, so that faith supplements and enlightens
reason that it may proceed to ever richer and fuller understanding.
Indeed, without this enlightenment of faith, reason invariably sooner
or later goes astray.

It should be taken as a humble acceptance of the fact that human

beings alone, without God are bound to fail.

As stated in John 15:5 "I am the vine; you are the branches. If you
remain in me and I in you, you will bear much fruit; apart from me ,
you can do nothing." Further, to quote Psalms 4 " the thoughts are
very deep! The dull man cannot know. The stupid cannot understand
this." Only the pure in heart shall see god; the progress in
knowledge and wisdom is not only speculative, it is more
fundamentally practical and moral.

Who is St. Aquinas?

For St. Thomas Aquinas, another medieval philosopher of all
creatures, human being have the unique power to change
themselves and things for the better.
 His philosphy is best grasped in his treatises Summa contra
Gentiles and Summa Theologica. Aquinas considers the human
being as a moral agent. We are both spiritual and body elements;
the spiritual and material. The unity between both elements indeed
helps as to udnerstand our complexity as human beings. Our
spirituality separates us form animals; it differentiates moral
dimension of our fulfullment in aciton. Through our spirituality, we
have a conscience. Thus, whether we choose to be "good" or "evil"
becomes our responsibility.
Based on the preceding seciton, let us evaluate our human
limitations and how we can also transcend them. Many of us would
experience any of the following; for emerging from deep within and
felt a sense of being in tune with the mystery of our own being, and
with the mystery of life that transcends us. Let us consider the
following examples (Edwards 1983)

A. Forgiveness

When we forgive, we are freed from our anger and bitterness

because of the actions and/or words of another. On the other hand,
the hardness of our heart is reinforced by whole series of national
arguments.

B. The Beauty of Nature

 There is perfection in every single flower; this is what the three
philosophies believed. For a hug, for every sunrise and suset, to eat
together as a family are our miracles. These kinds of experiences
can be truly moments of grace. They touch us deeply and the human
heart is spontaneously lifted. During this experience, we need to
offer praise.

C. Vulnerability
 To be invulnerable is somehow inhuman. To be vulnerable is to be
human .Supermen or superheroes are hiding from their true
humanity. the experience that we are contingent that we are
dependent for our existence on another is frightening. To work in the
office or study in school, without acknowledging the help of other is
to live without meaning and direction. We need to acknowledge the
help of other people in our lives. Such moment of poverty and
dependence on others are not a sign of weakness but being true
with ourselves.

D. Failure

Our failure forces us to confront our weaknesses and limitations.

When a relationship fails, when a student fails a subject, when our
immediate desires are not met. We are confronted with the
possibility of our plans, and yet, we are forced to surrender to a
mystery or look upon a bigger world. Such acceptance of our failures
makes us hope and trust that all can be brought into good. Even if
we have sinned, as Augustine had, there is hope and forgivenes.
E. Loneliness

Our loneliness can be rooted from our sense of vulnerability and

fear of death. This experience is so common. However, it is our
choice to live in an impossible world where we are always "happy" or
to accept a life where solitude and companionship have a part. With
our loneliness, we can realize that our dependence on other people
or gadgets is a possessiveness that we can be free from.

F. Love
 To love is to experience richness, positivity, and transcendence.
Whether in times of ecstatic moments or struggles, the love for a
friend, between family members or a significant person can open in
us something in the other which takes us beyond ourselves. Life is
full of risks, fears and commitment, pain and sacrificing and giving up
thing's we want for the sake of the one we love. In a buddhist view,
the more we love, the more risks and fears there are in life (Aguilar
2020)
Who are the ancient thinkers?
Early Greek philosophers , the MIlesians, regarded nature as
spatially without boundaries, that is, as infinite or indefinite in extent.
One ancient thinker, Anaximander, employed the term "boundless"
to convey the further thought that Nature is indeterminate -
boundless in the sense that no boundaries between the warm and
cold or the moist and dry regions are originally present within it (
Solomon and Higgins 2010)

Anaximander was an early proponent of science and tried to

observe and explain different aspects of the universe with a
particular interest in its origins claimin that nature is ruled by laws.
Just like human societies, and anything that disturbs the balance of
nature does not last long.

Creation and Destruction According to Anaximander's sketch of

the genesis of the world (cosmogony), the evolution of the world
begins with the generation of opposites in a certain region of Nature:
a portion of the boundless first differentiates itself into a cold0moist
mass surrounded by a roughly spherical shell of the warm-dry. Once
the warm-dry has been separated out, surrounding the cold moist it
begins to evaporate the moisture of the latter and this process forms
a vaporous atmosphere. Eventually, the expanding vapor or stream
bursts the enclosing fiery shells into rings and rushing outward
envelopes them. The opposite forces caused an imbalance that
necessitated their ultimate destruction (Price 2000). what appear to
us as heavenly bodies are in reality parts of the fiery rings that we
glimpse through openings left in their steamy, vaporous envelopes.
The revolution of the stars, sun and moon around the central earth is
in reality the rotation of the vapor enveloped rings of fire.

Phytagoras. Another ancient philosopher described the universe as

living embodiment of nature's order, harmony and beauty. He sees
our relationship with the universe involving biophilia (love of other
living things) and cosmophilia (love of other living beings). Perhaps,
we could consider the early him as an ecologist.
The Chinese cosmic conception , on the other hand, is based on
the assumption that all that happens in the universe is a continuous
whole like a chain of nautral consequences. All events in the
universe follow a transitional process due to the primeval pair, the
yang and the yin (all things exist as inseparable and contradictory
opposites). The universe does not proceed onward but revolves
without beginning or end. There is nothing new under the sun; the
"new" is a repetition of the old (Quito 1991). Human being's
happiness lies in this conformity with nature or tao; the wise,
therefore, conforms with tao and is happy.

Anaxagoras is credited for being the first to establish a philosophy

in its entirety in Athens. He devoted much of his time in explaining
nature as it is - taking universe as an undifferentiated mass until it
was worked upon by a spiritual component which he called "nous".
He believed that in the physical world, everythhing contains a portion
of everything else. Nothing was pure on its own and everything was
jumbled together in a chaotic and "nous"(which means mind) asserts
a certain motion and meaning to the entities in this chaos.
Empedocles was one of the most important pre-Socratic era
philosophers and even more outstanding were his poems that went
on to impose a great influence on later poets including the likes of
Lucretius. One of his philosophical landmarks has been his assertion
of "four element theory of matter" It states that all matter is basically
composed of four primary elements - earth, air, fire and water.

He simply rejected the presence of any void or an empty space, thus

contradicting the philosophical ideology of Parmenides through and
through. He put forth the idea of opposite motive forces involved in
building of the world - namely , love as the cause of union
and strife as the cause of separation.

B. Modern Thinkers

Who are the modern thinkers?

In his third critique, Critique of Judgement, Immanuel Kant
expresses that beauty is ultimately a symbol of morality (Kant 1997).
According to Kant, we must ignore any practical motives or
inclinations hat we have and instead contemplate the object without
being distracted by our desires (Goldbiatt and Brown 2010). For
instance, one should not be tempted to plunge into the water in a
seascap portrait. In a sense, therefore, the stance that we take
forward the beautiful object is similar to that which we take toward
other human beings when we are properly respectful of their dignity.

The beautiful encourage us to believe that nature and humanity are

part of an even bigger design. This sense of order in a beautiful
object is not translatable into a formula or a recipe. Rahter, the
concept of a larger design. The belief in an ultimate goal in which
every aspect of the sensible world has its place in a larger purpose
draws our thoughts toward a supersensible reality. Ultimately, Kant
believes that the orderliness of nature and the harmony nature with
our faculties guide us toward a deeper religious perspective. This
vision of the world is not limited to knowledge and freedom or even
to faith in the ordinary sense of the term. It is a sense of cosmic
harmony.

Understanding our relationship with the environment can also refer

to the human beings with ecology and nature. For Herbert
Marcuse, humanity had dominated nature. There can only be
change if we will change our attitude towards our perception of the
environment. Moreover, for Mead, as human beings, we do not
have only rights but duties. We are not only citizens of the
community but how we react to this community and in our reaction to
it, change it.

For Schiller, beauty or play or art ( he uses the words, rather

cavalierly almost interchangeably) performs the process of
integrating or rendering compatible the natural and the spiritual or
the sensuous and the rational: only in such a state of integration are
we --- who exist simultaneously on both these levels -- free.

Both Hegel and Shaftesbury, who associate beauty and art with
mind and spirit hold that the beauty of art is higher than the beauty of
nature on the ground that, as Hegel puts it, "the beauty of art is born
of the spirit and born again" (Hegel 1835). That is the natural world is
born of God, but the beauty of art transforms that material again by
the spirit of the artist.
What are the theories that shows care for the environment?

A. Deep ecology
Deep cology, environmental philosophy and social movement based
in the belief that humans must radically change their relationship to
nature from one that values nature solely for its usefulness to human
beings to one that recognizes that nature has an inherent value.

For this theory, ecological crisis is an outcome of anthropocentrism,

which is already discussed. The controlling attitude of humankind is
extended to nature when in fact, humanity is part of nature. Deep
ecologists encourage humanity to shift away from anthropocentrism
to ecocentrism.
What is ecocentrism?
Ecocentrism sees the ecosphere - comprising all Earth's
ecosystems, atmosphere, water and land - as the matrix which
birthed all life and as life's sole source of sustenance. It is a
worldview that recognizes intrinsic value in ecosystems and the
biological and physical elements that they comprise as well as in the
ecological processes that spatially and temporally connect them. So
when human wants clash with the health of the Earth as a whole or
any of its ecosystems, the former should, practically and ethically
speaking give way to the latter: human needs, like the needs of other
species are secondary to those of the Earth as the sum of its
ecosystems.

B. Social Ecology

Social ecology is an approach to society that embraces an

ecological, reconstructive and communitarian view on society. This
ideology looks to reconstruct and transform current outlooks on both
social issues and environmental factors while promoting direct
democracy. It looks to do away with scarcity and hierarchy in the
economy in favor of the world in which human communities work
together in harmony with nature to accept and promote diversityas
well as creativity and freedom.

For this theory, ecological crisis results from authoritarian social

structures. Destroying nature is a reflection wherein few people
overpower others while exploiting the environment for profit or self-
interest. Social ecologists call for small-scale societies which
recognize that humanity is linked with the well-being of the natural
world in which human life depends. If we can change human society
then our relationship with the rest of nature will become transformed.

C. Ecofeminism

Eco feminism, also called ecological feminism, branch of feminism

that examines the connections between women and nature.
Ecofeminism uses the basic feminist tenets of equality between
genders, a revaluing of non-patriarchal or nonlinear structures and a
view of the world that respects organic processes, holistic
connections and the merits of intuition and collaboration.

This theory argues that ecological crisis is a consequence of male

dominance. In this view, whatever is "superior" is entitled to whatever
is "inferior". Male traits as in the anthropocentric model are superior
as opposed to female traits as in the ecocentric model. Domination
works by forcing the other to conform to what is superior. Nature
must be tamed, ordered, and submit to the will of the superior. For
the adherents of this view, freeing nature and humanity means
removing the superior vs. inferior in human relations.
There are two largely simplistic schisms within ecofeminism:
A. Radical ecofeminism - This strand of ecofeminism maintains
that the planet and women are both exploited and used by men in
the same uncaring manner. Social relations are formed in the same
way one's relation to the environment is formed. In patriarchal
societies, men worked the fields and thus controlled the amount of
food that could be extracted from the earth. Along with this, men also
had control over how many resources women could have access to.
Thus, the link between ecology and women is degradataion.

B. Cultural ecofeminism - The other strand of ecofeminism

considers the fact that ecological problems affect women
disproportionately than it does men. Cultural ecofeminists assert that
women are more connected to nature via biological phenomena
such as menstruation and pregnancy, as well as activities like
gathering (e.g. water gatherers are usually women). This link
between women and the environment is more empowering than the
one advocated by radical ecofeminism. These theories value the
care, conservation, preservation of nature, and humanity. Our search
for the maning of life must explore not just our own survival but calls
for a new socio-ecological order.
Erich Fromm(2013) , a German humanistic philosopher, believes
that it is about time that humanity ought to recognize not only itself
but also the world around it. For Fromm, as human beings, our
biological urge for survival turns into selfishness and laziness.
Fromm argues that as humans, it is also inherent in us to escape the
prison cell of selfishness.

The human desire to experience union with others is one of the

strongest motivators of human behavior and the other is the desire
for survival. From these two contradictory strivings in every human
being. It follows that the social structure, its values and norms,
decides which of the two becomes dominant. Cultures that foster
the greed for possession are rooted in one human potential. Cultures
that foster being and sharing are rooted in the other potential. We
must decide which of these two potentials to cultivate (Fromm
2013).
What is prudence?

Prudence is the ability to govern and discipline oneself by the use

of reason. It is classically considered to be a virtue, and in particular
one of the four Cardinal virtues.

Prudence is the virtue that disposes practical reason to discern our

true good in every circumstance and to choose the righ means of
achieving it; "the prudent man looks where he is going." Prudence is
the right reason in action writes St. Thomas Aquinas.

What is frugality?

Frugality is the quality of being frugal, sparing , thrifty, prudent or

economical in the consumption of consumable resources such as
food, time or money and avoiding waste, lavishness or
extravagance.

Environmental integrity - refers to maintaining the state of the

environment. This means that human activities should not unduly
disrupt the ecosystems and human communities located in the area.
Care should be taken that the surrounding landscape is not
drastically impacted by human activities.
Economic efficiency - refers to prudence in decision making
regarding the use of resources to ensure that there is minimum to
zero waste.
Equity - demands that we use our natural resources in such a
manner that these are conserved so that the next generation will be
able to use them. Prudence is the ability to regulate one's actions
and behavior. Frugality is being thrifty with the use of one's
resources.

Arising from the discussions, Erich Fromm (2013) proposed a new

society that should encourage the emergence of a new human being
that will foster prudence and moderation or frugality toward
environment. These are some of the functions of Fromm's
envisioned society:

1. The willingness to give up all forms of having, in order to fully

be.
2. Being fully present where one is
 3. Trying to reduce greed, hate, and illusions as much as one is
capable
4. Making the full growth of oneself and of one's felow beings as
the supreme goal of living
5. Not deceiving others, but also not being deceived by others; one
may be called innocent but not naive.
6. Freedom that is not arbitrariness but the possibiity to be oneself,
not as a bundle of greedy desires but as a delicately balanced
structure that at any moment is confronted with the alternatives
of growth or decay, life or death
7. Happiness in the process of ever-growing aliveness, whatever
the furthest points is that fate permits one to reach for living as
fully as one can is so satisfactory that the concern for what one
might or might not attain has little chance to develop.
8. Joy that comes from giving and sharing not from hoarding and
exploiting.
9. Developing one's capacity for love, together with one's cpacity
for critical, unsentimental thought.
10. Shedding one's narcissism and accepting that tragic limitations
inherent in human existence.

The ideals of this society cross all party lines; for protecting nature
needs focused conservation, action, political will, and support from
industry. If all these sectors agree on the same goals. The possibility
of change would seem to be considerably greater especially since
most citizens have become less and less interested in party loyalty
and slogans.
For B.F. Skinner, the environment selects which is similar with
natural selection. We must take in to account what the environment
does to an organism not only before, but also after it responds.
Skinner maintains that behavior is shaped and maintained by its
consequences. Behavior that operates upon the environment to
produce consequences (operant conditioning) can be studied by
arranging environments in which specific consequences are
contingent upon it. The second result is practical, the environment
can be manipulated. Yelon (1996) accepted that behavioral
psychology is at fault for having overanalyzed the words “reward”
and “punishment”. We might have miscalculated the effect of the
environment in the individual. There should be a balance in our
relationship with others and environment. In our dealing with our
fellow human beings, there is the strong and obvious temptation to
blame the environment if they do not conform to our expectations.
The question of freedom arises. Can an individual be free?
According to Skinner, our struggle for freedom is not due to a will to
be free as for Aristotle or Sartre, but to certain behavioral processes
characteristic of the human organism, the chief effect of which is the
avoidance of or escape from “aversive” features of the environment.

The feeling of freedom, according to Skinner becomes an unreliable

guide as soon as would-be controllers turn to non-aversive
measures, as they are likely to do to avoid the problems raised when
the controller escapes or attacks. For example, a skillful parent
learns to reward a child for good behavior rather than punish him for
bad. Control becomes necessary in the issue of freedom. Following
the adage of John Stuart Mill, “Liberty consists in doing what one
desires,” Skinner states that when a person wants something he acts
to get it when the occasion arises. Skinner argues that even though
behavior is completely determined it is better that a person “feels
free” or “believes that he is free.”

The issue is controllability. We cannot change genetic defects by

punishment; we can work only through genetic measures that
operate on a much longer time scale. What must be changed is not
the responsibility of autonomous individual but the conditions,
environment or genetic, of which a person’s behavior is a function
(Gines, 1998). Example, a student was praised by a teacher who
said to him “Very good!” for a solution to a problem or for giving the
correct answer to a question. Skinner thinks that the problem is to
free human beings not from control but from certain kinds of control,
and it can be solved only if we accept the fact that we depend upon
the world around us and we simply change the nature of
dependency. Skinner proposed that to make the social environment
as free as possible of aversive stimuli, we do not need to destroy the
environment or escape from it. What is needed, according to
Skinner, is to redesign it. Life is full of paradoxes; nobody could nor
should control it. We have to be open to life, learn to accept and live
with paradoxes. Learning with contradiction is not the same as living
in contradiction (Guevarra, 1997). The paradoxes account for the
reasons why life cannot be held still. Defining or conceptualizing
insists on regarding one aspect of life at the same time disregarding
the other. In the spirituality of imperfection, we learn to accept that
life, our environment, is both evil” and “good”. In recognizing life’s
open tenderness, we learn to be flexible and adaptable. B.F. Skinner
believes that morality is a conditioned response impressed on the
child by society.
Despite this view, however, creating a static environment e.g.
controlled environment is not applicable in the realities of everyday
world. Skinner is right, however, in pointing out the influence of
environment especially in the socialization of children. Unfortunately,
there is an emphasis today in the acquisition of money, property and
prestige, regardless of values or lack of those children learns. There
should not just be a re-engineering of the environment, but a total
transformation of how we view our environment, beginning with our
own orientation. How do we view life? Is it merely a life concerned
with power that, according to Buddha, is the cause of despair? Or
should it be a life of cooperation, vision and concern with other living
beings? Indeed the theory of freedom has negative and positive
tasks. Our lives should not be merely controlled by rewards and
punishments. As human beings, we are capable of reaching different
level of heights and ideals. According to Yelon (1996) punishment is
an educative measure, and as such is a means to the formation of
motives, which are in part to prevent the wrong doer from repeating
the act and in part to prevent others from committing a similar act.
Analogously, in the case of reward we are concerned with incentive.
However, much more important than the question of when a person
is said to be responsible is that of when he himself feels responsible.
Evidently, not merely that it was he who took the steps required for
its performance; but there must be added awareness that he did it
“independently”, “of his own initiative” or whatever the term is. This
feeling is simply the consciousness of freedom, which is merely the
knowledge of having acted of one’s own desires .And of “one’s own
desires” are those which have their origin in the regularity of one’s
character in the giving situation, and are not imposed by an external
power e.g. stimulus. The absence of external power expresses itself
in the well-known feeling that one could also have acted otherwise.

Indeed the environment plays a significant part in our lives.

However, since the Stone Agewe had proven that we are not
completely under its mercy. We have and shall continue to tame and
adapt to the changes in the conditions of the environment. As Plato
believes, the soul of every individual possesses the power of
learning the truth and living in a society that is in accordance to its
nature. We are responsible, whether we admit it or not, for what is in
our power to do; and most of the time we cannot be sure what it is in
our power to do until we attempt. In spite of the alleged inevitabilities
in personal life and history, human effort can predetermine the
direction of events, even though it cannot determine the conditions
that make human effort possible. It is true that we did not choose to
be born. It is also true that we choose, most of us, to keep on living.
It is not true that everything that happens to us is like “being struck
down by a dreadful disease.” The treatment and cure of disease to
use as an illustration would never serve as a moral paradigm for the
whole human situation would never have begun unless we believed
that some things that were did not have to be, that they could be
different, and that we could make them different. And what we can
make different we are responsible for.
Twentieth century gave rise to the importance of the individual, the
opposite of medieval thought that was God centered. For Ayn Rand,
individual mind is the tool for economic progress vis-à-vis
laissez faire capitalism. Since the mind is important, the sector that
molds It should not be controlled by the government. Similar with
Aristotle, Rand believes that thinking is volitional. A person has the
freedom to think or not. Though, for Rand, the majority belong sto
the passive supporters of the status quo who choose not to think.
Individual rights, as espoused by Hobbes and Rousseau, are not
merely numbers. Rand rejects collectivism because of its brute
force. Though human beings have rights, there should also be
responsibility. Individual rights were upheld in capitalism that is the
only system that can uphold and protect them. The principle of
individual rights represented the extension of morality into the social
system. Rand cited the right to gain, to keep, to use and to dispose
of material values. Most developed countries have disposed
their toxic wastes to developing countries. Disposing material values,
thus, is not just a matter of throwing waste but projecting where to
dump wastes that would not impinge on the rights of others.
Individualism, as espoused by Rand, is lined in
family dependency because Easterners believe that the individual
needs the community and vice versa. The Filipino and Chinese, for
instance, stress the human relationships that emphasize that the
person is not necessarily an independent entity. In Filipino’s loob, for
instance, the individual is the captain of his own ship on a sea that is
not entirely devoid of uncertainties. Loob touches the daily human
aspect of the Filipinos. Loob sought to avoid fragmentation. It
embraced family and political parties. Loob does not only fulfill
reasons of the mind but of the heart and personal involvement as
well. Whereas , Rand upheld the individual, Filipinos’ Loob is
essentially an interpersonal and social concept before it is
a privately, personal concept. Further, Filipinos look at themselves as
holistic from interior dimension under the principle of harmony.

Loob encompasses Filipinos’ humanity, personality and theological

perspective and daily experiences. It aspires harmony with others
and nature to be in union with God. Loob stresses a being-with-
others and sensitivity to the needs of others that inhibits one’s on
personal and individual fulfillment. There is the apprehension on the
group oriented approach of the Filipino that might hamper the
individual’s initiative and responsibility. It is contended that the
individual should be disciplined from within rather than fear
from authority figure. Discipline and responsibility should be
inculcated especially through education. Filipinos’ loob is the basis of
Christian value of sensitivity to the needs of others and gratitude. It
encompassed “give and take” relationship
among Filipinos. As such, repaying those who have helped us is a
manifestation of utang na loob or debt of gratitude. Loob is similar
with other Eastern views that aspire for harmony ( sakop ) with
others, God and nature. Loob prioritized family, relatives, and even
non kinsmen. It bridges individual differences and is the common
factor among human beings. The concept of Rand’s free individual
and Filipino’s view of the free human being may have differences but
can be overcome. The potential of the Filipino should be able to
grow so that he will be aware of his uniqueness. Children should
be brought up to the identity of the members of the family and
simultaneously with that of the nation. Self-sufficiency (kasarinlan)
should recognize human worth and dignity. Individualism thus,
should not be seen as selfishness but an affirmation of a truly human
self that is the supreme value of human living. To be a free individual
is to be responsible not only for one’s self but also for all. Thus, the
individual becomes a free and creative person who asserts one’s
uniqueness. Kagandahang loob, kabutihang loob, kalooban are
terms that show sharing of one’s self to others. This is the freedom
within loob. Loob puts one in touch with his fellow beings. Great
Philippine values in fact are essentially interpersonal. The use of
intermediaries or go betweens, the values of loyalty, hospitality,
pakikisama (camaraderie) and respect to authorityare such values
that relate to persons. In short, the Filipino generally believes in the
innate goodness of the human being. Filipino ethics has an internal
code and sanction than other legalistic moral philosophies that are
rather negative. The Filipino, who stresses duties over rights, has
plenty in common, onceagain with Chinese or Indians. The Filipino
looks at himself as one who feels, wills, thins, acts,as a total whole
as a “person”, conscious of his freedom, proud of his human dignity
and sensitive to the violation of these two.
In lieu of the Philippine situation, I suggest Rand’s individualism be
adopted by Filipinos. Individualism based on freedom, should not
be attained at the expense of others but for the advancement of
a person. As Filipinos, we should unlock the change of Philippine
backwardness. According to Rand, individual freedom should be
aligned with economic freedom. The Filipino “sakop” or harmony can
be a helping value to the full development of the Filipino if it opens
up to embrace the whole Philippine society. However, there are
cases where the Filipino “sakop” may adversely affect the social and
financial status of the one moving upward the social ladder. For
instance, the more well off members of a family share their gains
with their relatives or friends in need. However, sometimes, the
beneficiaries of the monetary assistance (utang or loan) just use the
money for non-essentials (i.e. drinking sprees) when there are more
important concerns which should be prioritized (i.e. tuition
fee). Hence, Filipino “sakop” must begin to raise its members in a
more responsible way and the members should likewise take this
attempt to raise them financially and socially seriously so as not to
squander the help bestowed on them. Moreover, they must come to
realize that their personal worth and dignity is not exterior to
themselves; it is found not in the body of the “sakop” but in one’s
“kalooban”. If these are fulfilled, the Filipinos shall not only be better
persons but a better nation with a sound economy (Andres, 1989) A
leader or a manager with “magandang kalooban” is not passive but
plays active role in economic development. Leaders should not just
focus on the impact of job performance but treats every individual
worker as persons and not as objects. Filipinos can attain a sound
economy through an integrative system as such there is support and
help among unit of organizations within a company. To make up for
the inferiority complex of Filipinos, a good Filipino leader/manager
must encourage fellow Filipinos to believe in themselves so that they
can bounce back as an economic power. Rand presupposed that
greater creativity will be achieved if the government will minimize
influence on individuals. Filipinos should take the initiative by
following Rand’s suggestion and adopting individualism in their value
system. The author thinks that individualism will provide Filipinos an
opportunity to be more aware of their capacity, to harness fully their
strengths and to commit themselves to life. Individualism reinforces
kasarilihan (self-sufficiency) as such it discourages subservience
from external control higher than itself.

“Kasarilihan” promotes entrepreneurship which minimized foreign

control of Filipinos (i.e. from the control of monopolies and
multinational companies). Other than entrepreneurship, individualism
also prioritizes countryside development, a self-help concept among
the country dwellers which discourage dependence on government
loans which would leave the locals tofollow whatever conditions the
government sets in favor of the loan. Furthermore, for Andres(1986),
the spirit of self-help is the root of all authentic growth in rural
development which is a source of national productivity and efficiency.
As a result, entrepreneurship and countryside development
economically and politically emancipate Filipinos from local and
foreign intervention. Moreover, Filipinos learn to be self-sufficient
which leads to self-respect and consequently, enhances Filipinos’
amor propio (pride and respectability).Education has its own part to
fulfill in giving importance to individual students and in promulgation
of the concept of individualism. Mounting a continuing education
among Filipinos, education should not shape the students’ mind to
be subservient.

Educators should be aware of the individual talents of students, the

differences in their family background, gifts and capabilities. Rand
proposed that the main task of education is to teach students how to
be trained in theories i.e. concepts. The students have to be taught
the eventual of knowledge discovered in the past so that they will be
equipped to acquire further knowledge of their own effort
(Binswanger, 1986).However, individualism should be tied with social
responsibility and should not be just “tayo-tayo” or “kami-kami ”. Our
own individuality should interact with the individuality of others. In
this light, every Filipino should be given equal chance to cultivate
their talents that inevitably contribute in the development of the
society. Further, as individuals who are free, Filipinos should
recognize their own brand of uniqueness, instead of copying
foreign cultures. “Loob” does not only develop the self of an
individual but the welfare of others. For Aristotle and Rand, reason
and will or volition is part of our being human. In relation to this,
Filipinos had proven matured thinking, pertaining to Edsa
Revolution. Filipinos becomes overeign people who stood up for
what they believe is right even before physical threat. Miranda
(1987) viewed Edsa Revolution a salvific event, Filipinos did not
become fatalistic. Instead, Filipinos took matters in their own
hands. During Edsa Revolution, Filipino actuations were based on
reason; Filipinos exemplified a conscious decision of ousting
a dictator.

The decision is based on the Filipinos’ belief in freedom. They also

voluntarily risked their lives as they face danger. Again, the Edsa
Revolution is one example of social contract as discussed in early
sections of this chapter.

Filipinos’ self is rooted in “loob” (Alejo, 1990). Individualism should

thus spring from our“loob” which is the basis of a person’s
authenticity. Individualism could only progress to real change if it
springs from the innermost depth of “loob” and not just for
“pakitang tao ”(outward appearance’s sake). Through
a person’s “loob”, individualism manifests changes within (loob) and
outside (labas) the person. Further, “loob” is the only identical factor
among people’s diversity in creed, color and status in
the society. Through “loob”, there is no way that Filipinos will have no
equal chance to become worthy individuals. The author also took
note of the interplay of Western philosophy that emphasizes modern
science and technology; the East, however, is more concerned on
the inner and personal nature of the self. The Eastern thinker is
acquainted through one’s personal experience and intuitive grasp of
reality which is of higher value than the analytical speculation.
What is intersubjectivity?
In our lives, somehow, we have collected and given labels ourseves
toward others. Though we are part of our society, we are still
different individuals living in this society. Each of us will have
different appearances or points of views. Labels could be negative
or limiting. You may be called "impatient", "whiny", or "stubborn".
Nevertheless, we could go beyond the labels for as emphasized in
this book, as humans, we are holistic. As humans, humans, we
are to be regarded in our totality. Thus, we can redesign the labels to
something new and exciting. So, instead of "impatient" you are
"compelling". If one is whiny, you are analytical and if one is
stubborn, one is assertive or persistent.

If the negative labels can be contagious, so can the positive

ones. Positive labels can strengthen not just your relationships
among your friends but most especially to your familly.

Intersubjectivity as Ontology: The Social Dimensions of the Self

Martin Buber's and Karol Wojtyla's views will be used as the main
framework in understanding intersubjectivity. Both philosophers were
influenced by their religious background. They believed in the notion
of concrete experience/ existence of the human person. They also
think that one must not lose the sight of one's self in concrete
experience. Both refused to regard the human person as a
composite of some kind of dimensions, such as animality and
rationality. For both views, the human person is total, not dual. For
Wojtyla, the social dimension is represented by "We relation" and
for Buber, the interpersonal is signified by the "I-You relation."

Martin Buber is a Jewish existentialist philosopher. He was born in

Vienna and was brought up in the jewish tradition. In his work I and
thou (Ich and Du) (1923), he conceives the human person in his/her
wholeness, totality, concrete existence and relatedness to the world.

Saint Pope John Paul II or Karol Wojtyla was born in Wadowice,

Poland. He was elected to the papacy on October 16, 1978 (264th
pope) and was considered a great pope during his lifetime. He was
also an architect of Communism's demise in Poland. In his encyclical
lettter, Fides et ratio, he criticized the traditional definition of human
as "rational animal" He maintains that the human person is the one
who exists and acts (conscious acting, has a will, has self-
determination)

For Wojtyla, action reveals the nature of the human agent.

Participation explains the essence of the human person. Through
participation, the person is able to fulfill one's self. The human
person is oriented toward relation and sharing in the communal life
for the common good.

As St. Augustine of Hippo said "No human being should become

an end to him/herself. We are responsible to our neighbors as we
are to our own actions." We participate in the communal life (We).
Our notion of the "neighbor" and 'fellow member" is by participating
in the humanness of the other person. The neighbor takes into
account humanness.
Buber's I-thou philosophy is about the human person as a subject
who is a being different from things or from objects. The human
person experiences his wholeness not in virtue of his relation to
one's self, but in virtue of his relation to another self. The human
person establishes the world of mutual relation of experience. The
human persons as subjects have direct and mutual sharing of
selves. This signifies a person to person, subject to subject relation
or acceptance, sincerity, concern, respect, dialog and care. The
human person is not just being in the world but being with others or
being in relation.

In contrast, to realm of meeting and dialog. Buber cites the I-It

relationship. This I-it relationship is a person to thing subject to
object that is merely experiencing and using; lacking directedness
and mutuality (feeling, knowing and acting)
We are a Conversation

In his essay, Martin Heidegger says that humankind is a

conversation. Conversation is more than an idle talk but a dialog.
This means that humanity is progressively attuned to communication
about Being. Language, as one of human possession creates human
world. Language is a tool for communication, information, and social
interaction. However, language can also be amazement.

A dialog is a conversation that is attuned to each other and to

whatever they are talking about. Mutual tuning is perfected in the
attunement. For Heidegger(1997) all conversations are really one
conversation , the subject of which is Being (may be God, person)
A conversation which Heidegger envisages is creative, poetic and
deep that allows humanity to exist as more than entities. In a
conversation, there could be a "stammer" which is tring to express
the unnameable. For Heidegger, a conversation attempts to
articulate who and what we are not as particular individuals but as
human beings. WE are human beings who care about more than
information and gratification.

For Buber, a life of dialog is mutual sharing of our inner selves in the
realm of the interhuman. Between two persons is a mutual
awareness of each others as persons; avoiding objectification. BEing
is presenting what one is really is to present to the other one's real
self. Personal making entails the affirmation of the other as a person
who is unique and has distinct personality. There is the acceptance
of the person unfolding the other actualize himself/herself.

An authentic dialog entails a person-to-person, a mutual sharing

of selves, acceptance and sincerity. This relationship is the I-
thou relation. I-You of Wojtla refers to the interpersonal which fulfills
and actualizes oneself. The human person attains fulfillment in the
realm of the interpersonal, in meeting the other; thus, there is a
genuine dialog. For Wojtyla, in participation, we share in the
humanness of the other. We cannot escape a world that is also
inhabited by others. All of the philosophers mentioned talks about
the same type of relation. That is a dialog of human best based on
mutual sharing of selves, acceptance, and sincerity.

What are the activities that demonstrate the talents of PWDs

and those from the underprivileged?
The Philippine government supports persons with disabilities
(PWDs) to land a job. It is negative perception that they are less
productive. In reality, PWDs do face a number of barriers in finding a
job whether through inaccessibility of transportaion in the workplace,
discrimination and a negative perception of their capacity. As of
2014, the National Statistics Office estimated that about 1.44 million
Filipinos have some form of disability in the employable 15-64 years
old age bracket. The country has enough laws to protect the PWDs,
such as Executive Order 417, however, in reality these are hardly
implemented. EO 417 mandates all national government agencies
and state-run corporations toallot at least one percent of their annual
budget for programs that will benefit the sector. Further. EO 417
addresses the need for government to provide capitalization for
PWDs livelihood activities which include support for technical skills
through labor department.
One of the major reasons why many PWD enterprises fail is because
of the lack of market for their products. AS part of your contricution to
affirming their skills, the activity for this section will also be a chance
for the PWDs products to be displayed and sold in campus. Disability
is considered a develpment issue because of its relationship to
poverty. Poverty may increase the risk of disability. People with
disabilities incur additional expenses to achieve a standard of living
similar to those without disabilities such as health care services,
costlier transportation options and special diets among others.

In relationship to poverty, human trafficking has become a form of

modern day slavery. Globally, men, women and children are forced
into prostitution, cybersex/pornography and other forms of
exploitation that assault human dignity. Millions of poor and helpless
Filipinos have become a part of this criminal enterprise. Pope
Francis calls this as "crimes against humanity" and has called
upon many to fight for human dignity and sacredness of life. This is
what Buber calls as I-it relation, where the other human being is
perceived as an object rather than as human being.
How individuals are transformed by societies?

The information superhighway that we know today gives more focus

on computer hardware, software and systems in terms of
contribution to society as the basic tools enabling fast and efficient
transfer of information. Before, personal computers were mainly
used for word processing. Nowadays, the emergence of portable
computers enables many people to transact business anywahere.

Researchers suggested however that Facebook and other social

media might lead to depression. Most of the time, we post our
smiling faces, favorite foods and perfect vacation. We look at
idealized versions of our online friends leaving us feeling less
attractive and less secure about our own status. We tend to compare
how many "likes" our posts generated. Due to the comparisons, we
become more dissatisfied. Therefore, studies indicate that our social
networking sites may disconnect users rather than connect people
(Garcia 2014). The lesson? Do not limit interactions online ;
establish physical interaction with friends and family beyond the
digital world where one can truly find love, acceptance, and self-
esteem.

Philosophically, our totality, wholeness or "complete life" relies on our

social relations. Aristotle said that friends ar two bodies with one
soul. Mutual sharing, acceptance and sincerity that carol encouraged
are akin with the outlooks of Karol Wojtyla's We-You/ I-YOu and
Martin Buber's I-thou relations.

What are the different forms of societies and individualities?

A. Medieval PEriod (500-1500 ce)

German barbarians sacked and pilaged the declining Western
Roman Empire. the invaders, however, lacked the knowledge and
skills to carry on Roman achievements in art, literature and
engineering. In effect, highly developed systems of Roman law and
government gave way to the rude forms of the barbarians. Thus, the
early Medieval Period is sometimes referred to as the Dark Ages
(Solomon and Higgins 1996).
It was nonetheless a time of preparation like working a field before
planting seeds. For instance, to the Romans, the State had been
more important than the individual. From the barbarians' ideal of
personal rights "grew their respect for women, their government by
the people, and their crude but representative law courts where
Kings and chiefs were elected by tribal councils (which alsow served
as court of laws)

In the reign of Clovis, Christianity began to lift Europe from the Dark
Ages. Many barbarians had become Christians earlier though mostly
hold the Arian belief, a doctrine that holds the conviction that the
Son of God is finite and created by God the Father and, thus,
condemned as heresy by the Church. Christianity's influence
widened when the great Charlemagne became King of the Franks
who founded schools in monasteries and churches for both the poor
and nobility. The way of life in the Middle Ages is called feudalism,
which comes from medieval Latin feudum, meaning property or
"possession." Peasants, about nine-tenths of them are farmers or
village laborers. All peasant men, women and children worked to
support their lord. Many peasants built their villages of huts near the
castles of their lords for protection in exchange of their services.
Besides labor, peasants had to pay taxes to their lord in money or
produce.

However, with the growth of commerce and towns, feudalism as a

system of government began to pass. As changes in business,
government and social customs steadily shaped a new life in
Europe, rising interest in artistic and intellectual achievement
reached a peak in the Renaissance - a revival of classical learning.
An interest in beauty and culture was reborn. IN the 14th and 15th
centuries, leadership in art and literature returned to Western
Europe.
Amid the turmoil of the MIddle ages, one institution stood for the
common good - the Roman Catholic Church. Many historians say
that its spirit and its work compromised the "great civilizing influence
of the MIddle Ages"
The Middle Ages employed pedagogical methods that caused the
intercommunication between the various intellectual centers and the
unity of scientific language. In all the schools, philosophy was taught
inth Latin language. There is another consideration that we must
mention; the practically unlimited trust in reason's powers of
illumination is based, first and foremost, on faith. To quote St.
Anselm " I do not seek the insight of reason in order to believe. I
believe in order to gain insight. Indeed, I also believe this; that I
should never be able to attain insight if I did not believe." In the early
Middle Ages the dichotomy between faith and reason had not yet
taken place: Anselm's line of argument rests upon the fact that the
nature of the existence of God is different in principle from the nature
of all other existences, such as that of the island or of the hundred
tales. We cannot make exact analogies between God and any other
phenomenon for to exist actually belongs to the essence of God
(Johnston 2006).
B. Modern Period (1500-1800)

In particular, the title "modern philosophy" is an attack on and a

rejection of the Middle Ages that occupied the preceding thousand
years (Solomon and Higgins 1996). It is an attack on the church that
ruled those ages and dictated its ideas. It is an ttack on the very
notion of authority itself which was as we have been very much at
issue during the centuries preceding. The modern period is
generally said to begin around 1500. Less than a decade before the
arbitrary date Christopher columbus had landed his ships in the
"new world", altering not only the geography but the politics of the
world foever. Only a century after, Martin Luther would tack 95
theses to the door of the church at Wittenberg and initiate
the Reformation which would cause several centuries of upheaveal
in Europe, change the nature of christian religion and eventually
change conceptions of human nature.
Human Being is the most interesting in nature during the
Modern Period

Leadership in art and literature reached a peak in the REnaissance

period. The result is the revival of ancient philosophy and European
philosophers turning from supernatural to natural or rational
explanations of the world. The Vitruvian Man had been one of the
most famous icons of this period.
 AS God's most perfect creation, harmonic proportions were also
believed to govern humaity's form. Leonardo da Vinci illustrated
Vitruvius' principle that a well-built human with hands and feet
extended fits perfectly into a circle and a square. Experimentations,
observations and application of mathematics in the natural sciences
set standards for philosophic inquiry. Discoveries of Copernicus,
Galileo, Kepler and Newton influenced the thinking of philosophers.
Nonethelss, we should not overemphasize the triumphs of modern
science in the history of modern philosophy (Johnston 2006).

At the beginning, there is the philosophy of the 17th

century. Rationalism was the predominant feature of this period.
The development of its philosophy could be traced from the writings
of Descartes (born in 1596) to Leibniz (who died in 1716)

1. The first period was one of what we may call naturalism. It

belongs almost wholly to the 17th century. The philosophy of
this first age lived in a world where two things seemed clear:
first, that nature is full of facts which conform fatally to exact and
irreversible law and second, that human beings live best under a
strong, benevolently dictatorial civil government. In these days
of the 17th century, fear is out of place; you may even doubt if
you win. Descartes, a representative thinker of the century
begins his reflection by doubting everything. For philosophy in
this age of the 17th century, the supernatural has only a
secondary interst if it has any interest at all.
2. The 18th century has its defining movement , too. The
characteristic tendencies of the period are such that it is
frequently called the Age of Empiricism. John Locke, Hume
and Berkeley were the main exponents of thsi general point of
view. The second age of modern philosophy turned curiously
back to the study of the wondrous inner world of humanity's
soul. To deify nature is not enough. Human being is the most
interesting in nature, and he is not yet deified.

Gradually attention is turned more and more from the outer

world to the mind of human being. The first period had been one
of naturalism; the second is one of the sort of a new humanism
(Johnston 2006). Reflection is now more an inner study, an
analysis of the mind than an examination of the business of
physical science. Human reason is still the trusted instrument
but it soon turns its criticism upon itself. It distinguishes
prejudices from axioms, fears dogmatism, scrutinizes the pieces
of evidence of faith, suspects or at best has consciously to
defend even the apparently irresistible authority of conscience.

3. Near the end of the century, Immanuel Kant, whose philosophy

is generally known as critical idealism, brought up his
philosophic thoughts with the more general problem of
knowledge. He thought that humanity's nature is the real creator
of humanity's world. It is not the external world as such, that is
the deepest truth for us at all; it is the inner structure of the
human spirit that merely expresses itself in the visible nature
about us. Herewith begins the third period of modern
philosophy. Also, during this period, the consequences of
Copernican revolution were many. Galileo, convinced of the
correctness of this new way of seeing the world invented the
telescope. From then on, the development of modern astronomy
was assured (Johnston 2006). However, it is not these
consequences that are of greatest interest here. Rather, it is the
attitude of mind that is evident and the effect that it must have
upon thinking in general.

This Copernican innovation may not be so impressive but

considered in its setting, its significance is great. As one of a
number of steps in the same general direction, it represents a
questioning attitude toward the activities of nature and a spirit of
rebellion against things accepted solely on the basis of authority
and tradition.

Copernicus stands as an example of a science in the throes of

revolution, critical and yet self-assured and dogmatic opening up
new visions of the world of nature and leaving the thinking world
in general to assimilate these changes and make of them the
best it can.

Enthusiasm for the new science ushered in a deep-seated

philosophical trend whose adherents stressed the importance of
universally compelling science for philosophy.
Globalization is not one wa process but comprises the multilateral
interactions among global systems, local practices, transnational
trends and personal lifestyles. At various instances, this interlocking
of the global, the local and the personal can be smooth or rough for
commjnities and individuals who respond favorably or adversely to it.
The introduction of new inventions in science eventually led to
the industrial revolution in the eighteenth century and since then,
WEstern society has taken off on a journey through the endless
world of science to bring society into the developed conditions that
can be seen today. Initially, the word "industry" and the period in
which its use changes is the period that we call the Industrial
Revolution.

The Industrial Revolution is a movement in which machines changed

people's way of life as well as their methods of manufacture.
INdustry, before this period, was a name for particular human
attributes: skill, assiduity, perseverance, and diligence. The use of
the term still survives.

Significant changes that brought about Industrial Revolution were :

the invention of machines in lieu of doing the work of hand tools

the use of steam, and other kinds of power not relying anymore
on human power and animals
the embracing of factory system

The importance of media communication in such a society is

paramount and the computer as a tireless process of energy is a
vital link. In the nineteenth century, the dream of automatically
powered machines had become a reality. Approximately 100 years
passed between Babbage's conception and the development of the
first fully automatic computer.

The Google's current mission is to fulfill a search engine that is

Artificial INtelligence complete or one that is smarter than people
(Caar 2009). Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a branch of computer
science or "the study and design of intelligent agents" where an
intelligent agent is a system that perceives its environment and takes
actions that maximize its chances of success.

At present, developing countries lack the technological strength to

utilize their resources better. Residents of poor countries will
definitely have improved conditions if granted with appropriate
technology. Those in the world of science and technology should not
exploit or subordinate people but must fully enroll science and
techology in preserving and improving lives.

Globalization, as facilitated by technology in preserving and

improving lives. can be beneficial if it will lead to improved society
and intellectual growth; but can be divisive if it will erode local
cultures and national soverignty. As technology is exploited, it
becomes easier for those already wealthy to maintain their
advantage. In contrast, those who lack the advatage may be less
successful in shaping a new global landscape more favorable to their
purpose. Technology most certainly leads to globalization but in the
emerging global society, economy and culture, does not encompass
all equally (Ramos 2003)>
How human relations are transformed by social systems?

Change as a condition of Modern Life

A. New Knowledge

"Know thyself" is the main idea of Socrates of good living. Socrates

lived around 469 BC in Greece. His saying, "Knowledge is virtue;
ignorance is vice: is a summation of what he wants to teach about
how human beings should live a good life.
Ignorance, as opposite of knowledge, is the source of evil. Humanity
commits evil because people do not know any better. The origins of
the modern age may be seen in the phenomenal growth of
knowledge that can be traced to the revival of Greek science. At first
slowly, and with a rapid quickening of pace after the fifteenth century,
humanity has met with increasing success in understanding the
secrets of nature and applying this new knowledge to human affairs.
In the twentieth century, this expansion has been so rapid that local
knowledge no longer remains purely local and accepted systems of
knowledge in specialized fields have been overturned within a single
generation. This process of intellectual growth is continuing without
any slackening of pace and changes in our understanding in the
years ahead may well be greater than those that we have seen in
our own lifetime (Nye and Welch 2013)

B. Policy Making
Plato's Dialogues in the Republic has overshadowed all his other
dialogues in fame, for it undoubtedly brought out the many
sidedness of his genius no other Dialogue of his can aspire to do. It
is for that very reason that it has been looked upon as a masterpiece
in world literature. The Republic, as its name implies, is a book on
politics; however, it was found difficult to define justice in an
individual without studying the broader perspective of the State. So,
it is in its orign, ethical. The art of government leads on to the topic of
education. Finally, due to his idea of good, the Republic became a
great book on metaphysics as well. The nominal purpose of the
Republic is to define justice.
Plato begins by deciding that the citizens are to be divided into three
classes :

1. the common people (artisan class)

2. the soldiers (warriors)
3. the guardians ( rulers)

The last alone are to have political power. There are to be much
fewer of them than of the other two classes. At present one of the
most important consequences of the application of this new
knowledge to human affairs has been increased in tegration of policy
making. IN the private realm, systems of transportation,
communication, business, and education have tended to become
larger and mroe centralized. Most communications at the national
level have become unified and many are now organized on a world
wide basis.

C. Economic Sphere
The effects of new knowledge have been partially noticeable in
the economic sphere. Technical improvements have made possible
a mechanizaiton of labor that has resulted in mass production. The
rapid growth in per capita productivity and an increasing division of
labor. A great quantity of goods has been produced during the past
century in the entire preceding period of human history. The contrast
today between the level of living in relatively modern centuries and
that in traditional societies is very marked indeed. Economic
changes will be further discussed in its direct correlation to the social
realm (Ramos 2003; Nye and Weleh 2013)

D. Social Realm
Equally important are the changes that have taken place in the social
realm. Traditional societies are typically closed and rigid in their
structure. The members of such societies are primarily easants
oliving in relatively isolated villages, poor and illiterate and have
having little contact with the central political authorities. The way of
life of the peasants may remain virtualy unchanged for centuries.

Modern knowledge and the techonology it has created have had an

immense impact on this traditional way of life. IN a modern society,
two-thirds or more of the population lives in cities and literacy is
virtually universal. Health has also greatly improved. Cosmopolitan
criteria of personal association replace the restraints between
peasants, townspeople and aristocrats have given way to a more
homogenous society in which ones position depends more on
individual achievement than on inherited status(Heidegger 1997)

This complex and interrelated series of changes in humanity's way of

life is generally known as "modernization". The view that
globalization proceeds along a continuum of modernization
dominated social scientific thought on global development in the
thirty or os years after the Second World War (Germain 2000)
What is the meaning of your life? This chapter shall evaluate the
meaning of life and various perspectives of human limitaions such as
death. It is vital that the learners contribute in identifying their own
goals and to be aware of the meaning of life.

A. Socrates
Socrates, a great teacher in Athens around 469 BC, believes that
knowing oneself is a condition to solve the present
problem(Bewersluis 2000)

Socrates in Clouds is the head of the school; the work of the school
comprises research and teaching. Socrates has two different ways of
teaching. His expository method that answers the student's direct
or implied questions, fills the void ignorance with information then
proceeds by analogy and illustration or clears the ground for
exposition by demonstrating that some of the beliefs hither to be held
by student are irreconcilable with other beliefs or assumptions. His
"tutorial" or well known Socratic method is (1) to assess by
questions the character of the student and (2) to set him problems,
exhort him to reduce each problem to its contituent elements and
criticize the solutions that he offers.

The first process is also called ironic process, a process that

serves the learner to seek for knowledge by ridding the mind of
prejudices and then by humbly accepting his ignorance. The second
process is the maieutic process that is employed after the first
process has cleared the mind of hte learner of the ignorance and
then draws truth out of the learner's mind. This can be done by
means of a dialog or a conversation. This method considers,
examines, compares and studies the similarities and dissimilarities of
the idea being discussed so taht the clear and precise notion of the
idea is achieved.

Happiness
For Socrates, for a person to be happy, he has to live a virtuous
life. Virtue is not something to be taught or acquired through
education but rather it is merely an awakening of the seeds of good
deeds that lay dormant in the mind and heart of a person. Knowing
what is in the mind and heart of a human being is achieved through
self-knowledge. Thus, knowledge does not mean only theoretical or
speculative but a practical one. Practical knowledge means that
one does not only know the rules of right living but one lives them.
Hence, for Socrates, true knowledge means wisdom which in turn
means virtue.

Socrates' major ethical claims were 1) happiness is impossible

without moral virtue and 2) unethical actions harm the person who
performs them more than the people they victimize.

Although it is not totally clear what Socrates meant by these notions,

he seems to have believed that an unethical person is weak, even
psychologically unhealthy. He apprently thought that we today, would
call that cognitive and non-cognitive capacities are harmed as the
unethical person gives into his or her desires and ultimately
becomes enslaved by them. Someone in the grip of corruption can
no longer be satisfied and endlessly seeks new pleasures. In
addition, the individual's intellect and moral sense are impaired.
Socrates, thus, saw someone steeped in vice as lacking the
freedom, self control and intellectual clarity that are needed to live
happily. The immoral person literally becomes a slave to his desires.

B. Plato
Contemplation in the mind of Plato means that the mind is in
communion with the universal and eternal ideas. Contemplation is
very important in the life of humanity because this is the only
available means for a mortal human being to free himself from his
space time confinement to ascend to the heaven of ideas and there
commune with the immortal, eternal and the infinite and the divine
truths.

This contemplation does not mean passive thinking or speculation,

or knowing and appreciating what is good; rather, it is doing dood
in life. Human beings, therefore, are in constant contemplation of
the truth, since the things we see here on earth are merely shadows
(or appearance) of the real truth (reality) in the world of ideas; the
good, since here on earth, the body is inclined to evil things; the
beauty, since the things we see here on earth are not fair or foul to
others. Hence, humanity should contemplate beauty that is absolute,
simple and everlasting.

What is Plato's Theory of Immortality?

According to Plato, the body is the source of endless trouble to us
by reason of the mere requirement of food, and is liable also to
diseases which overtake and impede us in the search after true
being; it fills us full of love, lusts and fears and fancies of all kinds
and endless foolishness. For example, when war comes, money has
to be acquired by and for the sake of the body. The body for Plato
causes us turmoil and confusion in our inquiries. Thus, to see the
truth, we must quit hte body - the soul in itslef must behold things in
themselves. Then, we shall attain the wisdom we desire. Knowledge,
however, can be attained after death: for if while in the company of
the body, the soul cannot have pure knowledge

C. Aristotle
Realizing your Potential

Aristotles' account of change calls upon actuality and

potentiality (Hare et al. 1991). For Aristotle, everything in nature
seeks to realize itself to develop its potentialities and finally realize
its actualities. All things have strived toward their "end". A child
strives to be an adult; a seed strives to be a tree. It is the potentiality
to be changing. Aristotle called this process entelechy, a Greek
word for "to become its essence" Aristotle has much more to say
about change. Change takes place in time and space. Since space
and time are infinitely indivisible, Aristotle analyzed the notion of
infinity.

Entelechy means that nothing happens by chance. Nature not only

has a built-in pattern but also different levels of being. Some
creatures such as humans have more actuality than potentiality and
some such as bees have more potentiality than actuality. However,
for the world of potential things to exit at all, there must first be
something actual (form) at a level above potential or perishing things
(matter)>

Aristotle divided everyting in the natural world into two main

categories: nonliving things and living things (Price 2000).
Nonliving things such as rock, water, and earth have no potentiality
for change. They can change only by some external influence. Water
changes into ice, for instance. When the external temperature
reaches freezing. However, living things do have the potentiality for
change. At the top of the scale is the Unmoved Mover (God); pure
actuality without any potentiality. All things in the world are potentially
in motion and continously changing. Tehrefore, said Aristotle, there
must be something that is actual motion and which has moved by
nothing external. He called this entity the Unmoved Mover.

For Aristotle, all things are destructible but the Unmoved Mover is
eternal, immaterial with pure actuality or perfection and with no
potentiality. Being eternal, it is the reason for and the principle of
motion to everything else. Because motion is eternal, ther never was
atime when the world was not. The Unmoved Mover has neither
physical body nor emotional desires. Its main activity consists of
pure thought (NOus). AS such, it is a mind that is perfect and its
object of thought can only be itself.
Striving to realize themselves, objects and human beings move
toward their divine origin and perfection. Our highest faculty is the
reason, which finds its perfection in contemplating the Unmoved
Mover. Aristotle explained how an Unmoved Mover could cause
motion of the world and everything in it by comparing it to a beloved
who "moves" its lover by the power of attraction. The object of love is
the cause of a change in the lover withoug itself being changed.
Similarly, God is the object of the aspirations of other substances but
is not Himself susceptible to change or motion (Hare et ai. 1991)

As the "form" adult is in the child directing it toward its natural end,
the Unmoved Mover is the form of the world moving it toward its
divine end. The highest human activity resembles the activity of the
Unmoved Mover. Just as the Unmoved Mover thinks only of
perfection, we can think about perfection. However, because we are
imperfect we cannot think of perfection itself. According to Aristotle,
the most pleasant activity for any living creature is realizing its
nature; therefore, the happiest life for humans is thinking about the
Unmoved Mover (Price 2000).