STRUCTURE OF MATTER

Dr. Mohamed Kandil

Mohamed.kandil@mail.utoronto.ca
Mohamed.kandil@dent.asu.edu.eg

BDS, MDSc (Ain Shams University) PHD ( University of Toronto)

ATOMS AND MOLECULES
v  Any matter is formed of atoms & molecules

v  The Atom is the elementary structure of the matter than can’t be broken into
simpler structure by chemical process

v  Atom consists of:

1.  Nucleus: Nucleus contains:

a) Protons (positive charge)
b) Neutrons (no charge)

2.  Electrons : they are negatively

charged,they move in energy levels
around the nucleus

N.B: number of electrons determine characteristics of the element

v  Valence Electrons:

ü  They are the outermost

electrons.

ü  They determine the type

of interatomic bonding.

ü  They determine
chemical, mechanical,
electrical and optical
properties.
•  Atomic mass:
It is the mass of protons + mass of neutrons.

•  Mass Number:
It is the number of proton + number of electrons

•  Atomic Number:
It is the number of proton = number of electrons
•  Isotopes: are versions of an atom or an element that have
the same number of protons, but different numbers of
neutrons.

•  Atomic weight : It is the average of atomic masses of

atoms naturally occurring isotopes. It affects only density &
specific heat.
 STATES OF MATTER
•  Forces of attraction between atoms and the internal energy
determine the state of matter.

State gas liquid solid

Force of Least intermediate Maximum
attraction
Internal energy Maximum intermediate Least
 heating

COOLING
Heat of fusion Heat of vaporization

Latent Latent
Heat of fusion Heat of vaporization
•  When solids are heated to a certain temperature (fusion
temperature) they are converted to liquids, energy in the
form of heat is needed to convert solids to liquids (heat of
fusion)

•  Heat of fusion: amount of energy needed to convert 1 gm

of solid to liquid at fusion temperature
•  Such heat of fusion remains stored in the liquid and is
released out once liquid is transformed to solid during
cooling ,this released heat is called latent heat of fusion

Latent heat of fusion: amount of energy evolved when 1

gm of liquid converts to solid at the solidification (freezing)
temperature

Fusion temp: the temperature at which solid changes to

liquid.
Ø  Toconvert liquid into vapor ,energy in the form of heat is
needed ,such heat energy is known as heat of vaporization

Heat of vaporization: energy needed to change 1 gm of liquid to

gas at vaporization temperature
•  Such heat of vaporization remains stored in the
vapor and is released out once vapor is transformed
to liquid during condensation ,this released heat is
called latent heat of vaporization

Latent heat of vaporization

•  amount of energy evolved when one gram of vapor

condenses to give water liquid at condensation
temperature.
 BONDING
ATOMS AND MOLECULES
 INTER-
ATOMIC
Bonding
 Interatomic attraction (intra molecular attraction)
(primary bonds)

Ø Explains behavior of materials and predict certain characteristic

properties
Ø Atoms usually try to achieve the
highly stable configuration having
eight electrons in the outer shell,
either by:
1-gaining extra electron to
complete outer shell
and become a negative ion
2- release electrons so that
outer shell has 8 electrons and
become a positive ion
ü M u t u a l a t t r a c t i o n o c c u r s
between the +ve and –ve ions
3- sharing electrons
 A- Ionic bonds:

E.g: Na+ +Cl---àNaCl

*Occurs between metal and non metal.

*Ionic solids are:
1- Heat resistant
2- Insoluble in organic solvents
3- Soluble in ionizing solvents
4- Solutions are conductors of electricity
 B- Covalent bonds:

e.g: H2,O2 , Polymers, Diamond

*Occurs between non-metals

*Covalent bonds are
1- water insoluble
2- strong &directional
3- insulators (withstand high temperature)
 C- Metallic bonds:

Ø  It occurs in metals, metals lose valence electrons and become positive ions

Ø  These valence electrons move freely around the positive ions giving an
electron cloud.

Ø  The electron density near any atom equals that of its valency electrons
*Free electrons affect the properties of metals which are:
1- Increased electrical conductivity
2- Increased thermal conductivity
3- Opacity due to absorption of light by free electrons
4- Lustrous ,free electrons reemit light
5- Ductile and malleable
6- Crystallinity

N.B: metallic bonds act between similar atoms or chemically

similar atoms as in alloys
 COMBINATION OF BONDS

More than one type of bond can exist in a material, an example of

dental importance is Ca SO4. It has ionic and covalent bonds
•  e.g 2: Dental amalgam:

-Amalgam is hard and brittle due to ionic aspect of

intermetallic bond

- It is also highly conductive due to the metallic aspect of

bond
 INTER-
MOLECULAR
Bonding
 Secondary Bonds (Van der Waals forces)
(intermolecular)

Ø  Physical rather than chemical in nature

Ø  Weak
Ø  Arise from polarization of molecules

molecule molecule
A- Fluctuating
dipole( dispersion forces)
Occurs in symmetric
molecules and in inert gases,
the electric field around the
nucleus is constantly
fluctuating between plus and
minus
 B- Permanent Dipole

Occurs in asymmetric molecules , one atom attracts electrons

and becomes relatively negative and the other becomes
relatively positive forming a permanent dipole

ü  The positive end of one molecule attracts the negative end

of anotherà hydrogen bond

Example: hydrogen bond between water molecules

Spacing of atoms

Two force influence the distance between atoms in a solid:

1- Forces of attraction due to interatomic bonding

2- Forces of repulsion between electrons of neighboring atoms

At equilibrium ; attraction = repulsion

called equilibrium spacing or bond length

ARRANGEMENT OF ATOMS
CLASSIFICATION OF SOLIDS

Solids

crystalline amorphous
 Crystalline Amorphous
solids solids
Ø Eg:metals,NaCl Ø  E.g: glasses and polymers

v Atoms are arranged with v  No long range repeated structureà short

repetition in three directions(long range order lattice
range -Called super cooled liquids
arrangement)
àCrystal lattice or space lattice or
crystal
•  or grain

q Lower internal energy q Higher internal energy

o Have melting point (with some o Haveglass transition temperature rather

exceptions **) than melting point (gradual softening)
Glass transition temperature (Tg):

It is the temperature at which the amorphous solids begin

to soften.
CLASSIFICATION OF SOLIDS

Solids

Atomic Molecular
e.g diamond e.g polymer
•  Atomic solids :

Atomic solids are crystals in which all of the atoms are

joined together using covalent bonds.

Atomic solids are strong, hard , have high melting and

boiling point

Molecular solids:
Molecular solids occur when covalent molecules are held
together by weak physical intermolecular forces.
Molecular solids are weak ,soft, and have low melting and
boiling point
Diamond is an atomic solid while graphite is a molecular
solid , they have different properties although both are
composed of carbon atoms
Types Of Space Lattice (crystals)
 Ingot, metal bar

Crystal = grain= (space lattice)

Unit cell
 TYPES OF SPACE LATTICE
-There are about 14 types of space lattice

-Unit cell: smallest repeating unit in the space lattice.

-  Classification of space lattice is according to:

1- length of axes of the unit cell (a,b,c)

2- Interfacial angles between the unit cell planes) α ,

β,δ)
1- Cubic system

- The length of axes are equal (a=b=c )

-  The interfacial angles equal 90o(α=β=δ = 90o)

A-Simple cubic system: has one atom

at each of 8 corners, each atom is

sharing in 8 surrounding unit cells ,

therefore each atom has 1/8 of its

volume in each unit cell

Atomic packing =8x1/8=1 atom

B-Body centered cubic (bcc):
eg:Fe below 910
The unit cell has one atom at each of
the 8 corners and an atom in the center
Atomic packing =(8x1/8)+1=2 atoms

C-Face centered cubic(fcc)

e.g:Ag,Au,Cu,Pt,and Fe above 910
The unit cell has one atom at each of
the 8 corners, and one in the center of
each of the six faces
Atomic packing=(8x1/8)+(6x1/2)=4 atoms
 Body centered cubic
Simple cubic system
system
2- Tetragonal system

-a =b # c - α=β=δ = 90o

3- Hexagonal system

-a =b # c

-Two of the interfacial angles are

equal 90 and the third angle equals

120 (α=β = 90o ,δ=120o)

• 
In closed packed hexagonal (hcp)

There are :

-12 atoms at the corners, each atom has 1/6 of its volume
in the unit cell

-2 atoms :one at the bottom and one at

the top of the unit cell

-3 atoms in the center of the unit cell

Atomic packing:

(12x1/6)+(2x1/2)+3=2+1+3=6atoms

e.g: Zn,Mg
Atomic packing factor(APF)=Volume of atoms

Volume of unit cell

•  For bcc=0.68

•  For fcc=0.74

•  For hcp=0.74

•  As the atomic packing factor increases the density ,

strength and melting point of the metal increases.
 Isomerism ( Allotropy & polymorphism)

-Allotropy: Element existing in different crystalline forms….

e.g: iron:iron below 910oC is B.C.C

while above 910oC is F.C.C

-Polymorphism: Compound existing in different crystalline forms

•  Silica is an example of polymorphic materials, which can exist in four crystalline
forms

The four forms of silica are:

-Quartz (Hexagonal) at temperature 870 °C changes to:

-Tridymite (Rhombohedral) at temperature1470°C

changes to:

-Crystobalite (Cubic) at temp 1713 °C changes to:

-Fused quatrz (amorphous)

 Silica (SiO2 ) displays polymorphism
Reconstructive transformation
870 1470 1700

Displacive transformation
β Quartz→ β Tridymite→ βcristobalite→ fused silica

(hexagonal) (rhombohedral) (cubic) (amorphous)

573 ↓↑ 160 ↓↑ 220 ↓↑

α Quartz α Tridymite α Cristobalite

Ø  This
transformation from one polymorphic form to
another is called reconstructive transformation.

Ø  Displacive transformation: It takes place when atoms are

displaced with the increase of temperature , no
interatomic bonds are broken.It occurs for
quartz ,tridymite and crystobalite
 Reconstructive transformation Displacive transformation
• Involves bond breaking •  No bonds break

•  Occurs slowly •  Occurs rapidly

• Needs less energy

• Needs more energy
•  Accompanied by expansion

Polymorphic forms have same chemical properties but

different physical properties (densities , ,optical properties ,
coefficient of thermal expansion and contraction)
Isomorphism:

•  Is the opposite phenomenon of polymorphism

•  Is the formation of identical crystal lattices by elements

having different chemical composition

•  Gold,copper,silver and iron above 910OC all exist as

F.C.C.
“Thank you, please study this topic as soon as you
can”

–Dr. Mohamed Kandil