1202 2010-2011 Exercise 3

1 Learn and write down the conditions usually used to prove that a subset H
of G is a subgroup. Determine, with justification, whether or not the given
sets H are subgroups of the given group G:
(i) G = R under +, H = {x ∈ R : x ≥ 0};
(ii) G = R under +, H = {x ∈ R : |x| ≤ 1};
a b
 
*(iii) G = GL2 (R), H = { ∈ G : a, b, c, d ∈ R, a, d ≥ 0};
c d
1 0
 
(iv) G = GL2 (R), H = { ∈ G : a ∈ R};
a 1
a b
 
*(v) G = GL2 (R), H = { ∈ G : a, b ∈ R}.
b a
(Note: GL2 (R) denotes the group of 2 × 2 invertible matrices under multi-
plication.)
2 (i) Show that all subgroups of the cyclic group Cn are cyclic.
(ii) Find all subgroups of C8 .
*(iii) Find all subgroups of C12 , explaining your answer.
3 Let G be a group in which g 2 = e for all g ∈ G. Show that G is abelian.
4 Let G be a group, and let H and K be subgroups of G.
(i) Prove that H ∩ K is a subgroup of G.
*(ii) Let g ∈ G. Prove that g −1 Hg = {g −1 hg : h ∈ H} is a subgroup of G.
*(iii) Prove that |g −1 Hg| = |H|.
(iv) Suppose |H| = 7 and |K| = 11. What can you say about H ∩ K?
*(v) Suppose |H| = 7 and H ∩ g −1 Hg 6= {e}. What can you say about
g −1 Hg?

Please attempt all questions. Please hand in the assessed questions (the
questions marked with a *) on Wednesday 9 February at the lecture.

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 1102 2010-2011 Exercise 3 Solutions

1 H is a subgroup of G if and only if (a) e ∈ H , (b) g, h ∈ H ⇒ gh ∈ H,

(c) g ∈ H ⇒ g −1 ∈ H.
2 (i) G = R under +, H = {x ∈ R : x ≥ 0};
(a) 0 ∈ H;
(b) if x, y ∈ H, then x + y ∈ H;
(c) if 2 ∈ H, but −2 6∈ H.
Since (c) fails, H is not a subgroup.
(ii) G = R under +, H = {x ∈ R : |x| ≤ 1};
(a) 0 ∈ H;
(b) 1 ∈ H but 1 + 1 = 2 6∈ H;
(c) if x ∈ H then −x ∈ H.
Since (b) fails, H is not a subgroup.
a b
 
*(iii) G = GL2 (R), H = { ∈ G : a, b, c, d ∈ R, a, d ≥ 0};
c d
(a) I2 ∈ H;
1 −2 −3 −4
   
2
(b) A = ∈ H but A = 6∈ H.
2 1 5 −3
Since (b) fails, H is not a subgroup
1 0
 
(iv) G = GL2 (R), H = { ∈ G : a ∈ R}.
a 1
1 0
 
(a) I2 = ∈ H;
0 1
1 0 1 0 1 0
     
(b) Let A = , B = ∈ H. Then AB = , so
a 1 b 1 a+b 1
AB ∈ H;
1 0 1 0
   
−1
(c) Let A = ∈ H. Then A = ∈ H.
a 1 −a 1
Hence H is a subgroup.

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 a b
 
*(v) G = GL2 (R), H = { ∈ G : a, b ∈ R}.
b a
1 0
 
(a) I2 = ∈ H;
0 1
a b c d ac + bd bc + ad
     
(b) Let A = ,B = ∈ H. Then AB = ∈
b a d c bc + ad ac + bd
H;
a b a −b
   
(c) Let A = ∈ H. Then A−1 = (1/a2 − b2 ) ∈ H.
b a −b a
(a2 − b2 6= 0, since A is invertible).
Hence H is a subgroup.
3. Let Cn = {e, x, x2 , ..., xn−1 }, where xn = e. If H is a subgroup of Cn ,
either H = {e} or else let i be the least positive integer such that xi ∈ H.
We can write n = iq + r, where 0 ≤ r < i: then xr = xn−iq = xn (xi )−q ∈ H:
hence if r 6= 0, we have a contradiction to the definition of i; hence r = 0 and
so i divides n, say n = im. Now clearly {e, xi , ..., xi(m−1) } ⊆ H. A similar
argument to the above shows that nothing else can be in H: hence H is
cyclic, generated by xi .
(ii) Subgroups of C8 are therefore;
{e}
generated by x: C8
generated by x2 : H = {e, x2 , x4 , x6 }
generated by x3 : C8 again
generated by x4 : K = {e, x4 }
generated by x5 : C8 again
generated by x6 : {e, x6 , x12 = x4 , x18 = x2 } = H
generated by x7 : C8 again
(iii) C12 = {xi (i = 0, 1, ..., 11)} where x12 = e. Going through the same
process as in Q1, we get the following subgroups:
{e}
{e, x2 , x4 , x6 , x8 , x10 } (generated by x2 or x10 )

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{e, x3 , x6 , x9 } (generated by x3 or x9 )
{e, x4 , x8 } (generated by x4 or x8 )
{e, x6 } (generated by x6 )
C12 (generated by x, x5 , x7 , x11 ).
3 Let G be a group in which g 2 = e for all g ∈ G. Then for all x, y ∈ G,
(xy)2 = e, i.e. xyxy = e. Multiplying on left by x and on right by y, we get
yx = xy and hence G is abelian.
4(i) (a) Since H, K are subgroups of G, e ∈ H and e ∈ K; hence e ∈ H ∩ K.
(b) Let x, y ∈ H ∩K. Since x, y ∈ H and H is a subgroup, xy ∈ H. Similarly
xy ∈ K. Hence xy ∈ H ∩ K.
(c) Let x ∈ H ∩ K. Since H is a subgroup, x−1 ∈ H. Since K is a subgroup,
x−1 ∈ K. Hence x−1 ∈ H ∩ K.
Hence H ∩ K is a subgroup of G.
(ii) Let g ∈ G and define g −1 Hg = {g −1 hg : h ∈ H}.
(a) Since e ∈ H, g −1 eg = g −1 g = e ∈ g −1 Hg.
(b) Let x, y ∈ g −1 Hg. Then there exist h, k ∈ H such that x = g −1 hg and
y = g −1 kg. Then xy = g −1 hgg −1 kg = g −1 hekg −1 g = g −1 (hk)g. Since H is a
subgroup, hk ∈ H and hence xy = g −1 (hk)g ∈ g −1 Hg.
(c) Let x ∈ g [ −1Hg, say x = g −1 hg. Then x−1 = (g −1 hg)−1 = g −1 h−1 (g −1 )−1 =
g −1 h−1 g. Since H is a subgroup, h−1 ∈ H and hence x−1 = g −1 h−1 g ∈
g −1 Hg.
Thus g −1 Hg is a subgroup.
(iii) Define φ : g −1 HgH by φ(x) = g −1 xg. By definition of g −1 Hg, φ is
surjective. Suppose φ(x) = φ(y) Then g −1 xg = g −1 yg; since G is a group,
we can cancel g −1 on the left and g on the right to get x = y. Hence φ is
also injective.
Thus φ is a bijection and so |g −1 Hg| = |H|.
(iv) |H| = 7 and |K| = 11. Now H ∩ K is a subgroup of G that is contained
in H and hence is a subgroup of H. By Lagrange’s Theorem, |H ∩ K| divides

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|H = 7. Similarly, |H ∩ K divides |K| = 11. Hence, since 7 and 11 are
coprime, |H ∩ K| = 1, i.e. H ∩ K = {e}.
(v) |H| = 7 and H ∩ g −1 Hg 6= {e}. By the same argument as in (iv)
|H ∩g −1 Hg| divides |H| = 7. Hence |H ∩g −1 Hg| = 1 or 7. Since H ∩g −1 Hg 6=
{e}, |H ∩ g −1 Hg| =
6 1. Hence |H ∩ g −1 Hg| = 7. But H ∩ g −1 Hg ⊆ H and
also |H| = 7. Hence g −1 Hg = H.