Slide 3:

Electromagnetic�or�magnetic induction�is the production of an�electromotive

force�across an�electrical conductor�in a changing�magnetic field.
Michael Faraday�is generally credited with the discovery of induction in 1831,
and�James Clerk Maxwell�mathematically described it as�Faraday's law of
induction.�Lenz's law�describes the direction of the induced field.

Lenz's law, named after the physicist�Emil Lenz�(pronounced�/'lents/) who

formulated it in 1834,[1]�states that "An induced current is always in such a
direction as to oppose the motion or change causing it�.

A very important application of the induction phenomenon has to do with audio and
video�recording tapes. A plastic tape, coated with iron oxide, moves past a
recording head. This recording head is basically a round iron ring about which is
wrapped a coil of wire � an electromagnet. A signal in the form of a varying input
current from a microphone or camera goes to the recording head. These signals
(which are a function of the signal amplitude and frequency) produce varying
magnetic fields at the recording head. As the tape moves past the recording head,
the magnetic field orientations of the iron oxide molecules on the tape are changed
thus recording the signal.

Similar principles apply to computer hard drives, except at a much faster rate.
Here recordings are on a coated, spinning disk. Read heads historically were made
to work on the principle of induction. However, the input information is carried in
digital rather than analog form � a series of 0�s or 1�s are written upon the
spinning hard drive. Today, most hard drive readout devices do not work on the
principle of induction.

Slide 4:
The Magnetic tape is a type of secondary storage device. It is created by putting a
whole set of magnets beside one another in a big long string to make a tape. The
tape can be read by passing by a coil.
Manufacturers made the magnets really small and stuck them to the surface of a
piece of plastic.

Slide 5:
Another secondary storage device that makes use of magnetic induction concept is
the Floppy disk, aka floppy or diskette.
If you pull a drive apart then you�ll see:
The floppy disk head
The coils in the head
The magnetic surface of the disk

Slide 6:

Slide 7:
There are 2 floppy disk layouts:

A typical CD-ROM drive operates in CLV mode, in contrast to a floppy or hard disk
drive, which operate in CAV mode.

Angular velocity means the velocity at which an object orbits around a central
point. It is given by the formula w=v/r

In CAV mode, the spindle motor turns at a constant speed, which makes the medium
pass by the read/write head faster when the head is positioned at the outside of
the disk. In contrast, in CLV mode, the spindle motor speed varies so that the
medium passes by the head at the same speed regardless of where on the disk the
head is positioned.

An advantage of CAV mode over CLV is that the drive mechanism is easier to engineer
(less expensive to build). Another advantage is that a device can switch from
reading one part of a disk to reading another part more quickly, because in CLV
mode, when the device moves the head in or out, it must change the speed of the
disc.

Slide 8:
The different zones are shown by the different colours

Slide 9:

Slide 10:
This is a picture of a hard drisk. Inside the casing, you have a series of platters
on which data is written.

A hard disk drive platter (or disk) is the circular disk on which magnetic data is
stored.
Hard drives typically have several platters which are mounted on the same spindle.
A platter can store information on both sides, requiring two heads per platter.

Slide 11:
- Seek time = Average time for the drive to move the head from one track to another
- Rotational delay or latency = Time it takes for the disk to complete one
revolution or the time for the magnetic disk head to position itself over the right
sector
- Access time = Worst case: seek time + rotational latency
- Block transfer time = How much data can be moved from the disk to the computer
per second

Slide 12:
Files are chains of sectors. And they may not necessarily be sequential or
contiguous sectors on the disk. Many times, a file would be broken into parts which
are then stored in various sectors on various tracks. This is due to the fact that
when we do a lot of saves and deletes, gaps are formed between existing files on
the disk. This is called data fragmentation. File system fragmentation increases
disk head movement or seek time.

Those fragmented, individual pieces of data are referred to generally as fragments.

Defragmentation, then, is the process of un-fragmenting or piecing together, those
fragmented files so they sit closer, physically, on the disk drive or other media,
potentially speeding up the drive's ability to access the file.

Slide 14:

SATA/ATA/IDE are computer bus interfaces that connect to mass storage devices such
as hard disk drives, optical drives, and solid-state drives.

Slide 15:
Data is stored on the disc as a series of microscopic indentations. A laser is
shone onto the reflective surface of the disc to read the pattern of pits and lands
("pits", with the gaps between them referred to as "lands").

CD-ROMs come in 2 sizes and capacities: 194 MiB (8 cm), 700 MiB (12 cm)
Slide 16:
Inside a computer, we use a variety of memory types. This is due to a tradeoff
among the three key characteristics of memory, namely: capacity, access time, and
cost.

As a results of the tradeoffs, The following relationships hold:

Faster access time, greater cost per bit
Greater capacity, smaller cost per bit
Greater capacity, slower access speed

The dilemma facing the computer designer is as follows:

do we Use memory technologies that provide for large-capacity memory, both because
the capacity is needed and because the cost per bit is low?

Or do we Use expensive, relatively lower-capacity memories with fast access times

to meet performance requirements?

The way out of this dilemma is to not rely on a single memory component or
technology
Better employ a memory hierarchy.

Registers � high-speed memory cells, SRAM, internal to CPU

Cache - SRAM, internal or external (on-board) to CPU
Main Memory - Slower, DRAM, cheap, external to CPU
Magnetic Disk � Very slow, semi-permanent storage, very cheap
Optical Disk - Movable, slow, permanent, �nearly free�
Tape - Ancient history now?

As one goes down the hierarchy, the following occur:

Decreasing cost per bit
Increasing capacity
Increasing access time
Decreasing frequency of access of the memory by the processor
locality of reference

Slide 17:

Slide 18:

SRAM is faster and more expensive than DRAM. And it is typically used where speed
is of greater concern than cost and size, such as the cache memories in processors.

Slide 19:

DRAM is cheaper and is used to implement the main memory which is slower compared
to caches.

MOSFET stands for metal�oxide�semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET, MOS-

FET, or MOS FET). It is also known as the metal�oxide�silicon transistor (MOS
transistor, or MOS)

It is the basic building block of modern electronics, and the most frequently
manufactured device in history, with an estimated total of 13 sextillion (1.3�10 to
power of 22) MOSFETs manufactured between 1960 (when it was first presented) and
2018. It is the dominant semiconductor device in digital and analog integrated
circuits (ICs), and the most common power device.
It is a compact transistor that has been miniaturised and mass-produced for a wide
range of applications, revolutionizing the electronics industry and the world
economy, and being central to the digital revolution, silicon age and information
age.

The MOSFET transistor is a semiconductor device which is widely used for switching
and amplifying electronic signals in the electronic devices. In general, the MOSFET
works as a switch, and it controls the voltage and current flow between the source
and drain.

Dynamic random-access memory (dynamic RAM or DRAM) is a type of random-access

semiconductor memory that stores each bit of data in a memory cell consisting of a
tiny capacitor and a transistor, both typically based on metal-oxide-semiconductor
(MOS) technology. The capacitor can either be charged or discharged; these two
states are taken to represent the two values of a bit, conventionally called 0 and
1. The electric charge on the capacitors slowly leaks off, so without intervention
the data on the chip would soon be lost. To prevent this, DRAM requires an external
memory refresh circuit which periodically rewrites the data in the capacitors,
restoring them to their original charge. This refresh process is the defining
characteristic of dynamic random-access memory, in contrast to static random-access
memory (SRAM) which does not require data to be refreshed. Unlike flash memory,
DRAM is volatile memory (vs. non-volatile memory), since it loses its data quickly
when power is removed.

Slide 20:
PROM
Stands for programmable read-only memory (PROM) is a form of digital memory where
the setting of each bit is locked by a fuse or antifuse. It is a type of ROM (read-
only memory). The data in them are permanent and cannot be changed. PROMs are used
in digital electronic devices to store permanent data, usually low level programs
such as firmware or microcode. The key difference from a standard ROM is that the
data is written into a ROM during manufacture, while with a PROM the data is
programmed into them after manufacture. PROMs are manufactured blank. Then these
Blank PROM chips are programmed by plugging them into a device called a PROM
programmer.

These types of memories are frequently used in microcontrollers, video game

consoles, mobile phones, radio-frequency identification (RFID) tags, implantable
medical devices, high-definition multimedia interfaces (HDMI) and in many other
consumer and automotive electronics products.

EPROM
EPROM, which stands for erasable programmable read-only memory, is a type of
programmable read-only memory (PROM) chip that retains its data when its power
supply is switched off. Once programmed, an EPROM can be erased by exposing it to
strong ultraviolet light source (such as from a mercury-vapor lamp).

EEPROM stands for electrically erasable programmable read-only memory and is a type
of non-volatile memory used in computers, integrated in microcontrollers for smart
cards and remote keyless systems, and other electronic devices to store relatively
small amounts of data but allowing individual bytes to be erased and reprogrammed.

Flash memory is a type of EEPROM designed for high speed and high density. As of
2020, flash memory costs much less than byte-programmable EEPROM and is the
dominant memory type wherever a system requires a significant amount of non-
volatile solid-state storage. EEPROMs, however, are still used on applications that
only require small amounts of storage.
Example applications of flash memory include computers, PDAs, digital audio
players, digital cameras, mobile phones, synthesizers, video games, scientific
instrumentation, industrial robotics, and medical electronics. In addition to being
non-volatile, flash memory offers fast read access times, although not as fast as
static RAM or ROM.[3] Its mechanical shock resistance helps explain its popularity
over hard disks in portable devices.

Slide 21:

SLide 22:
Look through and Look aside are the read policies of cache architecture.
Let's see how they work:

- LOOK THROUGH Policy�= If processor wants to search content , it will first look
into cache.
If the content is there, we have what we call a cache hit, and the processor gets
the content it needs.
If the content needed is not there in the cache, we have a cache miss.
The processor goes searching in the various cache levels first (L1, L2, L3 and L4
if computer system has one).

If we still have a cache miss after searching through the caches, the processor
will then go to main memory and search. It will read a block of instructions/data
from main memory and copy the block into cache for further access.

SLide 23:

(2) LOOK ASIDE policy�= Processor simultaneously looks for content in both cache as
well as in main memory....
Look aside requires more signal operation for every access(cache and main memory)
and when content found in cache, it requires to send a cancel signal to main
memory..which is biggest disadvantage of look aside policy.

Slide 24:
Write through is a storage method in which data is written into the cache and the
corresponding main memory location at the same time. The cached data allows for
fast retrieval on demand, while the same data in main memory ensures that nothing
will get lost if a crash, power failure, or other system disruption occurs.

Cache Eviction Policy

Once the cache has been filled, when a new block is brought into the cache, one of
the existing blocks must be replaced. Different algorithms can be used to select
the block to be removed in order to accomodate the new block to be read into the
cache. SOme algorithms used are:
LRU, FIFO and LFU