6th Sem Notes Final PDF

BHM 351 ADV FPP-II SANJIT MAJI IHM AHMEDABAD
BHM351 -ADVANCE FOOD PRODUCTION OPERATIONS – II (THEORY)

HOURS ALLOTED: 30 MAXIMUM MARKS: 100
S.No. Topic Hours Weight
age
01 INTERNATIONAL CUISINE 12 40%
A. Geographic location
B. Historical background
C. Staple food with regional Influences
D. Specialities
E. Recipes
F. Equipment in relation to:
• Great Britain
• France
• Italy
• Spain & Portugal
• Scandinavia
• Germany
• Middle East
• Oriental
• Mexican
• Arabic
CHINESE
04 15%
A. Introduction to Chinese foods
B. Historical background
C. Regional cooking styles
D. Methods of cooking
E. Equipment & utensils
02 BAKERY & CONFECTIONERY
I. ICINGS & TOPPINGS 02 05%
A. Varieties of icings
B. Using of Icings
C. Difference between icings & Toppings
D. Recipes
II. FROZEN DESSERTS 02 05%
A. Types and classification of Frozen desserts

B. Ice-creams – Definitions
C. Methods of preparation
D. Additives and preservatives used in Ice-cream
manufacture
01 05%
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III. MERINGUES
A. Making of Meringues
B. Factors affecting the stability
C. Cooking Meringues
D. Types of Meringues
E. Uses of Meringues
02 05%
IV. BREAD MAKING
A. Role of ingredients in bread Making

B. Bread Faults
C. Bread Improvers
02 05%
V. CHOCOLATE
A. History
B. Sources
C. Manufacture & Processing of Chocolate
D. Types of chocolate
E. Tempering of chocolate
F. Cocoa butter, white chocolate and its applications
03 PRODUCTION MANAGEMENT 03 15%
A. Kitchen Organisation
B. Allocation of Work - Job Description, Duty Rosters
C. Production Planning
D. Production Scheduling
E. Production Quality & Quantity Control
F. Forecasting & Budgeting
G. Yield Management
PRODUCT & RESEARCH DEVELOPMENT 02 05%
A. Testing new equipment,

B. Developing new recipes
C. Food Trials
D. Organoleptic & Sensory Evaluation
04 FRENCH
• Culinary French
• Classical recipes (recipes classique)
• Historical Background of Classical Garnishes
• Offals/Game
• Larder terminology and vocabulary
Note: Should be taught along with the relevant topics
TOTAL 30 100%
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INTERNATIONAL CUISINE
GREAT BRITAIN
Great Britain lies to the northwest of Continental Europe and east of Ireland. It is separated from the
continent by the North Sea and by the English Channel, which narrows to 34 kilometres (21 mi) at
the Straits of Dover. The North Channel, Irish Sea, St. George‘s Channel and Celtic Sea separate the
island from the islands of Ireland to its west. Geographically, the island is marked by low, rolling
countryside in the east and south, while hills and mountains predominate in the western and northern
regions. Great Britain comprises of England, Wales and Scotland on the island of Great Britain, while
the United Kingdom includes Great Britain as well as Northern Ireland.
ENGLAND
England is a country which historically has been invaded by successive waves of different people
right from Celts, Picts, Romans, Vikings, Saxons, Normans, etc., right from ancient times, and all of
them have left a mark on the English kitchen. In recent times immigrants from West Indies, Asians,
especially from Indo-Pak has turned contemporary cooking across Britain to reflect its multi-cultural
society with its vast array of ingredients and culinary skills imported from around the World.
The English have a reputation of generous meat consumption, some of the traditional meat dishes
are: mixed grill, Lancashire hot pot, Roast beef with Yorkshire pudding, beef steak with oyster sauce
beef and kidney pie and Sheppard‘s pie. Ham and sausages are an important part of the diet, famous
Hams are York Ham and Black Braden ham.
The large consumption of meat encouraged the development of interesting accompaniments like
Cumberland sauce, red currant jelly, pickled walnuts, numerous chutneys and pickles. Poultry dishes
include stuffed chicken, stuffed duck and stuffed turkey. Stuffed Turkey is the speciality for
Christmas along with cranberry sauce, bacon and chipolata sausage.
Amongst vegetables potatoes are a complete favourite and feature in a vast array of dishes. Peas, fava
beans, asparagus, parsley, watercress, cabbage and parsnips are other commonly used vegetables.
British also consume large amounts of fish e.g. Dover Sole fried in butter; mackerels served with
gooseberries and baked crabs dressed in their shells.
Regional specialities
*Hindle Wakes from Lancashire is chicken stuffed with prunes and herb flavoured herbs, cooked with
vinegar and glazed with a lemon cream sauce.
*Toad in the hole is a dish of sausages baked in batter.
*Angles on horseback are bacon wrapped oysters grilled and served on croutons.
*Black puddings are blood puddings from Lancashire.
The English are known for having a heavy Breakfast and would include selection of juices, eggs to
order, grilled mushrooms, bacon and sausages, selection of breads, jams and preserves and of course
Tea.
Afternoon tea is a characteristic meal of the English and may include scones with strawberry jam,
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sandwiches, teacakes, muffins, buns, crumpets and ginger and brandy snaps.
Cakes include the famous Victoria sponge cake and the traditional Sinnel cake and marzipans.
Puddings are very popular and include desserts like Cabinet pudding, Prince Albert pudding and
bread and butter pudding.
Cheeses are a favourite after meals and are accompanied with cream crackers, some famous chesses
are Stilton blue veined cheese, Cheddar cheese. Beer is the all time favourite beverage.
SCOTLAND
Scotland lies to the north of England and although being surrounded by sea on all three sides it still
has the resources of the mountains, the mild lush farmlands as well as the sea. Scotland‘s fine cooking
has more in common with France than its neighbour England.
Breakfast and High Tea are elevated to full hearty meals, breakfast is served with bannock- a griddle
baked flat bread made from barley and oats or baps a traditional soft breakfast roll, or Dundee cake
a rich buttery Scottish fruit cake containing sultanas, ground almonds and candied peel, Dundee
marmalade, porridge, lightly poached kippers and eggs. High tea would feature hot or cold savoury
dish followed by a sweet pudding or fruit pies or cakes or scones. The favourite dish is Scotch eggs
made of ground sausage meat wrapped around a hardboiled egg which is coated with breadcrumbs
and deep fried until golden.
Fresh fish is readily available anywhere in Scotland, traditionally herrings, herring‘s roe cakes, trout
are enjoyed fried in oatmeal. Shellfish dish includes Limpet stovies which is shellfish stewed with
sliced potatoes. Pratan Bree is crab soup made with cream and rice.
Meat dishes include Scotch broth made from cured lamb, hotchpotch is a stew made from neck of
lamb and vegetables, haggis is an offal sausage, cock-a-leekie is the famous chicken and leek dish
cooked in beef stock with prunes and herbs.
The Scots love strong flavoured vegetables like rutabaga and turnips. The famous dessert of Scotland
is cloutie dumplings which is a spiced boiled pudding with dried fruits. Cheddar is the most famous
cheese from Scotland. Whiskey is the national passion of Scotland.
WALES
Wales is situated to the west of England and its cuisine is based on the agricultural lifestyle prevalent
in rural households. The day starts with a hearty breakfast followed by a substantial main mid-day
meal and a relaxed supper.
Wales has the seaweed named LAVER which is hand gathered and sold ready cooked in markets to
be made into cakes or Laver bread which are fried and served with bacon for breakfast. Mutton is the
favorite meat and is traditionally cured and served with prune sauce and black currants. Leeks,
potatoes, carrots, Swede and cabbage are the commonly served vegetables.
Specialties of Wales is the Welsh rarebit a savory snack of melted cheese grilled on toast,
Glamorgan sausage which is made from cheese, breadcrumbs, leeks, and mustard and is served
grilled or fried. The famous cake of Wales is the Bara brith which is a yeast fruit loaf.
IRELAND
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IRELAND is an island situated to the west of England and unlike the rest of western Europe remained
free of Roman influence and remained true to the ancient Celtic culture. The food and cooking of
Ireland is based on the simple use of good ingredients in heavy peasant style dishes.
The staples of Irish diet were cereals like oats, barley, wheat and rye, and dairy products. Potatoes
when introduced readily substituted cereals, especially amongst the poor so much so that in the mid
19th century failure of the potato crop caused the great potato famine. Other popular vegetables are
cabbage and leeks. Ireland produces a lot of dairy products including excellent cheeses.
Ireland has an extensive coastline and is known for excellent seafood like cockles, mussels,
scallops, Galaway oysters, Dublin Bay prawns, mackerel, Irish salmon and trout. Carragheen whose
scientific name is Chondrus crispus also known as Irish moss is a species of red algae which is used
for its setting properties. Sloke the Irish name for laver and is the same seaweed used by the Welsh
is also cooked in Ireland.
Traditional meat dishes include Irish stew made from lamb, onions and potatoes, Limerick ham is a
traditional smoked ham which may be boiled and baked. Dublin coddle is a hearty stew of sausages
and bacon. Soda bread is the local favourite made using buttermilk and soda bi-carbonate, they are
slashed with a deep cross on the top, this soft bread rises high and tastes wonderful when warm.
COOKING METHODS
1 Roasting 2. Baking 3.Frying:- shallow/ deep 4.Grilling 5.Stewing
6. Braising 7. Boiling 8. Poaching 9.Steaming
KITCHEN EQUIPMENTS
1 Fish cauldron 2.Laddles 3.Earthen ware mugs 4.Spoons & bowls 5. Strainers
6. Graters 7.Skimmers 8.Pot sticks 9.Variety of knives 10.Meat hooks
1. Pestle & mortar 12.Pepper mill 13.Mustard over 14.Salt 15.Fish kettle
15.Dressing boards 16.Spice cupboards 17.Oatment chests 18.Kneading trough 19.Collanders
20.Wooden platters 21Oak chopping board 23.Palate steamer 24.Copper preserving pan
EQUIPMENTS OF THE 20 CENTURY

1 Bain marie 2.Fancy cutters 3.Mixing machines 4.Electric beaters 5.Blenders
6. Pressers cookers7.Slicers & shredders 8.Thermostatic frying pans 9.Ovens
VARIOUS PREPARATIONS
1 SOUPS :- Derived from the word SOPS meaning bread dipped in water or wine.
a) fish soups – lobster soup
b) game or poultry soups – cream of rabbit soup
c) meat soup – brown windsor soup
d) vegetable soup – crecy soup
e) miscellenous soup – chestnut soup
2 SAUCES AND DRESSINGS:-

a) devil sauce b).almond sauce c).mustard sauce d)cranberry sauce e) syrup sauce
DRESSINGS
a) cream dressing b) lemon dressing
3 Force meats , stuffings and dumplings:-

forcemeats are a mixture of number of ingredients, mainly meat highly flavoured with herbs and spices.
• tradition items used for stuffing’s or garnish
• dumplings are made with fine force meats and shaped into walnut sized balls.
a) Baron stuffing b)Liver c)Veal d) Shrimp e).Parsley f) Oatmeal
4 EGG DISHES:-
Used to thicken saucesa and soups, to bind forcements and in pastries & cakes.
• eggs are breakfast facvourite and some egg dishes are light lunchers, high teas and snacks.
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A) Highland eggs
B) Scotch eggs
C) Stuffed eggs
5 FISH DISHES: Abundance of fish due to extensive coast lines and numerous rivers and lakes.
A) white & oily fish
B) fish pies & puddings
C) fish offal’s
D) potted fish and fish paste
E) fresh water fish
F) shell fish
G) fish moulds & jellies, cakes
H) pickled fish
6 MEAT, POULTRY AND GAME:-

a) roast beef
b) lamb hot pot
c) savory meat & game pies and puddings
d) potted & pickled meat & game
e) brown , gelantines & jellie
7 VEGETABLES:-many varieties of vegetables were introduced from foreign countries after the medieval days.
Different types of vegetables were asparagus, onions, beetroot, leek, brocoly, mushrooms, cabbage, to0matoes,
carrits, turnips, carrots, turnips, potatoes, & pulses.
7 SAVOURIES:-
A) smoked and aired fish, oysters, & shell fishes.
B) Caviar
C) Devilled liver and kidneys
Today the cheese board has replaced the savouries except for formal banquets.
8 PUDDINGS, SWEETS & DESSERTS:-Desserts derived from the French word dessevir. Elaborate sweet
dishes , fresh fruit, ices, fancy cakes, & preserves.Sweets puddings & pies , pancakes, fritters, sweet batter
pudding, custard & triffles, ice-creams.
9 SOME ACCOMPANIMENTS:-
a) Yeast bread, rolls & buns , scones
b) cakes
c) ginger bread
d) partuno
e) preserves
f) pickles, candied fruits, chutney, bottled sauces.
A Sample menu
Scotch broth Roast
beef
Yorkshire pudding
Glazed carrots and turnips
Roast potatoes
Apple crumble
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FRENCH CUISINE
In France, cuisine is not simply a source of pleasure but a multifaceted discipline. With a focus on
tradition, technique and mastery of style, French cuisine is arguably the most aesthetic cuisine in the
world. The development of French cuisine may be attributed to the fact that France has historically
had a gastronomique capital ―PARIS. Culinary resources are concentrated there—the best
ingredients and the most sensitive palates were all to be found at one place. The hexagon shaped
mainland of France is located in western Europe and is bordered by the English Channel on the north
west, Belgium and Luxembourg on the north east, Germany, Switzerland and Italy to the east, the
Mediterranean sea to the south east, Spain and Andorra on the south west and the Bay of Biscay and
the Atlantic ocean to the west. The Pyrenees mountain range divides France from Spain.France has
an area of 547000 km², the terrain to the north and west is flat with rolling hills, while the south and
east are quite rugged and mountainous. The climate is mild winters and summers in the west, cool
winters and hot summers inland, tough winters in the mountains and mild winters and hot summers
along the Mediterranean in the south. About 57% of the land in France is dedicated to agriculture and
the population of France is approximately 61 million. The French cuisine is referred to as “La Haute
Cuisine” or the high class cooking. But French cooking is also “provincial cooking” differing from
the “La Haute Cuisine”.“Escofier” was a great “modern” French chef though he is long dead.French
Haute cuisine resolves round the essential stock & the mother sauces. Béchamel, veloute, espagnole,
tomato, hollandaise& mayonnaise.But the provincial cooking is more natural & not complex & not
complex & the dishes are cooked in their own juices.Though now a days canned fruits are
available.The provincial cooking uses local product.Their cooking varies with seasonal pattern.The
local market supplies every local fruit, vegetable, cheese & sausage when they are ready to eat.Every
small village has a general store where the farmer leave their daily produce for selling.Every
community has a bakery & its special bread, flat, long & thin. salty or other flavors or different kind
of flour is used.Throughout France, the French loaves are baked every door.Spices & herbs differ
upon the climate & geography of each place.In spite of political turmoil & periodic war, France has
maintained its administrative uniformity since 1789 which has protected its educational & cultural
system.
HISTORICAL AND CULTURAL BACKGROUND

Throughout its history France has been invaded by explorers from many foreign countries. In certain
areas of the country Celtic, British, Basque, Spanish, Italians, Greek and Arab influences are evident.
The Celtic Gaul introduced farming to this area and also developed Charcuterie for which France is
famous even today. The Romans who took over introduced cheese making and the Moors introduced
goat rearing and spices. Arab influence is evident in the use of almonds and rice. With the marriage
of Catherine de Medici to Henry II the foundations for modern French cuisine were established.
Marie Antonio Carême (1784-1833)the great Chef who organised and detailed dishes according
to courses laid the foundation for Grande Cuisine. It was further refined by Chef Georges-Aguste
Escoffier whose approach was based on simplicity and called it Cuisine Classique. The next major
shift in French cuisine was initiated by Chef Fernand Point (1897-1955) who further simplified
the menu and laid the ground work for Nouvelle Cuisine.
France may be divided into four culinary regions—the North West, North East, South West and South
East. There are in all 22 provinces, each province has its own culinary specialities, impacted by
history, terrain and climate.
THE NORTH WEST REGION

The North West region includes the provinces of Brittany, Basse-Normandy, haute Normandy, Pays
de la Loire and the Loire Valley. This area has a long coastline and maritime climate- cool summers,
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warm winters and heavy rain. Proximity to the ocean results in a cuisine heavily influenced by sea
food. Clams, lobsters, Dungeness crabs, oysters, skate, mackerel and Dover sole are all relished. Wild
game including boar, rabbit, duck and pheasant, along with domestic goat and lamb are all popular.
Normandy is renowned for cow‘s milk cheese
―Camembert‖ and superior butter which is utilized heavily in local cuisine. Fruits and vegetable of
this region include pears, plums, apples, potatoes, artichokes, endive and pumpkins. Wheat is the
preferred grain and walnuts the favourite nut.
THE NORTH EAST REGION

The North East region of France includes Nord Pays de Calais, Picardy, Champagne, Alsace, Lorraine
and Franche-Comte. This region‘s cuisine is influenced by its neighbouring nations – Germany,
Switzerland and Belgium. Thus foods traditionally associated with Germanic cuisine such as
sauerkraut and sausages are popular as are waffles and beets, items of Flemish origin. Pork, wild
game, foi gras, freshwater fish, escargots(snails) and frogs are commonly utilised. The products of
this region are wheat, barley, endive, beets, potatoes, cabbage, wild mushrooms, truffles, plums,
apples, cherries, grapes, asparagus and cheese. Wheat is used to make spaetzle and egg noodles.
SOUTHEAST REGION
The southeast region of France consists of Burgundy, Auvergne, Limousine, Rhône alps, Côte d‘
Azur and Corsica and is the home to the city of Lyon the culinary capital of France. Beef, pork, lamb,
duck and rabbit are all common as are cheeses derived from cow‘s, sheep‘s and goat‘s milk.
Artichokes, eggplants, tomatoes, garlic, olives, herbs, apricots, cherries, plums and figs flourish in
the cool Mediterranean climate. Common fish include anchovies, sardines, red mullets and monkfish.
Specialities of this region include Dijion mustard, Le Puv lentils, bouillabaisse, ratatouille and
tapenade.
SOUTHWEST REGION
The provinces of Midi-Pyrenees, Languedoc-Roussillon, Aquitaine and Poitou-Charentes make up
the southwest region of France. This area borders Spain and is heavily influenced by Spanish cuisine
and the Arab moors conquerors from Africa. Seafood is popular including monkfish, eel, tuna,
oysters, cod and mussels. Poultry, walnuts, chestnuts, porcini and chanterelles mushrooms are
harvested. The Moors introduced exotic spices such as pepper, cumin, anise, ginger, cinnamon and
caraway. Specialities are fish soup with peppers and onion and jambon de Bayonne. The staples are
wheat, barley and corn and like the Spanish use almond paste for thickening sauces.
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Italy
Italy is located in southern Europe and comprises the long, boot-shaped Italian Peninsula, the land
between the peninsula and the Alps, and a number of islands including Sicily and Sardinia (Corsica,
although belonging to the Italian geographical region, has been a part of France since 1769).
For culinary purposes, the country can be loosely divided into the South, Central and North. Northern
Italy is bordered by France, Switzerland, Austria and Solvenia. Central and Southern Italy is bordered
by the Mediterranean Sea, a position that holds great historical importance in terms of exploration
and trade.The generally rugged and mountainous terrain of Italy is home to a population of 58 million
people. Politically Italy is divided into twenty regions and each region is unique in its own way. The
culinary diversity, specialties and pride of each region are quite remarkable.
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND & REGIONAL CUISINE
Italy has a rich past, at one time, parts of the country were occupied by Etruscans, Spanish, French,
Greek, Arabs, Austrian and Germans. Such occupations inevitably shaped the cuisine of Italy today.
Italy was made up of separate and disputing states, till it was unified in 1861 by Giuseppe Garibaldi.
Northern Italy
The Romans who ruled Italy and at one time almost all of Europe, for about a thousand years has left
a lasting effect on Cookery in Italy, they brought in a lot of local customs and foods of the countries
they conquered. The port city of Venice was the centre of trade with the Middle East. This prosperous
city had control over the trade of rare foods of the time like sugar, coffee and spices. Western areas
of North Italy like Lombardy and Piedmont have strong French and Swiss influences in their cuisine.
Northern Italy is considered the most prosperous area of the country of which the most famous are
the Eastern part of Venito known as Emilla-Romagna. The cuisine is dominated by meat and seafood.
The green pastures produce a lot of milk, butter and cheese, e.g. Gorgonzola and Mascarpone. Fresh
Pasta, polenta and rice are consumed in large quantities. Risotto is the staple of the people of
Piedmont. Popular cooking techniques include boiling, stewing and braising. They use a special oven
called a Fogher that is used for spit roasting.
Popular pasta shapes of this region include anolini, cappelletti, lasagna, tagliatelle tortelli and
tortellini. Other specialities of this region is the Parmigiano- Reggiano(Cheese), Prosciutto di Parma
(Ham), and Aceto Balsamico Tradizionale(vinegar).
CENTRAL ITALY
The early settlers on central Italy were the Etruscans who migrated from the Asia Minor as early as
800 BC The Etruscans were an advanced civilization with a major empire. The Romans flourished
between the 5th Century BC to 5th Century AD) with Christianity at its core. The Romans built an
extensive system of roads and a central market. The great Renaissance originated here in this region
and the first ever cooking school was founded in Florence. From the culinary point of view the most
significant family in Italy is the Medicis of Florence. It was the Catherine of Medici who single
handily shaped the future of Culinary and exported it to France when she married King Henri II.
Central Italy comprises of seven regions of which Roma the capital city of Italy and Christianity is
located in the region of Latium. Central Italy is known for its livestock, mainly beef, goat and lamb
which are commonly gritted, spit roasted or deep fried
SOUTHERN ITALY
Southern they have been greatly influenced by Greeks and Arabs from North Africa. The regional
cuisine began in Southern Italy with the arrival of the Greeks in 415 BC. The Greek introduced wheat
cultivation, Bread making, olives, honey and nuts. Romans ruled later but did not contribute much to
cuisine except for the introduction of fava beans. Sicily which is at the foot of Italy in only 145 Km
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from the African continent, and was conquered by the Arabs as early as the ninth century AD They
bought in exotic ingredients and planted citrus trees. They also introduced the notion of combining
sweet and sour flavours. Saffron, nuts, rice, couscous, sugar cane and ice cream are just a few of the
contributions from the Arab world. Olive oil is the preferred fat of the region. Naples at the ankle of
the Italian leg is a very historical place; it was the gateway for the entry of Catalan Cookery. Pizza‘s
home is the Neapolitan area of Southern Italy.
The great difference in Italy‘s climate and geography are favourable to many different agricultural
forms. This means that while a superb cheese is produced from Cow‘s milk in the north, the south
has cheese made from sheep‘s milk which is just as excellent Northern recipes use butter and cream,
the central provinces used lard and olive oil and the south is predominately olive oil.Respect for the
basic produce and a feeling for the freshness and quality of the ingredients determines the lively
seasonal variety of dishes. As result the range of products on offer is extensive and high in quality.
Unadulterated taste and inspired simplicity are the main characteristics of Italian cookery, as well as
health and economical attitude towards food and eating habits.
Coffee with B/F is generally consumed by 10am, followed by Lunch or pranzo which is more
prevalent in the rural areas where it is a family affair with substantial 3 or 4 courses. More extensive
Lunch is saved for Sundays and other special days. The evening meal is eaten around 8 pm which
could again be 3 or 4 courses. A midnight snack is quite common
❖ Antipasta is the Italian word for appetizer or starters they are composed of high quality
ingredients like olive which maybe raw, pickled or marinated, toasted slices of bread, salads or
sausage or ham in thin slices along with melon and figs
❖ Bread Specialties (PANE)
1. Bruschetta : toasted slices of bread with garlic, olive oil and tomato.
2. Cilindrati : croissants made from thinly rolled bread dough.
3. Grissini Bread sticks from Turin.
4. Crocetta Hot cross Buns
Another famous specialty of Italy is the Pizza.e.g. of Pizza alla :-
❖ Napolitana consisting of tomatoes, Mozzarella and anchovy fillets.
❖ Proscuitto Ham
❖ Funghi- Mashrooms
SPECIALITIES OF ITALY
❖ Ham is another specialty. Prosciutto de Parma
Italy‘s most famous ham comes from the province of ‗Parma‖ north-west of BOLOGNA. The quality
of PARMA Hams is created with the pigs being fed on barley, corn and fruit.
When slaughtered it must be at least 10 months old, to ensure that the meat is firm and rosy and
surrounded by a thick layer of fat. Raw leg should weigh 10 kgs. It is then brined in three phases and
then left to dry. They are then matured for a year in cellars with limited supply of air. After 12 months
they are ready to eat.
PASTA SECCA (DRY)
Italians are very fond of dry pasta. There are about 300 diff varieties. Pasta is made from durum wheat
semolina and can be divided into three categories.
1. PASTA CORTA : Short noodles and may be many shapes such as spirals, wheels, stars,
snails, shells and short tube.
2. PASTA LUNGA : long noodles which include the entire spagethi and tagliatelle family- 4
inch and above.
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3. PASTA RIPENNA : filled pasta parcels, fortellini and raviolli are the best known.
Some name of pasta
1. BUCATINI : Long smooth hollow noodles.
2. CANNELONI : Finger length hollow good for filling
3. PENNE : Short pipes with slanting edges.
4. FARFALLE : shaped liked butterflies.
5. SPIRALE : Spiral shapes
6. TAGLIATELLE : Ribbon noodle.
7. LASAGNE : smooth sheets of pasta
GNOOCHI
They are small dumplings or gruels and are a passion for Italians among a wealth of variations a
common type is made with mashed potatoes mixed with milk served with a lots of Parmesan, tomato
or meat sauce.Potato may be replaced with semolina, chestnut flour, cornmeal and even pumpkin.
❖ POLENTA
Polenta is an ancient dish made with any grain be it millet, buckwheat, chickpeas or broad beans.
After Columbus bought corn to Europe, it became the staple for production of POLENTA as the
Polenta made from corn kernels became the most economically viable grain. Polenta is delicious with
rabbit, lamb, game, sausages, cream dishes and fish dishes.
❖ PARMIGINAO REGGIANO
The most famous of all Italian cheese, which has been produced using the same method for seven
centuries. Produced in stipulated area which are the provinces of PARMA including Reggio, Emilla,
Modena and Mantera on the right bank of the river Po and Bologna on the left bank of River Reno.
Cows must be grazed on a meadow or are fed on alfalfa.
Milk is poured into traditional bells shaped copper vats. It is then curdled. The curd Cagliate is then
again reheated twice at 45°C and then at 55 °C. The resultant mass is removed in Cheese cloth and
deposited in wooden or metal moulds. It is then left in salt solutions for 20-25 days. They are then
dried in the sun before being stored in the ‗CASCINA‘ on wooden shelves to mature slowly regularly
turned and brushed. Two gallons of milk produces a pound of cheese they are hard cheeses.
❖ PECORINO
They are produced is south Italy. It is a hard cheese made from sheep‘s milk and are moulded in
basket work cylinders which are woven in SARDINA. When matured the rind is hard and dark.
Pecorino Romano is considered the best.
❖ GORGONZOLA
Originally only produced in the little town of the same name near Milan. It is made from full cream
pasteurised cow‘s milk. Milk is heated up to 32° C and curdled with rennin. Spores of pencillum
glaucum are also added. They are poured into round Moulds. It is a blue veined cheese.
A sample menu
Minestrone Andalusia
Ravioli Arabeata
Fettuccini carbonara
Pollo alla cacciatore
Medanzane parmigiane
Tiramisu
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SPAIN AND PORTUGAL

Situated in southwest Europe is the Iberian Peninsula which juts out from France and the Pyrenees
mountain range into the waters of the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean. It lies between
10°W to 4°E longitude and 36°N to 43°N latitude and includes two countries Spain and Portugal with
Spain covering more than three quarters of its landmass. The proximity of the two countries with
their large coastline regions and overlapping historical influences, bind their culinary traditions.
HISTORICAL AND CULTURAL INFLUENCES
Since ancient times waves of invasions of the Iberian Peninsula have radically influenced its food. In
the north the Celtic people introduced pigs and pork which is still popular today. The Romans brought
irrigation and olive trees which changed the economic conditions for the better. Arabs (Moors) who
ruled the region for 800 years left an indelible mark on the food habits of the inhabitants. They
brought in saffron, rice, citrus fruits, almonds, eggplant, eastern spices and this has had a dominant
influence on the cuisine. Being very powerful seafarers both Spain and Portugal travelled all over the
world in search of spices bringing back home spices like cloves, cinnamon, nutmeg, and black pepper.
With the discovery of the New World i.e. Americas, foods such as chillies, corn, beans, tomatoes,
vanilla, chocolate, squash, guava, pecans, pine nuts, turkey and potatoes were incorporated into their
cuisine. Their cuisines amalgamated with the colonies they ruled.
SPAIN
The Spanish landscape is dominated by a high plateau surrounded and dissected by mountains, creating
regional cuisines. Spain borders the Bay of Biscay, France, Andorra and Pyrenees to the north, the
Mediterranean Sea and the Straits of Gibraltar to the east and south the Atlantic Ocean to the south and
Portugal and Atlantic Ocean to the west. Agriculture is a significant part of the economy. Spanish
population is almost 43 million and almost all are Roman Catholic, making Christian holidays occasions
for culinary celebrations.Although distinct dishes are found within culinary regions nationally the
Frittata patataAn egg omelette with potatoes is a clear favourite, Paella the rice, meat and seafood dish
is another favourite so is Cocidas a brothy soup and gazpacho a cold cucumber soup and almond based
sweets.The Spanish are good eaters and sometimes may eat both an early and mid-morning breakfast
as well as full lunch and dinners and in between snacking on Tapas. Lunch is considered a heavier meal
than dinner. A full meal may begin with Tapas followed by an entree, then the main course and lastly
sweet or dessert.
PORTUGAL
Portugal has a passion for seafood because of its long coastline. For culinary purposes Portugal may
be divided into north and south separated by the Tagus River. Portugal is situated on the innermost
edge of the European Continent. The population is 11million mostly Roman Catholic and Christian
Culinary traditions have shaped their eating habits. Portugal terrain is generally mountainous north
of Tagus River and rolling plains south of it and it has a sizeable rural population. Its main agriculture
products are wheat, corn, rice, potatoes, grapes and olive oil. Dairy products are scarce especially in
the north. Portuguese tend to use more varied and intense seasonings.
North is famous for its Caldo Verde a soup of potato, onions, shredded cabbage and Linguiça
sausage, may be thickened by cornbread. Portugal is famous for sardines and cod which are canned
and salted. Specialties of Portugal are chestnut soup and almond & egg confections.
South is more hotter and fertile climate. Wheat is the staple crop and food, especially bread. Bread is
also used to thicken soups or stews. Algrarve is the southern most region, from it comes Piri-Piri a
hot chilli sauce which is now famous in all former Portuguese colonies. The warm climate is good
for cultivating figs, apricot, lemons, carob, almonds, sugarcane, citrus and rice. Portugal like Spain
has a lot of Moor‘s influence especially in the use of almonds and egg yolks in sweets.
The Portuguese eat a light breakfast followed by a mid-morning snack then lunch followed by a
leisurely dinner. The main meal will start with soup followed by a meat or fish dish accompanied
with vegetables, especially green salads. Desserts are simple like rice pudding or cheese or fruit
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followed by coffee.
SCANDINAVIAN CUISINE
Scandinavian cuisine comprises the cuisine of the countries situated in the extreme North East of
Europe and includes Denmark, Norway, Sweden and Finland. These Scandinavian countries share a
similar cuisine style and relatively close cuisine development histories.
DENMARK
• In the 11th-12th century Denmark ruled over Norway and 1389 the Queen of Denmark and Norway
became queen of Sweden. Denmark's influence over Sweden and Norway started to diminish in the 19th century,
but the food related traditions remained. the Danish diet is richest and they put cream to most things.
• Danish government tries to maintain the quality of ingredients and promotes Danish cuisine.
• it has set ago an organization called “EKKODANMARK” to promote Danish food to Danish house-wives.
• meat and potatoes are the staple of Danish diet except “SMORGASBORD” which is eaten for lunch
• fish is always available and of high quality.
• favourite meat is Pork.
• Pork in all forms of ham, bacon etc. is the countries key export item, so meat is expensive.
• stews and Pan dishes are popular.
• favourite meat dish is “FRKIKADELLER” –– a meat patty made of pork and veal.
• cow is not slaughtered till it is old.
• HAKKEBIF or hacked beef can be called minced meat or HAMBURGER.
• Chicken is also popular but generally used for it eggs than its meat.but still finds its place in the Sunday dinner
table.
• vegetables like –– leek, kale, carrots, beet, celery and cabbage were eaten through out the year.
• due to scarcity, the Danish people used every part of an animal.
• “BLOD BUDDING” (blood pudding)
• Giblet ragout or soup.
• beef heart stuffed with parsley butter simmered in bouillon and served cream.
• Mock Turtle or another name for calf’s head is an elaborate dish.
• Danish “POSTEJ” is firmer than French “PATE” but less refined.
• Liver “pate” is an essential part of “KOLDE BORD” –– cold table
• “KOLDE BORDE” has very much is common with Swedish “SMORGASBORD”
• sweets are also a part of the cold table.
◼ pancakes wrapped under vanilla &/ cream.
◼ lemon mousse
◼ cream rings with diced pineapples.
• Marvellous fruit pudding like RODGRUDMED FLODE –– a blend of thickened raspberry and currant
jellies with sweet cream.A fruit sweet or plain fruit is often the culmination of a Danish meal.
NORWAY
The cuisine is characterized by a sense of practicality and economy. Norwegians love their meat,
whether it is Pork, Veal or fish meat, and you will notice that most of their dishes are concentrated
on this main ingredient. The vast wild areas of Norway, and the abundance of fish and game, make
such natural food resources a top pick for many traditional dishes. Norwegian cuisine uses elements
from various cooking traditions borrowed from their neighbours and developed from their own
traditional dishes. The simplicity of the cuisine does not imply a lack of taste, but it does make life
easier for the cook. Smoked salmon is probably the most famous type of food product related to
Norway; other dishes are ROMMEGROT- porridge made with sour cream, milk, flavoured with
cinnamon and sugar, FARIKAL mutton and cabbage stews with black pepper, PTARMIGAN meat
casserole with cranberries and smoked elk. SOUR CREAM is one that separates Norwegian cuisine
from Denmarks Villages have their own recipe for LEFSER, a thin, saucer shaped holiday bread
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made from potatoes.

NORWEGIAN COUNTRY WEDDING
• Marriages in Norway involve the efforts of an entire community.
• The bride and groom had themselves erased the pigs to be used for feeding their guests.
• They bake no less than 17 cakes for the festivity.The brides mother makes “ROMMEGROT”, a thick sour
cream porridge which is an indispensable part of the feast.
FISH IN NORWEGIAN CUISINE
• Fish is fresh and is cooked in a simple manner and generally served with horse-raddish cream or mustard sauce.
Mackeral is very popular and prepared in various ways.
SWEDEN
Famous for its “SMORGASBORD” which is imitated the world over , is a bread and butter table.
• “BROWN VIN” or burnt wine, or another name for AQUAVIT goes with Smorgasbord.
• Hearing is known as STROMMING.When smoked it is known as “BOCKLING”.
• All the rest is known as “SIGG”.
• The smorgasbord known today took shape in the late 19th century.A Swedish tradition was to put all the food
to be eaten on the table at one time.It is an extension of the Aquavit table.
• The Swedish are the wealthiest of the Scandinavians.They import food from different countries.
• Swedish country cooking is known as “HUSMANSKOST” which is plain, delicious & charming.
• In the past “SMORGASBORD” was for special occasions.
• PITEPART –– potato dumplings of the size of tennis balls stuffed with pork.
• SPETTKAKA: –– towering egg and sugar cake.
• OSTKAKA is a sweet from smoland a province of Sweden of which there are 100 ways of making.
• Potato is a major item in their meal.
• LINDSTROM minced beef served with beetroot. Goose is served stuffed with prunes and apples. Sweden has
a wide range of pastries flavoured with saffron and cardamons.
FINLAND
• Finnish cuisine is characterised by foods with robust flavours, like— MUSTAKEITTO a rich soup
made of chopped offal cooked with carrot and potatoes, is thickened with blood and garnished with barley
balls.VORSHMACK a hash of mutton, beef and salted herrings, spiced with garlic and onions and
accompanied by RYPPY a very strong grain alcohol. Densely forested famous for their architecture, frosted
glass and ceramics.In finland, forest is everywhere.
• Finnish cooking suggests the outdoor the pleasures of the campfire.
• Soup is a part of discussion which suggests its importance.
• KESAKEITTO is made from summer vegetables.
• Powerful hard liquors are produced domestically and supplemented by import of spirits.
• They are great milk drinkers almost 300 litres per capita consumption.
• Much of this is consumed sour either as :
VILLI –– is eaten, comes in two varieties depending on the strand of bacteria
Or
PIIMA –– is drunk
• Traditional easter dish is MAMMI –– a pudding made from rye flour.
• Another dish PITO-JA-JOULO PUURO, is a barley porridge which is simmered for 5-6 hrs.
• The Finns have a taste for game birds so to remove the bland flavour of chicken they rub it inside out with
chopped pine needles and juniper berries and then letting it hang for 2-3 days to ripen.
• . The Russian influence is significant with borscht, pashka and blinis being common dishes.
BAKING
• SCANDINAVIANS are famous for their bakery products.
• Coffee is the beverage of Scandinavian.
• Their pastry shops and coffee houses are known as “KONDITORIER”
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GERMAN CUISINE
Germany is situated North/Central Europe. To the north is the North Sea and to the North-East is the
Baltic Sea, West of Germany lies Netherlands, Belgium and France. To the south lies Switzerland
and Austria and to the East lies the Czech Republic and Poland.
Until 1871 there was no unified Germany, but a collection of independent states. Their unification was achieved
by prince OTTOVON Bismarck at the time of Franco-Persian war The first world war saw the expansion of
Germany.But in second world war a lot of the land was lost.As a result , in the areas where the Germans were
ousted ,they left behind their style of food and brought back some with them.
Germany may be divided into three Culinary Regions, with the German speaking Prussians in the
North and east. Saxony in the center and Wurttemberg and Bavaria, in the south. Culinary specialties
from each of these regions are influenced by climate, terrain as well as social status and Germany‘s
history of localized governance.
NORTHERN REGION
In the cold damp North Germany where Dutch, Scandinavian and Polish influences mingle—thick
soups, smoked meat and fish are popular, supplemented with dishes prepared from local crops,
featuring beets, potatoes, cabbage, barley, hops and rye. Sausages and other charcuterie products are
also a staple of the northern diet- e.g.Braunshweiger from the town of Braunshweig is a famous liver
sausage. Sweet and soured creamed sauces and soups are very common. Meals are accompanied by
beer or schnapps (strong liquor similar to gin).
The Northern Part: a lowland plain that extends from the Netherlands to the U.S.S.R
• separated from the south by the Wesser ,Elle, Oder & vistula rivers
• in the Western area, food is influenced by Scandinavian cuisine.
• Sea food is prominent
• In land the soil is sandy and produces potatoes &sugar beet
• The Elle valley is rich and produces wheat and barley
• The northeast is forest
• The temperature is cold and damp.
• The fishermen and peasants lived on hearty cabbage soups, bacon, combination of pickles and smoked
meat, roast duck, goose and sea food.
• The food is influenced by Russian &Polish cooling.
• Sour cream , Schmand, is extensively used in soups and sauces to make it piquant.
• Widespread use of bacon(Raucherspeack)
• The flavour of bacons and piquant taste of sour cream are the characteristic of this cuisine.
• Hunting is passion.
• The farmlands cultivated grain rops, sugar beets and potatoes and raised cattle and sheep and also geese.
• Geese was used to prepare “SPICKGANS”,a delightful cold meat prepration from geese breast.
• GANSSULIN :is a goose dish in which pieces of its meat is cooled with celery, carrots and parsley,and
when half cooked fruits like apples, pears and prawns were added
• In the north coast fish is abundant and eel is prominent and staple
• Pickled fish &meat are popular.
• KATENSCHIONKEN & KATEN WURST too famous ham and sausages which are smoked in a
pheasants but called KATEN.
• HAMBURG is the most famous city and known for its restaurants.
• BRUNSWICK is famous for its sausages.
• Bracunchwizer is a liver sausage from this region.
• Berlin is the cosmopolitan city of the north famous for its minced meat and shreaded meat dishes.
• Beef steak tarter is common over here.
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• The Berliners have vegetable cooked in simple style.

• Sause ghare is cucumber cooked in butter.
• German Christmas cake called BAUMKUCHEN originated in Berlin.
• Berliner are fond of snacks called happer papper
CENTRAL REGION
This region is an area of rolling hills with wide expanses of forest and numerous spas. This region is
basically an agricultural society famous for Pumpernickel and rye breads which are produced from
local grains. Dumplings are the staple food of this area a number of varieties are made from potatoes,
bread flour or oats. Frankfurter sausages are from this region and are now famous all over the world.
Pfefferpotthast, a beef stew strongly flavoured with pepper are popular. Westphalia is famous for its
ham and pork dishes. The thriving vineyards of this area produce excellent wine. Stolen is the
traditional Christmas made from locally grown fruits and berries.
• lying between the plains of the north and mountains of the south.
• Consisting of mountains are rugged plain and are densely forested
• Consisting of a ruhr valley ,industrial valley famous for it’s resorts and spa’s
• The valleys are fertile and vineyards and orchids flourish
• The pasture land is used by sheep.
• Grows sugar beets and potatoes
• WESTPHALIA is known for it’s ham ,pumpernickel and bar
• Ryes, sugar beets, cabbage and turnips are the staple vegetables
• Broad beans are very popular
• PFEFFERPOTTHUSIL is a stew of beef short ribs flavoured with lemon,garnished with capers and
accompanied with potatoes.
• MUNSTERLANDER TOTTCHEN is a meat of calf head cooked in buttery sauce
• PICKERT is a bread made from wheat or potatoes flour which is a german peasant food
• APPELTATE is a baked dessert of apples , almonds , resins topped with eggs and cream batter
• FRANKFURT is a famous city of this region known for it’s sausages
• FRANKFURTER WURSTCHAN a progenitor of the American hot dog which is served along with
apple woi
• APPLE WOI is a potent cider
• ONION is used in many of the dishes
• From the city Thuringia comes THURINGER K’LOSSE,dumpiling made with potatoes
• SAXONY is known for it’s superior yeast dough cakes which are sweet and with dry fruits.
• PLINSER is a pan cake made with wheat and buckwheat flour,flavoured rind and sour cream &
raised with yeast.
• SAXON cooking has a sweet and sour combination such as raisins cooked with beef pears with pork
and potatoes fresh or dry fruits are substituted for vegetables
• IN SILESIA
1. SCHWARTELBRATEN is a roast leg of pork cooked with sauerkraut and yeast dumplings
and sour cream sauce.
2. The food is influenced by the Polish, Austrian and Bohemian.
3. They have a taste for poppy seeds
4. Preferred sour dishes
5. BIGOS is a combination of meat,sauerkraut and potatoes.
6. THORNER KATHRINCHEN are spice and almond cookies baked in shape of woman.
SOUTHERN REGION
This area includes the states of Bavaria, Swabia, Baden and Alsac-Lorraine. The cuisine of southern Germany
features many of the same staples as its other counter parts but the dishes are much lighter. Vegetables including
white asparagus, radishes and cabbages are consumed in large quantities here and vegetable salads are very
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popular throughout southern Germany. The cuisine of Bavaria which is located in south east Germany is
influenced by Austria and the cuisine of Alsac-Lorraine situated in south west Germany is influenced by France.
Fine wines are produced here. Spätzle a cross between a dumpling and noodle is a popular side dish. Very
popular desserts are prepared with such fruits as plums, cherries, apple and berries that are grown in this region.
This region is best known for its Schwartzälder Krichtorte also known as the Black Forest cake in English is a
cherry cake flavoured with the cherry liquor ―Krishwasser.
THE SOUTHERN BELT
• Full of lugged hills culminating into the Alps. Influence of France
• Prosperous cattle and dairy farms
• Wheat and barley grow in the plateaus
• The hill slopes grows the best white wine grapes
• The valleys are full of grains.
• The cooking is simple and casual
• Known for its potato dishes
• Himmel and Erde(heaven and earth) is made with boiled potatoes and apples along with bacon &
onions and eaten with crisp slice of blood sausages.
• Meat is excellent throughout the region.Ex.-Savier bratten marinated in wine and served with raisin
sauce.
• KALBSLBER UN BACKTEIG small deep fried fritters of sliced calf liver ,served with fresh peas
• SCHWEINSFILET MIT APPLENE is a filet of pork spread with mustard, dipped in egg and bread
crumb ,browned in butter & then baked in oven with marjoram flavoured apples and sour cream
• GEFULTER FASAU is a Phesant stuffed with a mixture of minced
chicken,liver,eggs,mushrooms,onions,chervils,parsley,tarrogen,grated lemon rind & dash of brandy
• From BAGEN,SCHWARZWALDER KIRSHTORTE is a black forest cherry
• Cakes is a most famous German cake
• Strudel is one of the famous dessert of Germany
• Spartzel are small flour dumplings cooked in water and served with the cream sauce
Other famous German Dishes are:
Lebkuchen is a traditional German baked Christmas treat, somewhat resembling gingerbread.

Lebkuchen were invented by medieval monks in Franconia, Germany in the 13th century. Lebkuchen
bakers were recorded as early as 1296 in Ulm, and 1395 in Nürnberg (Nuremberg). The latter being
the most famous exporter today, of the product that is known as Nürnberger Lebkuchen
Sauterbraten This is a famous beef dish which involves marinating the meat in wine, vinegar and
buttermilk and braising it. It is served with a sweetened sauce
Sauercraut:-"sour cabbage", is finely shredded cabbage that has been fermented by various bacteria.
when the bacteria ferment the sugars in the cabbage. It is therefore not to be confused with
pickled cabbage or coleslaw, which receives its acidic taste from vinegar
Schwarzsauer :-It is stew of goose giblets and blood, usually cooked with dried apples, prunes.
Kasseler Rippim –– sauted & salted rib of pork on a bed of sauerkrant served with mashed potato.
Teibelkuchen –– same as ‘quiche’.
OTHER COMMON SPECIALITIES

Wurst (sausages)
German is famous for it’s sausages Almost every house prepares it them selves or hire professional butchers in
November .After the butchering was completed & the sausages (WURST) was made, the family and the
neighbors got together for a SCHLACHFEST in which they sampled the freshly made WURST
BAKING is the fine art in GERMANY
BREAD is the staple food made from wheat or rye flour
GEBILDBORTE is “PICTURE BREAD”embossed with shapes of animals ,flowers or fruits.
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SCHMALZGEBACHENES are small strips of bread deep fried used in celebrations.

• use of sweet & sour sauces
• extensive use of fruits (dried) in sauces
• In veg –– cabbage & mushroom (6-7 varieties) are used
Cooking terms
Braten ––Roast
Saftig ––Tender, juicy
Kiet ––Cooked
Schnitzel ––Escallops
Konizsherger Kloppe ––poached meat balls
BREADS
Pretzel
Wiisbrot –– with almonds
Obstrotte –– mixed fruit tart
Frankfutter Krabz –– layer cake with praline topping
Honigkuchin –– Honey cake
Dhesdner Stocken –– Christmas Fruit Bread
SAUSAGES (WURSTE)
Weirswurste –– veal
Brat Wurst –– pork
Frankfurter Wurstchen –– 5”-6” –– beef
Plock Wurst –– ¾ beef, ¼ pork
Schlatwurst ––
Servelat wurst –– pork & beef
Siilze –– coarsely sliced pork & gelatin
Truffel Heverwurst –– pork, pork lever & truffle
Touristenwurst –– ¾ beef, ¼ pork
Holsteiner Kochwurst –– ½ beef, ½ pork
Beef steak tartar –– raw minced meat with egg yolk in centre accompanied with salt, pepper, chopped
onion, parsley, anchory & capers
OTHER SALADS: * Kartofil salat ---- Potato salada
* Warmer Kartofel salad wil Speck ––Hot potato salad with bacon
* Rote Riiben Salat –– Beetroot salad
* Launch Salat –– Leck salad
A SAMPLE GERMAN MENU
Linsensuppe
Sauerbaten
Spatzel
German Potato salad
Pumpernickle Bread
Apfel Strudel
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MIDDLE EASTERN CUISINE

Geography:
• Consists of Armenia, Egypt, Iran, Israel, Lebanon, morocco, Syria & turkey.
• On one side in the Mediterranean Sea, bordering with Europe and taking past in many civilizations.
• On the other side is the central Asian plateau which had been host to many dynastic and migrations.
• This place had seen many urban, agriculturally based civilizations from early times.
• But this place was also influenced by nomadic, pastoralist peoples and cultures.
• Climate is harsh.
• Over 90% is dessert and 10% receives poor and unreliable rain.
• Nile, Tigris- Euphratis and Jordan is of much agricultural significance.
• The renewable water of Middle East comes from seasonal rain.
• The north enjoys winter rain from the Atlantic.
• These rains are effective in agriculture.
• Grain crops like wheat and barley grow and trees like olive and almonds survive.
• Rice grown in summer where irrigation is available.
• In the other arid regions population has grown along the river beds which used to sustain the population.
• Lent with the increase in population, these water resources are not enough.
• Only turkey and Sudan enjoy water surpluses.
• A long tradition of cultivation and domestication of animals.
• High quality vegetables of all types grow in the southern region.
• Condiments also flourish here.
• Melon grows extensively.
• Citrus fruits also prosper.
• Dates also grow well and form an important place in the lively hood and culture.
• Viticulture also flourishes along with dates and olive due to low quality of soil.
• Pista also grow well.
• Live-stock rearing like (sheep, goat, cattle and camel) forms an important aspect of socio-economic
culture.
• This region has seen the rise and fall of different culture and religious.
• The area is rich in grains, pulses, fruits, vegetables, spices and herbs.
HISTORY
• The Persian empire of 500 B.C. was the earliest political entity consisting of all the Middle Eastern
countries.
• The region was later part of Greek, roman and Byrantine Empire.
• After the death of prophet Md. In 7 A.D., many changes took place as the region was conquered by
Muslim Arabs and converted to Islam.
• Further integration was achieved by the Turkish Ottoman Empire which ruled from the 16th century
A.D. till the 1st world war.
• And thus the Middle Eastern region developed a cuisine which not particular to a definite country
but common to all.
CUISINE
• The M.E. food is quite wildly spiced.
• Gentle perfume seasonings such as cinnamon, cumin, cardamom & cloves are used.
• A fresh herb such as mint & parsley are used.
COOKING TERMS
• Taif:–– pancakes similar to French crepes.
• Baklava:–– (pakhlava) Turkish paper thin sheets of pastry, also known as file in Greek. Also a
desserts consisting of layers of filo leaves and nuts.
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• Bork:–– describes a large array of savory or sweet pastries with different fillings.
• Bulgar:–– whole wheat grains are parboiled and then sun dried.
• Chelo:–– Persian (Iranian) plain cooked rice.
• Conscous:–– National dish of morocco, Tunisia and algedria. It is the name of a grain product
made form semolina and the name of a dish which includes couscous as an ingredient.
It is served in a mountainous heap served with a vegetable/meat sauce.
• Dolma:–– stuffed veg/meat with rice mixture wrapped in vine or cabbage leaves.
• Falafel:–– chick pea croquettes.
• Fila:–– (file, pluflo) is paper thin dough.
• Harissa:–– a hot sauce used with conscious.
• Hummes bi tahini:–– a bread dip made from ground chick peas, garlic and tahiri paste.
• Helva:–– a type of flaky confection made from semolina, honey, butter, sesame seeds and
almond.
• Kodayif:–– a very common sweet pastry made from vermicelli like pastry.
• Khoresh:–– Iranian veg/meat sauce served with rice.
• Mast:–– yoghurt.
• Matzo:–– Turkish unleavened bread.
• Mezze:–– stuffed d’oeuvres.
• Pillow/pilaf:–– rice cooked with stock, spices, meat.
• Pillow bread:––staple bread, round and flat with a povrish in the middle.
• Tahima:–– a pasto made from sesame seeds.
MEZZE (HORS D’OEUVRES)

Sliced tomatoes with few cheese
Cucumber with yoghurt
Spinach cooked in yoghurt
Fried or baked aurbigines
Hummus:–– a bread dip made of chick pea’s salad, pickles.
Falafel or ta’a’urea are spicy, deep fried bean croquettes.
Dolmas:–– stuffed vine leaves.
YOGHURT: (MAST)
It is popular as it is easier to store than fresh milk as the temperature is high.
• It is a good stamina food.
• Used in preparation of mezze, soup and salads.
SOUPS
• Are substantial with all things like grains, veg., pulses, yoghurt put together.
• Served as a main dish in winter.
• Marera is a thick Moroccan soup served to break the fast of Ramzan. Made of chick pea or mixed bean.
• HARIRA SOVIRIA –– lamb & chicken soup onion soup.
HOT YOGHURT SOUP.
CHILLED SOUP:
• Cucumber & yoghurt
• Avocado soup
• Iskaeri fruit soup
SALADS & PICKLES
• Salads are served in every meal, even breakfast.
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• A composed raw or cooked vegetable, pulses, bulgar, fruit, nuts & olives in any combination with
dressing of olive oil, lemon juice and salt along.
• Pickling is an important method of preserving and pickles are served as mezze.
• Pickling is done with salty vinegar solution.
• Israeli left salad is KIBBUTZ.
• SALATA MESHWIYA –– Tuna fish salad.
• TABBOULEH –– bulgar wheat salad (Lebanese & Syrian).
• CAUK:–– (Greek/Turkish) chamber in yoghurt.
• PILAKE:–– (Turkish) cooked vegetable salad.
BREADS & SAVOURY BISCUITS
• Breads are numerous, which are yeasted.

• Cooked over a high flame.
• Use of tandoor was prevalent.
• PITA bread is the most common bread. It is a soft textured, flat, slightly leavened bread with a hollow
in the middle.
• PITE bread is cut into half and stuffed with a filling. It is a popular snack item.
• SYRIAN LENTEN PIE: –– during Lenten, the M.E. Catholics restrict themselves to vegetarian food
and pies are good example of Lenten food.
EG. Sesame seed pie
Chick pea pie
Armenian round bread
MOROCCAN BREAD:
• Bread is made from whole meal flour which is heavy, nutritious and tasty.
SYRIAN LOAF BREAD:

• Slightly sweet.
ARABIC WHOLE MEAL BREAD:

• Un yeasted
• Similar to an Indian chapatti.
OLIVE BREAD:
• Turkish, leaking powder is used.
BAGEHS:
• Popular snack food.
SEMILS:
• Crisp rings of bread sprinkled with sesame seeds, normally sold as snack food.
GRAINS AND PULSES

• All common spices of WHEAT originated here.
• Wheat and its products are very popular.
• BULGAR is parboiled wheat, which is sun dried then crushed.
• COUSCOUS is also a product of semolina
• Bread is very popular
• Recently cultivation of RICE has become popular. it is cooked plain with a sauce or cooked as a
PILAU
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• PULSES also form an important part of their diet.

• MILLET is eaten in some of the Middle East countries.
• KHORESHE are sauces served with rice
LENTIL AND BEAN DISHES
• Megadara-this dish of lentil and rice is known as Esau’s dish and is popular with the poor.
• Lentil and spinach pilau.
• Fun Medames- is a bean dish and is the national dish of Egypt.
• Bean Plaki-beans cooked with various vegetables or tomatoes, then chilled and dressed with oil and
vinegar, served with garlic bread.
• Fasoulia-a haricot bean dish of Greek. Garlic flavored, served hot or cold and can be served as a
starter, main or side dish.
• Tablee-is made from barley, chick peas and yoghurt.
NON-VEGETARIAN
• The Mediterranean coast serves this region with kinds of fishes.
• Fish is grilled, baked or poached.
• Large fishes is served coated with sauce TARATOR made of pine nuts, almonds or sesame seeds
almonds with lemon juice and garlic.
• Gifilte or fish balls are famous of Israel.
• Steak in pita is a Israeli dish where a grilled steak is placed in the hollow of the pita bread served
with a raw vegetables and tahini sauce has acquired the states of a national dish.
• Lamb meat is extensively used in shasliks and shish kebab.
• IRAN is famous for its KUFTEH TABRIZI which is a large meat balls stuffed with fried onions
and currants, walnuts and hard boiled eggs or a whole cooked stuffed chicken enclosed in pounded
meat with yellow peas.
• Iran’s national dish is CHELO KEBAB made out of charcoal grilled lamb pieces served with rice,
accompanied with a raw egg yolk in a half shell.
• In turkey, YOGURTLY KOFTE is meat balls cooked in a yoghurt sauce.
• DONER KEBAB is a pillar of lamb turning slowly in a vertical spit.
• Sis kebab is very famous.
• Dolma is very popular.
• The north African coast(morocco, Tunisia and Algeria)
• MECHOUI is a spilted baby lamb had in feasts.
• TAJINE is a Moroccan stew which is spiced or sweet which includes honey, almonds, raisins, date
and prunes with meat, fish, or poultry.
• BOTILLA is a Moroccan pigeon pie which is enclosed in a tunisium paper thin pastry called
MALSONQUA made of semolina.
• TUNISIAN-BRIK or meat turnovers. is based on only pastry sheet filled with minced meat and
cheese and topped with an egg and then the pastry is folded over and sealed. then it is carefully fried so
that the egg yolk does not break. The filling is cooled and the pastry is crisp.
• North Africa has a tradition of cooking meat with fruits.eg. Chicken cooked with prunes of honey.
VEGETABLES DISHES
• In Middle East is as important as non-veg items.
• Vegetables are abundantly available.
• Popular vegetables are aubeaginus, celery, courgettes, cucumber, leeks, onions, peppers and tomatoes.
• MISHSHI or stuffed vegetables are great specialties.
• Stuffing used are minced meat, nuts and vegetables.
• Vegetables casseroles are very popular but it is different in different countries.
SAUCES (KHORESHE)
• Tomato sauce.
• Aubergin sauce in which pulp is used.
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• Tahini sauce is a sauce made from sesame seeds.

• Wine sauce is unusual as it contain wine.
EGG DISHES
• On special days, dyed hard boiled eggs are served.
• Scrubbed eggs are cooked to stews and cooked so that it absorbs the flavors.
• Seasoned (e.g. Cumin) hard boiled eggs are sold ordinary days.
• Omelettes and pancakes are popular.
• Omelettes are known as EGGAH.
• KUKU- Iranian veg. omelette.
• CHAT CHOUKA-eggs and tomatoes.
• EGGAH-is served like a pie. Cut into triangles or squares.
• ATAIFS are crisps.
SAVORY AND SWEET PASTRIES
• Pastries in all forms are popular.

• Savory ones are served hot or cold as hor’s oeuvres, snacks, buffet or party food.
• Ordinary short crust, flaky pastry or common Fila pastry.
• Cheese, eggs, nuts and spinach are common fillings.
• BAKLAVA and KADAYIF (shredded wheat cakes) are typical sweet pastries.
• SUMBOOSAK are half moon shaped pastries.
• MAAMOUL are small, round, pastries, stuffed with nuts and dates.
PUDDINGS, CAKES, SWEETMEATS AND BISQUITS

• Sweet couscous.
• Locum-a Turkish desert.
• Dimple cakes.
• Yoghurt fritters.
• Semolina cakes.
• Turkish apple cake.
• Lebanese dough wets.
FRUITS DISHES
• Fruit is a usual dessert.
• During summer fruits are abundant.
• Stuffed apples.
• Fruits compotes.
BEVERAGES
• KAHVE- Turkish coffee. Fresh roasted coffee is crushed to fine powder which is boiled with sugar
and water. Served strong in small cups accompanied by a glass of cold water which are sipped
alternatively.
• MOROCCAN TEA-is made from Greek china leaves and sugar and served hot in a tall glass.
• SPICED TEA with different spices.
• Almond milk.
• Yoghurt drinks is similar to lassi.
• Sherbet (charbet)are sweet fruit syrups served very cold on their own for sipping or as a drink with
iced water or soda water.
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Mexican Cuisine
The land of Mexico stretches from the arid border land with the USA to the North to the tropical
Jungles of the Yucatan bordering Guatemala to the South from the humid coastline on the Gulf of
Mexico on the East to the drier Pacific coast.
Mexico has been home to number of great civilization that are thought to date back potentially as far
back as 40000 years. These civilizations advanced greatly over the centuries. However these native
cultures of this area of the Americas did not have a written language and thus many of the specifies
of their History are not known.
The arid north was sparsely inhabited by nomadic tribes who were hunter gathers who lived of the
land. The original inhabitants of Mexico includes the Olmecs, Tolters, Lapotecs, Jotonais, Mayans
and Aztecs.
The great Aztecs civilization contribution was the cultivation of maize which together with red beans
and rice constitutes the staple food throughout the whole of Latin America. Tortillas (Pancakes made
of cornmeal are eaten in a number of ways and is the signature dish/preparations of Mexico).
These cultures thrived on a mostly vegetarian diet because the availability of significant animal food
was limited.
The arrival of Spanish in Mexico in the early sixteen century began a new chapter for the people and
cuisine of this culture. After the Spanish arrived the native people incorporated many Spanish
elements into their diets including pork, chicken olives, rice, cinnamon, radish, grapes, sugar cane,
stone fruits, wheat, chickpeas melon and onions. This developed into a distinctive Mexican cuisine
which combined the traditions of the natives with that of the Spanish. From the culinary point of view
Mexico may be divided into the arid north, the rich central and the thickly forested south.
NOTHERN MEXICO
Northern Mexico comprises of nine areas which are known as the frontier. The Apache, Ute,
Chichimec are native to this area. The life styles of the regions inhabitants had a large impact on the
development of cuisine. Vaqueros (Cowboys) cooked on the open range over fire pits, Fajitas &
Enchiladas are good examples, fresh salsas and guacamole accompanied the food, utilizing garlic,
cilantro, tomatillos, lime and chilies native to the region.
Immigrants from Southern Mexico introduced corn based dishes to the regions diet. In coastal areas
fish is a large part of the diet. The flavour profile of the region includes smoky, rich yet lean, spicy
dishes with garlic, corn and wheat.
CENTRAL MEXICO
The capital of Mexico is situated in central Mexico. Most of central Mexico is a plateau surrounded
by highland on all four sides. The rainy season last from May, to September. The remaining months
are somewhat dry. When the Spanish arrived it was the Aztec civilization that was ruling Mexico.
This is the land of chillies, both fresh and dried. Herbs such as epazote, hoja santa, avocado leaves,
cilantro and Mexican oreganos are widely used. Cheese such as queso fresco is used as seasonings
and toppings.
Name of some cheeses: Chihuahua, cotija, queso fresco and sardo.
Southern Mexico
Southern Mexico comprises of seven regions of which Tabasco is one (famous for Tabasco sauce).
This region includes active volcanoes, pacific lowlands and highlands featuring dense jungles and a
tropical climate. The diverse geography and isolated locations bed to the development of very
different culture and hence cuisine. For e.g. Oaxaca which is quite remote retains its natural heritage.
It is noted for its coffee and mescal. Whereas Veracruz situated on the Gulf of Mexico was a port of
choice for explorers and invaders. Veracruz was strongly influenced by Spanish, African and
Caribbean culinary traditions. The cuisine has been able to blend the indigenous flavours and
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ingredients with those of the Mediterranean combining the use of olive oil, garlic, onions, capers and
green olives with new world ingredients like jalapenos and tomatoes.
General Notes
The major Mexican meal is taken between 2 to 4 in the afternoon. In its full form it consists of 5
courses: a soup followed by a pasta of rice or noodles, a meat or fish dish accompanied by tortillas,
beans and a fruit or dessert with coffee. Mexicans normally have an early light breakfast and later a
mid morning breakfast consisting of eggs. Bacon, tomatoes and chilli sauces and of course tortillas.
The evening meal except for special occasions is a simple matter of a pastry, fruit and perhaps some
leftovers.
SPECIALITIES of MEXICO
TORTILLAS:
Maize remains the foundation of Mexican cuisine eaten in all areas and by all classes. The process
for making tortillas starts the night before by boiling dried maize with water and lime, and leaving it
to soak overnight. In the morning they drain it and rub the skins off the grains, after which the grains
are ground into coarse wet flour, known as Masa or nixtamal. It will then be shaped by hand into flat
cakes some 18cm in diameter and 2mm thick. These tortillas are cooked in seconds on a griddle
known as ―COMAL and are carefully wrapped in a hand embroidered napkin to keep them hot.
This technique of boiling in wood ash or lime and then soaking is known as ― Nixtamalization which
was discovered by the local natives of southern Mexico and its southern neighbor Guatemala as early
as 1500-1200 B. C.This procedure makes it possible to remove the skin off the grain and allows the
grain to be ground to a flour that produces a flexible bread, and renders the protein in the grain more
accessible.
Tortillas may be served plain fried or baked, either flat or folded and topped or filled with various
stuffing’s.Tortillas piled with savoury assortments are called ―tostadas/ Enchiladas are folded
stuffed tortillas, usually topped with a sauce and baked. ―Tacos are plain tortillas, stuffed rolled and
may be fried. Chilaquiles thin strips of fried tortilla covered with a highly spiced sauce and cooked
in the oven.Mole takes its name from molli, a nahuatt word meaning concoction.
Moles Pobiano De Gajolote- A very famous Mexican dish supposed to have been invented in the
16th Century by the convent of Puebla. They cooked Turkey in a sauce typical of Aztec cooking. The
sauce (mole) is traditionally prepared by pounding various sweet and hot chillies such as ancho,
mutato and pastille, onions, tomatoes, pieces of tortillas garlic, crushed almonds, aniseed, sea same
seeds cinnamon, cloves and coriander seeds. The mixture is pounded with a little turkey stock till it
is a smooth paste. It is then simmered with more turkey stock to which lard and plain dark chocolate
are added. The cooked turkey is cut into pieces, liberally coated with the sauce, and served sprinkled
with sesame seeds, sweet corn or small tortillas. It is served as main course.
GUACAMOLE: A dip or sauce originating in Mexico and consisting of avocado, tomato, onion,
lemon juice and spices
ARABIC
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Arabic food refers to the food of the Arabian Peninsula, the largest country being Saudi Arabia,
located in the southern region of the Middle East, which covers2149700 sq. Km., which is three
quarters of the Arabian peninsula. It is bordered by the Persian Gulf and U.A.E. to the east, Oman
and Yemen to the south, the Red Sea to the west and Jordan, Iraq and Kuwait to the north.
Sunni Muslims make up ninety percent of Saudi Arabia’s 25 million inhabitants, the majority is of
tribal ancestry. The indigenous Bedouin tribe‘s food culture and the cultural influence of Islam forms
the main characteristic of Arabian food.
The Bedouin tribe were nomadic herdsmen who lived in the deserts of Arabia and North Africa. The
Bedouin existence depended on their herds and flocks. The camel was the supreme possession
providing transport, milk for food and beverage, meat, hair, hides and dung for fuel. The camel
allowed men to conquer the desert as they are capable of sustained travel in the desert. It was because
of the camel these Arabs became the middle men in the caravan spice trade. These trade links brought
spices and seasonings from Africa, India, Far East and Iraq and supplied them to the European
countries.The Bedouin food culture was based on the simple scarce food available in the region and
their famed hospitality culture of honouring the guest. The main dish is centred on meat, chicken,
fish or prawns, cooked in a sauce or roasted, baked or grilled, as in kebabs, with rice accompaniments.
Simply dressed salads including peppery cess and cucumbers are common. Flat bread, curds and
pickles accompany meats.Islam, which had taken roots in the 6th century A.D., has dominated the
Muslim culture by initiating strict culinary taboos which forbids ingesting alcohol, pork and blood.
Lamb is the most popular meat and Khouzi the national dish is a whole spit roasted lamb stuffed
with chicken, eggs and spiced rice.In Muslim culture mixing of sexes is discouraged, men and women
dine separately; males eat before women and children.Dates are commonly used in sweet and savoury
dishes.Coffee is the main drink and has strong association with the renowned hospitality of the
people. It is prepared from finely ground, well roasted beans and may be flavored with
cardamoms.Originally, the Arabs of the Arabian Peninsula relied heavily on a diet of dates, wheat,
barley, rice and meat, with little variety and heavy emphasis on yoghurt products, such as labneh
(yoghurt without butterfat).
There is a strong emphasis on the following items in Arabian cuisine:
• Meat: lamb and chicken are the most used, with beef and camel used to a lesser degree. Other
poultry is used in some regions, and in coastal areas, pork is completely prohibited— for Muslim
Arabs, being both a cultural taboo and prohibited under Islamic law; many Christian Arabs also avoid
pork as they have never acquired a taste for it, although this is often not the case in Lebanon, where
cold cuts of ham are frequently consumed in Christian neighborhoods.
• Dairy products: dairy products are widely used, especially yoghurt and white cheese. Butter
and cream are also used extensively.
• Herbs and spices: mint and thyme (often in a mix called za'atar) are widely and almost
universally used; spices are used much less than the Indian cuisine, but the amount and types
generally varies from region to region. Some of the included herbs and spices are sesame, saffron,
turmeric, garlic, cumin, cinnamon, and sumac. Spice mixtures include baharat.
• Beverages: hot beverages are used more than cold, coffee being on the top of the list, mostly
in the Gulf countries. However, tea is also served in many Arab countries. In Egypt and Jordan, for
instance, tea is a more important hot beverage than coffee.
• Grains: rice is the staple and is used for most dishes; wheat is the main source for bread. Bulgur
and semolina are also used extensively.
• Legumes: lentils are widely used as well as fava beans and chickpeas (garbanzo beans).
• Vegetables and fruits: Arabic cuisine also favors vegetables such as cucumbers, eggplant
(aubergine), zucchini (courgette), okra and onions, and fruits (primarily citrus) which are often used
as seasonings for entrees. Olives as well as dates, figs and pomegranate are also widely used.
• Nuts: almonds, pine nuts, pistachios, and walnuts are often included.
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• Greens: parsley and mint are popular as seasonings in many dishes, while spinach and
mulukhiyah (leaves of plants of the Corchorus genus) are used in cooked dishes.
• Dressings and sauces: The most popular dressings include various combinations of olive oil,
lemon juice, parsley, and/or garlic, and tahini (sesame paste). Labaneh, thinned yoghurt, is often
seasoned with mint and onion or garlic, and served as a sauce with various dishes.
Notably, many of the same spices used in Arabian cuisine are also those emphasized in Indian cuisine.
This is a result of heavy trading and historical ties between the two regions.
Culture :Essential to any cooking in the Arabian Peninsula is the concept of hospitality and generosity.
Meals are generally large family affairs, with much sharing and a great deal of warmth over the dinner
table. Formal dinners and celebrations generally involve large quantities of lamb, and every occasion
entails large quantities of Arabic coffee. In an average Gulf Arab state household, a visitor might expect
a dinner consisting of a very large platter, shared commonly, with a vast amount of rice, incorporating
lamb or chicken, or both, as separate dishes, with various stewed vegetables, heavily spiced, sometimes
with a tomato based sauce. Most likely there would be several other less hearty items on the side. Tea
would certainly accompany the meal, as it is almost constantly consumed. Coffee would be included as
well.
Structure of meals
There are two basic structures for meals in the Arab world, one regular and one specific for the month
of Ramadan.
Breakfast :Cafés often offer croissants for breakfast. Breakfast is often a quick meal consisting of bread
and dairy products with tea and sometimes with jam. The most used is labneh and cream,. Labneh is
served with olives, dried mint and drizzled with olive oil. Pastries such as manaqeesh, sfiha, fatayer
and kahi are sometimes eaten for breakfast. Flat bread with olive oil and za'tar is also popular. Most
Arab families also consume hummus and falafel with pita bread.
Lunch :Lunch is considered the main meal of the day and is traditionally eaten after the noon prayer.
It is the meal for which the family comes together and, when entertaining, it is the meal of choice to
invite guests to. Rarely do meals have different courses; however, salads and maza (an appetizer) are
served as side dishes to the main meal. The latter usually consists of a portion of meat, poultry or fish,
a portion of rice, lentil, bread or bagel and a portion of cooked vegetables in addition to the fresh ones
with the maza and salad. The vegetables and meat are usually cooked together in a sauce Drinks are
not necessarily served with the food; however, there is a very wide variety of drinks such as shineena
(or laban), Karakaden, Naque‘e Al Zabib, Irq soos, Tamr Hindi as well as fruit juices
Dinner:Dinner is traditionally the lightest meal, although in modern times and due to changing
lifestyles, dinner has become more important.
Ramadan meals
In addition to the two meals mentioned hereafter, during Ramadan sweets are consumed much more
than usual; sweets and fresh fruits are served between these two meals. Although most sweets are
made all year round such as knafeh, baklawa and basbousa, some are made especially for Ramadan,
such as Qatayef.
Futuur:(also called iftar, Afur in Somali) or fast-breaking, is the meal taken at dusk when the fast is
over. The meal consists of three courses: first, an odd number of dates based on Islamic tradition. This
is followed by a soup, the most popular being lentil soup, but a wide variety of soups such as chicken,
oats, freeka (a soup made from a form of whole wheat and chicken broth), potato, maash and others are
also offered. The third course is the main dish, usually eaten after an interval when Maghreb prayer is
conducted. The main dish is mostly similar to lunch, except that cold drinks are also served.
Sahur
Sahur is the meal eaten just before the dawn when fasting must begin.
CHINESE CUISINE
• Oldest civilization
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• Before the HAN invasion, a mythical hero named FU HIS is credited with the invention of kitchen and
cookery. Another mythology figure SHEN NUNG goes the credit of inventing the plough, hoe and care of farm
animals. HUANG TI, the yellow emperor and founder of TAOISM is worshiped for the conception of planning
of grains and invention of pestle and mortar to make flour. Emperor YU, founder XIA dynasty took the worthy
step of controlling floods which ruined crops and encouraged the use of irrigation to improve yields.
• “yellow river” is termed as “ CHINAS SORROW”.
• Natural calamities has affected Chinese civilization for long through floods, famine, drought, earthquakes,
landslides and typhoons. But the grittiness and hard tote of the people has helped China build its civilization &
food played a vital role in development of Chinese cuisine.
• While conferring thanks to many gods and beliefs, the Chinese do so by gathering around the dinner table.
• Whatever the reason and no matter how humble or splendid the surroundings, the Chinese celebrate by
eating. While the Chinese enjoy their food, they are rarely gluttonous. From the early stages they are taught to
be frugal and to eat until he is 70% full. This frugality is due to the harsh environment and vast population of the
country. Flood, drought and famine which destroyed regular food supplies, have taught the Chinese to be
remarkably resourceful in finding other edible and nutritious items.
• Pew ts’aokang mu encyclopedia of plant resources.
• Chinese have developed many ways of preserving food to safeguard against famine and scarcity.
• Food has been the cornerstone of Chinese civilization.
• Chinese history revolves around the kitchen & dining table.
• KITCHEN GOD(TO KWAN) is a house hold deity found predominantly in Chinese homes and in some
commercial kitchens.
1. A coloured picture or small figure is placed in a shrine and situated on the wall in view of the whole
kitchen.
2. the god serves as a monitor to the heavens and guards the morale of the family.
3. he makes an annual report to the heaven on 12 day the cast lunar month (feb. 2) which is the Chinese new
year. his mouth is smeared with honey so that he says sweet things.
4. twice a year, ancestral graves are swept and increases sticks are lit to pay homage to the departmental
souls. Roast pork, rice wine and fruit are offered to the dead.
DIVERSITY OF CUISINE
• The country is vast.
• 7% of the world lands.
• Diverse landscape and climate conditions have resulted in different distinct REGIONAL CUISINE.
THE CHINESE FOOD IS CATEGORISED INTO TWO GROUPS.
FAN TS’AI
• Made from grain and other starch foods. • Meat and vegetable dishes.
• Fundamental and indispensable. • Supplementary and secondary.
• Body. • Soul.
• Foods are sacred in nature and is not leftover
in the bowl.
A balanced meal should have appropriate proportion of both FAN and TSAI.
1. A harmonious blending of colour, flavour and shapes & texture in one single dish.
• The principle of blending of complimentary or contrasting colour or flavours is fundamental.
• Different ingredients must not be mixed indiscreminently . It should follow a set pattern.
2. Cutting of vegetables is another feature in order to achieve proper effect slice with slices, shreds with
shreds and cubes .this is not merely for the sake of appearance but also ingredients of the same size and shape
require the about the same time for cooking.
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3. Texture:- A dish may have just one or several contrasting textures such as tenderness, crispiness,
crunchiness, smoothness and softness. The textures to be avoided are sogginess, stringiness and hardness.
4. Ingredients are replaceable but the basic method and sauce remains the same.
5. small pieces are used in cooking
• to facilitate eating with chop sticks
• better eye appeal
• easy to blend and cook quickly
• food is subjected to intense heat over short period in the wok to cook it to the right degree
6. Harmony and blending of food is done using the YI YANG PRINCIPLE
YIN – soft, yielding, dark and feminine
YANG – is hard, bright, vigorous and masculine.
• Sweet contents with sour.
• sugar (yin) goes with fiery chillies (yang)
• plain and spicy
• meat and pickle
• fish and vegetables
7. Concept of Hot and Cold food:
Hot foods are those which are oily and fried, fatty meat pepper hot flavoring and oily plants foods like peanuts.
Cold foods are water plants,
EQUIPMENTS USED
1. WOK:- best is made carbon steel with a diameter of 12 -14”. It is an all purpose cooking utensil. Its gentle
slope helps distribute the heat evenly and stirring it insures the food items return to the centre where there is
maximum heat. It is used for stir frying deep frying, steaming ;and almost everything except boiling rice. For
cleaning of wok, warm soapy solution should be used and do not use scouring pads. Lime with clean water and
dry thoroughly. Apply oil over it after cleaning to prevent rusting.
2. Wok Ring:- A steel, hollow base that fits over a single stove burner to concentrate the heat at the centre.
3. Bamboo Steamer:- There are circles of bamboo with woven bamboo reed bases and covers of 12-13”
diameter.
4. Chinese spatula:- A shovel shaped tool made of carbon or stainless steel.
5. Chinese Kleaver:- comes with a heavy rectangular blade (3-4”) usually of carbon steel with wooden handle.
A single kleaver does the work of a whole battery of knives of western kitchen
6. Chopping Board:- A thick cross section of a tree trunk
7. Chinese strainer :- A circular steel mesh strainer attached to a long split bamboo handle.
Other Equipment’s
Oval dutch oven Large roasting pans Frying pan Round cake pan China dishes
Dough scrapper Masher Hand grater Cheese cloth Wooden spoon Rolling pin Chop sticks
Table etiquettes
1. Do not point with your chop sticks.
2. Do not stick them in your rice bowl and leave them standing up.
3. Don’t use your chop sticks to explore the ingredients of a dish.
4. It is socially acceptable in china to spit bones on the table berch ,slurp soup and noodles and smoke
while eating.
5. Rice can be eaten by raising the bowl to the mouth and shoveling the grains in with a rapid motion.
TECHNIQUES OF COOKING
The chinese claim to have some 80 odd techniques of cooking and combining food.
Some of them are unique to them like stir frying.
1. STIR FRYING:- it is a form of swift, light sautéing where the food is kept constantly in motion so that each
morsel is evenly and swiftly cooked precisely to the point at which they retain their flavour, colour, crispiness
and nutritive value.
2. DEEP FRYING:- The object of deep frying is to cook food thoroughly inside while the outside becomes
golden and lightly crusty. Deep fried food are first marinated, dipped into batter and then fried.
3. OIL BLANCHING:-This is relatively simple cooking technique which is basically a sealing process.
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Vegetables are oil blanched for no longer than 30-40 sec. for meats and shellfishes the oil should be at 400°-
425°f
4. STEAMING:- The natural tastes, texture and shapes of vegetables & fish are preserved when steamed.
5. STEWING AND BRAISING: The direct translation of the chinese word for this method is “Red Cooking”
because in this the food is cooked in soy sauce which darkens the food. The meat is seared or parboiled first then
placed in sauce and cooked over low flame in a well covered wok.
All in all, there are well over 50 different distinct methods of cooking in Chinese cooking. They fall
roughly into the following four categories:-
• WATER COOKING: Boiling, Poaching, and Simmering
• OIL COOKING : Deep frying, shallow frying, stir frying, braising.
• FIRE COOKING : Roasting, Baking and Barbecuing
• STEAM COOKING: Steaming.
COOKING METHODS.
The Chinese divide the temperature of heat into "Military"(high or fierce and • medium) and
'civil' (low or gentle and weak) Proper control of temperature and cooking time is the key to success.
High or fierce heat is usually used for quick cooking for and tender foods. Different kinds of frying,
.steaming, instant boiling etc and call for a high heat.
Medium or moderate heat can be used for quick -braising, steaming, and boiling.
Low or gentle heat is used for slow cooking allowing the flavours to penetrate through all the ingredients
such as roasting and simmering.
Weak heat is used for long cooking turning hard ingredients soft. It is used for simmering, braising
and stewing.
Here are some 25 commonly used methods in Chinese cooking .One dish may require one ,two or
three methods each will produce a different effect.
1. CHAO Stir frying. By far the most common method of Chinese cooking .Practically all
vegetables will be cooked this way. Here a wok is most useful Heat the wok first then add the oil
until it smokes add the ingredients, stir and toss .constantly no more than 2-3 minutes. In other way
stir fry the ingredients in a little hot oil over a very high heat. This method is widely used and has
many variations.
a. Pure stir frying: the raw ingredients are not marinated nor coated with a batter, they are just stir
fried in hot oil and seasonings are added towards the end of cooking .Most vegetables are cooked in
this way.
b. Braising stir frying: The main and supplementary ingredients are cooked in this separately .at
first and then brought together with the addition of seasoning and stock or a thickening agent (usually
of corn flour mixed with water) and braised very quickly over high heat.
c. Twice cooked stir frying: One ingredient has been previously cooked and is here cut into smaller
pieces and stir fried with other ingredients and seasonings.
2. ZHA Deep fry in hot oil over a high heat.
Food is fried in a large quantity of oil over a high or medium heat. There are different variations of deep
frying
a. Neat deep frying: the raw ingredients are not coated with batter or flour.
b. Dry deep frying: Raw ingredients are coated with dry flour or breadcrumbs.
c. Soft deep frying: Raw ingredients are coated with batter, first and then deep fried for crispness.
3. JIAN. Shallow frying over a moderate heat. Similar to tire western way except that in some
cases stock or water is added at the last minute forming a gravy .A flat bottomed pan is used . a little
oil and medium or low heat .Seasonings are added when food is half done. The pan should be turned
from time to time during cooking so that the heat is evenly distributed.
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4. BAO. Rapid frying literally means to explode. It takes an even shorter time Than stir frying
using very high heat .Rapid stir frying is another form of stir frying , the ingredient or ingredients
have been deep fried or rapid boiled first, they are then quickly stir fried over very high heat for a
short period of time. Variations in this method include rapid stir frying in oil rapid stir frying in bean
sauce and rapid stir frying with spring onions,
5. SHAO. Braising literally meaning to burn or in this case to cook. The ingredients are first fried
in a little oil over a moderate heat, then simmered in stock until very little liquid or juice is Ieft. Red
cooking In this widely used method of cooking the meat is cut into small chunks then
deep fried or par boiled or steamed until half done .Seasonings (Soya sauce, wine vinegar sugar etc )
stock or water are added to it ,the whole thing is brought to a boil and simmered until done.
6. MEN. Stewing, it is very similar to braising except that it usually takes longer over a low heat.
Slow braising- the food must be fried first (light brown) then all the ingredients (seasonings etc.) are
put in a tightly covered pot and simmered over a very low heat slowly like a casserole.
7. DUN. Simmering In this method of cooking no oil is used at all and the food is cooked over low
heat .Slow cooking, there are two kinds of slow cooking in water. Slow cooking in water is a form of
stewing , slow cooking, out of water involves a double boiling technique .When the pot that contains
the food is immersed in a large pot of boiling water. .
8. ZHU. Boiling over moderate heat. Boil the ingredients directly in water over low heat.
9. CHUAN. Rapid or fierce boiling over high heat for a very short period of time. This simple
cooking is often used for making soups Bring the water or stock boil over-high heat add the
ingredients and seasonings, serve as soon as the soup re-boils. No thickening agents added and the
vegetables will be crisp and fresh.
10. ZHENG. Steaming needs no explanation .Traditionally the Chinese use bamboo steamers
which sits in the wok .Another widely used in China not only for cooking .but also for treating raw
ingredients before cooking by other methods , or to keep food warm after they have been cooked.
11. LU. Stewing in stock made of Soya sauce five spice powder and sugar over low heat .Soya
stewing- a Soya-gravy is made first the ingredients are stewed in this gravy over a low heat.
12. HUI. Another form of braising - literally means "Assembly‖ Normally a number of
ingredients, some cooked, some semi cooked are blended together for the final stage of cooking in a
gravy using a high to moderate heat. A method of cooking a dish that consists of several different
ingredients. Stir fry the ingredients first add stock or water and seasonings, boil over high heat for a
short while, then thicken the gravy before serving .Alternately prepare the gravy first then add the
partly cooked ingredients (deep fried or steamed ), cook over low heat .thicken the gravy and serve.
13. KAO. Roasting which hardly needs explanation, except that in China most kitchens are not
equipped with ovens , therefore most of the roasting is done as barbecuing in a restaurant. The
ingredients are first marinated or treated then either cooked in an oven or over an open fire like
barbecuing
14. BAN. Mixing raw food or salad or-cold dishes which are mixed together with a dressing.
Mixing salads. This method does not actually involve cooking, but simply calls for cutting the raw
or cooked ingredients and dressing it with seasonings.
15. SHAUN. Instant boiling or rinsing thinly sliced ingredients are dipped into boiling water for a
second or two, and then served with a sauce. This cooking method keeps the ingredients fresh and
tender.
16. AO- Stewing or braising. Flavour a little hot oil with spring onions and ginger root then stir
fries the ingredients for a short time. Now add the stock or water and seasonings, simmer over a low
heat .The food should be soft and tender.
17. QIAND Hot salads. Here the raw ingredients are parboiled or blanched first, then dressed with
seasonings. The difference between cold salad and hot salad dressings is as follows:-
Cold salad dressing- Soya sauce, vinegar, and sesame seed oil.
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Hot salad dressing: Ginger shreds, Sichuan pepper corn, salt, sugar and sesame seed oil.
18. YAN Pickling- Pickle the food with salt and sugar or with salt and wine .Dishes prepared this
way has a subtle fragrance and is crisp.
19. TA Pan frying- The ingredients are coated with batter fried in a small amount of oil on both
sides over a low heat until done. The ingredients may be deep fried first, and then finished off by pan
frying .Seasonings and sauce is added towards the end of cooking.
20. TIE-PAN. Sticking frying. This is basically a form of shallow frying, but only one side is
fried, the food is not turned over, so that one side is golden brown and the other side is soft and tender.
21. LIU sauté This is a special technique which involves two stages of cooking .First deep fry ,
quick or rapid boil steam or boil the ingredients until done, then mix with seasonings to make a sauce.
a. Dark brown sauté Pour the sauce over the cooked foods and serve.
b. Slippery sauté Stir fry the raw ingredients and pour the sauce over half way through
cooking, stirring constantly until done.
c. Soft sauté Steam or boil the ingredients and then, while they are still hot add a thin and delicate
sauce.
23 PENG. Quick braising. This is one of the important cooking techniques and is always used
with deep frying .The ingredients are cut into small pieces and deep fried first, then taken out of the
oil and a sauce is added .While the sauce is hot stir fry over high heat and remove the wok from heat
and continue stirring for few more times before serving.
24 JIANG: A soya braising. The difference between soya stewing and soya braising is that the
ingredients are marinated first in the sauce in which it is cooked, with the additional stock and water.
The sauce is reduced or thickened and is served with dish.
25 PA. Braising in sauce. In this method, a little oil is first flavoured with spring onions and or
ginger root; the ingredients are then placed in the wok or pot and simmered until done.
25. SHUN Smoking. Cooking with heat and smoke from burning materials such as saw dust, tea leaves,
cypress branches, bamboo leaves or granulated sugar.
School of chinese cooking
1. Shandong (Northern)
• Northern most with Peking as the centre
• Great extremes of climate
• Often effected by famines, drought and food.
• Staple grain is - wheat and corn.
Wheat bread - man ton
corn bread - wo ton
• Northern cooking includes pungent sweet and sour dishes and more subtle, delicately seasoned
foods. The use of garlic and spring onions is also characteristic.
• Much of the north is bordered by Mongolia where people eat a lot of mutton. Food from Inner
Mongolia and Shantung forms the backbone of northern cuisine.
• Dumpling and noodles are made and had in every conceivable way
• Beijing/Peking is known for jiaozi, the traditional Chinese dumpling, and Peking duck People have 3 sweet
potatoes per day
• Northern cuisine includes the Henan (north of the river) region.
• Strikingly unique from other northern flavours is the Shaolin vegetarian cuisine. Chinese
Buddhist belief has for centuries prohibited the eating of animal flesh, and the monks here have spent
an age perfecting the cooking of all types of vegetarian food. This cuisine is very nutritious and
healthy.
• Peking duck is a traditional delicacy perfected during the Qing Dynasty and served to important and wealthy
individuals throughout history. The duck and its skin (a delicacy) are served with Hoisin (Peking) sauce
in flat-bread wrappers..
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• Famous for it’s drunken dishes which were marinated and cooked in wine such as swass liver
• Flavouring is heavy with light and dark soy sauce, crushed garlic, black and red bean pastes and sauces.
• Mongals ruled this place and brought with them the technique of marinating and barbequing meat.
• They also left the taste of dairy products and mutton, which are disliked by the rest of china.
• The five spice mixture of staranise , cinamom, clove ,fennel and anise is used as seasoning
• “fire pot” is a dish where each dinner can cook his own food in a central hot pot,dipping in a variety of
sauces.
2. Canton (Southern)
• It is in the southern china ,on the coast
• Mild climate
• Access to sea gave it a large variety of food stuff and ingredients
• Credited with the invention of greatest no. Of dishes.nearly 4,00,000 of which 250 of pork itself
• It is a no-holds barred school
• Southern cooking is subtle and the least greasy of all the regional styles. The cooks excel in stir-
frying. At its best, the cuisine tends to be more costly than the others because the cooks use
highly concentrated chicken bouillon as the basis of their soups and general cooking: They like to
use nuts and mushrooms in their dishes. They prepare many varieties of sea food and lots of
roasted and grilled pork and poultry. Steamed dishes are also featured.
• The Southern School consists of three distinct styles of cooking: CANTON, CHAOCHOW, and
DONGJIANG (also known as HAKKA), which means 'family of guest', which refers to the
immigrants from North China who settled in the South during the Song Dynasty after the
invasion of Mongols in the 13th Century. So it was the Hakka's who introduced noodles, wantons
and dumplings etc, into the Contonese diet.
• So it was the Hakka's who introduced noodles, wantons and dumplings etc, into the
• Contonese diet.
• Practically every thing is eaten with impunity like snails, frogs legs, snakes, etc.
• Rice is the staple food.
• The universally popular dimsum originated here.
• Specialized in soups, specially turtle soup. Steamed ,roasted and grilled pork and poultry dishes.
• Clear chicken broth is used as a base for soups and gravies.
• It is the most sophisticated of all the chinese cuisines
• Immigration to other countries by travellers lede to bringing in of different foreign ingredients which
were absorbed into the cuisines
• As Peking was quite far so the rulers could not control the out flow of migrants.
• Some special dishes are
1. Mouth sized morsels of delicious ,steamed spareribs in sauce called thai kaunt
2. Dim sum as snacks with tea.
3. Red cooked sweet savoury pork.
4. Sliced water chestnuts wrapped in thin egg dough topped with crab eggs called seiw mai
3. Szechwan/Sichuan(Western)
• Western part of central province.
• The Szechuan style of cuisine arose from a culturally distinct area in the central western of part of China, a
province known as Sichuan. Vast basin of luxuriant vegetables, bounded by mountain ranges running north to
south.
• Szechuan cuisine is primarily known for its hot and spicy dishes, though naturally there is more
to Szechuan food than spice and sauces rich and strong in flavour.
• Famous for its spicy, piquant dishes
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• In Szechuan cuisine, there are a variety of ingredients and spices used to create these basic taste sensations.
These include a variety of chili peppers, peppercorns over various types, Sichuan peppers, which are in reality a
type of fruit, not pepper, and produce a numbing effect in addition to their warm flavour. Sichuan peppers, also
called flower pepper and mountain pepper, are a traditional part of the Chinese five spice powder
• Other ingredients used commonly in Szechuan cuisine to create the five fundamental taste sensations
include different types of sugars, such as beet root sugar and cane sugar, as well as local fruits for sweetness.
The sour comes from pickled vegetables and different varieties of vinegar. A special bitter melon is added to
many dishes to offer the touch of bitterness that complements other flavours. Other spices and flavours include
dried orange peel, garlic, ginger, sesame oil and bean paste. Salt is important to Szechuan cuisine, and the area
produces uniquely flavoured salts that help to distinguish authentic Szechuan cuisine from the other regional
cuisines from China. “fung” (mushrooms) particularly truffels are used.
• Only one great crop is produced each year.
• In order to ensure supply year around food was preserved.
• The humidity climate produced sun-drying or salting so spicing was used instead.
• They made chilly and pepper corn pastes, rice wines and wine vinegar and added a fir bit of brow
sugar which resulted in savoury-hot, hot and sour,sweet and sour ,sweet hot sharp dishes.
• The mushroom produced are delicious
• Hunan is famous for its ham.
• They also specialize in preserving the meat by curing and smoking them.
• The food is oilier.
• Rice and wheat both are grown and eaten.
• Pigs and poultry are abound in this region
• lnland cooking also makes much use of the fungus called Cloud ear or, Tree ear.Tea smoked duck,
Chicken chilly, Liver Paste Soup, Hot & Sour Soup, Beans A La Szechwan, Dong An Chicken, Fried
crab, Soy Braised duck, sliced Hoi sin Pork, Bean curd, Spiced Turnip etc., are some of the famous
dishes of this region.
4. Shanghai /Jiangshu (Eastern)
• Cosmopolitian city
• Both wheat and rice are grown here, as well as other crops which include — barley, corn, sweet potatoes,
peanuts, and soya beans.
• Fisheries abound in the multitude of lakes and other tributaries and deep sea fishing has long been
established in the coastal province of Jiangsu and Zhejiang The areas that cover the middle and lower regions of
the Yangtze are traditionally referred to as "Land of Fish and Rice', and is collectively known as Jiangnan
("JIANG" means "great river' referring to the, Yangtze and 'NAN" referring to the south), and it boasts a number
of distinctive cooking styles.
• Fisheries abound in the multitude of lakes and other tributaries and deep sea fishing has long been
established in the coastal province of Jiangsu and Zhejiang The areas that cover the middle and lower regions of
the Yangtze are traditionally referred to as "Land of Fish and Rice', and is collectively known as Jiangnan
("JIANG" means "great river' referring to the, Yangtze and 'NAN" referring to the south), and it boasts a number
of distinctive cooking styles
• Clear and tasty soups.
• High quality of soya sauce.
• One special cooking technique of the region has been adopted nationally. This is hung- shao
the red-braising method of cooking, whereby the ingredients (mainly meat, poultry and fish) are
cooked slowly in an aromatic mixture of thick dark soy sauce and rice wine. When, at the end of
cooking,' the sauce is reduced and spooned over the main ingredient, the resulting taste is both rich
and fragrant.
• Sea food is very popular
• Dried scallops form the basis of the best soups.
• Influence of all the cuisines is found.
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• Good food carvers.

• Highly artistic in food presentation.
• Shanghai cuisine is the least known outside China. Its oiliness and sweetness are perhaps less appealing
to the Western palate, and because it is decorative, it tends to be labour-intensive.
Speciality and Popular dishes:

Yangchow fried rice, Chow mien, Spring rolls, Dim sums, White cut pork, lion‘s head (pork meat
balls with cabbage - the alarming name of this dish refers to the pork meat balls which are supposed
to resemble the shape of a lion's head and the cabbage which is supposed to look like its mane),
Squirrel fish.
5. Hunan. (Central)
• Situated in the center.
• Was once the capital and seat of a great court.
• Grows the most wondrous fung
• They delivered the method of deep fat frying using boiling oil to cook ingredients like kidney.
• This results in a delicate balance between a crisp, sealed outside and a tender texture inside.
6. Yang chow.
• The yangtse river bisects china running from west to east.
• Yang chow was initially a salt rich mining city full of wealthy merchants.
• There is avilability of fresh sea food.
• Specialises in spicing and preserving sea foods like squids and prawns.
• They were the first to combine the fresh and the dried variety of the same ingredient.
• Chow mein---fried noodles
• Chow fan—fried rice. Are from this region which are the national dishes.
• They developed the chow cooking that is quick and stirfrying in low oil.
7. Vegetarian school.
Chinese vegetarian has a long history; its origin can be traced to as far back as around 500 BC, when the
TAOIST SCHOOL of THOUGHT developed the hygienic and nutritional science of fruit and vegetables. Some
centuries later when Buddhism which abhors the killing of any living creature and the eating of flesh in any form
was introduced into China from India, this philosophy was readily grafted into TAOIST school of Cooking and
a new form of vegetarianism was born.
• Chinese as a whole dislike dairy products.
• Chinese vegetarians are not allowed anything remotely associated with animal including egg
and milk. They obtain their proteins mainly from soya beans and its byproducts such as bean curd
(tofu), nuts and fungi.
• To substitute for meat and dairy products, soya in every form was used.
• Soya milk, curd, cheese,cake and sprouts were used in a marvelous imitation of the texture , flavour and
shape of meat and fish so as to be indistinguishable from them.
• Sauteed soya bean curd is produced to taste and looks like delicate calves brains or puffiest omellettes.
8. Moslem school.
• China is not only the place of han chinese but also some minorities known as HUI.
• Muslims from the most populous minority spread all over china, but are mailny concentrated on north west.
• They form the Chinese Moslem school, together with two other national minorities: the UYGOR group in
XINJIANG (4 million, virtually all Moslems), and about 1.5 million MONGOLS who are traditionally nomadic,
and therefore, like the Moslem, do not eat pork.
• Their daily diet consists of beef, mutton, milk and butter, items an average Chinese has no taste
for.
9. CHINESE TEA.
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• Important aspect of Chinese culture.

• 4000 years old.
• Most consumed beverage in china and is the national drink.
• Preparation is same as elsewhere
• Chinese believe that the second steeping the real flavour so they discard the first steep.
• Comes from an evergreen shrub.
• Leaves picked when 3 years old and there after tri annually for 25-30 years.
• Altitudes of 2000 meters and above.
• Best are those picked in spring from the upper parts of the plant.
• They have medicinal properties.
• THREE CATEGORIES.
• CHANG- green, prime ones or under fermented.
• HOONG- black, fermented.
• OOLONG-semi fermented
SCENTED TEAS.
1) CRYSANTHAMUM
2) JASMINES
3) LYCHEE
10. CHINESE WINES.
• 3000 years ago rice wine was born in china when rice was fermented.
• Low formulated for the drink to be had in small cups and not in soup cups.
• How has been promulgated from the Chou dynasty till the end of the Mongol dynasty in 1368 against
the manufacture , sale and consumption 41 times.
• All alcohol are referred to as wine in china.
• It is served heated in small porcelain cups and had in one gulp after uttering “KAN PEI” that is bottoms
up.
• Served along with food
• Table of cooking wines:
• shao hsing chier:--from Peking district.
• 20% alcohol
• put into jar and buried under ground for 3-4 yrs to mature.
• Drunk by squeezing lemon into a glass, add the squeezed fruit to the juice and top it with wine
then pour into smaller glasses. This will reduce the alcohol content.
• MAI TAI CHIU: (KWEICHOW DISTI)
o 53-55%
• CHUYEN CHING CHIU: (KWANGSI DISTI)
o From bamboo leaves steeped in wine
o 45%
• KAO LIANG CHU (HUPEH)
o 58-62%
• HUA CHUA: –– A flower wine used for cooking
MEDICINAL WINES
• WU CHIA PI CHIU (CANTON)

o 20 spices, deep red colour
o 53-54%
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• KE CHIEH TA PU CHIU (CANTON)

o Extract snakes, deer horse & CARROTS.
o 37% ALE.
• HU KU CHIU (CANTON)
o 140 different spices.
o Deer horn, tigers bone & carrots
o 39-40%
• JEN SHEN CHIU ( CHICHIN DISTT)
o Distillation of carrots
o 39-40%
The Chinese menu
Chinese menu bears no resemblance to western menus which are course wise. The Chinese cooking
tradition makes for a greater harmony of living, an aspect of Chinese cuisine which has often been
over looked. There is a great feeling of togetherness in the way the Chinese eat. They gather around
a table and partake all the dishes which are placed on the table in a communal style. Nobody is served
just an individual portion in the western way. The chop-sticks are used not only as eating implements
but also to help others to a choice piece especially from a particular dish this is usually an expression
of respect and affection. Due to the multi course nature of the Chinese meal, eating and dinning have
always been very much a family or communal event and Chinese food is best eaten this way, for only
then can you enjoy a variety of dishes. An informal Chinese dinner served at home is essentially a
buffet style affair, with more hot dishes then cold served on the table at the same time, to be shared
by everyone.
A Chinese meal is served absolutely ready to eat there is neither last minute carving on the table, nor
dishing out separate item such as meat, vegetables, gravy or sauce and no long prelude when you
wait for everybody to be served before you start. At a Chinese meal, as soon as the first dish or
course of dishes is placed on the table the host will raise his glass and say
―Gan bei or cheers or bon appettit.
A SAMPLE MENU
Prawns in garlic sauce
Wonton soup
Stir fried pork with leeches
Beans Sichuan
Apple toffee
*********
Oriental Cuisine
Specialities :
• Freshness of ingredients
• More time required for preparation
• Vegetables were cut into uniform and small pieces for faster cooking
• Meat is cut against the grains
• Quick cooking evolved from the scarcity of fuel
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• One ppot cooking which shows the combination of colours & textures
• Resourcefulness is the key to the cooking
Equipments :
• Same as that of Chinese.
Cooking Techniques :
• Same as that of Chinese
Special Ingredients :
• Annatto Seed (Achnete seeds) :-like reddish brown grape pips.used to give colour to shellfish dishes.
• Asam tawa (Tamarind Pulp) :- used in Malaysian & Indian cuisines.
• Asam Keping (Tamarind) :- dried tamarind.
• Bagrong :- a Phillipino fish paste of anchovies or shrimps, piquant pink coloured sauce prepared in ceramic
pot and allowing to ferment.
• Bamboo short :- fresh ones are peeled to the heart and then boiled.
• Bamboo Skewers :- made from the spine of leaves, soaked for 01 hour before using.
• Banana leaves :- used as a wrapping for some Thai & Indonesian food.
• Bangkwang (Chinese turnip, yambean) :- used as filling for spring rolls.
• Bean curd :- prepared by setting the liquid of ground soya beans with gypsum.
• Bean paste :-
o hot : paste of red chillies and soya beans
o Salted : (known as Miso in japan.)
o sweet : (Hoisein Sauce) is used as a dip made of soyabeans , garlic and spices.
• Bean sprouts
• Blanchan (terasi ,kapi ,ngapi) :- of Malaysia. Dry paste of fermented prawns, cooked before eaten, over a
slow flame wrapped in a skewer.
• Bach Keras (candle nut) :-size of small chestnut. Used as a thickening for sauces.
• Chayote :- member of squash family, looks like a green peer.
• Chickpeas (kabuli chana) :- used in Burmese cuisine. Used whole, or powdered to be used as a thickening.
• Chinese/Black mushrooms
• Cloud ears :- a black fungus, soaked before use.
• Coconut milk/Cream :- used extensively in Indonesian cooking
BAKERY AND CONFECTIONARY

I. Icings
Icings or frostings are sweet coatings for cakes and other baked goods. Icings
have three main functions:-
1. They improve the keeping qualities of the cake by forming protective coatings around it.
2. they contribute flavour and richness
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3. They improve appearance.

There are seven basic kinds of icings:-
1. Fondant
2. Butter cream
3. Foam Type icing
4. Fudge type icing
5. Flat type icing
6. Royal or decorators icings
7. Glazes
Fondant
Fondant is sugar syrup that is crystallized to a smooth creamy white mass. When applied it sets up
into a shiny, non-sticky coating.
Fondant is prepared by dissolving 500gms of granulated or cube sugar in 150 ml of water and 15 ml
of glucose and then allowed to boil gradually till it reaches the soft ball stage 112o-116 oC (234-
240oF) which may be tested by dropping a little syrup in iced water where it will from a ball under
water but lose its shape immediately when it is exposed to air. The syrup must be cooled immediately
and the air bubbles then subside.
The syrup is, then, poured out into a cold surface and worked first with a spatula until it turns from a
clear liquid to a white crumbly solid. It is then kneaded by hand until smooth and finished by being
left to ripen in a cool place for at least 12 hours.
The object is to produce minute crystals in a super staturated solution of sugar giving a
―creamy texture to the finished product.
Uses:
❖ For first coating on fruit cakes before applying Royal icing.
❖ For dipping fresh fruits to make confections for immediate consumption.
❖ For casting into moulds.
❖ Pastel coloured icing for cakes
Butter Cream Icings
Butter cream icings are light smooth mixtures of fat and icing sugar. They may also contain eggs to
increase their smoothness or lightness. This icing is very popular and is used for covering many kinds
of cake.
They are easily flavoured and coloured to suit a variety of purposes.
There are four types of basic kinds of butter cream:
1. Butter icing is made with butter and icing sugar which are creamed together to the desired
consistency and lightness.
2. a) Simple butter cream are made by creaming together fat and sugar to the desired consistency, a
small quantity of egg white may be whipped in to obtain the desired lightness.
b) Decorators butter cream is a simple butter cream used for making flowers and other cake
decorations. It is creamed only a little, because if too much air is incorporated, it could not be able
to hold delicate shapes.
3. Meringue type butter creams are prepared by first beating egg whites and adding a boiling syrup
or just sugar. Soft butter is then mixed into the meringue. This is a very light smooth icing.
4. French butter creams are similar to above but the mixture is made with whole eggs, and boiling
syrup. This is a very rich, light icing. N.B. Unsalted butter is the preferred fat for butter creams
because of its flavour and melt in the mouth quality.
Recipe for: Butter icing
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i) Beat 125 gms. of butter add 125 gms. of icing sugar with 30 gm of milk and flavouring. Beat
until creamy and smooth.
ii) Butter cream or crème au beurre.
Place 2 egg whites and 125gm of icing sugar in a mixing bowl and whisk until mixture holds shape.
Cool slightly. Cream 125 gm butter until soft then beat in the meringue mixture a little at a time.
Flavour or colour as desired.
Foam type icing

They are also known as boiled icings. They are simple meringues made with boiling syrup and may
also contain gelatine as a stabilizer. Foam type icings should be applied thickly to cakes and left in
peaks and swirls. These icings are not stable and should be used they day they are prepared.
Flat type icings
These icings are also known as water icings and are mixtures of confectioners‘ sugar, water,
sometimes corn syrup and flavouring. They are used for coffee cakes, Danish party and sweet
rollsThey are a simple mixture consisting of five pounds of powdered sugar 300ml water, 200 ml
corn syrup and flavouring as desired. Egg white may also be added to lighten the frosting.
Fudge Type icing.

Fudge type icings are rich cooked icings. Fudge icings are heavy and thick and they may be flavoured
by a variety of ingredients. They are used on cup cakes, layer cakes, loaf cakes, sheet cakes, etc.
To store fudge icings they must be properly covered with cling flim and then kept in an airtight
container in the refrigerator.
To use stored fudge icing, warm in a double boiler until it is soft enough to spread. They are stable
frostings which hold their shape well on cakes and cup cakes.
CHOCOLATE FUDGE FROSTING

Sugar – 450 gms
Glucose or corn syrup - 150 gms
Water - 120 ml
Butter - 150 gms
Sugar pwd - 375 gms
Cocoa pwd - 175 gms
Vanilla essence - to taste
Method
1. Combine granulated sugar, glucose and water and boil till 116°C.
2. Sift powdered sugar and cocoa together, cream sugar/cocoa with butter till light and fluffy
and gradually add syrup and essence and blend well.
3. Use immediately while still warm and spreadable.
Royal Icing
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This icing is the traditional covering for Christmas and wedding cakes, and is made from icing sugar
beaten with egg whites and lemon juice; a teaspoon of glycerine may be added. In the hands of a
skilled confectioner this can be used to produce perfectly flat smooth surfaces or piped into intricate
borders, patterns or trellis work, which are very fragile but very hard when set. It is always applied
over a layer of marzipan or fondant.
The recipe for royal icing needed for 6 inch round or 5 inch square cakes is as follows.
1. Egg whites 2. No.

2. Icing Sugar 500 gms
3. Lemon juice 1 Teaspoon
4. Glycerine 1 Teaspoon
5. Cream of tartar 2.5 gms
Method:
❖ Beat the egg whites with a fork until frothy
❖ Gradually beat in 1/2 the icing sugar, using a wooden spoon (+ Lemon juice and cream of tartar)
❖ Beat in the remaining icing sugar with the glycerine
❖ Beat thoroughly until smooth and white, and having a consistency that stands in soft peaks.
❖ Add colouring if required.
❖ Cover the bowl with a damp cloth and leave it to stand for several hours to allow bubbles to escape.
Before using stir well with wooden spoon but do not over beat.
The icings mentioned below are similar to Royal icing.
Sugar paste or Moulded Icing
Beat one egg white and 15 ml glucose gradually adding 500gm icing sugar to form a still paste. Turn
unto a surface sprinkled with corn flour and knead until smooth. Wrap in cling film and keep and
keep in a plastic bag to prevent it from drying, will keep refrigerated for 6 weeks. This quantity is
sufficient to cover 8 inch round cake.
SATIN ICING
Boil together 50 gms of butter + lemon juice +dissolved 250 gm of icing sugar and cook for 2 min.
Remove from heat and beat in another 250 gm of icing sugar till stiff. Gradually mix in another 175
gm of icing sugar and knead until smooth preserve as above.
GLAZES or GLACE
Glazes are thin glossy transparent coatings that give shine to baked products and help prevent drying.
The simplest mixture for this purpose is a syrup made from 250 gms of icing sugar in 30 ml of water
or milk. They are brushed over small cakes or poured to give a smooth finish.
Syrup glazes may contain gelatin or corn starch. Fruit glazes, the most popular being apricot are made
by cooking them till they melt and then forcing them through a strainer.
Ganache may also be considered as an icing
GANACHE
A flavoured cream made with chocolate and fresh cream, sometimes with butter added. It may be
used as a sauce, or to glaze a cake or it may be whipped and used a filling and/or icing. Ganache can
also be made of stiffer consistency, chilled and rolled into truffles or as topping for petit fours. It was
created in Paris round about 1850
Method:
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Bring 100 ml of double cream to the boil. Remove from heat and add 225 gms of plain unsweetened
chocolate broken into even squares. Stir until the chocolate has melted and is thoroughly combined
with cream. Leave until cool but not set then whip until pale, thick and light or before whipping it
may be poured over cakes as chocolate icing.
Toppings are anything that is used to cover a cake or a pastry and it may be fruits, jam, nuts etc. and
Icings are that part of toppings which are sweet coatings that may be applied to cakes and pastries.
RULES For selection of icing
❖ The flavour texture and colour of icing must be compatible with the cake.
❖ In general use heavy frosting with heavy cakes and light frosting with light cakes. e.g.
Angel food cakes with simple flat icings. High ratio cakes with butter cream or fudge type icings.
Genoese sponge with French or meringue type icing.
❖ Use the best quality flavourings and use them sparingly.
❖ The flavour of the frosting should not be stronger than the cake.
❖ Use colour sparingly, light pastel shades are more appetizing than loud colours.
II. Frozen Desserts

Definition:- They are cold desserts made by freezing a flavoured mixture or a concoction made from
favoured full milk and cream.
History: - The Chinese knew the art of making iced drinks and dessert long before the Christian era.
This art may have travelled Westward through the Greeks. Both the Greeks and Romans were known
to serve fruit salads and purees mixed with honey and snow. Macro Polo the great traveller may have
made it popular when he returned back from China.
Catherina de Medic introduces cold desserts in the form of ice creams to the French aristocracy when
she married the future king HENRY-II. However the credit for introducing the ice cream to the public
goes to Francesco Procopio which then became the rage.
Around 1775 ices became more delicate in flavour, richer and with more body so that it could be
moulded easily. By the end of the 18th Century ice cream became a fashion.
TYPES & CLASIFICATION

Cold dessert is made by freezing a favoured mixture and they are of two types.
A. They may be made by freezing the mixture without any agitation – STILL FROZEN
B. They may be made by mechanically churning during the freezing process which result in a
smooth creamy texture FREEZE CHURENED ICES.
C.
A. STILL FROZEN
❖ Mousses
❖ Soufflés
❖ Parfait
❖ Biscuit Glace or ice cream Cake
❖ Bombe glace
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B. FREEZE CHURNED
❖ Ice creams
❖ Fruit Ices
❖ Sorbet
❖ Granita
❖ Marquises
❖ Punch.
Mousse
A French term meaning foam is applied to dishes with a foamy texture. They are usually cold, and
often sweet but also savoury and sometimes even hot. Some confections are naturally foamy; others
may need beaten egg white and/or whipped cream, and possibly gelatine to achieve the desired
texture.Soufflé is used as a synonym with Mousse however mousse is used for a wide range of dishes
such as those incorporating savoury items such as mousse de jambon or mousse de asparagus.
Soufflé:-
A French word which literally means ―puffed up‖ and is used as a culinary term in both English and
French. It is a light, frothy dish just stiff enough to hold its shape, and which may be savoury or
sweet, hot or cold. Cold soufflé is difficult to distinguish from a mousse and is made in the same way.
The hot soufflé is started with a Roux blended with egg yolks and savoury or sweet flavouring
ingredients to which are added stiffly beaten egg whites by folding it in. It is then baked in a high
sided dish to contain its puffing.
Parfait
An iced dessert very similar to Bombe, made from fresh cream, which gives it smoothness and
prevents it from melting easily and can be cut into slices. It is made by beating 8 eggs yolks over a
bain-marie and then gradually adding boiling syrup (110°C) till it becomes light and fluffy, whisk
away from fire till cool, and add the chosen flavour, (Syrup is made with 60 ml water +200gms.
caster sugar) whip in 115 gm double cream and freeze for 6 hours.
In N. America this term has come to mean a combination of fruit and ice creams served in a tall glass
which exposes the layers.
Ice cream Cake/ Biscuits glace
An iced dessert made of alternate layers of different flavoured ice creams & a bombe mixture- frozen
brick shape. After removing from the mould the ice cream is cut into even sizes/ slices and then
arranged in small paper cases and kept frozen till serving.
The same name is also used to describe a round/oblong cake having a sponge cake or meringue base
with ice-cream or sorbet or parfait or bombe mixture on the top, decorated with whipped cream and
crystallised fruits in syrup.
Bombe
A frozen dessert made from a bombe mixture, enriched with various ingredients and frozen in a
mould. This dessert was named after the spherical moulds with rounded tops which were used to
make it.Traditionally bombe moulds are filled with two different mixtures. The bottom and sides of
moulds are lined with ice cream or fruit ice. They are then filled with a bombe mixture made with 32
egg. yolks per litre of sugar syrup at specific gravity 1.285. The syrup is made with 700 ml of water
and 700gms of sugar. Wisk egg yolks and syrup over a Bain Marie till cool. Finally add an equal
volume of whipped cream and the chosen flavouring.
FREZE CHURENED
Ice cream
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It was only in 1620 A. D. that it was discovered that by mixing Saltpetre (Potassium nitrate) Sodium
Nitrate and common salt it was possible to liquefy ice and in so doing reduce the temperature below
freezing point. This endothermic effect of the mixture of ice and Salt which was packed around a
container of ice water allowing the water to freeze, and so was born the potential for making frozen
dessert. During the 18th Century it was recognised that a superior ice cream could be created if the
mixture was churned till it semi froze and then froze.
The world‘s first ice cream plant opened in America in 1851 founded by Jacob Fussell. Kulfi an
Indian Ice cream was cited in a 16th Century document.
Definition
Ice creams are cold desserts made by freezing a flavoured mixture. Freezing is carried out
commercially in an ice cream maker or churn freezer so that electrically driven blades stir the mixture
throughout the operation to incorporate air and make it smooth. They may then be moulded and
frozen.
Method of Preparation
Beat 7 egg yolks with 150 gm sugar till thick and creamy. Heat cream to boiling point add to above
gradually and cook over double boiler till it coats the back of a wooden spoon, cool immediately and
then freeze in ice cream maker.
Today, ice cream is made from a blend of dairy products (cream, condensed milk, butterfat), sugar,
flavourings, and federally approved additives. Eggs are added for some flavourings, particularly
French vanilla. The broad guidelines allow producers to use ingredients ranging from sweet cream to
nonfat dry milk, cane sugar to corn-syrup solids, fresh eggs to powdered eggs.
Federal regulations do stipulate that each package of ice cream must contain at least
10% butterfat.
The additives, which act as emulsifiers and stabilizers, are used to prevent heat shock and the formation
of ice crystals during the production process. The most common additives are guar gum, extracted
from the guar bush, and carrageenan, derived from sea kelp or Irish moss.Ice cream flavours have
come a long way from the standard vanilla, strawberry, and chocolate. By the 1970s, the International
Association of Ice Cream Manufacturers had recorded over 400 different flavours of ice cream.
In an ever-expanding array of combinations, fruit purees and extracts, cocoa powder, nuts, cookie
pieces, and cookie dough are blended into the ice cream mixture. Air is added to ice cream to improve
its ability to absorb flavourings and to facilitate serving. Without air, ice cream becomes heavy and
soggy. On the other hand, too much air results in ice cream that is snowy and dry. The federal
government allows ice cream to contain as much as 100% of its volume in air, known in the industry
as overrun.
Makers of high-quality ice cream (sometimes known as gourmet ice cream) use fresh whole
dairy products, a low percentage of air (approximately 20%), between 16-20% butterfat, and as few
additives as possible.
Commercial Method of preparation of Ice Cream
Although ice cream is available in a variety of forms, including novelty items such as chocolate- dipped
bars and sandwiches, the following description applies to ice cream that is packaged in pint and half-
gallon containers.
1. Blending the mixture
The milk arrives at the ice cream plant in refrigerated tanker trucks from local dairy farms. The milk
is then pumped into 5,000 gal (18,925 1) storage silos that are kept at 36°F (2°C). Pipes bring the milk
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in pre-measured amounts to 1,000 gal (3,7851) stainless steel blenders. Premeasured amounts of eggs,
sugar, and additives are blended with the milk for six to eight minutes.
2. Pasteurizing to kill bacteria
The blended mixture is piped to the pasteurization machine, which is composed of a series of thin
stainless steel plates. Hot water, approximately 182°F (83°C), flows on one side of the plates. The
cold milk mixture is piped through on the other side. The water warms the mixture to a temperature
of 180°F (82°C), effectively killing any existing bacteria.
3. Homogenizing to produce a uniform texture
By the application of intensive air pressure, sometimes as much as 2,000 pounds per square inch (141
kg per sq cm), the hot mixture is forced through a small opening into the homogenizer. This breaks
down the fat particles and prevents them from separating from the rest of the mixture. In the
homogenizer, which is essentially a high-pressure piston pump, the mixture is further blended as it is
drawn into the pump cylinder on the down stroke and then forced back out on the upstroke.
4. Cooling and resting to blend flavours
The mixture is piped back to the pasteurizer where cold water, approximately 34°F (1°C), flows
on one side of the plates as the mixture passes on the opposite side. In this manner, the mixture is
cooled to 36°F (2° C). Then the mixture is pumped to 5,000 gal (18,925 llt tanks in a
room set at 36°F (2°C), where it sits for four to eight hrs to allow the ingredients to blend.
5. Flavoring the ice cream
The ice cream is pumped to stainless steel vats, each holding up to 300 gal (1,136 1) of mixture.
Flavorings are piped into the vats and blended thoroughly.
6. Freezing to soft-serve consistency
Now the mixture must be frozen. It is pumped into continuous freezers that can freeze up to 700 gal
(2,650 1) per hour. The temperature inside the freezers is kept at -40°F(-40°C), using liquid ammonia
as a freezing agent. While the ice cream is in the freezer, air is injected into it. When the mixture
leaves the freezer, it has the consistency of soft-serve ice cream.
7. Adding fruit and sweetened chunks
If chunks of food such as strawberry or cookie pieces are to be added to the ice cream, the frozen
mixture is pumped to a fruit feeder. The chunks are loaded into a hopper at the top of the feeder.
Another, smaller hopper, fitted with a starwheel, is located on the front of the feeder. An auger on the
bottom of the machine turns the hoppers so that the chunks drop onto the starwheel in premeasured
amounts. As the mixture passes through the feeder, the star wheel pushes the food chunks into the
ice cream. The mixture then moves to a blender where the chunks are evenly distributed.
8. Packaging and bundling the finished product
Automatic filling machines drop preprinted pint or half-gallon-sized cardboard cartons into holders.
The cartons are then filled with premeasured amounts of ice cream at the rate of 70-90 cartons per
hour. The machine then places a lid on each carton and pushes it onto a conveyer belt. The
cartons move along the conveyer belt where they pass under an inkjet that spray-paints an
expiration date and production code onto each carton. After the imprinting, the cartons move through
the bundler, a heat tunnel that covers each cup with plastic shrink wrapping.
9. Hardening
Before storage and shipping, the ice cream must be hardened to a temperature of -10°F (-23°C). The
conveyor system moves the ice cream cartons to a tunnel set at -30°F (-34°C). Constantly turning
ceiling fans create a wind chill of -60°F (-5 1°C). The cartons move slowly back and forth through
the tunnel for two to three hours until the contents are rock solid. The cartons are then stored in
refrigerated warehouses until they are shipped to retail outlets.
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Quality Control
Every mixture is randomly tested during the production process. Butterfat and solid levels are
tested. The bacteria levels are measured. Each mixture is also taste-tested.
Fruit Ices and water Ices

The most important factor in making these desserts is the density of sugar syrup flavoruing Lemon
juice which must be appropriate for it to freeze to a slushy density- 1.425 to 1.2407 sp gravity.
In case of fruit ices the puree of the fruit used should be equal to sugar syrup of the above mentioned
sp. gr.
Sorbet or Shorbet
Definition: - A type of water ice that is more granular than ice cream as it does not contain
any fat or egg yolks. The basic mixture for all sorbet is a combination of sugar syrup and fruit
or fruit juices and other flavouring. It is the lower fat content and higher acidity content
(0.35%) that distinguishes sorbet from ice cream.
Historically sorbets were the first iced desert. The Chinese are the first to be credited for making
sorbets. The word sorbet is derived from Arabic- Turkish ―Chorbet to Latin ―Sorbetto. There are
several variations of the sorbet representing differences in smoothness, flavour, density and degree
of hardness due to comparative degree of sugar concentrations.
Marquise
Any of various delicate deserts eg chocolate marquise is a dessert half way between a mouse and a
parfait. It is based on butter, eggs. sugar and flavouring and served with custard creams or Chantilly
cream.
Punch
A Cold Punch is an iced drink, which can be made with tea, sugar, spices, fruits or fruits or fruit
juices, rum or brandy. The word originally described a British colonial drink derived from the Hindi
word ‗Panch‘ which means five, for five ingredients i.e. tea, lemon, sugar, cinnamon and rum which
were used, a forerunner of the cocktail.
Granita
It is a type of an Italian sorbet, popularized by Tortoni in Paris in the 19th Century. It is a half frozen
preparation with a granular texture (hence its name) made of lightly sweetened syrup and a flavouring
strawberry or pineapple or coffee or Kirsch . Granita does not contain any Italian meringue.
ADDITIVES
Only permitted additives must be used and this may differ from Country to country depending upon
their local laws. However, the standard adopted by the European Union, is followed quite
universally.Special alphabetic codes are used which describes a particular group of items e.g. E for
colour.
Some of the additives used for frozen desserts are:-
❖ Colouring agents E signifying nature identical exact synthetic copies of natural substances a)
Natural caramel. b) Cochineal c) Chlorophyll e) Yellow lacto flavones; f) Xanthophylls
❖ Anti oxidants – Which prevents fats and Oils from going rancid
a) Tocopherols b) Sulphurous anhydride c) lactic acid
Antioxidants and general stabilizers;-
a) B.H.A Butylatedhydroxyanisole b) Citric Acid c) Lecithns
❖ Emulsifiers – e.g. a) Gum Arabic, b) Pectin, c) Polyglycerol esters of polycondensed fatty acids
❖ Improvers such as coal Tar dyes.
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III. MERINGUE
Also known as ‘Foam‘ is a very light item of patisserie made from stiffly beaten egg whites and
sugar. Meringue became popular in the 6th century and was popularized by the Queen Marie
Antoinette who had a great liking for meringues. The use of meringue by piping was invented by
Careme. Meringues are made by incorporating enough sugar to both stabilize and sweeten the
meringue.
TYPES OF MERINGUES
There are three types of meringues:-
1.Meringues ordinaire or common meringues
Method:-
• Egg whites must be carefully separated and put in a clean bowl; this must be done carefully so
that no particles of the egg yolk must mix with the egg white.
• Beat the egg whites until frothy and then start to add the sugar which has been previously
ground to a very fine powder, the sugar must be added gradually. Once the sugar is incorporated,
whip the meringue to soft, medium or stiff peak, or as required by the recipe.
• This type of meringue can be used to top a pie, to pipe and bake into shells or used to create
borders and other decorations. Since the whites are not heated to a safe temperature, this type of
meringue should be used for applications where it will be cooked by poaching or baking.
2. Meringue Swiss:-
Beat 225 gms of egg whites till frothy, add 450 gms of powdered sugar. Beat over double boiler to
the desired peak, according to the recipe.
3. Italian meringue
▪ Make sugar syrup using 450 gms sugar and 120 ml of water and boil the mixture upto 116 degrees
C.
▪ Beat 225gm of egg white to the soft peak stage.
▪ Add sugar syrup to the egg whites in a thick steady stream whilst continuing to beat.After all the
sugar syrup has been incorporated, continue to beat the mixture to the desired peak.
▪ The end product has a finer grain and is more stable than the other meringues.
▪ Italian meringue may also be used to prepare baked shells, cookies or left unbaked to use as a
filling or as the base for Italian butter cream.
The addition of some other ingredient or flavouring to meringue can create an almost infinite number
of variations, eg, Japonaise where ground almond is added. Small meringues are easier to make than
big ones. Very small ones are known as meringuettes or crogugnols,and is used as petit fours.
Dutch calls them schuimpjes.
Large meringues are called Vacherin. Rules

for making meringues:-
• Only absolutely clean and dry bowls preferably ceramic, glass or stainless steel to be used for
making meringues.
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• Fat inhibits foaming.

• Mild acid like lemon juice or cream of tartar helps foaming.
• Egg whites foam better at room temperature.
• Do not over beat egg whites for they will look dry and curdled.
• Sugar makes the foam stable, but it can also cause weeping because of absorption of water.
Other examples of meringues are Vacherin, Pavlova and Baked Alaska.
III. BREAD
The invention of leavened bread is attributed to the Egyptians. The Greeks baked on grids in an oven
like structure. Romans cooked their bread in household ovens made of brick and earth. It was in the
Middle Ages that the bakery trade began to develop, bread became very varied and many different
kinds of bread were produced.
Definition: Bread is food made from flour and water dough with yeast, which is fermented, kneaded
and baked in the oven. The action of yeast gives bread its characteristic texture and flavour.
Bread is the only food, which, like wine, is present on the table from start to finish of any meal; bread
constitutes the traditional accompaniment to all dishes. It is also the basic ingredient in sandwiches,
canapés, toasts, croutons & breadcrumbs. In addition to this it is used widely in the preparations of
the other dishes like, soups, gazpacho & garlic soup, panadas, stuffing‘s & forcemeats, timbales,
charlottes & pudding and even in sauces. Good bread must have a crisp crust, an attractive golden
colour and as soft crumb. Growing state to quickly is a sign of bad quality. Most bread should be
served fresh but not hot. A daily intake of 300 gms provides 125gms carbohydrates 25gms proteins,
2 gms fat calcium, phosphorus, magnesium potassium and it gives 750 calories.
The baking/making of bread comprises of 3 main operations kneading fermentation and
baking.The following ingredients are necessary for bread making
1. Maida
2. Yeast
3. Sugar
4. Fat and
5. Salt
6. Liquid.
1. Refined flour or Maida

Only strong and not weak flour is used for making bread. Strong flour has reference to the character
of flour. Wheat flour contains both soluble and insoluble proteins. Proteins along with other
components join when water is added. When this occurs, two of the insoluble proteins namely
glutenin and gliadin join in the presence of water forming a tough, somewhat rubbery material called
gluten. Glutenin gives solidity to the product whilst gliadin is the binding imparting the soft, sticky
character to gluten. The gluten of strong flour is tough, resists extension is capable of withstanding
prolonged periods of fermentation without breaking down producing good loafs. Flour containing
such gluten is capable of absorbing a high percentage of water.
Diastatic enzymes present in the wheat flour affect the gassing power of the flour. If flour is deficient
in diastase the final proving of the bread will be unsatisfactory. On the other hand, if too much
diastatic action occurs the bread will still be unsatisfactory having a strictly crumb.
SALT
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Why salt is used in Bread making?

Bread made without salt is insipid and flavourless; therefore, salt makes bread palatable and
appetizing. The quantity of salt needed is also the right quantity to exercise adequate control
over the speed of yeast action (1 Kg of flour is to 30 gm of salt) If too much salt is added the bread
will be too salty for pleasant eating whilst there will also be slowing down of yeast action.
Dough with too little salt in them suffers because of the lack of control over yeast activity and
fermentation, allowing the production of excessive acidity. Sat has a physical effect on the gluten of
flour. In reasonable quantities, it strengthens gluten and increases its resistance to the general
softening effects of fermentation. Too much salt will completely rob it of its power of holding gas.
If salt is not added at all, then the yeast in the dough will be able to consume excessive quantities of
sugar during its uncontrolled speedy action during fermentation that there may be insufficient sugar
left at baking time to give perfect crust colour.
Loaves made from dough containing too little salt will lack volume because the gluten has not been
strengthened sufficiently. The weak gluten strands will break down giving crumbly bread with large
holes in texture.
Dough made with rather too much salt will have toughened gluten, which will have been
insufficiently ripened, producing bread of subnormal volume and with unsightly holes in the texture.
Yeast
Yeast is living micro organism, the one used for bread making is known as baker‘s yeast or
scientifically as ―Saccharomyces Cerevisiea.
Like all living things yeast can only work well between certain temperatures. The ideal and optimum
temp, for the working of yeast is between 780 and 820 F. It works steadily at 760F but rather too
slowly. Above 84°F the speed of fermentation is very great but fermentation of dough may be
undesirable. Above 1400F the proteins in yeast get coagulated, the cells cease to function and then
die. Yeast grows better in a slightly acid medium.Yeast may be stored in a refrigerator at 36to 400 F.
For fermentation to occur normally dough must be made at a suitable temperature. In very cold
weather very hot water may be needed. But under no conditions should the water temperature be
above 1100F.If salt comes into direct contact with yeast in sufficient concentrations the yeast will be
destroyed. This is because salt will deprive the yeast cells of its water. The salt should be dissolved
in water separate from the yeast solution. When salt is approx 3% of the solution its effect on yeast
is not deadly but merely restrictive.After making dough at the right temperature it is essential to see
that the dough retains that temperature during fermentation. If it becomes chilled yeast action will
slow down. The dough should be protected from draught of air especially cold air. They should
preferably be fermented in bowls, which are bad conductors of heat.
Fats
Fats used in small quantities, act as a gluten lubricant, the strands of which then slide over one another
and so appear to extend more easily, and the dough ripens more readily. The crumb is made moister,
is wither and more even in texture. Crust are thinner and more biscuit like owing to the shortening
properties of fats, and the general build of the loaf is better. If fats are used in heavy quantities it
causes bread to be clammy and alter its eating qualities.
The undesirable characteristics that would be apparent when using large quantities of fat can be
counteracted by the use of milk powder. Milk powder imparts bloom to the crust, makes the crumb a
delicate creamy yellow colour but makes the bread crumbly. Where both fat and milk are used the
crumb is creamy, soft, and even in texture crusts are thin and short eating and the loaf volume very
satisfactory.
SUGAR
There must be sufficient sugar in the dough at the final proving stage from which the yeast can
50
generate gas. Sucrose or glucose may be added to dough if greater gassing powers are required.
Therefore sugar is needed for final proving to give sufficient volume to the loaf and for caramelization
on the crust of the bread during baking. The quantity of sugar used in dough should be small. Sugar
has a dispersing action on the gluten of flour and large quantities can completely destroy its tenacity
and extensibility.
Bread Making
There are many satisfactory methods of making bread given below are details of each of the methods
that may be employed for making bread
I Straight Dough Method

When the whole of the flour, yeast, salt, water yeast food and enriching materials are taken and, at
one operation, amalgamated by hand or machine into dough, the method is called the straight dough
method of bread making. It is the least complicate of all dough making processes. The greater the
quantity of yeast the shorter the length of time the dough will require in which to reach maturity and
vice-versa. Excellent bread can be made by suing extra yeast in a cool dough and adding a little extra
salt. However to obtain good results it is not advisable to speed up fermentation by use of high
temperature and a small quantity of salt.
II Delayed Salt Method

A simple but very effective variation of the straight dough process is the delayed salt method. In this
the whole of the ingredients except the salt are mixed together to make the dough which is then
allowed to ferment for approx 30 min the salt is then sieved over the surface of the dough and
thoroughly mixed.
By this process stronger flour are ripened more quickly and extra flavour is produced in the bread.
This is achieved because no salt is present for most of the fermentation period hence yeast works
more rapidly as do acid forming bacteria present in the dough.
III FERMENT AND DOUGH

Ferment is a thin liqueur prepared at a suitable temp containing all the essential food that is required
by yeast. It is generally prepared with only a portion of the water that must eventually be used to
make the finished dough. All the yeast, yeast food and some of the flour are mixed in to the selected
quantity of water and a period to time allowed to elapse during which the yeast can set to work
and reach an active, vigorous condition before it is called upon to undertake the more serious and
difficult work of fermenting the whole of the flour. Ferment offers yeast a period to recuperate, so
that when the remaining ingredients are added to make the dough it can get on with the heavier work
efficiently. The ferment is usually allowed to work until it has risen up the vessel in which it is
contained to the fullest limits of the extensibility of the gluten. When this point is reached and passed
the gluten strands break and the mixture subsides. The ferment is then ready for dough making.
IV Sponge & Dough

A quarter of the amount of the total flour needed for the final dough is removed and mixed with
sufficient water to make very a soft dough. Into this mixture a small quantity yeast and salt are mixed
and allowed to ferment slowly over a long period. The time can be regulated by the amount of yeast
used and the temperature at which the sponge is set. When the sponge has cradled the production of
an increased army of yeast cells, the remaining ingredients are added and the dough is made.
V Flying sponge
Instead of making a sponge to lie for many hours a similar mixture can be prepared with larger
quantities of yeast that are normal for straight dough process, and allowed to lie for an hour. They
are referred to as flying sponges because it takes less time to prepare the dough.
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VI No time dough method

In this method dough is not fermented in the usual manner. It is allowed to ferment for a short period so the
twin function of fermentation i.e. production of gas and conditioning of gluten are achieved to some extent
by increasing the amount of yeast and by vigorously beating the dough using mechanical dough mixers so
that the dough becomes a little slack and warm. The dough is then shaped and directly deposited in bread
moulds for final proving before they are baked. It is possible to get a good product using this method but the
product has poor keeping quality and lacks aroma due to short fermentation time, the gluten and starch are
not conditioned to hold moisture and there is no flavour because flavour producing bi-products of
fermentation are absent because of increased quantity of yeast present. The bread may have a strong
yeast flavour.
Staling of Bakery Products and Mold Infection
There are three ways in which bakery products stale. They are, Starch Retro gradation (firming of the
crumb), getting infected by molds and rope; See Below.
In simple terms, staling of crumb (firming of crumb) is the process the starch molecules go through
when they shrink upon cooling. Starch molecule consists of a very long chain of Carbon, Hydrogen
and Oxygen that are stretched out when warm and feel soft. Upon cooling, the chain shrinks and thus
become firm which is called staling. You have probably experienced that when a stale product is
warmed, it becomes soft. The starch chain has stretched again. Upon cooling, it shrinks again and
become firm.
Anti-Staling Ingredients:
1. Emulsifiers. For the past several years bakers used emulsifiers called bread softeners to produce
bread that will remain soft for a longer period of time. It is added to the dough during mixing. Some
of the more common ones are monoglycrides, calcium stearoyl lactylate, and sodium stearoyl
lactylate. The softening action takes place after the bread is baked. Also, Potato bread will resist
staling because potatoes act as anti-staling ingredients to some degree. Some anti-staling ingredients
also perform as dough conditioners or dough strengtheners.
2. Enzymes. Enzyme manufacturers are hard at work on generic engineering and protein
engineering producing enzymes to extend the shelf life of bread many fold. In a paper presented at
the 1999 American Society of Baking's Annual Convention, it was stated that some of these enzymes
are available now. However, since every baker wants to have one better, enzyme manufacturers will
continue to work on developing better ones. It was also stated that there is a lag time of between 2
and 3 years between the time a specific enzyme is identified and actually having it available for the
baker to use.
Advantages of Using Enzymes instead of Chemicals. Since enzymes are produced from natural
ingredients, they will find greater acceptance by the housewife than when chemicals are used.
3. Mold and Mold Inhibitors. Sanitation plays a very important role in preventing mold in bread.
Mold spores do not survive baking temperatures. The interior of the loaf, when it comes out of
the oven is about 210 to 212 degrees F. which will destroy any mold spores which may be present in
the dough. Therefore, bread and other bakery products can only be contaminated after they leave the
oven.
Some of the more dangerous areas for mold contamination are storage rooms, and slicing machine
blades which come in direct contact with the interior of the loaf where there is an abundant supply of
food and moisture. Mold spores also thrive in dark places. You can extend the length of time that it
takes bakery products to mold by several days by using Mold Inhibitors such as Calcium Propionate
for yeast raised doughs and sodium propionate in chemically leavened products. Propionates are
present in many foods, but in very small amounts. Swiss Cheese, however is an exception. For this
reason, Swiss Cheese rarely molds, unless it is improperly developed. Propionates may be obtained
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by the oxidization of propyl alcohol, forming propionic acid. The propionic acid is in turn combined
with other chemicals to form the well known Sodium and Calcium propionates sold under different
Trades Names. Mold Inhibitors react as an alkaline in doughs, and since yeast doesn't like an alkaline
condition, Mineral Yeast Foods containing monocalcium phosphate are added to the dough.
Monocalcium Phosphate reacts as an acid in doughs therefore counter-acting the alkaline which is
formed by the propionates. Also, vinegar can be used at the rate of about 1 pint per 100 pounds of
flour. Inhibitors are called inhibitors, because not enough is used to kill the mold. They only retard
the growth of molds. Bread will mold eventually if kept in a warm moist invironment. The amounts
of Calcium Propionates to use in bread varies with the climate, season of the year, or type of product.
Dark Breads require more than White Breads. For average climates, 2.5 to 3.5 ounces are used per
100 pounds of flour in White Breads and 4.0 to 5.0 ounces are used in Dark Breads.
Types and Color of Molds. There are many different types of molds and they have different
colors. Mold spores are practically everywhere, because they are very tiny and are carried in the air.
They are so tiny that they can only be seen under a microscope. Mold Spores are like seeds that
you plant in the garden. When they come in contact with the proper food, moisture and warmth, the
spores produce mold plants which you can see with the naked eye.
Rope. Rope is a bread disease caused by the bacteria, Bacillus mesenteric . This disease breaks down
the cells of the bread and leaves a sticky, pasty mass. When the crumb is pressed together,
and pulled apart, it will stretch into long, sticky, web-like strands. The product will have the odor of
over-ripe cantaloupe. The rope bacteria are too small to see with the naked eye, but they can be seen
with a microscope. The bacteria can be present in the ingredients, especially flour and yeast. Unlike
mold, rope spores are not destroyed by baking temperatures. Calcium propionate, sodium diacetate
or one pint of vinegar per 100 pounds of flour can be used in bread doughs to increasethe shelf life
of the product. If the bakery is contaminated, through cleaning with special chemicals will be
necessary and the bakery may have to be steam cleaned
EXTERNAL BREAD FAULTS
Symptom Causes
Crust too dark - Oven temperature too high

- Excessive milk or sugar.
- Excessive baking time.
- Over proofing.
Crust too light - Oven temperature too low.
- Insufficient milk or sugar.
- Insufficient baking time.
- Insufficient proofing.
- Insufficient mixing.
Crust broken - Insufficient proofing.
- Insufficient liquid.
Crust too hard - Oven temperature too high
- Insufficient proofing.
- Insufficient sugar or shortening.
- Excessive steam.
- Baking time too long.
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Crust too soft - Oven temperature too low

- Excessive sugar/egg yolks/shortening.
- Excessive oil/margarine as a wash.
- Insufficient steam during baking.
- Baking time too short or wrong bread
machine setting.
Internal Bread Faults

Symptom Causes
Coarse and irregular grain - Improper mixing procedures.

- Stiff batter.
- Careless or poor depositing in the pans.
- Oven too cool, (baked too slowly).
Dense grain - Excessive liquid in the batter.
- Improper mixing procedure.
Off-color breads - Improper mixing procedure.
- Oven too cool, (baked too slowly).
- Unclean equipment.
If raisins, nuts or dried fruit sunk to the - Pieces of fruit were too large and too heavy.
bottom - Sugary syrup on the outside of the fruit was
not washed off- causing the pieces of fruit to slide
through the mixture as it heated.
- Washed and dried fruit was not dusted with
flour before being added to the mixture.
- Bread mixture was over beaten or was too wet
so it could not hold the fruit in place.
- Oven temperature was too low, causing the
mixture to melt before it set to hold the fruit in place.
Symptom Causes
Batter over-flowed the pans - Wrong adjustments to recipes (too much

liquid, flour etc.)
- Wrong size pan used. Mixture should fill 2/3
of pan.
Poor flavor - Improper mixing procedure.
- Improper cleaning and greasing of the pans.
- Faulty baking conditions.
- Improper cleaning of the equipment.
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Breads too tough - Excessive mixing.

- Batter too stiff (insufficient water).
- Batter too thin (excessive water).
Lacks body/structure - Excessive mixing

Dries out too soon - Excessive baking time.
- Improper mixing procedures.
- Cooled in a drafty location.
V. CHOCOLATES
Historical background
Cocoa was well known to the classic Mayan civilization which flourished and died in the Yucatan
and Guatemala in the 1st Millennium. Alongside deceased Maya dignitaries were buried implements
like jars and bowls which were used for making chocolate. They called it Ka-ka-w. Linguistics
believes that the Maya‘s probably learnt to use the product from the earlier Olmec civilization which
flourished between 1500BC to 400BC.
The beans became a commodity for trade, an object of warfare and also a currency. The Mayans
spread the chocolate far and wide to the west of Yucatan where the Aztec established their power. In
due course Cocoa became a major source of wealth of the Aztec. To the Aztec chocolate was the
drink for the warriors and the elite. Chocolate lent itself to flavour mixtures like maize flour and
herbs. It was offered to the Gods and was used to anoint new born children on the forehead, face,
fingers and toes.
It was, only, under the invader Cortez, when the Europeans, first learnt the full value of cocoa. Its
new name ―chocolate‖ appears to be a Spanish inspired blend of Maya and Spanish. The word was
soon applied to all products of cacao. As a commodity of trade cocoa beans began to reach Spain in
1558. As an expensive exotic spice Chocolate was gradually introduced to the rest of Europe. By the
17th century the Italians experimented with new flavourings for chocolate including musk, jasmine,
citron and lemon peel. In1659 A. D. David Chaliou was granted a monopoly for selling chocolate
throughout France. Chocolate was first sold in London in 1657
By the end of the 18th century there had been a perceptible increase in the amount of chocolate being
consumed in stabs, in ices and sorbets, as an ingredient in desserts and main dishes and in pastas and
soups.
It was in 1828 that a Dutchman ―Van Houten patened the screw press which removed 2/3rd of
cacao butter. The residue so obtained was known as Cocoa. This dispersed easily in water and was
considered to be more digestible.
Mr.Van Houten, also developed an Alkalizing process by treating cocoa during processing with
potassium carbonate which led to a milder flavour and darker colour.
By adding the excess cacao butter to ground beans created a smooth paste which could be moulded
and remain solid when cool yet melted easily in the mouth.By 1842 Cadbury Bros. was
selling block chocolates. By 1847 Fry were marketing chocolate déleciux à Manger. Major
contributions were made by Swiss for e.g. In 1880 Randolph Lindt increased the amount of cocoa
butter in his formula and developed CONCHING. In 1876 Daniel Peter produced the first milk
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chocolate.
SOURCES
The Cocoa tree provides with its seed the raw material for making chocolate. The scientist Linnacus
assigned the species to a botanical genus, which he named ‗Theobroma‘ – food of the gods.
Botanically the leathery fruits are giant berries or pods.
In this genus 22 species are now recognized, all native to central and South America, of these two
are cultivated. Of greater importance is ―Theobroma Cacao‖ from which nearly all the world‘s
chocolate is produced. Cacao is the term for the tree and for its seeds corrupted to cocoa in English.
It is now cultivated all over the world within an area of 20 degrees on both sides of the equator. This
tree requires shade when young and is susceptible to fungi and pests. There are many varieties like
Criollo, Forastero and Trinitario. Criollo is the best quality but it is prone to diseases and
accounts for 5% of the world production and Trinitaro provides 15 % however the Forestero variety
accounts for 80% of the world production.
Cacao flowers are pollinated by a species of Midge and grow directly on the trunk of the tree. Only
a few flowers develop into fruit or pods and average yield annually being 30 per tree. Full grown
fruits are about 8 inches (20cm) long and 4 inches (10 cm) across in an oblong shape. The green pods
when ripe are saffron, yellow or red in colour and contain on an average 30 to 40 seeds, occurring in
rows and embedded in a white or pinkish pulp.
West Africa is now the largest producer of Cocao and produces over 60% of the world‘s production.
MANUFACTURE & PROCESSING OF CHOCOLATE

Ripe pods are collected, split and the contents scraped out. The seeds and the surrounding pulp are
exposed to the sun allowing the pulp to ferment. This fermentation process is completed in 5 to 7
days. Fermentation is essential for the development of good flavour, for use in the making of
chocolate. Fermentation develops ―flavour precursors‖ breaking down sugar to
glucose and fructose and turning some protein into free amino acids and smaller peptides. After
fermentation the beans are dried and exported to manufactures. They lose 50% of their weight on
drying and the yield of a single tree is approx. 500 gms to 1 kg.
At the manufacturers a complex process of roasting and grinding turns the seeds into chocolate mass
i.e. cocoa and cocoa butter. These two are mixed in varying proportion to form chocolate. Chocolate
that contains a very high percentage of cocoa butter and is known as CHOCOLATE COUVERTURE.
Before preparing chocolate for dipping, moulding, coating, sauces, etc. they must be stabilised or
tempered.
TEMPERING
Before preparing chocolate for use they must be stabilised or tempered. This process applies only to
genuine chocolate containing very high cocoa butter or chocolate couverture. Cocoa butter consists
of different fats, some melt at low temperatures others at higher temperatures those with lower
melting points are the first to solidify on being cooled giving chocolate an undesirable grainy texture.
It is the high melting point fats that give high quality chocolate its shine and snap. The objective of
tempering is to distribute these fats evenly by creating very fine crystals evenly throughout so that it
becomes smooth, sets evenly and quickly.
Tempering consists of 3 stages:-

1. Melting: Chocolate couverture must be melted over a Bain Marie to 49o- 50o C (120- 122oF)at
this temp all fats would have melted, it should be stirred constantly to evenly distribute the fats.
2. Tempering: When the chocolate has melted it is removed from the Bain Marie on to a marble
top and stirred constantly to about 29oC (84oF). The object of this process is to seed the mixture with
cocoa butter crystals of a uniform and stable type which will keep well during storage. At this point
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nuts, fruits, etc. may be added.

3. RE-WARMING: After tempering and cooling, if the mass is to thick for using it must be re
warmed over Bain Marie till it reaches a temp of 29oC(84oF). This step must be done carefully for if
the temperature rises to 44oC or 111o F the chocolate is no longer tempered, it SEIZES i.e. it goes hard and
grainy.Chocolate which has not been tempered will take excessively long time to set and its texture will not
be good. Also some of the cocoa butter with float and then set making a whitish coating called the ‗BLOOM‘.
CHOCOLATE MAKING
Manual: Chocolates can be made by hand dipping, the centres being lowered on a special dipping
fork into molten chocolate, covered and then deposited on paper to set. It is a skill which takes years
to master and is a method used mainly by craft confectioners, who wish to produce high quality
individual chocolate selections.
AUTOMATED:
There are two automated methods:-
a) Enrobing: It is a method in which the centres are transported under a curtain of molten
chocolate and then allowed to set.
b) Shell moulding: Molten chocolate is deposited into moulds to form a shell which is then
filled. A lid of chocolate seals the filling in before it is de moulded.
Hand Moulding: This is done using moulds made of plastic, metal or rubber which must be kept
clean and dry as well as smooth. Molten chocolate is then deposited by hand into moulds to form a
shell which is then filled and covered by a layer of molten chocolate and allowed to set. Chocolate
shrinks when set thereby pulling it away from the moulds so it can be easily de moulded.
TYPES OF CHOCOLATE:
Unsweetened Chocolate
Pure chocolate without added sugar.
Also known as: bitter chocolate, baking chocolate, chocolate liquor, and pure chocolate. Uses: Used
almost exclusively for baking.
Bittersweet Chocolate
Legally, at least 35 percent pure chocolate with some small amount of sugar added.Also known as:
dark chocolate, when it is a European brand.
Characteristics: Usually darker and less sweet than semisweet.
No legal specifications for the term so not always darker and less sweet.
Semisweet and bittersweet can be used in baking interchangeably, depending on personal
preferences.Specific sweetness and color intensity varies by manufacturer’s recipes and cacao bean
sources. Uses: Baking and eating.
Semisweet Chocolate
Legally, at least 35 percent pure chocolate with added cocoa butter and sugar.Characteristics: The
most versatile chocolate.Available in many forms (block, discs, squares, chips). Uses: Baking and
eating.
Milk Chocolate
Legally, milk chocolate is at least 10 percent pure chocolate with added cocoa butter and
sugar.Characteristics: Most milk chocolates contain less pure chocolate than semisweet or bittersweet
chocolates.Milder flavor than darker chocolates.
Sweet Baking Chocolate
Legally, sweet chocolate is at least 15 percent pure chocolate with added cocoa butter and
sugar.Taste: Sweeter than semisweet chocolate.
Unsweetened Cocoa Powder
Unsweetened cocoa powder is pure chocolate with most of the cocoa butter removed.Characteristics:
Cocoa powders labeled “Dutch-process” or “European-style” have been treated to neutralize the
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naturally occurring acids, giving them a mellower flavor and redder color.
White Chocolate
White chocolate is made by combining cocoa butter with sugar, milk solids, and flavoring, usually
Vanilla .Commonly called a chocolate, it’s not a true one — legally.
Premelted Chocolate
Premelted chocolate is a semiliquid, unsweetened product made of cocoa powder and vegetable
oil.Uses: Exclusively used for baking.
Candy Coating
Also known as: Compound chocolate coating, chocolate summer coating, confectioners’ coating
chocolate, and chocolate-flavored coating.
A chocolate-like product with most of the cocoa butter removed and replaced with vegetable fat.
It is easier to work with than chocolate for dipping and molding since there is no need to take special
steps with it to get a shine to it and it melts at a higher temperature.
Comes in assorted colors and flavors.
Mexican Chocolate
Mexican sweet chocolate has cinnamon and sugar added to the pure chocolate. Sometimes ground
almonds may also be added.
It can be found in Mexican grocery stores, on the Web, and in specialty food stores. Ibarra brand is
one of the most popular brands in Mexico (and its packaging is gorgeous).
TEMPERED Chocolate is used for dipping, making moulds, pastries, cake icings, cookies and
meringues.
LIQUEUR CHOCOLATES can be made by shell moulding or by depositing the syrup into
impressions made in trays of starch & left undisturbed for some time, the syrup ―crusts‖ forming
sugar crystals and can be lifted out and enrobed.
TRUFFLES: Are based on a ganache flavoured with sprits, essences and nuts.
Block Chocolates
Cocoa powder Cocoa powder is made by dehydrating cocoa mass.
Drinking Chocolate: is made by dehydrating prepared Chocolate into powdered form.
Chocolates contain Phenylethlamine a naturally occurring substance in the brain which stimulates
euphoric feelings. It also contains THEOBROMINE a stimulant which acts on the muscles and
Caffeine, but in much smaller quantities.
Production Management
KITCHEN ORGANIZATION
The organization of the hotel and the restaurant depends upon
• The size of the operation
• The type of menu
• The type of service
The classical brigade includes –
1. An EXECUTIVE CHEF who is responsible for all the activities and the management of the whole
kitchen. He sets the tone and tempo of the kitchen. He is the administrative head of the entire kitchen. The
responsibilities of the executive chef includes-
• Planning
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• Purchasing
• Supervision
• Training
• Preparation
• Menu planning
• Recipe standardization
• Delegation of responsibilities and authority
• To insure efficient and profitable food service
• Study of the market trends
• Study of the market conditions for the commodities.
• Making requisitions for the menus
• Controlling the food costs
• Portion controls
• Setting standards for the food presentation
• Hiring of the kitchen staff
To qualify as an executive chef , he must have many talents and years of experience in food preparation and
service.
The chef is one of the most important administrators in the establishment , often with more than one hundred
cooks, assistant cooks , helpers and apprentices on his staff.
2. The second -in -command in the kitchen is THE SOUS CHEF ( second chef ) who is directly incharge
of the production in the kitchen
3. Production in the kitchen was divided into sections which was overseen by CHEF DE PARTIE. This
included –
• THE SAUCIER- who was responsible for sauces, stews, stocks, hot hors d oeuvres and sauté.
• THE POTAGER- was responsible for soups and chowders.
• THE POISSONER- was responsible for all the fish dishes.
• THE ENTREMENTIERE prepared vegetables , starches and eggs.
• THE ROTISSEUR was responsible for roasted and braised meats and meat gravies.
• THE GRILLARDIN prepared broiled items and deep fried meats and fish
• THE GARDE MANGER was responsible for cold foods including salads, cold sauces, dressings,
pates and terrines, cold hors d oeuvres and cold buffet items.
• THE PATISSIER prepared pastries and desserts with a baker responsible for breads and rolls.
• THE TOURNANT acted as a swing and relief cook.
4. The various chefs de parties were assigned COMMIS which were cooks and Helpers. Standard were the
premier commis or COMMIS I, deuxieme commis or COMMIS 2, and troisiems commis , Commis 3.
TYPES OF SERVICE
The type of food to be prepared is directly related to the style of service to be used. The type of service most
commonly associated with commercial food service are-
• FRENCH SERVICE- this service allows for a great deal of showmanship by the chef and members of
the staff. The food is prepared partially in the kitchen , which is called MICE EN PLACE and finished by the
chef or members of his staff on a GUERIDON CART in the dining room.
• RUSSIAN SERVICE- it is used for special banquets and a few restaurants. This type of service calls for
the kitchen to arrange the food on large platters or serving dishes. These are then presented and served to the
guest by the service staff. This type of service does not allow for showmanship on the part of the production
staff. The kitchen’s responsibility for the plating is greatly reduced.
• ENGLISH SERVICE- it is the presentation of the food in large serving dishes. Traditionally the host of
the party then serves the guests.
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• AMERICAN STYLE- requires the individual plating of all items in the kitchen. Although it requires
more labor for plating , it allows for the tightest control of portion sizes and greater efficiency of service. We can
reduce the number of serving staff as well as the food to be served is pre-plated.
• BUFFET SERVICE- is the presentation of food in large quantities on a service line, which may be either
portable or permanent. It uses the chafing dishes. Usually the guests help themselves at the buffet. Normally it
can be a sit-down buffet or a standing buffet. The beverages are normally served by the service staff. This type
of service requires the preparation of food in advance and holding it until service.
Each of these style of service has a different effect on the staff required in the kitchen as well as the service staff.
CUISINE
Typically when a style of food preparation is labeled a cuisine it represents-
• A particular country ( geographic region)- has played a major part in the creation of the cuisine due to
climate. In the warm climates, where food becomes tainted due to lack of refrigeration, the creation of spicy
dishes which masks the off-flavors.
The use of spices and herbs may be attributed to the economic status of the region. A poor country where people
regularly consume varietal meats such as stomach and intestines will create combination of spices, herbs and
acidic fruit and vegetables which mask the flavors.
The warmer climates also have the greatest availability of the spices , hence their usage is more as compared to
the cold countries.
• Philosophy ( religious or cultural )- religion also plays an important role in the establishment of the cuisine.
The manner in which the food is processed is of utmost importance. The kosher food of the jewish faith are an
excellent example. There are strict rules concerning the slaughter of animals as well as total ban on the dairy
products at certain meals or days of the year.
The infusion of religious and cultural beliefs and attitudes gives a particular cuisine its own distinct character.
As the world continues to shrink due to improved transportation and shipping, there will be a continued change
of cuisine within all regions of the world.
MENU
The menu is the cornerstone upon which total food service will depend. It will determine
• The image of the operation
• The staff needed
• The equipment required
• The food pricing
The menus should be designed keeping a few important points in mind.

1. The type of clientele expected or what is the targeted market.
2. The regional food habits
3. The availability of the raw material
4. The amount of expected investment
5. Availability of the staff
6. The price range and the paying capacity of the clientele.
7. The type of food service
8. The nutritional requirements and expectations
PREREQUISITES OF A GOOD MENU

• The items in a menu must complement and meld gracefully to give a complete sensory experience and
nutritional balance.
• There should be a balance of flavors, colors , texture and shape.
• There should be no repetition of ingredients
TYPES OF MENUS
• TABLE D’HOTE
• A LA CARTE
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KITCHEN PLANNING
Along with the restaurant, the kitchen determines the no. of customers be dealt with during service period,
Kitchen areas vary according to the type and number of meals provided and if allowance is to be made for
special functions.
Knowledge of Peak load is essential and intelligent forecasting the area maybe 40% of the restaurant’s
area. However, the modern school of thoughts flavour smaller and more compact kitchen premises,
3 sq.ft per head, is now considered adequate.
This is the space recommended for labour saving equipped and work studied Premises. The floor is
subjected to much traffic, so durability must meet the demand of the particular premises.
The floor shall be impervious to moisture and not affected by grease, salt vegetable or fruit acid and Preferably
non-slip even when wet. There must be no joints or crevices where dirt. Pests and Vermin may accumulate and
live in. The walks should be tiled to the ceiling or at least five feet. The woodwork should be glass painted as this
is easy to wipe clean. Doors should be self-closing and they should has easily cleaned kick Plates and finger
plates. Natural light should be properly fitted and shadows should be presented Canopy over Cookery
equipment and range should be connected by ducts to Extractor fans, The ducts should be sufficiently high and
the Exhaust fan should have a strong pull for maximum Extraction.
MEAL PRODUCTION
Food preparation is the term Employed to denote cookery. The Budget Committee is formed for the purpose of
Preparation, coordination, review and revision of budgets. The budget made is period wise break up or
annually. The Seasonal character of the business is taken
into consideration.
The first step in preparation is giving management objectives for the forthcoming year and giving a Performa to
be used in Preparation of budgets.
PURCHASING
Buying, quality and freshness of supplies and Portion control are of the utmost importance for the operation of a
successful business. Large establishments will employ a Purchase Manager, as he can concentrate and get the
best supplies.
Requisition for supplies are placed with the stores/kitchen stewarding dept. at a specified time. The storekeeper
will forward his requisition to the supplier’s Knowledge of buying is very important for the Purchase in charge.
The Purchasing Mgr/ in charge should have a reasonable technical knowledge in Catering as he will be able
to follow the requisition properly and understand the importance of delivery times, size, quality and
specifications. Selection of a Supplier. Instructions to Supplier along with the order of supplies.
STORE CONTROL AND FOODCONTROL
Food Control begins when the order is placed, it ends when the ultimate cash takings and banked.The store
should be close to the preparation area for smooth flow of the items. The stocks should be taken at least once a
month. The best system of according is a card index comprising of a separate card for each commodity and all
issues supported by related documents.
PREPARATION AND COOKING
From Purchasing and the acquiring of the raw commodities, we come to the next stage in the Catering Cycle,
the preparation and processing. Again the operation must be planned and controlled and a knowledge of
the menu together with a clear indication of quantities regd, are essential.Preparation means preparing food for
Cooking.Cooking is a technical skill knowledge is regd. to decide how to prepare the food and process it.
FORECASTING AND BUDGETING

CHARACTERISTICS OF BUDGET
• Forecast- budgets are not actual but only future projections based on the past happenings.
This projection may also be called a forecast.
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• It is a financial as well as quantitative statement of what an organization is expecting about its business
in terms of-
1. Quantity of the product that the establishment will be producing
2. What is going to be the revenue generation
• Flexibility- a budget should have flexibility and should be capable of changing with the changing
situations.
• Clear and realistic- the goals set in the budget must be achievable.
• Creation of responsibility centres- people should be made responsible for following the budgeted guide.
• Effective communication- this is key to success to forecasting.
For a specific time period.

• It can also be called a benchmark in terms of quantity and revenue generation.
• A budget is a comprehensive and co-ordinated plan expressed in financial terms, for a specific future
period of time.
• It is a tool devised by the management to keep a proper balance between the income and expenditure.
• Budget is a mirror that shows the future income and expenditure of the organization.
• Most budgets are prepared in terms of money.
• A budget has been compared to a road map which indicates an accurate route and serves as a guide.
IMPORTANCE OF BUDGETING
• It sets the parameter of earmarked expenditures.
• It reflects the efficiency of the organization as it helps to operate within the budget.
• It helps in fixing the priorities of the establishment.
• It acts as a control tool and helps in gauging diversions.
• It becomes easy for the operators to understand how to achieve the targeted figures.
• The resources can be put to best utilization, with the view to maximize profits.
• A control through budget indicates where the management policy has gone wrong and why.
• Productivity can be increased to meet the budgeted revenues.
• Budget provides cost consciousness.
• Budgeting process forces the management to become effective and efficient.
PREPARING OF BUDGET
• The first thing to be done is to recognize the prime function of the property/ business.
• Know the needed profits
• The budget is prepared under two heads-
o Capital expenditure- covers equipment, furniture, artwork etc
o The revenue expenditure- is the total of operational costs.
• Budgets are generally prepared at the end of the fiscal year, generally in the month of March.
• It is presented to the board of governors.
• Once approved by the BOG, it is implemented from April 1
BUDGET PERIOD
• For a big establishment, an annual budget is appropriate while for smaller catering units, usually two
budgets, on-season and off-season, should be planned.
• Even monthly or weekly budgets can be planned for the smaller units.
BUDGETRY CONTROL
• The budget establishes definite objectives with regard to operating performance.
• It sets the limits to stay within the limits. The management must establish adequate controls to prevent
any –
1. Wastage
2. Loss
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3. Pilferage
KIND OF BUDGETS
1.Capital budget- deals with the assets and capital funds of the business. Budget for plant, equipment, cash and
stock, is therefore capital budget.
2.Operating budget – is concerned with income and expenditure of the business and the operating costs. Budget
for sales, purchases, labour costs and overheads is therefore, operating budget.
3.Sales Budget- this essentially consists of one estimate- volume of business. It Helps to estimate separately the
volume of sales of each F & B outlet. It is the future projection regarding the number of portions to be produced
and the possible revenue that is expected to be generated. This estimate can be based on the following-
• Analysis of the past trend of the business
• Reports by the sales department
• Market research and market survey
• Overall economic conditions in the market.
4.Advertising cost budget- the budget of advertising is related to sales. Usually it has been seen that the product
which is selling well, does not require an advertisement. Usually the advertising budget is fixed in the form of a
fixed amount for a specific period of time.
5. Production Budget- it is basically a forecast of the quantity ( number of portions ) that should be prepared. The
material cost that is the food cost estimation, is done in the budget that shall tell the forecast quantities of various
raw material and their costs. The following points should be considered while preparing this budget-
• It should be relative to sales forecast
• Production capacity
• Stock of raw material
• Policy of the management
6.Purchase budget- the material has been classifies under two heads- direct and indirect. The budget that tells
about the quantity and volume of raw material required to be purchased during a specific period. The opening
and the closing stock of the raw materials should be kept in mind while forecasting.
7. Human Resource Budget- this budget tells about the requirement of the human resources in order to meet the
projected production, during the budgeted period.
8.Finance Resource Budget- this budget is an estimate of cash required for business for the specified period. The
function of this budget is that the management should never be short of funds to operate the business. This budget
tells that if money is short, what steps to be taken to overcome this problem
9.Overhead Cost Budget- this budget shows various types of overheads that will be incurred during the budgeted
production period. Overheads should be classified under the following heads-fixed, variable, semi-variable
VARIANCE ANALYSIS
• The term variance means difference.
• In regard to the food service operations, variance means the difference between the projected/ budgeted
or forecasted figure and the actual figure achieved.
• The main objective of the business is to earn profit and profit depends on two factors- cost and sales.
• The management should fix targets in terms of both costs and sales and then make plans to achieve these
targets.
• The objective should be to maximize the sales and minimize the costs. This will result in maximization
of profits and accumulation of funds.
Different types of cost variance-
1. Direct Material Cost Variance- is the difference between “ what should have been the cost and what
has been the cost”. This variance may be due to-
• High consumption of raw material due to inefficiency of the staff, lack of skill and faulty workmanship.
• Wastage due to incorrect processing of the material.
• Break down of plant and machinery
• Inter- transfer of material from job to another.
• Lack of supervision and inspection
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• Excessive spoilage
2. Direct Labour Cost Variance- the variance in the cost of labour is due to two main factors- difference
in actual rates of the labour and the standard rates. Difference in actual time taken to perform the job and the
standard time prescribed to perform the job. Other reasons responsible for the variance are-
• Appointing of labour that is more skilled than the required level, demanding higher payment.
• The labour being paid higher rates as there is shortage of labour in the market.
• Lower than the standard rate paid as unskilled labour is employed to do the job.
• Overtime paid to the labour required to put in extra time, resulting in higher wages.
• Changes in the standard wage rates.
3. Direct overhead Cost Variance- overheads are related to different operations in the food service
operations. Overheads are of two types- variable overheads and fixed overheads.
Reasons for variances are-

• Advance payments made for any of the overheads.
• Due to outstanding expenses but payments not done.
• Due to abnormal expenses incurred such as repairs to machinery, spoilage.
4. Sales Variance- this is the difference between what should have been the sales and the actual sale. In
case the actual sales is more than the budgeted sales, the variance is termed as favourable. Sale is an important
activity and the profit depends upon it.
COST CONCEPTS
In a catering a COST may be defined as the price if goods used up, used or consumed and services rendered.
Items are said to be consumed even when they are wasted, stolen or discarded as happens frequently in food
services.
The effort of every establishment is to maximize its profits and to do that , the costs have to be minimized. To
be able to exercise any control of costs therefore , it is important to understand some of the basic concepts
underlying them.
COMPONENTS OF COSTS
There are three types of costs involved in the food operations-
• Cost of material ( food cost ) – this includes raw food and all the other ingredients.
• Cost of employees ( labor cost ) – this includes the staff salaries and the value of all benefits provided
to them such as meals, housing, medical facilities, uniforms, insurance, bonus, pensions
• Overhead cost – this includes all such costs which cannot be directly identified with food products such
as rent, depreciation, fuel, cleaning material , administrative and selling costs.
While these give some idea of the nature of cost distribution, they do not tell us what happens to each of these
components when there is a drop or an increase in the sales of an establishment. Yet we know that some of these
elements get affected and do change periodically to give different levels of profit.
BEHAVIOR OF COSTS
The manner in which costs respond to changes in the volume of sales is referred to as the – behavior of costs. To
understand how costs behave in various situations, all costs are placed in one of the following categories-
• FIXED COSTS- as the name suggests, these costs remain virtually unaffected by changes in the volume
of the business. Example- rents, insurance. For the purpose of assessment of profitability, they remain fixed over
a period of time. These costs are paid generally on an annual basis , they remain unchanged over an accounting
period as far as the business is concerned.
• SEMI-FIXED COSTS- these may be called as semi-variable costs as well. Example- when feeding
more guests , the fuel costs change very little compared to a situation in which the menu is changed to include
extra frying in the preparations. Again the cost of cleaning materials may be reduced on the enhanced usage of
disposable equipment .
• VARIABLE COSTS-These include the food costs which change in direct proportion to the output. As
it is imminent to maintain the portion standards , the portion size cannot be reduced if the number of pax goes
up. Therefore the food material will increase proportionately to the increase of the headcount. In practice,
however , it may be noted that actual variable costs tends to decrease as the volume increases , because purchasing
food materials in bulk can reduce costs. However, costs fluctuate considerably in catering for several reasons-
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1. most food costs change seasonally depending on supply and demand conditions.
2. inflationary trends affect food prices and ingredients consistently upwards
3. legislated minimum wage rates and negotiated labor agreements affects labor cost over time.
All the above factors need to be anticipated and considered while planning future costs and price fixation
policies.
PLEASE NOTE-
• Any given change in turnover will not led to a proportionate change in costs.
• Net profit tends to increase or decrease, more than in proportion to an increase or decrease in the
turnover.
• The higher the fixed cost the greater is the effect on profit or loss for given change in sales volume.
CONCEPT OF CONTRIBUTION AND BREAK EVEN
CONTRIBUTION refers to the balance remaining after subtracting the variable costs from sales revenue. It
would be expressed as –
Sales Volume – Variable Costs = Contribution
The concept of contribution therefore represents the amount of money that an establishment earns for covering
its fixed costs and net profit margins.
BREAK-EVEN- A firm's break-even point occurs when at a point where total revenue equals total cost that is
when the business is making no profit or loss.
Break-Even Point: Number of units that must be sold in order to produce a profit of zero (but will recover all
associated costs). In other words, the break-even point is the point at which your product stops costing you money
to produce and sell, and starts to generate a profit for your company.
Production Quality & Quantity Control:

The objective of Kitchen Management is to lead, organize and control the means of Production and service of
food.To manage the kitchen, the kitchen Manager / Chef de, Cuisine should have a sound Practical knowledge
and should have the ability to organize labour, delegates and responsibility to appropriate staff who
communicate well. The persons handling the machines should be able to follow the persons handling the
machines should be able to follow the correct procedure for assembling, use and cleaning.
Safety precautions have to be observed such as
a). Gas pilot light must be lit before turning on the main jet. b).
The liquids should never be stored above eye level.
c).The port handles sticking and should never be placed over the edges of the stoves or sides of the tables .
d). Sprinkle flour on hot lids and pans.
e) If fat or liquid is spilt on the floor , it should be cleaned and salt sprinkled on top immediately.
f).Hot fritters should not be carried.
g).Knives, if carried, should Point downwards.
h). Sharp instruments should never be left in sinks.
Controlling of labour needs great tack and ability, their comfort, skill, work and welfare has to be seen to- A
strict disciplinarian is respected by many, provided he has a good judgement in dealing with matters and
understand people.
A good management will see that food cost is controlled and the people working in the kitchen will be
content in their jobs and the work gave is comparable with their ability, staff should be trained on the
job and if the performance is good , incentives , increments or promotions should be given if need be.
Certain factors such as budgetary control, Portion Control cost control proper Purchasing Control of
Production and service, control of waste etc., play an important part in managing the kitchen. Proper
layout of work areas in the kitchen contributes to a successful catering establishment which will not
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only satisfy customers but also the staff will contend. Cramped and lack of Proper kitchen delay food
preparation and service certain points have to kept in views before planning such as the types of meals to
be served, no. Persons to be served. Forecast of peak period, ventilation, proper drainage etc., It is important
that the kitchen should be close to the restaurant to facilitate service efficiently.
FOOD PREPARATION PREMISES

By law, no food business is allowed to be carried on in any unsanitary premises.
A well-planned layout largely depends on :
1). Receiving Supplies (checking quality and weights)
2). Storing of food Properly
3).Food Preparation. Mise-en-place
4).Cooking
5) Serveries
6).Scullery (Pan Wash)
7).Scullery (Crockery, Cutlery Wash up)
The intelligent placing of machinery, sinks and work tables are a contributing factor to the total daily. Kitchen
mileage of food and unnecessary travelling by the kitchen staff. A perfectly planned kitchen is one, where raw
and cooked materials need the minimum of movement and requires only to cover the same route once.
MENU PLANNING
A menu is a list of Prepared dishes which are available to a customer .The chef should try to compile
menus with new dishes from time to time and see the likes of the customers visiting the Catering Establishments
.The recipes should be standardized to that the cooling of the dishes could be accurate.
COST CONTROL
The Costs of meal fall naturally into three distinct sections , the first being the cost of the food and second the cost
of the over heads , which includes fuel , light , heat , water , staff uniform and laundry, social security Payments,
super annuation Contributions, Printing & Station , cleaning materials, advertising , telephones and Postage
flowers, etc., The third Section is labour , the salaries and wages. The problem of any management control
system is to make sure that after a pre-determined food and wage cost % has been decided this figure will take
in all aspects of Expenses .The final trading results will show that a correct return has been made to obtain this the
following information will be studied.
1). All purchases must be controlled .
2). Details of all items received must be recorded as well as when issued.
3). Any over production of food must be checked and of course reused in the best and most
economical way.
4). Production Control
5). Check of sales with direct numbers catered for.
6). An efficient system of cash control.
7). Sales of any kind checked with cash receipts.
8). A record of cost for each section must be made be compared .
9). A weekly summary of all the relevant details must be made
10) The trading Profit & loss account is prepared.
MATERIAL COSTING
There are three basic methods of cost control
a). Quantity
b). Selling Price
c). Cost Price
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Quantity Control
The Control of quantity consumed ensures that everything consumed has been accounted for. It does not
ensure profitability but provides a needful supplementary check and in a simple to operate.
Selling Price Control
This method is also most suitable for establishments with a limited range of items on the menu, especially when
each item contains a small no. of standardized ingredients. It can be used in Conjunction with quality control.
Cost Price Control
This system is most Practical and best understood.It allows for a certain elasticity and provides the chief with a
margin for ar development meant.The kitchen % entails the application of the following simple formula.
Gross profit x 100
———————-= rate Percent of gross Profit or kitchen percentage.
Takings
Gross Profit = takings (on any particular date or day) Purchases.
NET PROFIT
All Expenditures can be classified as M.C, LC and overheads , it follows that the difference
between total revenue and the total of these costs in the net profit before tax. GROSS PROFIT = TOTAL
INCOME – COST OF MATERIALS (M.C)
= L.C. + over heads + net Profit.
Portion Control
“Portion Control means the amount of size of a portion of food to be served to a customer.
There is a natural tendency for clients to eye one others Portion when they are served and if one is thought to be
slightly larger than the others, there is apt to be resentment and a reaction
detrimental to the good name of the establishment, only exact portion control can eliminate this. Methods of
Monitoring Portion Control is by direct supervision, by sales analysis and by comparing the requisitions of each
department with issues.
Purpose of Portion Control
1).To ensure fair Portions for each Customer.
2). To see that each department utilizes purchases to the full. 3).
To control waste.
4). To ensure that standard costing are as accurate as possible.
Methods of Monitoring Portion Control
1).Ordering the right quantity and quality and suppressing when receiving it. 2).Even
Preparing the food in the Production area doing direct supervision.
3).By Proper checking of the service of food.
4).Comparing the requisitions of each department with issues.
5).By sales analysis .
1).Aids to Portion Control
It is assisted by equipment and utensils as for example a scoop (ladle) used mainly for ice cream , can also
be used for mashed potato as a portioner for mixture.
a). Automatic Portion Control Equipment include- Tea dispenser , Butter Pat machines. Bread slicing and
buttering machines , gravity feed slicers, coffee making , milk dispensers.
b). Utensils used in Portion Control include- ladles, wire servers, Pie dish , Scales, baking tins ,
measures.
c). Serving dishes that help in Portion Control – glasses, Casseroles, Coupes, Tureens, Sundae glasses,
sauce boats, soufflé cases. Vegetable dishes, Cocottes.
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2). Portion Sizes

As Portion sizes vary from one establishment to another between table d’hote and a la Carte service , It is
difficult to definite average Portion sizes . A few examples are.
• Hors d’ oeuvre – Fruit juices -75ml to 110ml
• Fruit Cocktail -120 gms
• Smoked Salmon – 35 gms to 40 gms
• Caviar – 30gm.
• Salami – 45 gms
• Farinaceous dishes – Spaghetti/ Macaroni– 60gms
• Rice -120 gms
• Egg dishes
o Boiled / Poached / fry – 2 large ones
o Omelette – 3 large
• Meat Steaks – 120 – 240 gms
• Chops – 30 gms – 150 gms
• Stews -100 gms raw weight
• Hamburger – 120 gms.
3). Visual aid Sheets : A Portion Control sheet can be used for costing various items of food or
complete dishes. The object is to ascertain the total yield of a given commodity after Preparation and
processing’s.
4). Standardized Recipes
They assist in food Costing and Portion Control by taking the guess work away and substituting more exact
approach, by listing the ingredients and methods in a readily understood form as the result will be uniform every
time it is featured. The food cost can also be known in advances if a Price column is introduced Providing it is
kept up to date with any price changes.
PLANNING OF FOOD PRODUCTION OR PRODUCTION CONTROL

There are 4 major stages in planning and controlling the preparation of food which controls the production and
the wastage. These aid in controlling the food costs and to maximize the profitability. These are-
1. Volume forecasting
2. Standard recipes
3. Standard yield
4. Standard portion size
1. VOLUME FORECASTING
Is also called production planning. It is the method of predicting the volume of sales. The main objectives of
volume forecasting is-
• To predict the total number of meals to be sold
• To predict the choice of menu items by the guests
• To ensure the availability of all necessary ingredients
• To facilitate purchasing
• To ensure proper stock levels
• To control food costs
• To enable the comparison of the actual with the forecasted figures.
This forecasting of the volumes can be based on-

• Past records or sales history
• Advance bookings
• Any current events or festivals or holidays
• Current trends
• Types of menus on offer
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2. STANDARD RECIPES
A standard recipe may be defined as the written formula for a dish of a specified quality and quantity for use in
a particular eating place. The weights and quantity of all the ingredients are standard for a specific number of
portions. The method of cooking, time and temperature for the dishes is also standardized. Further it gives the
step wise method of preparation of the dish and the yield.
The standard recipe also states the garnishes, the serving temperature. The total recipe cost is also calculated and
then per portion cost taken out. In some recipes even the nutritive value of the product is calculated.
The objectives of the standard recipes are-
• To standardize the product
• To standardize the yield
• To pre-determine the food cost per portion
• To determine the nutritional value of the dish
• To facilitate menu planning
• To facilitate purchasing and internal requisitioning
• To facilitate food preparation
• To facilitate portion control
The standard recipes should be recorded in the recipe files or recipe cards in soft copies as well as hard copies to
be used within the establishment. A good standard recipe card will carry the standard photograph of the product
and the service standards such as the crockery to be used, the garnishes to be used and the accompaniments to
be served.
3. STANDARD YIELD
The term yield can be defined as edible or usable part of the raw food material which is available after preparation
of the raw material. When an item is purchased according to the purchase specifications, and is further processed
as per the standard method of preparation and portioning, then the yield obtained is called a standard yield.
A standard yield is the yield obtainable when an item is processed in a particular method and cooked using a
particular method of cooking.
The main objectives of standard yield are-
• To establish a standard for the quantity and the number of portions from a specific weight.
• To establish the standard cost factor
• To assist in reaching the cost of the product
• To assist in menu costing and pricing of the product
• Guest satisfaction, as he will always get a standard portion size
Standard yields can be worked out for all the raw materials used in the kitchen like meats, poultry, fish, milk and
milk products. It is important that standard yield should be worked out for all expensive food items and those
used in large quantities
Factors that affect yield are-
• Temperature at which the food is cooked
• Trimmings taken out
• Age of the animal ( for meats )
• Boning yield
• Who the consumer is ? ( guest/staff)
• Method of cooking( roasting/dry method of cooking/cooking in fat/ cooking in liquid medium
Yield percentage
In order to determine the yield of a given product, the product must be weighed at the beginning, the net
remaining product must be weighed. The yield percentage is calculated as-
Original weight-loss in weight
------------------------------------------------x 100
Original weight
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4. STANDARD PORTIONS
A standard portion represents the weight of the food item to be served at a particular selling price. There may be
two standard portions of the same dish depending on which menu they are being offered on-table d’hote or a la
carte.
Standard portion sizes are important for two reasons-
1. All customers should be served the same portion for the same price. Or else it will lead to customer
dissatisfaction.
2. Helps in controlling the food costs and the profitability of the establishment.
The standard portion size is usually established when the standard recipe is being produced. Standard portion
means quantity of a dish served per portion. This can be measured at two stages-
• In its raw stage- ready to be cooked
• When ready to eat- after cooking
These represent the number/grams/ounces/liters of each food which is sold to a guest for a stated price. Standard
portion sizes should be established for all items served such as appetizers, entrees, main course, accompaniments,
salads, desserts .
The portion sizes should be determined on the basis of the following factors-
• The type of customer/establishment
• The purchase price of the commodity
• The selling price
• Satisfactory margin of profit
Portion control methods-

• Use of standard equipment- scoops, ladles, dispensers, standard baking tins, bar optics, spoons,
individual moulds, slicing machines, peg measures
• Use of standard procedures and recipes
• Use and display of portion charts
• Supervision and control
Factors that increase food cost-

• Not following standard recipes and yield cards
• No portion control
• Unskilled production staff
• Not keeping kitchen consumption record
• Faulty equipment used
• Improper recycling of leftovers
• Over and underproduction
• Staff meal not prepared separately and not accounted for
• Lack of inventory control in stores and kitchens
• Pilferage and wastage
• Ignoring FIFO
PURCHASING PROCEDURES
PURCHASING
• Many activities make up the purchasing process.
• F&B production staff need food, beverages and other supplies to prepare menu items. They send
REQUISITIONS ( written orders to withdraw food commodities from the stores )
• The store room personnel then ISSUE the requirements against the requisitions.
• At some point the store room INVENTORY- the amount of food , beverages and other supply on hand
will have to be replenished .
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• To reorder supplies, store personnel send PURCHASE REQUISITIONS ( are forms that specify the
products that need to be re ordered, the quantity needed and how soon they are needed.
• The purchase department, through either a PURCHASE ORDER SYSTEM or an INFORMAL
PURCHASE ORDER SYSTEM , order these products from suppliers.
• Copies of the orders are given to the receiving and accounting department.
• SUPPLIERS deliver the ordered products to the RECEIVING DEPARTMENT and give receiving
personnel a DELIVERY INVOICE- the suppliers bill indicating the products that were delivered, their quantity
and prices and the total amount owned.
• Receiving personnel check the delivery against their copy of the purchase order or purchase record and
also check for such things as quality and damage.
• After the delivery products have been checked and accepted, they are transferred to the proper storage
areas .
• The delivery invoice is sent to the accounting department.
• This alerts the accounting staff that supplier has delivered the products and they can process the necessary
documents and pay the suppliers.
WHY IS PURCHASING IMPORTANT ?

Money can be made or lost based on how well the purchasing program works. For example if too few items are
purchased and stock outs occur , sales are lost and the guests are disappointed.
If too many items are purchased, money is tied up in unnecessary inventory and is unavailable to meet other
obligations.
The importance of purchasing can be summed up in one simple phrase – purchasing directly affects the bottom
line. Every rupee saved through effective purchasing increases a property’s profit by one rupee.
Only the best possible purchasing program can help food service managers achieve the best possible economic
results.
GOALS OF A PURCHASING PROGRAM
• Buy the right product
• Obtain the right quantity.
• Pay the right price.
• Deal with the right supplier.
Buy the right product-
The menu dictates what products must be purchased.
To answer this question managers must develop PURCHASE SPECIFICATIONS – a detailed description setting
forth the quality, size, weight and other factors desired for a particular item. Managers should develop a purchase
specification for each of the expensive or otherwise important products purchased. Once developed, purchase
specifications should be given to all suppliers. This gives suppliers a better idea of exactly what products the
operation wants and help the suppliers meet the operation’s product expectations.
The desired quality for each product is an important part of purchase specifications. Some operations are price-
conscious and want the least expensive items available , others want only the highest quality products because
they know their guests will pay for them.
The quality level necessary for a particular product is determined in part by products intended use.
Make-or-buy decisions – sometimes it is better for an operation to make a product on site rather than to purchase
it. Quality standards can be better maintained if the property produces the product as it also works out the least
expensive.
Obtain the right quantity.
Cash flow is adversely affected if inventory levels are too high ,
Stockouts, lost sales and guest dissatisfaction may result if the inventory levels are too low.
That is why purchasing food and beverage products in the right quantities is so important.
Some operations use a minimum / maximum systems to make sure inventories are kept at optimal levels. Under
this system, a par level – the minimum amount of a product should always be in the inventory.
PAR LEVEL equals the lead-time quantity plus the safety stock levels of any given product.
The LEAD-TIME quantity is the number of items of a particular product that will be withdrawn from inventory
and used between the time the product is reordered and the time it is delivered.
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The SAFETY STOCK LEVEL is the number of items of a product needed in case of emergencies, spoilage or
unexpected delays in delivery.
MINIMUM QUANTITY OR RE ORDERING LEVEL
When the inventory levels of a product reaches the minimum quantity, additional supplies of that product must
be ordered.
MAXIMUM QUANTITY is the greatest number or amount of a product that should be in stock at any given
time. Maximum levels are established so that the cash is not tied up in unnecessary inventory. The shelf life of a
product also affects the maximum quantity that can be stored.
Factors other than a property’s minimum/maximum levels may affect the quantity of the products purchased.
Some of these factors are-
• Changing prices
• Available storage facility
• Storage and handling cost
• Waste and spoilage concern.
• Theft and pilferage concern.
• Market conditions
• Quantity discounts
• Minimum order requirements imposed by suppliers. Transportation and delivery problems
• Order costs.
After the quantities needed are determined, minimum of three suppliers are called. Each is asked to quote a
current price for the items needed. Each supplier has a copy of the purchase specifications for these products so
that each supplier is quoting a price for the same quality of the product.
After all the suppliers are contacted, the manager has two choices. The order to the supplier can be given with
the lowest total price for all the products or the order can be awarded on an item-by-item basis.
Pay the right price-
Perhaps the most important purchasing objective is to obtain products and services at the right price. This is not
necessarily the lowest price. Often with the bargain price there is a gamble that the product may not be delivered
or may not be of proper quality.
There are many techniques that can be used to reduce purchasing costs. Professional purchasers know how and
when to practice these techniques. Some of these are-
• Negotiate with the seller- bargaining is a well established practice. However for each product there is a
price below which a supplier will not go. This part is determined in part by prices charged by other suppliers, the
suppliers operating costs and the extent to which the supplier controls the market.
• Consider purchasing lower quality products.
• Combine orders- if fewer suppliers are used and each gets more of the purchase orders, prices may be
decreased through volume purchases.
• Pay cash- a supplier experiencing temporary cash flow problems may offer a lower price for cash
transactions.
• Speculate about price trends- if you think prices will decrease, purchase lower quantities until the prices
stabilizes at a lower rate. If you think prices will rise, you may want to purchase now.
• Change the purchase unit size- product cost per unit may be less as larger purchase units are received.
• Be innovative- cooperative purchases or competitive bidding procedures may reduce prices.
• Taking advantage of suppliers promotional discounts.
• Bypass the supplier- purchase directly from the distributor, manufacturer or grower.
Deal with the right supplier-
Experienced purchasers realize that factors other than price should be considered when a supplier is selected.
These factors are-
• Supplier’s location- a close location shortens the delivery time.
• Supplier’s facilities- a visit can help the purchaser determine sanitation levels, processing procedures
and how interested the suppliers staff members are in providing good service to the operation.
• Financial stability- investigate the financial soundness of potential suppliers.
• Honesty and fairness- the suppliers reputation and business practices can reveal these qualities.
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• Dependability- many purchasers are willing to pay higher prices to suppliers who meet the operations
quality and delivery schedules.
SECURITY CONCERNS DURING PURCHASING-
In small properties where the owner is responsible for purchasing, there is less concern about theft. As operations
grow, more people become involved and the chances of theft increases.
There are many ways purchasers may choose to steal from an operation.
• They may purchase items for their own use and include them in the billing of the operation.
• They may take kick backs
• Set up fictitious companies-
RECEIVING
In small operations, the same person , generally a manager , if not the owner may be responsible for receiving as
well. When this person is the owner there is little reason to worry about theft.
As operations grow the receiving and the purchasing duties are split.
SPACE AND EQUIPMENT
In some operations, the receiving area is a little more than a wide space in the hallway. In fact a space should be
set aside to permit a proper review of all the incoming products.
The receiving area should be located near the delivery door to restrict the access of delivery persons to other
areas.
Every product should be weighed, counted or measured.
In addition to the scales, other necessities include transport equipment to move products to the storages areas, a
desk or a file cabinet to house receiving documents, a calculator to check order calculations and other small
equipment such as thermometer, a clipboard and supplies for marking the incoming products.
ACCEPTING FOOD DELIVERIES
1. Checking against your records and against the supplier’s note.
i. Have you received the items you have ordered ?
ii. Are the quantity and the quality those which were specified?
iii. This will involve counting boxes, cartons and so forth as well as examining the contents.
iv. Weigh fresh meats, fish, vegetables and other items
2. With a temperature probe , check the temperature of the outer layer of all chilled and frozen foods. Foods
not in the acceptable range of temperature shpuld be rejected.
3. Fresh fish should be well iced. Fresh shellfish such as lobsters and crabs , bi molluscs should be brought
alive.
4. Check the packaging is intact. Chilled and frozen food should be labeled with the name of the company,
description of the food , weight, product code, use-by date and ingredient list.
REJECTING GOODS
• Any goods which do not correspond with what was ordered will in most cases will have to be returned.
• This is best done at the time of delivery and most suppliers will accept returned goods provided they are
notified of the reason without delay.
• Make sure that both you and the delivery person have a record of returned goods. This may be on both
copies of the delivery note , on the order copy, or by asking the delivery person to make out a returns form or
credit note.
• There has to be some means of making sure that returned goods are not subsequently paid for.
THE RECEIVING PROCESS
There are six steps to follow when receiving products.
STEP 1- inspect the incoming products against the purchase order. This document identifies the product,
quantity, unit cost and the total cost of the order. In addition a purchase order may include other contractual
information such as guarantees, warranties, payment terms and inspection rights.
Receiving employees are provided with copies of the purchase orders so they know what products are to be
received and they can refuse those items that were not ordered.
STEP 2- inspect incoming products against the purchase specifications to confirm that the quality of the
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incoming products meet the operation standards. While this step is critical, it is often overlooked. As receiving
personnel gain experience, they learn how to accept and reject the goods.
STEP 3- inspect the incoming consignment against the delivery invoice. Verification is important as the Rupee
amount indicated on the delivery invoice will become the amount the property owes the supplier once the invoice
has been signed.
If the product is not delivered for various reasons , a request for credit memo should be completed to adjust the
amount of money due to the supplier. This memo should be signed by the delivery person and a copy attached
to the delivery invoice. The accounting department should be sure to pay the adjusted , not the original , amount
on the delivery invoice.
STEP 4- accept the products. The receiving clerk accepts the products for the operation by signing the delivery
invoice.
STEP 5- move products to the storage for quality and security reasons. It is a poor practice to allow the suppliers
delivery person to place items in storage.
STEP 6- complete the daily receiving report or other forms as required. The daily receiving report helps an
operation keep track of the suppliers who made deliveries that day and what they delivered.
STORAGE FOR FOOD AND BEVERAGE OPERATION
STORAGE involves arranging goods in specified areas within spaces earmarked for particular materials till they
are required for use.
In any catering establishment the manner in which food, equipment and cleaning material are handled, is of
utmost importance, considering that 40-60 percent of the costs in any operation are incurred on them.
Well planned storage spaces help to prevent losses of food and material through spoilage, spillage or pilferage,
all of which can erode the profit margins.
The planning of storage spaces depends on three basic factors-
1. Nature of food to be stored
2. Quantities in which food is stored.
3. Length of time for which they are stored before use.
LOCATION OF STORAGE SPACE
The storage should be located as near the point of use as possible. Or transit stores or satellite stores be made
near the operational areas.
Stores are best situated on the east or north east side of a building to prevent the heat from the mid day sun
affecting the storage temperatures. It is at the designing stage that care has to be taken to ensure that the storage
space are not located over or near a boiler, or have steam or hot water pipes running through them or under them,
concealed or otherwise.
Storage spaces are worked out on the following considerations-
• Degree of perishability of the stored products.
• Rate of turnover of the commodity.
TYPES OF STORAGE
pending on the speed with which food spoils they are classified as
• Perishables- meat, fish, poultry, milk and milk products, butter, cream, cheese, fruit and vegetables, cooked
food, eggs
• Semi-perishables- cereals , pulses and their products, roasted nuts, fried products, oil products, cakes, biscuits,
citrus fruit, partially or wholly prepared food.
• Non-perishables- all preserved foods, whole pulses, cereals, legumes, sugars, hydrogenated fats, oils, ghee,
tea, coffee, cocoa, spices, condiments, essences.
DRY STORAGE
• It is the place for storage of dry ingredients , usually stored at room temperatures of 20-25 degrees C.
• If the outside temperatures are too high as in the tropical countries, then the temperature of the store may
have to be brought down by air cooling the store.
• The storage should be dry , cool, well ventilated and free from infestation.
• The space for dry storage must be large enough to hold stocks of a commodity for one to three months,
according to its frequency of use.
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• This will depend largely on the type and size of the establishment, catering policy, buying procedures, menus,
the forms in which the food is bought.
• Dry storage is good for non-perishables and semi perishable , the latter being stored for a shorter duration.
Dry stores may be divided into 5 categories-
1. FOOD STORE- this is mainly for the storage for semi and non perishables. Some semi perishables like
under ripe fruit and root vegetables require separate ventilated storage facility . these temperatures can be
maintained from 10-18 degrees C .
2. STORE FOR CLEANING SUPPLIES- this must be separate from any food stores as it includes
detergents and washing powders of all kinds, brushes, mops etc.
3. EQUIPMENT STORE- this stores all the spare kitchen equipment, service equipment, spare parts etc.
4. SILVER STORE- this is for the service linen, stationery, crockery, cutlery, glassware .
5. TRASH STORE- this is the storage space for waste materials from all points of production such as
delivery point, storage, service and clearing up areas.
In small properties , with limited menus, the dry store may include a single limited space for storing all types of
commodities. In such cases care must be taken to ensure that the food, equipment and detergents are placed in
separate cabinets or atleast on different shelves, clearly labeled.
COLD STORAGE
The principles underlying the designing of cold temperature storage is to maintain temperature at levels which
will inhibit the growth of micro organisms, there by preserving the food.
At higher temperatures , microbial activity gets accelerated because perishable foods have a high moisture
content, providing just the right conditions for the microbial growth.
There are three types of low temperature storage
1. Refrigerated storage
2. Cold storage
3. Deep freezer storage
REFRIGERATED STORAGE-
It is the storage space planned and maintained at a temperature between 0-10 degrees C . it can be in the form of
a complete room or a cabinet which is freestanding or fixed in the wall. Such storages are necessary for
maintaining the quality of all the perishable foods for 3-5 days only, after which certain changes start taking
place in the food due to enzymatic or microbial activity. A number of sizes of refrigerated systems are now
available to suit each need. Frost free and automated defrost models are now available for the ease of cleaning.
• Keep food covered in the refrigerated storage to prevent them from drying and loss of moisture.
• The space required for refrigeration depends on the volume of the business , the type of menus along
with the accuracy of forecasts of sales.
COLD STORAGE
Is the one in which the temperature is maintained between 0-5 degrees C , thereby reducing the enzyme activity
to the minimum. Such storage is also called chill rooms and can hold perishables for over a week and in the case
of fruit and vegetables, even upto a month depending on the stage of ripeness and variety.
DEEP FREEZER STORAGE
In freezer storage the temperature varies from -20 t0 0 degrees C .
• For successful storage, it is necessary to blanch the vegetables, chill quickly to freezing temperatures
and pack in air tight containers, in smaller quantities.
• A food removed from the freezer must never be kept back after thawing.
• Freezer storage may be in the form of a room or a cabinet.
TEMPERATURES RECOMMENDED FOR PERISHABLES
S. No PERISHABLES STORAGE TEMP.
1 Fruit and vegetables 1-7 degrees C
2 Dairy products 3-8 degrees C
3 Meat and poultry -1 to 3 degrees C
4 Fish and shellfish -5 to -1 degrees C
5 Frozen foods -18 to -6 degrees C
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PLANNING STORAGE SPACES

Storage space can be planned taking into account a number of considerations
• Type of catering business
• Volume of business
• Dependence of the operation on the frozen or fresh commodities.
• Proximity to the supply source.
• Nature of the menu
• Purchasing policy of the establishment.
LAYOUT OF THE STORES
• Every store layout must aim at reducing mental and physical strain, time and effort in locating items when
required, or placing them correctly on receiving.
• Depending on the size of the store, a reception platform at the delivery point helps to prevent excessive
lifting.
• A make-up counter in the centre is often necessary for holding commodities before they can be arranged in
their assigned places or issued directly to the user department.
• The commodities can be arranged in order of frequency of use
• There should also be sufficient clearance between items to allow them to be easily reached.
STRUCTURAL FEATURES
• The ceiling of the store should be at least 4 meters high with a provision for proper lighting and ventilation.
• Enamel painted walls and ceilings with concrete floors or heavy tiles are recommended to with stand wear
and tear.
• They should be easy to clean, damp proof to prevent microbial infestation and spoilage of foods.
• All fittings in the storage should be easy to dismantle for easy cleaning of the fittings.
• It is preferable to have metal racks and should be placed in a way to have easy access.
• There should be a provision of scales in the stores for weighing the ingredients.
• Proper exhausts and fresh air systems should be provided for ample uninterrupted supply of fresh air.
SANITATION OF THE STORES
• Dry stores should be fly proofed, vermin proofed and pest proof, to safe guard against infestations and
contaminations.
• To maintain satisfactory standards of hygiene and sanitation , it is necessary to keep stores neat and clean to
prevent attack of food by the bacteria and molds. Therefore regular cleaning schedules for the stores are to be
maintained.
BASIC GUIDELINES FOR STORAGE
• Inspect incoming foods for signs of damage, spoilage or infestations before storing.
• Arrange food systematically, so that the old stocks are used first.
• All open packages should be put in covered, air tight containers before re-storing.
• Foods of similar types are to be stored together.
• Staff should be in clean uniforms and should observe rules of personal hygiene while food handling.
SAFETY AND SECURITY OF THE STORES
• Stores stock items of daily use which are vulnerable to pilferage and theft. Therefore proper security
measures need to be incorporated at the planning stage.
• Stores have a lot of money blocked in stocks so they need the safety and security measures from-
1. Infestation or contamination
2. Theft or pilferage
3. Microbial spoilage
4. Fire
SOME IMPORTANT GUIDELINES FOR THE SAFETY
• Have minimum inlets or outlets to the stores. All windows and doors to be well closed and guarded.
There should be only one entry to the stores.
• Never leave the door open or unlocked or unmanned.
• There should be the fixed timings for the issues of the stores.
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• Safety locks must be fixed and the keys to the stores should be kept under the safe and in the custody of
a single charge.
• Safety devices such as built in alarm systems, gas leakages and theft are now available .
• A guard on 24 hour duty is of utmost importance
• Limited access- allow only authorized persons to enter the store area.
• Effective inventory control procedures-
BASIC STORAGE PROCEDURES THAT SAFEGUARD QUALITY
• Rotate food stocks – the concept of FIFO should be the rule of the thumb.
• Storing foods at proper temperatures.
• Cleaning of the storage areas.
• Ensuring proper ventilation and circulation of the fresh air.
RECORDKEEPING
Food service managers must keep track of the quantity and value of the products in the stores.
Managers must know what is in inventory in order to know what should be ordered.
The value of products in the inventory is used to calculate the cost of goods sold when income statements are
developed.
Food costs are determined by assessing the value of the products taken from storage.
Record keeping is also important in controlling thefts.
There are two different systems for tracking inventory.
PERPETUAL INVENTORY SYSTEM- this allows managers to track items in storage on an ongoing basis.
As food enters the stores, the running balance increases and is noted in the inventory form.
On the presentation of the requisition , the food is withdrawn. The running balance decreases.
At any time, the record tells us the stocks in hand.
• Perpetual inventory records tell managers the quantity of each product that should be in store.
• This amount must be confirmed at regular intervals by a monthly count and a physical inventory.
• Any discrepancies will highlight the quality of storekeeping.
• For control purposes, the person conducting the physical inventory should not be the one who is
maintaining the perpetual inventory.
• Often it is easier if two people take the physical inventory.
PHYSICAL INVENTORY SYSTEM-when a physical inventory system is used , the operation does not keep
track of what is added and subtracted from the inventory on an ongoing basis, An advantage of this system is
that it avoids the time and the costs involved in the written inventory system.
A PRACTICAL APPROACH – since there is an advantage and disadvantage to each system, managers at many
operations use both to keep a track.
REDUCING INVENTORY COSTS
Cash flow problems and quality problems can occur when inventory levels are too high. The following
procedures can help-
• Have a smaller stock- this may be possible if you can obtain more frequent deliveries and purchase
smaller quantities.
• Be sure that required levels of inventory are correct. Periodically examine minimum/maximum inventory
levels to make sure they are set properly.
• Decrease the number of product types that the operation carries.
• Refuse to accept early deliveries.
INVENTORY MANAGEMENT SOFTWARE
This software is the most important part of an operation ‘s computer system. All the data can be entered and
updated in the computer systems .
The most important inventory programs are those that track items in terms of both unit and cost or unit and cost.
A system that tracks items by unit may be able to report changes in stock levels but may not be able to provide
financial data necessary for food costing.
A system that tracks items primarily by product cost may not facilitate spot checks of items in storage or maintain
perpetual inventory data.
The most effective inventory programs are those that track items in terms of both unit and cost.
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QUALITY CONTROL & ORGANOLEPTIC EVALUATION
QUALITY OF FOOD
The edible parts of the plants and animals be termed as food. The purpose of meeting the needs of the body for
the growth and maintenance – foods are placed into 3 categories.
1. Energy giving- carbohydrates and fats
2. Body building & maintenance- proteins
3. Protective- Minerals & vitamins
It is universally accepted fact that the nutritional value of food is not primarily what makes people eat. It is-
• Its color
• Flavour
• Texture
• Taste
• Temperature.
• Presentation
• Its seasonal availability in the region
• The climate
TYPES OF FOOD IN THE MARKET

1. Natural Food- available in natural forms as received from the natural resources- farms, forests, orchards,
water resources.
2. Processed Food- are those which have undergone some type of treatment or a large/ small scale before
they are used as food ingredients.
Cereals- milled ( flours, porridge, semolina )
Fruit- jams, juices, jellies, tinned fruits
Vegetables- frozen, pureed
Convenience foods- ready to eat foods
Meats- processed meats
Canned and preserved foods
• It is important to maintain the quality of food being served in the service industry
• Foods differ in their quality from season to season.
• Foods differ according to the varieties, breeds and feeds.
• Foods differ in their freshness.
• Foods differ in taste according to the soils and the climatic conditions.
Therefore, controlling the quality is a great challenge to every caterer irrespective of the nature of the food.
WHAT IS QUALITY ?
It is hard to define the term quality in regards to food as there are many yardsticks for the quality aspect of the
food.
Quality from caterer view point would include-
• Palatability characteristics of food- which can be masked, enhanced by the use of additives and other
ingredients.
• Their wholesomeness and being safe for consumption.
• It is necessary to lay down the standards for the quality of food and be able to control them at every stage
of productive cycle.
Quantitative aspect of quality-
• It is based on the quantity / number of food to be served or portion in grammage.
• For caterers it provides the means of cost control, by controlling portions, numbers, weights, volumes
of the food being served.
• It gives value for money for the consumers.
• Numbers can be controlled manually or mechanically
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• Weight/volume- by the use of scales, slicing machines, measuring equipment, scoops, ladles, spoons,
cups, which can be standardized.
• Shape- the shape can be controlled by the use of moulds, trays or the use of grading machines.
Sensory Quality
These refers to those characters of food which can be identified by the use of our senses.
1. Appearance- the food is ‘ first eaten by eyes’ even before we can taste it. If the food does not look good
, it will be rejected even before it is tasted.
2. Color- food get their color in many ways-
• From natural pigments in the plants and animals. These are sensitive to changes through chemical and
physical means.
• They change their color due to degree of handling.
• Due to exposure to air, sunlight, difference in temperature.
• Cooking time and cooking temperature.
• Effect of heat on sugar- sugars when heated turn brown, caramelize, imparting a brown color to the foods
that contains it. The color of candies, toasted bread, caramelized bakery products.
• Chemical reactions- the amino group from proteins combine with aldehydes/ keytones from
carbohydrates and sugars lead to darkening of the colors. This is called mailard browning, as in the case of milk
heated to condense , roasted meats , nuts.
• Oxidation- foods have certain chemicals which on contact with air get converted to oxidized form-
darkening of cut fruit and vegetables such as apples, banana, egg plant, pears, potatoes. Also tea turns dark on
keeping. These reactions get activated in the present of iron and copper ions, thus if cut with an iron knife the
reaction becomes faster.
• Ripeness or extent of cooking- is also responsible for different colors of the same food. Also menus
which show a variety of colors and textures are highly accepted.
3. Flavour-
➢ Once the eyes are satisfied, the sensory organs- nose and mouth, takes over. This is called the flavour.
➢ Flavour relates to the combined sensation of aroma, taste and mouthfeel.
➢ Several compounds are present in the food and are very sensitive to oxidation and high temperatures and
produce different flavours.
➢ Flavours generally deteriorate with handling, processing, storing and therefore no food tastes as good as
fresh food.
➢ Flavour acceptance or rejection is influenced by culture, religion and regional food habits.
4. Taste
➢ The next sensory test of quality is the taste. This is the reaction of the taste buds to the food determining
whether it is sweet, sour, salty or bitter.
5. Mouthfeel-
Depending on how the food feels in the mouth, it may be enjoyed or rejected. The most attractive dishes with
great flavours can be rejected from the mouth if the chilli component is too high or if the feel is slimy as in the
case of lady fingers.
The most favourite foods may be rejected if they are too slippery, sticky or hard to bite into- caramelized sugar
products.
6. Texture- is determined both by mouth feel and perception. A baked pudding will have harder texture as
compared to steamed one.
Rough, smooth, grainy, coarse, fine, viscous spongy, crisp are some of the textures related to the food.
Right texture of the food plays an important role in its acceptance.
NUTRITIONAL QUALITY
• The foods served to the consumer should be nutritionally wholesome and balanced.
• Care should be taken to avoid nutritional losses throughout the production chain.
• This can be achieved by -
➢ Using freshest of ingredients
➢ proper handling and storage
➢ Using proper methods of cooking
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➢ By making balanced menus.
QUALITY CONTROL STEPS

1. Pick up the freshest and good quality ingredients from the good supplier.
2. Receiving, storing and issuing good using the best procedures.
3. Processing the ingredients at the time of cooking helps in the major quality control through time and
temperature controls.
4. Holding the food after preparations after preparation or serving it will help in the quality control.
5. Use of personal hygiene throughout the food handling process.
6. Following the principles of HACCP will go a long way in maintaining the right quality of the food till it
reaches the consumer.
METHODS OF RETAINING NUTRITIVE VALUE AND QUALITY OF FOOD –
1. Peeling- thickness of the peel determines the extent of nutritional loss. Do not throw the peels. They can be
used in the stocks.
2. Washing after peeling results in the loss of water soluble vitamins.
3. Washing after cutting results in higher loss of vitamins.
4. The water used for dipping vegetables or used for boiling them, should not be thrown but used as stocks or in
gravies and sauces.
5. Large cuts of vegetables / fruit/ meats result in less losses through oxidation.
6. Cook food in least amount of water. Don’t throw the boiling liquid. It can be used as a
stock.
7. Cook food in the shortest possible time to protect the vitamins like B- complex, which gets destroyed by heat.
8. Avoid high temperatures as it denatures proteins.
9. Holding food also results in nutritional losses.
10. Be careful of the danger zone- 5 degrees C to 63 degrees C.
11. Germination of pulses, cereals and legumes, improves vitamin b and vitamin C.
12. Fermentation with the yeast reactivity increases the vitamin B complex.
13. Supplementation- foods cooked in combos such as cereal- vegetables, wheat- milk, cereal – pulses,
cereal- eggs, fruit- cereal- milk, gives the balanced proteins and proportionate nutrients.
14. Use of alkali such as soda bicarbonate, while cooking, result in nutritive losses.
1. CHECKING FOODS FOR QUALITY-

• When the food ingredients/ products are received, then they need to be checked for their quality and
quantity as per the purchase specifications.
• Specifications can also be developed for processing the foods. Example- laying down standards for the
thickness of the peels, using the correct methods of cooking, using standardized recipes, using standardized
temperature and time controls.
• Use of standardized recipes can produce the food as per the standards expected or laid down.
• Service of the food or holding of the food as per the standardized procedures.
2. TESTING THE FINISHED PRODUCTS—sensory evaluation of food

The importance of testing finished products, before being presented to the guest cannot be ruled out.
The food is tested for its –
• Appearance
• Palatability
• Consistency and texture
• Portion
• Serving temperature
• Color
If on testing ant discrepancies are found from the standards, immediate action is to be taken before it is to be
served.
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ORGANOLEPTIC EVALUATION OF FOOD &BEVERAGE

What is ORGANOLEPTIC?
Organoleptic refers to the involving of sense organs in evaluation of foods, it relates to the perception
by sensory organs. Evaluating with the senses of sight, taste and smell for foods and is used particularly
of the combination of taste, texture and astringency (perceived by the mouth) and aroma (perceived in
the nose).
Cookery brings all the senses into Play :
Sight: In the recognition of commodities and the eye appeal in the presentation of dishes.
Smell: In the testing of the freshness of food and identifying the various cooking smells.
Taste: An important field and one allied to small, testing for flavour cooking smaller.
Touch: In the whole field of manual density, the use of the hands, in sampling or testing of food for
freshness, texture and other factors.
Hearing: In Communication and listening to food being cooked, recognizing if the cooking process is too fast
or slow.
Kinesthesia: It is the sixth sense. A general term involving the coordination of sense in Performing a task.
The Knowledge and the recognition on an unconscious level , this being achieved by proficiency.
The preparation of dishes involves a mode of procedure which we know as a recipe. This is cooking to a formula.
A recipe is defined as a statement of ingredients and procedure for a dish. To a recipe, there are three
operations the list of ingredients, the method and the Presentation of the dish for Service.
Sensory evaluation is an invaluable tool to Quality Control as well as Research and Development.
Customers perceive product quality with their senses, and as a result, organoleptic evaluations are an
essential component of any Quality Control evaluations. All of the technical, chemical and
microbiological parameters of a product may well be within specification, but if the product fails to
meet sensory expectations, or performs poorly against a competitor, product sales and brand image
may well suffer. Organoleptic evaluations can also be used to develop sensory profiles when
developing new products. There are three types of testing:
EFFECTIVE TESTING
This type of testing is concerned with obtaining objective facts about products. This could range from
basic discrimination testing (e.g. Do two or more products differ from each other?) to descriptive
profiling (e.g. What are the characteristics of two or more products?). The type of panel required for
this type of testing would normally be a trained panel.
Methods for collection and statistical analysis of sensory data include Free choice profiling, and
Generalized procrustes analysis
AFFECTIVE TESTING
Also known as consumer testing, this type of testing is concerned with obtaining subjective data, or
how well products are likely to be accepted. Usually large (50 or more) panels of untrained personnel
are recruited for this type of testing, although smaller focus groups can be utilised to gain insights
into products. The range of testing can vary from simple comparative testing (e.g. which do you
prefer, A or B?) to structured questioning regarding the magnitude of acceptance of individual
characteristics (e.g. Please rate the "fruity aroma": dislike|neither|like).
Perception
Perception involves the biochemical and psychological theories relating to human (and animal)
sensations. By understanding the mechanisms involved it may be possible to explain why certain
characteristics are preferred over others.
Descriptive analysis involves trained panels (6-30 people) who evaluate products by rating the
intensity of various characteristics on a scale. Statistical analyses are applied to look for differences
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among various products for characteristics of interest.

Consumer testing (sometimes called 'hedonic testing') involves having potential consumers of a
product evaluate various products and a small number of items on a ballot.
Sensory Evaluation: What is it?

"Sensory" is derived from the Latin "sensus" (= sense) and therefore, "sensory evaluation" is the
description and evaluation of food products using the human senses. Accordingly, sensory evaluation
is an analytical method in which the human senses serve as a measurement tool to determine the
quality and/or to describe the condition of a food product. Prerequisites for the success of this
analytical process include: standardization of methods, regular training and performance
measurement of testers, a statistical evaluation of test results; and a standardization of terms.
All sensory testing methods are divided into three categories: hedonistic, comparative and descriptive
testing. Hedonistic tests are always used within the scope of consumer tests and serve to characterize
consumer behavior. On the other hand, comparative and descriptive sensory tests are referred to as
"expert tests" because they may only be carried out by trained persons and can give very detailed
information about individual product parameters. Selection of a sensory testing method must always
take into account the test objective.
One main objective of sensory evaluation is the measurement of sensory attributes and the
quantification of the influence of these attributes on consumer acceptance. This aspect is becoming
increasingly important because of the interrelationship between enjoyment value and repurchases
behavior. Sensory attributes are directly linked to the concept of quality and thereby ultimately
contribute to the success or failure of a product.
Organaloptic and sensory evaluation play a very important role in research and development in
analyzing new dishes, allows us to understand consumer behavior towards a new dish, facilitates
management decision in choosing which new dishes or menus to be introduced, helps management in
standardizing menus and dishes and is an important tool for the organization.
ORGANOLEPTIC EVALUATION AND SURPRISE AUDIT

Vendor’s name-
Venue-
Date-
Attitude Uniforms Crockery Service Kit & Food Temp. Taste total
Of And Cutlery standards Food Eye &
service personal And hygiene appeal Flavour
Staff grooming glassware
15 10 10 15 15 15 10 10 100
REMARKS-
NAME OF EVALUATER SIGNATURES
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GLOSSARY
1. A l’anglaise (Fr): Phase meaning literally “according to English style, often employed to describe a
process branding food prior to frying by dipping it successively in flour, eggs and breadcrumbs; also
applies to meat or poultry cooked in white stock or water
2. A la (Fr): Phase a meaning prepared according to the certain style or accompanied with certain
garnish.
3. A la Carte: menu term for items each for which is individually priced and may be made to order rather
then a complete meal
4. A la king: Dish of diced cooked chicken sweet peppers and mushroom in a Veloute sauce (see
Veloute).
5. A’la : In the style of
6. A’la carte : Dishes cooked to order; Bill of Fare from which the diner selects the individual dishes.
7. A’la crème : Served with cream or cream based sauce.
8. A’langlaise : In the English style.
9. Acidulated water : The addition of lemon juice or vinegar to cold water, which prevents discoloration
of some fruits and vegetables.
10. Aged beef: Applies generally to cuts used for steaks or roasts which when raw are kept under
controlled refrigerator temperature and humidity for 2 to 3 weeks during which enzymatic action
improves tenderness and changes flavor because of weight loss during aging beef thus treated coasts
more then untagged beef.
11. Al dente : Cooked but firm to taste.
12. Al dente: cooked but firm to taste
13. Ala crème: served with cream or cream based sauce.
14. Ala diable : The French way of saying “devilled”, in other words, and very hot or highly seasoned dish.
15. Ala diable: The French way of saying “devilled” in other words and varies hot or highly seasoned dish.
16. Allemande (Fr): Veloute sauce enriched with cream and egg yolks
17. Allspice: Single spice most of which comes from island of Jamaica resembling other spices such as
nutmeg and cloves; in whole or ground form; used in meats dishes and desserts.
18. Allumettes (Fr): strips of deep fried potato, between French fries and julienne, in size also vary light
pastry cut into strips and filled like appetizer.
19. Allumettes : Vegetable sticks to the matchstick length.
20. Amandine : Cooking or coating with almonds.
21. Amandine: Served with toasted and sautéed almonds cut into thin strips or slices.
22. Anchovy: Vary thin small fish, fillets of which are salted and packed in olive oil or salted and sold
dried.
23. Antipasto: Term literally meaning “before the meal” used to describe appetizers.
24. Arrow root: starch made from grinding the root of an American plant of the same name. Mainly used
for thickening sauces.
25. Arrowroot : Starch made with grinding the root of an American plant of the same name. Mainly used for thickening
sauces.
26. Aspic: Jelly of clear soup or stock used to bind or coat cold foods
27. Au blue : Cooked immediately after being caught will turn blue.
28. Au four : baked in the oven
29. Au gratin : Cooked food, covered with a sauce, sprinkles with crumbs or grated cheese, dotted with butter and
browned under grill.
30. Aublue: cooked immediately after being caught will turn blue.
31. Augratin: Phrase meaning with a brown crust of ten of grated cheese or bread crumbs.
32. Bain marie : A large pan of hot water, or bath in which a smaller pan is placed for cooking contents or to keep
food warm.
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33. Barbecue : Heat basted with highly seasoned sauce.

34. Bard: To cover lean meat, poultry, and game with thin strips of fat (usually pork fat) to prevent excessive drying
during cooking.
35. Barquette : A boat shaped pastry tartlet, filled with chicken, vegetables, oysters etc.
36. Batter : A mixture a flour and liquid such as milk, egg etc. of such consistency that can be beaten or stirred.
37. Bearnise : A rich sauce resembling hollandaise sauce, made from butter, egg yolk, and vinegar and flavoured with
peppercorns, shallot chervil and tarragon.
38. Beating : Mixing food to introduce air, to make it lighter and fluffier, using wooden spoon, hand whisk or electrical
mixer.
39. Bechamel : A rich white sauce.
40. Beignets : Pancake batter fried in deep fat or fritters of different kinds.
41. Beurre manie : Equal quantities of flour and butter used for thickening sauces.
42. Beurre Noir : Browned butter.
43. Binding : Adding eggs, cream, melted fat or roux panada to a dry mixture top hold it together.
44. Biseue : A rich thick, cream soup, usually made from shellfish.
45. Blanching : Boiling briefly.
46. Blanquette : White stew made of w. sauce and meat without first browning.
47. Blending : Combining ingredients with a spoon, beater or liquidizer to achieve a uniform mixture.
48. Blinis : Pancake made of buckwheat and yeast, and traditionally served with caviar and sour cream.
49. Bombe glace : A mould lined with one kind of icecream and then filled with icecream of a different filling.
50. Bonbon : Sugar confectionary sweets.
51. Boning : Removing bones of meat, poultry, game or fish. Bain marie: Double boiler or steam table a
table with water pan partially filled with hot water maintained at a fixed temperature for keeping pots
or pans of food hot during meal service; pots which fit into steam table are called Bain marie pots
which may also be used as double boilers for cooking such as hollandaise sauce or other food requiring
gentle heat.
52. Borsteh : Russian soup containing beetroot.
53. Bouchee : Small puff pastry case baked and filled with savoury or sweet mixture.
54. Bouillon : Unclarified broth or stock made from fresh meat.
55. Bouquet garni : A bunch of herbs ties in a muslin cloth, used for flavouring of soups and stews.
56. Bourguignonne : In the style of burgundy e.g. cooked in red wine.
57. Braising : Browning in hot fat and then cooking slowly, in a covered pot, with vegetables and a little liquid.
58. Brine : Salt and water solutions used for picking and preserving.
59. Brioche : Soft bread made of rich yeast dough, slightly sweetened.
60. brisket used for chopped dish stews and braised dishes.
61. Brule : Applied to dishes such as cream custards finished with caramelized sugar glaze.
62. Brush : A thin even coating of beaten egg or milk applied to pastry, buns etc just before putting in the oven.
63. Canape : Small pieces of toast, fried bread or pastry on which little savouries are served.
64. Canneloni : Small pastry rolls filled with mince.
65. Canon : A castrated male chicken, it grows large and has a tender meat.
66. Caponata : Sicilian dish of fish, aubergines, tomatoes, onions, capers and black olives.
67. Carte dujour : Menu of the day.
68. Cartilage: connective tissue of meat or poultry also called as gristle
69. Casserole : A baking dish with a well fitted lid used for cooking stews etc.
70. Cassolette : A kind of hot hors d’oeuvre moulded to shape of a small drums
71. Caviar: Roe (egg) of sturgeon fish.
72. Cepes : A kind of mushroom.
73. Cepes :: Heating sugar till it turns brown.
74. Cereals : Grains such as wheat, including semolina, oats, barley, rye, rice etc.
75. Champignons : Mushrooms.
76. Chantilly : Whipped cream slightly sweetened and sometimes flavoured with vanilla.
77. Chapelure : Browned bread crumbs.
78. Charlotte : A sweet made of alternate layers of fruits an either bread crumbs or slices of bread and butter.
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79. Charlotte russe : Generally a mould lined with sponge cake or sponge fingers and filled with a mixture of cream,
fruit and jelly.
80. Charteaubraind : Head of the fillet of the beef.
81. Chartreuse : Mould of fruit, jelly or savoury mixture.
82. Chaudfroid : A cold sauce used for oating meat, game or fish.
83. Cheese fondue : Grated cheese melted in white wine, seasoned with pepper and flavoured at the last minute with
little kirsch.
84. Chemiser : To coat and item of food or line a mould with jelly.
85. Chiffonade : julienne of sorrel, lettuce etc.OR also a salad dressing with chopped hard egg with sweet peppers
86. Chilling : Cooling food, without freezing it in the refrigerator.
87. Chinois : A conical strainer.
88. Chipolata : A kind of a small sausage.
89. Chives: Slender green herbs with onion-loke flavor finally chopped for soups salads etc.
90. Choux : A kind of pastry.
91. Chowder : An American soup made with pickled pork, shellfish, potatoes and other vegetables.
92. Chowder: Thick soup with potato and other veg.
93. Chuck: Cut of beef from fore part of animal excluding shank and
94. Cider vinegar: vinegar of fermented apple juice.
95. Cisel : Finely chopped vegetables.
96. Clarified butter : Butter cleared of water and impurities by slow melting and filtering.
97. Cleaver: heavy utensil with sharp blade for chopping bones or other hard substance.
98. Coagulate: to change from liquid to thick state.
99. Coat : To cover with a thin layer.
100. Cochineal : A red colouring matter.
101. Cocose : Butter made from coconut.
102. Cocotte : Small ovenproof earthenware, porcelain or metal dish used for baking individual egg dishes, mousses or
soufflés.
103. Coddled eggs: eggs in shells cooked in hot water removed from fire.
104. Coddling : Cooking slowly in simmering water. Applied to eggs.
105. Colander : Perforated metal or plastic basket used for draining away liquids.
106. Compote : Fruits stewed in syrup.
107. Compound butter: butter mixed with flouring compound chopped or pureed.
108. Concass : To blanch and chopped roughly.
109. Conde : Desserts made with rice; pastry biscuits topped with icing and glazed in the oven.
110. Condiments : Spices and seasonings.
111. Confiture : Jam and fruit preserves.
112. Conserve : Whole fruit preserved by boiling with sugar and used like jam.
113. Consistency : The thickness and or texture of mixture, such as batter mixture.
114. Consomme : A light coloured clear soup.
115. Cordon blue : highly qualified cook.
116. Corn starch : Finely ground flour from maize, which is used for thickening sauces, puddings etc.
117. Cotelettes : Cutlets.
118. Coupe : A cream or water ice served with fruits.
119. Coupe: Term for ice cream dessert corresponding to American sundae consists of ice cream or ice with fruits,
sweet sauce whipped cream
120. Court Bouillon : A well flavoured cooking liquor for fish.
121. Cream fat : To beat fat with a wooden spoon until it is light and fluffy.
122. Crecy : Term used for dishes containing carrots.
123. Crème : Anything of the creamy consistency can be thus described.
124. Creme anglaise: Term for English custard cream, a cooked mixture of milk egg yolk, sugar, &flavoring agent
known in US as ‘custard sauce’
125. Crème vichyssoise :cold cream soup of pureed onion leaks and potato
126. Crèmefraiche : Cream that has been allowed to mature but not go sour.
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127. Creole : Of carribean cooking; prepared with pimentos, tomatoes, okra, rice, spicy sauces.
128. Crepe : Pancakes.
129. Crimping : Making a decorative border to pie crust; garnishing fresh steak, then soaking it in
cold water and vinegar before cooking, so that the flesh firms.
130. Croissants : A French rolls crisp and light.
131. Croquettes : Cooked foods moulded in small shapes, dipped in egg and crumbs and deep fried.
132. Croustade : Small crispy fried bread, or baked or pastry shape which is filled with a savoury mixture.
133. CrouteCrorton : Small squares of bread slices deep fried and served as garnish for soups.
134. Curd : Semi-solid part of milk, produced by souring.
135. Curdle : To cause fresh milk or sauce to separate into solid and liquid by overheating or by adding acid.
136. Cure : To preserve fish or meat by drying or salting or smoking.
137. Custard : A cooked or baked mixture made of milk and egg. It may be sweetened for dessert, or it may be
flavoured with cheese, fish etc as for entrée dish.
138. Cut and fold : To mix flour very gently into the mixture.
139. Dariole : Small, cupshaped mould used for making puddings, sweet and savoury jelliesand creams.
140. Deep-frying : Frying food or immersing it in hot fat or oil.
141. Deglacer : Diluting pan juices by adding wine / stock / cream to make gravy.
142. Dice : Cut into small pieces.
143. Dissolve : To melt a solid food in a liquid.
144. Dot : To put small bits of butter, cheese etc over the surface of a dish.
145. Dough : A mixture of a liquid, flour, etc kneaded together into a stiff paste or roll.
146. Dredge : To cover with a thin sprinkling.
147. Dressing : Sauce for a salad; and also stuffing for meat or poultry.
148. Dripping : Fat which drips from meat, poultry or game during roasting. Demiglaze: brown sauce+brown stock
reduced to half
149. Drumstick: leg of poultry
150. Dust : To sprinkle lightly with fine sugar, dried milk or flour.
151. Duxelle : A mixture of parsley, mushrooms and shallots used for
152. Éclair : Choux paste filled with custard or cream. Can be coated with chocolate.
153. Emince : Finely sliced or shredded.
154. Emulsion: Mixture of oily or fatty ingredients held in suspension of a liquid ex’ mayonnaise
155. Entrée : A dish served in the first part of a dinner, usually a made up dish with sauce. Or it can be the main dish
of a less formal meal.
156. Entremets : Hot or cold sweets.
157. Escalopes : Thin slices of meat dipped in egg and bread crumbs and then fried.
158. Espagnole : A rich brown sauce.
159. Estoaffade : Brown stock.
160. Faggot : Small savoury cake made of pork offal, onions and bread, usually baked.
161. Farce : Any kind of stuffing.
162. Farina : Fine flour made from wheat, nuts and potatoes.
163. Farle : Round oatmeal cake baked on a griddle.
164. Fecule : Starch flour, e.g. arrowroot, potatoes, rice, corn. Filet: strip of tender meat with bone and skin from fish
or meat.
165. Fennel : A fragnant herb used for flavouring sauces.
166. Filet mignon: A slice of beef fillet also called as tenderloin, thick enough to be broiled or sautéed.
167. Fillets : Cuts of fish, vealor beef or bird with bones removed.
168. Fines herbs : Mixture of finely chopped fresh parsley, chervil, terragon, and chives.
169. Flakes : separating cooked fish into individual flaky slivers, grating chocolate or cheese into slivers.
170. Flambe : Flamed e.g. food tossed in a pan to which burning brandy or other alcohol has been added.
171. Flan : A pastry case made in a flat tin and afterwards filled with a sweet or savour mixture.
172. flavouring sauces and purses or as a forcemeat.
173. Florentine : Of fish and eggs; served on a bed of buttered spinach and coated with cheese sauce. Thin pet t four
biscuits made of nuts, glace fruits and chocolate.
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174. Flounder: Flat fish with 300 species.

175. Fluke: species of summer flounder common in Atlantic coast.
176. Flute : A long crisp roll of bread (French) used to garnish soups or to serve with soup.
177. Flute: To cut parallel narrow strips of outside of food such as lemon or cucumbers. Also name of narrow long loaf
of French bread.
178. Folding in : Enveloping one ingredient or mixture in another, using a large metal spoon or spatula.
179. Fondue : Melted cheese and white wine dish into which diners dunk cubes of bread.
180. Fool : Cold dessert consisting of fruit puree and whipped cream.
181. Fouet : A whisk.
182. Fouetter : To whisk.
183. Frangipane : Confectionery custard.
184. Frappe : Sweetened fruit juice, half frozen.
185. Freezing : Solidifying or preserving food by chilling and storing it at 0oC
186. Fritters : Fruit, meat, vegetables or fish coated with batter and fried, usually in deep fat fry.
187. Friture : A frying kettle.
188. Frost : To coat a cake with an icing of confectioners sugar. To dip the rim of glass in egg white and caster sugar
then chill in a refrigerator until set.
189. Fumet : Concentrated stock or broth obtained from fish, meator poultry.
190. Garnish : To decorate.
191. Garniture : Decoration.
192. Gateaux : This can be a cake, and ice cream, or anything made in the shape of a cake an lavishly decorated.
193. Gelatine : A product made from refining cows hoofs. Used for jellies.
194. Genoise : A rich butter sponge used as a base for gateaux, and as a base for savoy fongers etc.
195. Ghee : Clarified butter made from the milk of the water buffalo.
196. Giblets: Heart, gizzard and liver of chicken or poultry.
197. Gill : Liquid measure equal to ¾ pint or 5 fluid oz.
198. Gizzard: Muscular stomach of chicken.
199. Glace : An ice.
200. Glaze : Meat glaze is made by reducing stock or gravy.
201. Gnocchi : Small dumplings made from semolina, potatoes or choux pastry.
202. Goujon : fish fingers.
203. Goulash : Hungarian meat stew flavoured with paprika&onion.
204. Granite : Sorbet.
205. Gratine : (see augartin).
206. Gratine : Water ice.
207. Gratinee: To brown a food sprinkled with cheese or breadcrumbs or a sauce
208. Gravy : Juices exuded by roasted meat and poultry. A sauce made from these juices by boiling with stock or wine
and sometimes thickened with flour.
209. Grecque : In the Greek style – Cooked in stock with olive oil. Dishes garnished with savory rice and dressed with
oil and vinegar.
210. Griddle: Flat metal plate used to bake breads and cakes on the top of the stove.
211. Grissini : Breadsticks.
212. Gristle: Tough cartilage of meat or poultry.
213. Groats : De-husked grain, especially oats, sometimes milled.
214. Gugelhupf : Sweetened yeast cake with dried fruit, baked in a fluted ring mould.
215. Ham: Thigh of pork (fresh /smoked)
216. Hamburger : Minced meat patty which is fried or grilled served in a soft round bun.
217. Hardsauce : Sweet butter sauce flavoured with brandy, rum ,whisky, which is chilled until hard and melts
when served on hot puddings.
218. Haricot : A type of stew, literally ‘beans’.
219. Hollandaise : A rich sauce of Dutch origin, made by emulsion method.
220. Hors d’oeuvres : Small savory tidbits, usually cold, served as an appetizer at the beginning of the meal.
221. Indienne : A dish served in Indian style
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222. Infusion : The liquid extraction derived from steeping a substance such as coffee, tea, cocoa etc.
223. Irish Coffee : Coffee flavoured with irish whisky and topped with thick cream.
224. Jardinaire : Garnish of vegetable.
225. Jardiniere: Assortment of fresh vegetables in dice or fancy shape.
226. Joint : Prime cut of meat for roasting. To divide meat, poultry into individual pieces.
227. Julienne : Food cut into long strips. A clear soup in this name consist of finely shredded vegetables.
228. Jus : Juice from roasting meat used as gravy.
229. Kebab : Small pieces of meat fried on a skewer, braised or curried.
230. Kedgeree : Indian dish of cooked fish, often salted or smoked, with rice, eggs, etc, sometimes curried.
231. Kirsch : A favourite drink of the continent is café Kirsch,made with half a cup of black coffee and half a
cup of cherry brandy.a cherry cordial.
232. Kirsch: colorless brandy made from cherries (used in desserts)
233. Knead : To work on a dough lightly by bringing the outside of the dough to the centre, using knuckles of
the hand.
234. Kosher : Food prepared according to the orthodox Jewish Law.
235. Kromesky : Croquettes dipped in yeast batter and deep fried.
236. Laison : Mixture of eggs and cream used in thickening white sauce and soups.
237. Langouste : Crawfish.
238. Langouyste: lobster like shellfish with out claws also called spiny lobster
239. Lard : To place strips of fat( fat bacon) over the top of lean meat or on the breast of a dry bird. To run strips
of fat bacon through lean meat with a larding needle.
240. Lard: fat of pork.
241. Lasagne : Wide ribbon noodles sometimes coloured green.
242. Leaven : Substance such as yeast , which causes dough or batter to rise.
243. Legumes : 1. Vegetables 2. Plants with seed pods such as peas and beans.
244. Lentils : Seeds of legumes.
245. Liaison: process of thickening liquid such as sauces and soups
246. Lyonnaise : In the lyon style usually with onions.
247. Macaroni : Tubular shaped paste of varying length and shape.
248. Macaroons : Small crisp cake made from almond, coconut etc.
249. Macedoine : Mixture of fruits and vegetables.
250. Macedonian: cut into diced.
251. Macerate : To soften food by soaking it in a liquid.
252. Maitre d’ hotel : A piquant sauce or butter flavoured with parsley and lemon.
253. Marbled: term describing beef especially steaks and roast with visible flakes of fat mingled with lean
indicating top utility.
254. Marinade : Blend of oil, wine or vinegar and herbs or spices. Used to tenderize and flavour meat, game or
fish.
255. Marinate : To steep in marinade.
256. Mariniere : Of mussels cooked in white wine and herbs and served in half shells. Of fish cooked in white
wine and garnished with mussels.
257. Marjoram : A lemon scented herb.
258. Marmite : Earthen ware stock pot.
259. Matelote : In the sailors style e.g. fish stew made with wine or cider.
260. Mauler : To soft food into a puree or dry food into a powder.
261. Mayonnaise : A thick sauce made of egg yolk, oil, vinegar, mustard, etc. used as a dressing for salads of all
kinds.
262. Medalions : Small circular cuts of fish, meat or pate.
263. Menu : A list of fare.
264. Meringue : Whisked eggwhite blended with sugar, which is spooned or piped on the top of sweet pies or
into small shapes baked crisp at very low temperature.
265. Meuniere : Fish cooked in butter ,seasoned and sprinkled with parsley and lemon juice.
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266. Milanaise : In Milan style ; of escalopes coated in egg, breadcrumbs seasoned with grated parmesan
cheese, and fried in butter.
267. Mirabelle : 1. Small yellow plump used as tarts filling. 2. A liqueur made from this fruit.
268. Mirepoix : Mixture of finely diced vegetables and ham which is fried in butter. Used as a base for brown
sauces and stews.
269. Mocha : 1. High quality coffee served after dinner. 2. A blend of coffee and chocolate flavour.
270. Moussaka : Middle Eastern dish of minced meat, aubergine and tomatoes which is topped with cheese
sauce or savoury custard.
271. Mousse : Light sweet or savoury cold dish made with cream, whipped egg white and gelatin.
272. Mousse: frozen dessert with fruits, flavors whipped cream and sugar, eggwhite and gelatin.
273. Muesli : Dish of raw rolled cuts, coarsely grated apple, nuts and dried fruits served with cream.
274. Muffin : A drop batter baked in small individual moulds and eaten hot with butter.
275. Navarin : Mutton or lamb stewed with turnips.
276. Newburgh sauce: Sauce of cream sherry & eggyolks frequently combined with lobster and shellfish.
277. Noisette potato: pried potato balls
278. Noodles : A flour paste served in small fancy shapes or in thin like tubes, ften fried in Chinese fashion.
279. Normande : In thew Normandy style, e.g. cooked with cider and cream.
280. Nougat : A sweet meat of a fairly rich kind made with almond, sugar, nuts, cherries and honey.
281. Nouilles : Noodles.
282. Nutmeg: Pungent spice in whole or ground form.
283. Oregano: Herb with pronounced aroma .may is fresh or dried.
284. Pailles : Potato straws.
285. Panada : A thick paste of flour and butter with a little liquid used to bind together ingredients which
would fall apart by themselves.
286. Paner : To coat in egg and breadcrumbs.
287. Papillote : Paper frills placed on chops for decoration. It also means food cooked in paper casings.
288. Parboil : To boil the food until only partially cooked.
289. Pare : To peel.
290. Parfait : Icecream served in a tall glass and decorated with a variety of nuts and fruits.
291. Parmentier : Applied to dishes containing potatoes. The term is derived from Antonie Parmentier who
introduced the potatoes to France.
292. Parmesan : A very hard cheese made in Italy from cow’s milk. Used mainly for cooking.
293. Pate : Pie, pastry or raised pie or pastry.
294. Paysanne : To cut into even, thin pieces, triangular or round or square.
295. Peach Melba: Dessert of peach half ice cream and sweetened raspberry puree with Melba sauce.
296. Pearl-Barley : De-husked barley grains, used in soups.
297. Pectin : Substance extracted from fruits and vegetables. Used to set jellies and jams.
298. Percolator : Two part coffee pot which forces the boiling water from lower half up through coffee grains
contained in upper half, then filtered through.
299. Petit-pois : Tiny young green peas.
300. Pickle : To preserve meat or vegetables in brine or vinegar solution.
301. Pilaf, Pilau : Far eastern dish of cooked rice mixed with spiced, cooked meat, chicken or fish.
302. Pimento : Red or green pepper pods used in salads or often as a colourful garnish.
303. Piquant : Sharply flavoured. Usually the word applies to mustard or a sharp sauce.
304. Pistachio : Green coloured nut kernels. Used as garnish.
305. Pith : In citrus fruits the white cellular lining to the rind covering the flesh.
306. Pizzaiota : Meat or chicken cooked in red wine, tomato sauce and flavouredwith garlic.
307. Place: A open faced pie consisting of a rich yeast dough , topped with tomatoes, cheese, anchovies and
olives.
308. Plat du jour : Special dish of the day.
309. Pluck : To remove feathers from the poultry and birds.
310. Poach : To cook just below the boiling point in hot liquid in an open pan.
311. Polenta : Cornmeal made from maize which is dried and ground.
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312. Potage : A nourishing broth or soup.

313. Pot-au-feu : A beef soup made with vegetables and poured over French Bread or Toast.
314. Pot-pourri : A stew of various meat and spices.
315. Praline : Burnt almond flavouring.
316. Printaniere : A garnish of vegetables.
317. Provencal : In the Provencal style, e.g. cooked with garlic and tomatoes.
318. Provolone: hard cheese of Italy rich smoky and sharp in flavor.
319. Pulses : Vegetables that grow in pods, e.g. peas, beans, lentils etc.
320. Puree : A smooth mixture obtained by rubbing cooked fruits, vegetables etc.
321. Quenelle Lorraine: appetizer made of custard cheese and seasoning baked in a pine shell.
322. Quiche:Alsatian open tart with savory filling based on cream and eggs. Eq- to quiche.
323. Raft: floatin layer of meat veg etc which forms consommé.
324. Ramekins : Individual ovenware dishes. Small pastry cases with cream-cheese filling.
325. Ratafia : 1. Flavouring made from bitter almonds. 2. Liqueur made from fruit kernels. 3. Tiny
macaroons.
326. Ratatouille : Stew made from aubergines, onions, pepper and tomato cooked in olive oil.
327. Ravioli : Small savory filled pasta envelopes which are boiled and served with a sauce and grated cheese.
328. Reducing : Concentrating a liquid by boiling and evaporating.
329. Relish : Sharp and spicy sauce made with fruits or vegetables which adds to a piquant flavour to the other
foods.
330. Ris de veau: calf ’s sweetbread.
331. Rissole : Small roll or patty made from cooked minced meat.
332. Roe : 1. Milt/ sperm of the male fish called as soft roe. Eggs of the female fish called as hard roe. Shellfish
roe called coral because of its colour.
333. Romaine : In the Roman style.
334. Rotisserie : Rotating spit used for roasting or grilling meat or poultry.
335. Roulade : Roll of meat, vegetables, chocolate etc.
336. Scallop: seafood having ribbed shells only the muscle that opens and closes the shell is used also to be baked.
337. Shin: lower part of fore leg of beef.
338. Silver onion: small white onion also called pickles.
339. Snow peas: extremely small peas in nearly flat pods also known as sugar peas.
340. Supreme: Breast of chicken removed from carcass
341. Sweetbread: Thymus gland of an animal.
342. Tarragon: fresh/dried herb long leaf with semi pungent aroma.
343. Thyme: type of herb, which is gray used in chowder soups &stuffing.
344. Tournedos: small steak cut from beef fillet.
345. Truffle: edible fungi, which grow underground. Used to garnish a main course.
346. Tureen: Deep vessel for serving soup.
347. Veloute: white sauce made from fat flour and white stock (fish/chicken)
348. Vinaigrette: French dressing with chopped capers, eggs herbs, oil, &vinegar
349. Wiener schnitzel: Breaded veal cutlet served with tomato sauce lemon and anchovy.
FRENCH MENU TERMINOLOGY

Dishes have been named after hundreds of personalities. The following are a few of the more
commonly encountered.
1. AGNES SOREL- Lady favored by the King of France –15th century.

2. BECHAMEL- Marquis De – Household steward to King Louis XIV.
3. BERCY- Wine Merchants District of France.
4. BOISTELLE- Napoleon’s Chef.
5. CAREME- Famed French Chef. (1784-1833).
6. CENDRILLON- Cinderella.
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7. CHANTILLY- A District of France.

8. CHATEAUBRIAND- French Statesmen and Writer.
9. CHORON- French Writer.
10. CLMART- Market Garden District near France.
11. COLBERT- France Minister to King Louis XIV.
12. CRECY- District reputed for carrot cultivation.
13. DAUPRIN- Title of the heir to the French Throne.
14. DAINE- Goddess of Hunting.
15. DORIA- Name of an old Genoa (Italian) family.
16. DUBARRY- Louis XV’s Mistress.
17. DUGLERE- Chef of the Napoleon’s Period.
18. EASU- From the Bible- Brother of Jacob who sold his birthright for a bowl of lentil soup.
19. HENRI IV- King of France who wished all his subjects a Chicken in the pot.
20. HOLSTEIN- 18th century German Statesman.
21. MARENGO- Battle scene where Napoleon was victorious in 1800.
22. MELBA- Australian born opera Singer (DAME NELLIE MELBA).
23. MIREPOIX- 18th century Marshal of France.
24. NANTUA- A district where streams are full of crayfish.
25. NESSLERORE- 19th century Russian Statesman.
26. ORLY- District near the Seine River of France.
27. PARMENTIER- Agriculturist who introduced potato in France.
28. PAMADOUR- Mistress to Louis XV.
29. ROMANOFF- Russian Royal family Name.
30. ROSSINI- Italian Composer.
31. SAINT GERMAN- Chateau near Versailles ( Centre of Pea Marketing).
32. SOUBISE- Marshal of France.
33. THRIMIDOR- Name of a month during the French Revolution.
34. TURIGO- District in Lombardy (Italy).
35. WALESKA- Polish countess (Napoleon’s Mistress).
NAMES OF CLASSICAL GARNISHES

FISH
1. BERCY- Poached in fish stock woth shallots, parsley and white wine.
Finished with white sauce and glazed.
2. BONNE-FEMME- Bercy + Mushrooms.
3. BREVAL- Bonne-Femme + Chopped Tomatoes.
4. DUGLERE- Poached with chopped shallots, tomato concasse and fish
stock. Coated with a sauce made from the cooking liquor.
5. MEUNIERE- Shallow fried on both sides and garnished with a slice of
lemon and coated with nut brown butter and parsley.
6. ORLY- Deep fried and served with Tomato Sauce.
7. COLBERT- Coated with egg and Breadcrumbs and Deep fried.
8. MORNAY- Poached, coated with cheese sauce and glazed.
9. FLORENTINE- Poached, dressed on a bed of spinach, coated with
cheese sauce and glazed.
10. VERONIQUE- Poached with white wine and fish stock, coated with a
white wine sauce, glazed and garnished with grapes.
MEAT & POULTRY

1. VICHY- With Vichy Carrots.
2. PARMENTIER- 1cm dice of fried potatoes.
3. SOUBISE- Onion puree or sauce
4. DUXELLE- Finely chopped shallots and mushrooms.
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5. PROTUGAISE- Small stuffed tomato and Chateau potatoes.

6. MERCEDES- Grilled tomatoes and mushrooms and braised lettuce and chateau potatoes.
7. JARDINIERE- Carrots, turnips, peas,cauliflower,french beans coated with hollandaise sauce.
8. CLAMART- Artichoke bottoms filled with puree of peas and chateau potatoes.
9. BOULANGERE- Onions and potatoes.
10.HENRI IV- Pont-Neuf potatoes and watercress.
11. REFORME- Short Batons of Beetroot, white of egg, gherkins, mushrooms, truffle and tongue.
SWEETS
1. CHANTILLY- Whipped sweetened, vanilla flavoured cream.
2. MELBA- With vanilla flavour ice-cream and raspberry puree or sauce.
3. MERINGUE- Finished with a piped meringue and glaze.
4. HELENE- Vanilla Ice-cream, chocolate sauce.
5. JAMAIQUE- Rum Flavoured.
SOME GARNISH TERMS FOUND IN MENUS

1. DUBARRY- Cauliflower.
2. CLAMART- Peas.
3. DORIA- Cucumber.
4. PROVENCALE- Tomato and Garlic.
5. PRINCESSES- Asparagus.
6. WASHINGTON- Sweetcorn.
7. BRUXELLOISE- Brussel sprouts.
TERMS ASSOCIATED WITH COOKING

1. A LA CRÈME Served in or napped with a cream sauce or fresh cream.
2. A LA MENTHE Cooked with fresh mint leaves and garnished with blanched chopped or
whole leaves.
3. AMANDINE Garnished with sliced sautéed almonds and finely chopped parsley.
4. AU BEURRE A light coating of butter.
5. AU GRATIN Coated with cheese sauce, sprinkled with cheese and browned in a
salamander.
6. AUX FINE-HERBS Finished with sprinkling of fresh fine herbs.
7. AU BLEU Blue or very rarely done refering to steaks.
8. A POINT Just done or medium refrying to steaks.
9. A L’ ANGLAISE To coat in the English style, with flour, egg wash and bread crumbs and
deep fried.
10. A LA FRANCAISE To coat in the French Style, moisten with milk and
coated with flour.
11. A L’ORLY Associated with deep frying fish. The fish is marinated in lemon juice
and seasoning then passed through batter and fried. Served with a
quarter of lemon , fried parsley and tomato sauce.
12. ASPIC A clear jelly made with meat stock, gelatin and egg whites.
13. BEURRE FONDUE Melted butter served as an accompaniment.
14. BEURRE NOISETTE Butter cooked to nut brown colour.
15. BLANCHING a) Method of partially cooking food used at a later stage.
b) A method of removing impurities from meat by placing them in
cold water, bringing to a boil, discarding the water and replacing with fresh water.
16. BOUQUET GARNI Thyme, bay leaf, parsley stalks and peppercorns
wrapped in a muslin cloth or leek leaf.
17. BOUQUETIERE A selection of cooked vegetables usually carrots, beans, turnips served
au beurre.
18. BRUNOISE A cut of vegetables into 2mm to 5mm approx.
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19. BARDING Placing a thin layer of fat over and around the surface of meat.
20. BASTING Frequently spooning the cooking liquor over the cooking meat to
prevent the food from becoming dry during cooking.
21. BROCHETTE On a skewer.
22. BRINE A solution of slat and water used for curing meat.
23. CHAUFFANT A pan of boiling water used to reheat foods.
24. CLOUTE Refers to onion with a piece of bay leaf on the surface studded with cloves.
25. CONCASSE Roughly chopped blanched and deseeded tomato flesh.
26. COURT BOUILLION A cooking liquor for fish consisting of stock or water, wine and
mire-poix. Also refers to a concentrated fish stock.
27. CROUTONS Fried shaped pieces of bread or cheese.
28. CISALAYING Making shallow incisions on the skin side of the filleted fish to prevent
curling during cooking.
29. DEGLACING Swirling out a pan or a roasting tray in which food has been cooked.
Done with water wine or stock in order to extract the flavour to make an
accompanying sauce or gravy.
30. DEGRAISSER The process of skimming fat away.
31. EMULSION A suspension of one liquid in another.
32. FLEURONS Small Crescent shaped puff pastry that are brushed with egg and used as
a garnish.
33. FUMET A concentrated fish stock used to give more
Glossary of bakery terms

1. Aroma – Fragrance.
2. Ash – Mineral matter found in the flour.
3. Atta – Whole meal flour.
4. Baba – Richly fermented dough made with flour, eggs, butter, fruits and yeast.
5. Baker’s dough – 13
6. Bap – Moving roll, baked from soft fermented dough, dry proved only and baked in a very hot oven 500oF.
7. Blend – To mix things together to get certain qualities.
8. Cracker – Crisp biscuit sometimes floured with cheese, pepper, salt etc.
9. Crumbly – Bread fault and is due to over fermentation or over proof, unsuitable flour, cool oven etc.
10. Crusty bread – Loaves baked at lower temperature, so that they are surrounded by hard brittle crust.
11. Dinner roll – Small milk bread roll having soft crust.
12. Daw – Under baked.
13. Dazed Bread – Insufficient baked bread.
14. Duff – Spongy part of the bread.
15. Dust – To the baker the word dust means flour.
16. Absorption – A taking in or receiption, by molecular and or physical action. The property
17. Acidity – Sourness or tartness in a food product, a condition indicating excess
18. Aeration – The treatment of dough or batter by charging with gas to produce a volume
19. Baking powder – A chemical leavening agent composed of soda, dry acids and corn flour
20. Bar – Sweet biscuit made in oblong or rectangular shape
21. Batter – A homogenous mixture of ingredients with liquid to make a mass that is of a soft
22. Bench Tolerance – The property of dough to ferment at a rate slow enough to prevent
23. dioxide for leavening of cake.
24. fermentation in yeast doughs. Also a factor used with soda to generate carbon
25. Fro thy – Mouldy bread.
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26. Green dough – Unripe dough, lacking sufficient fermentation.increase. flour to absorb and hold liquid
plastcis character. raise the batter during baking.
27. Spongy – Having a light texture full of and easily compressed and similar to sponge.
to absorb moisture : when wet and heated carbon dioxide id given off to
overfermentation while dough is being made-up into units on the bench.
28. Bleeding – Term applied to dough that has been cut and left unsealed at the cut thus
29. permitting the escape of leavening gas.
30. Boiled Icing : An icing made by boiling sugar and water to thread stage (238 F or 115 C) then
slowly adding oil to beaten egg white with additional beating.
31. Bolting : Sifting of ground grain to remove the bran and coarse particles.
32. Bowl knife : A Spatula or flexible dull edged knife used for scraping batter or dough from bowl sides.
33. Bran : Skin or outer covering of the wheat berry.
34. Bread : The Accepted term for the baked foods made of flour,sugar,shortening , salt, and liquid and
leavened by the action of the yeast.
35. Bread Dough : The unbaked mass of ingredients used for making bread.
36. Bread Faults : Deviation from the standards of perfection, used to determined wrong factored in the
process of production of bread.
37. Butter Cream : Rich, Uncooked frosting containing powdered sugar, butter and
38. Frosting other Frosting shortening and whipped to a plastic condition
39. Butter Sponge : Cake made from sponge cake batter to which shortening has been added.
40. Butter Scotch : A flavour produced by the use of butter & brown sugar.
41. Cake : A product obtained by baking a leavened & shortened batter containing flour, sugar, salt, egg,
milk, liquid, flavouring, shortening & a leavening agent.
42. Cake faults : Deviation from the standard of perfection for the type of cake.
43. Carbonated : Leavening agent made of ammonia & carbonic acid.Ammonia
44. Clear flour : Lower grade and higher ash content flour remaining after the patent flour has been separated.
45. Compounds : In baking industry certain mixture of fats & oils.
46. Corn Meal : A coarse meal made by grinding corn.
47. Creaming : The process of mixing and aerating shortening and another solid such as sugar or flour.
48. cream Pies : One Crust pie having cream filling, usually topped with whipped cream or meringue.
49. Cream Puffs : Baked puff of cream puff dough, which are hollow, usually filled, whipped cream or
cooked custard.
50. Crescent Rolls : Hard crusted rolls shaped into crescents, often with seeds on top.
51. Cripple : A mis-shaped, hurnt or otherwise undesirable unit.
52. Crusting : Formation of dry crust on surface of dough due to evaporation of water from the surface.
53. Cupcakes : Small cakes of layer cake batter baked in ____ pans.
54. Current : The Acidulous berry of a shrub usually dried.
55. Danish Pastry : A flaky yeast dough having butter or shortening rolled into it.
56. Diastase : An enzyme possessing the power to convert starches into dextrose & Maltose.
57. Divider : A machine used to cut dough into a desired size or weight.
58. Docking : Punching a number of vertical impression in a dough with a smooth round stick about a size of
a pencil or smaller. Docking is done so that the dough expands uniformly without busting during baking.
59. Dough : The thickened uncooked mass of combined ingredients of bread, rolls & biscuits, but usually
applied to bread.
60. Dough Room : Special room in which bread dough are mixed.
61. Doughnuts : A cake, frequently with a center hole, made of yeast or baking powder dough & fried in deep
fat.
62. Dusting : Distributing a film of flour or starch on pans or work bench surfaces.
63. Eclairs : A long thin shell of a same paste as cream puffs.
64. Enrich Bread : Bread made from enrich flour & containing prescribed amount of Vitamins &
Minerals.
65. Fluff : A mass of beaten egg white, air & crushed fruits.
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66. Foam : Mass of beaten egg & sugar, as in a sponge cake before the flour is added.
67. Fondant : Low mixture content syrup containing a low quantity of invert syrup, which has been rapidly
cooled so that the sugar crystals are small in size.
68. Formula : In Baking, recipe giving ingredients amount to be used, & the method of combining them.
69. French Bread : An unsweetened crusty bread, baked in a narrow strip & containing little or no
shortening.
70. Glace : Sugar so treated as to resemble ice.
71. Gluten : The elastic protein mass that is formed when the protein material of the wheat flour is mixed
with water.
72. Glutenin : One of the two protein comprising gluten, which gives strength.
73. Greasing : Spreading a film of fat on a surface.
74. Hot cross buns : Sweet, spicy, fruity buns with cross cut on top of which usually plain icing is filled.
75. Invert Sugar : A mixture of dextrose And Laevulose made by inverting sucrose with acid or enzymes.
76. Leavening : Raising or lightening by air, steam or gas (C02). The agent for generating gas in a dough or
batter is usually yeast or baking powder.
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BHM 351 ADV FPP-II SANJIT MAJI IHM AHMEDABAD

BHM351 -ADVANCE FOOD PRODUCTION OPERATIONS – II (THEORY)

I. ICINGS & TOPPINGS 02 05%

II. FROZEN DESSERTS 02 05%

A. Types and classification of Frozen desserts

A. Role of ingredients in bread Making

PRODUCT & RESEARCH DEVELOPMENT 02 05%

A. Testing new equipment,

*Black puddings are blood puddings from Lancashire.

EQUIPMENTS OF THE 20 CENTURY

2 SAUCES AND DRESSINGS:-

3 Force meats , stuffings and dumplings:-

6 MEAT, POULTRY AND GAME:-

HISTORICAL AND CULTURAL BACKGROUND

THE NORTH WEST REGION

THE NORTH EAST REGION

SPAIN AND PORTUGAL

made from potatoes.

• The Berliners have vegetable cooked in simple style.

Other famous German Dishes are:

Lebkuchen is a traditional German baked Christmas treat, somewhat resembling gingerbread.

OTHER COMMON SPECIALITIES

SCHMALZGEBACHENES are small strips of bread deep fried used in celebrations.

MIDDLE EASTERN CUISINE

MEZZE (HORS D’OEUVRES)

HOT YOGHURT SOUP.

SALADS & PICKLES

• Salads are served in every meal, even breakfast.

BREADS & SAVOURY BISCUITS

• Breads are numerous, which are yeasted.

SYRIAN LOAF BREAD:

ARABIC WHOLE MEAL BREAD:

GRAINS AND PULSES

• PULSES also form an important part of their diet.

• Tahini sauce is a sauce made from sesame seeds.

SAVORY AND SWEET PASTRIES

• Pastries in all forms are popular.

PUDDINGS, CAKES, SWEETMEATS AND BISQUITS

THE CHINESE FOOD IS CATEGORISED INTO TWO GROUPS.

• Good food carvers.

Speciality and Popular dishes:

• Important aspect of Chinese culture.

• WU CHIA PI CHIU (CANTON)

• KE CHIEH TA PU CHIU (CANTON)

BAKERY AND CONFECTIONARY

3. They improve appearance.

Foam type icing

Fudge Type icing.

CHOCOLATE FUDGE FROSTING

Glucose or corn syrup - 150 gms

Butter - 150 gms

Sugar pwd - 375 gms

Cocoa pwd - 175 gms

Vanilla essence - to taste

1. Egg whites 2. No.

II. Frozen Desserts

TYPES & CLASIFICATION

Commercial Method of preparation of Ice Cream

Fruit Ices and water Ices

There are three types of meringues:-

1.Meringues ordinaire or common meringues

Dutch calls them schuimpjes.