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Temperature Gradient of Concrete Pavement Slab Overlaid with Asphalt

Surface Course

Article  in  Transportation Research Record Journal of the Transportation Research Board · January 2000
DOI: 10.3141/1730-04

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T. Nishizawa, S. Shimeno, A. Komatsubara and M. Koyanagawa 1

TEMPERATURE GRADIENT OF CONCRETE PAVEMENT SLAB OVERLAID WITH ASPHALT

SURFACE COURSE

Tatsuo Nishizawa
Associate Professor, Ishikawa National College of Technology
Tsubata, Ishikawa 929-0395 JAPAN
(TEL: +81-76-288-8167, FAX:+81-76-288-8171, E-mail: nishi@ishikawa-nct.ac.jp)
Shigeru Shimeno
Head of Pavement Section, Research Institute of Japan Highway Public Corporation
1-4-1 Tadao, Machida, Tokyo, 194-8508 JAPAN
(TEL: +81-427-91-1621, FAX: +81-427-91-3717, e-mail:simeno@jhri.japan-highway.go.jp)
Akinori Komatsubara
Pavement Section, Research Institute of Japan Highway Public Corporation
1-4-1 Tadao, Machida, Tokyo, 194-8508 JAPAN
(TEL: +81-427-91-1621, FAX: +81-427-91-3717, e-mail:komatsubara@jhri.japan-highway.go.jp)
Masashi Koyanagawa
Associate Professor, Department of Agricultural Engineering, Tokyo University of Agriculture
1-1-1 Sakuragaoka, Setagaya-ku, Tokyo, 156-8502 JAPAN
(Tel: +81-3-5477-2342, Fax: +81-3-5477-2620, e-mail:elric@nodai.jp)

Abstract

In the structural design of composite pavement with concrete pavement slab overlaid with asphalt surface course,
it is very important to estimate temperature gradient in concrete slab. Asphalt surface course reduces the
temperature gradient in underlaid concrete slab, resulting in the reduction of thermal stress of the concrete slab.
In this study, this effect was investigated by the temperature measurement in model pavements and thermal
conductivity analysis. Thermal property were estimated by a back-analysis using the measured temperatures over
one year. From the numerical simulations varying the thickness of asphalt surface and concrete slab, the
relationship between the reduction effect and the asphalt thickness was derived as a function of the thickness of
asphalt surface course, which can be easily used in the structural design of the composite pavement.
T. Nishizawa, S. Shimeno, A. Komatsubara and M. Koyanagawa 2

INTRODUCTION
A concept of the structural design of composite pavement with asphalt surface course and concrete slab as a base
course is based on the fatigue analysis of the concrete base. The fatigue analysis of concrete slab requires
frequency of curling stress due to temperature gradient to be estimated along with that of loading stress. In a
concrete slab overlaid with an asphalt surface course, temperature gradient is expected to be reduced by the
asphalt surface course. In our previous study (1), the reduction of the temperature gradient have a significant
effect on the fatigue damage of concrete slab and thus, the design thickness. Therefore, it is required to
investigate how much reduction of the temperature gradient can be expected and how the thickness and type of
the surface material influence a degree of the reduction.
The aims of this study are to investigate the reduction effect of the asphalt surface by temperature
measurement and numerical simulation and to formulate the effect in a practical way we can easily use it in the
structural design.
CURLING STRESS OF CONCRETE SLAB
Curling stress of a concrete slab can be estimated from the temperature gradient in the concrete slab as follows:
σ t = C ⋅ α ⋅ E ⋅ φ ⋅ hc (1)
where
σ t = curling stress,
C = constant,
α = thermal expansion coefficient of concrete,
E = elastic modulus of concrete,
φ = temperature gradient in concrete slab, and
hc = thickness of concrete slab.
The constant C can be determined from dimensions of concrete slab or joint spacing. In Japan, it had been
derived from experiment results (2) and its values are specified depending on the joint spacing in the manual for
concrete pavement (3). The Eq.(1) suggests that the curling stress is proportional to the temperature gradient. So,
if the frequency of the temperature gradient is known, the frequency of the curling stress can easily be estimated.
Typical frequencies of the temperature gradient for concrete pavement are also given in the manual (3).
Therefore if we are able to find a simple relationship in the temperature gradients in concrete slabs with and
without asphalt surface course, these typical frequencies can be used in the structural design for composite
pavement.
In this study, the reduction effect due to asphalt surface course is assumed to be expressed as follows:
φc = λ ⋅φ (2)
where
φ c = temperature gradient in concrete slab with asphalt surface course, and
λ = reduction factor.
The reduction factor as defined above will be formulated based on the results of temperature measurements and
numerical simulations in the following.
MEASUREMENT OF TEMPERATURES IN MODEL PAVEMENTS
Model pavements were constructed on a shoulder of an in-service express highway in Japan and have been
exposed to the same climate conditions as the actual highway pavement. Concrete slabs with 1m by 1m size and
150mm and 200mm thickness were overlaid with 50mm or 10mm thick asphalt course. The type of aggregate of
the concrete was limestone. Two types of surface material were used: dense asphalt concrete and porous asphalt
concrete with 20% void ratio. For comparison, a normal asphalt pavement and concrete slabs without surface
course were also constructed. An ID was assigned to each section in a way as [symbol of surface type] +[ its
thickness] + [symbol of base type] + [its thickness], as indicated in the figure. Temperature sensors were
embedded at various depth in the pavements as shown in Figure 1. Temperatures were measured every one hour
for about one year (from 7th April, 1996 to 27th March, 1997). Total number of data per sensor was 8497.
Figure 2 shows temperature distributions in the pavements measured on 21st July, 1996. Since the thermal
conductivity of asphalt is smaller than that of concrete, temperatures considerably decreased in the asphalt
surface course and temperatures in the underlaid concrete slab became smaller than that without asphalt surface
course.
Figure 3 shows relative frequencies and cumulative relative frequencies of temperature gradient which is
defined as the temperature differential between the top and bottom surface divided by the slab thickness. The
T. Nishizawa, S. Shimeno, A. Komatsubara and M. Koyanagawa 3

frequency curve had a peak between 0.0 oC/cm and 0.2 oC/cm. The ratio of positive gradient to negative one was
about 3/7.
Table 1 presents the statistics of the measured temperature gradient. In C20 of the concrete slab without
asphalt surface course, the maximum temperature gradient was 0.839, while in P5C20 of the concrete slab with
5cm thick porous asphalt surface course, the maximum gradient was 0.694. When the thickness of the porous
asphalt course was 10 cm, the maximum gradient was 0.450. Similarly, the temperature gradient of 1.0 in C15 of
the 15cm thick concrete slab decreased to 0.608 and 0.431 in A10C15 and P10C15, respectively.
In order to see the difference in the surface temperature between the concrete slabs with and without asphalt
surface course, the temperatures measured at 1cm depth from the surface were compared between the concrete
slabs with and without asphalt surface course, as shown in Figure 4. In this figure, the horizontal axis denotes the
surface temperature of A10B14 and the vertical axis denotes the surface temperatures of the other model
sections. Naturally, surface temperatures of C15 and C20 were quite different from others with asphalt surface
course. In the other cases, there was very little difference in the surface temperature. Thus we can conclude that
the surface temperatures is almost the same as long as the surface is covered with more than 50 mm thick asphalt
course. Also, the type of surface material practically had no effect on the surface temperature condition.
Figure 5 shows comparisons of the temperature gradient at the same time between the concrete slabs with
and without asphalt surface course. In this figure, if there is no difference in the temperature gradient, all of the
plotted points fall on the 45 degree line (the line of equity). As can be seen, the gradients of the regression lines
are smaller than 45degree, if the concrete slab was overlaid with the asphalt surface course with the thickness of
more than 5 cm.
Table 2 summarizes the gradients of the regression lines, indicating that the gradient of the regression line
decreases, as the thickness of the asphalt layer increases. However, the phase of temperature change was not
necessarily the same among the various surface layers. For example, the time when the gradient reached its
maximum value was different if the thickness of the asphalt surface was different. Thus, the correlation
coefficient decreases, as the thickness of the asphalt layer increases. Nevertheless, it can be said that the asphalt
surface actually reduced the temperature gradients in the concrete slabs.
THE THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY ANALYSIS

Fundamental equation
It has been recognized that temperature distribution in pavement can be predicted by solving the following
equation with proper initial and boundary conditions(5,6):
∂ 2T (t , z ) ∂T (t , z )
κ = (3)
∂z 2 ∂t
where,
T = temperature in pavement [oC],
t = time [sec],
z = depth [m], and
κ = thermal diffusivity of the pavement materials [m2/sec].
In this study, temperatures in the model pavements for one year were computed by solving the equation using the
surface temperature as a boundary condition. The initial temperature distribution along the depth at 0:00 was
estimated as follows. At first, an initial temperature distribution was assumed to be constant being equal to the
surface temperature over the depth. Then Eq. (3) was solved through one day using the surface temperature
measured on a day as a boundary condition and a temperature distribution at the end of the day was obtained.
And Eq. (3) was solved again by the same way using the obtained temperature distribution as the initial one.
This process was repeated until the initial temperature distribution was converged. The converged distribution
was used as the initial temperature distribution for one-year computation.
Eq.(3) was formulated as one dimensional finite element problem and temperature at each node at a time was
computed by the Crank-Nicholson method. The analyzed area includes asphalt surface course , concrete slab,
subbase course and upper portion of subgrade down to 1m from the top surface. The boundary condition at the
bottom of the area was assumed to be a non-heat-transfer condition. The size of mesh in the asphalt course and
the concrete slab was 1cm and that in the subbase and the subgrade was 5cm. The time step in the computation
was 60 sec.
Back-calculation
In order to solve Eq.(3), the thermal diffusivities of the asphalt surface, the concrete slab and the subbase and
subgrade should be known. In this study, they were estimated by back-calculation using the measured
temperatures in the model pavement.
An error function was defined as follows:
T. Nishizawa, S. Shimeno, A. Komatsubara and M. Koyanagawa 4

∑ {u (t i ) − T j (κ , t i )}
N M
f (κ ) = ∑ j (4)
i =1 j =1
where
u j = temperature measured at a sensor j at a time ti,
T j = temperature computed at a sensor j at a time ti.,
N= the number of measured data at a sensor, and
M= the number of sensor.
By minimizing the error function f (κ ) , the best estimate for κ can be obtained. The procedure to solve this
problem was based on the Gauss-Newton method (7,8). Namely, we solved the following equation for ∆κ k :
 ∂T j (κ , t i ) ∂T j (κ , t i )  ∂Ti
∆κ k = ∑∑ {u j (t i ) − T j (κ , t i )}
P N M N M

∑ ∑∑ ∂κ k ∂κ l  ∂κ l
(l = 1..P ) (5)
k =1  i =1 j =1 i =1 j =1
where,
∆κ k = increment of thermal diffusivity of k layer, and
P= the number of layer.
κ of the subbase and subgrade was assumed to be the same. The differentials in Eq. (5) were computed
numerically. Using ∆κ k obtained by solving Eq.(5), the modified κ k can be estimated as follows:
κ k , new = κ k ,old + ∆κ k (6)
This process was repeated until the value of κ k converged at a certain value. In order to precisely estimate the
temperature gradient in concrete slab, only temperatures measured in the concrete slab were used in the back-
calculation.
Estimated values of κ
Figure 6 shows the comparisons in the temperature distribution on 21st July, 1996 between the measured and
computed ones. These figures clearly indicate that the computed temperatures agree with the measured ones
quite well.
Figure 7 shows the comparisons in the temperature gradient in concrete slab between the measured and
computed ones. The agreement is fairly good and the average error in the computed temperature gradient was
about ± 0.05oC/cm.
Table 3 presents the estimated value of κ for each layer. The value of κ of the asphalt surface course ranged
from 7.5 to 10.0 × 10-7m2/sec, which is within the range which Himeno, et al. (4) have obtained from
experiments in a laboratory. For the concrete slab, the values were smaller in the case with the asphalt surface
than the case without the asphalt surface. Its range was about 14.9 to 23.3 × 10-7m2/sec, corresponding to the
values obtained by other researchers (9,10). For the subbase and subgrade, it was about 6.5 to 14.8 × 10-7m2/sec.
Table 4 summarizes the averaged value for each type of material. The value of κ for the asphalt layer was
much larger than those of concrete slab. The value of dense asphalt concrete was about 10% larger than the
porous asphalt concrete.
THE TEMPERATURE GRADIENT REDUCTION EFFECT OF ASPHALT SURFACE LAYER
In this chapter, the reduction effect of the asphalt surface course on the temperature gradient in concrete slab will
be examined by numerical simulations. Temperatures in three concrete slabs with the thickness of 15, 20 and 25
cm overlaid with an asphalt layer varying the thickness of 0, 4, 5, 7, 10, 12 and 15cm were computed using the
values of κ in Table 4. The temperatures measured at the surface sensor in C15 were used as a surface boundary
condition for the case without the asphalt surface course. Those in A10B14 were used for the cases with the
asphalt surface course because it was found that the surface temperature is almost the same as long as the surface
is covered with thick asphalt layer.
Figure 8 shows the computed results of the case of 15cm thick concrete slab, comparing the temperature
gradients at the same time between with and without the dense asphalt concrete surface. The reduction effect
increased as the thickness of the asphalt surface course increased, and the variance also increased as the asphalt
thickness increased. However, in the case with 4cm thick asphalt surface course, the temperature gradients in the
concrete slab rather became larger than without the surface course. It is because the temperatures in the asphalt
layer was much higher than those in the concrete slab even though the temperatures decreased at the bottom of
the asphalt layer, particularly of thin asphalt course. Therefore, there might be a risk that existing a less than 4cm
thick asphalt surface course over a concrete slab increases the temperature gradient in the concrete slab.
T. Nishizawa, S. Shimeno, A. Komatsubara and M. Koyanagawa 5

Figure 9 shows the cumulative relative frequency (CRF) curves of the temperature gradient in concrete slab
under the dense asphalt concrete course. This figure demonstrates that the frequent of large temperature gradient
becomes smaller and the range of the temperature gradient becomes narrower as the thickness of the asphalt
surface course increases. However, the shape of the curves seems to be similar with each other except for the
range of the temperature gradient. Also, the shape of the curves is almost the same even if the thickness of the
concrete slab is different.
THE REDUCTION FACTOR OF TEMPERATURE GRADIENT
In this study, a factor is introduced to express the reduction effect of the asphalt surface course on the
temperature gradient in concrete slab in the following way. When dividing the temperature gradient in concrete
slab under asphalt surface course, φc , by a factor, λ , and expressing the relative frequency with the parameter,
φc / λ , the frequency is assumed to be the same as that of the concrete slab without asphalt surface course.
Namely,
F (φ ) = Fc (φc / λ ) (7)
where,
Fc , F = CRF functions of temperature gradient in concrete slab with and without asphalt surface, respectively,
and
λ ≤ 1.0 = the reduction factor.
The next problem is the determination of the value of λ , which would be a function of thickness and type of the
surface course. Two feasible candidates for λ can be considered as follows:
• The gradient of the regression line (GRL) in Figure 8,
• The ratio of a statistics parameter, such as the addition of average and standard deviation (ASD), of the
temperature gradient in concrete slab with asphalt surface course to that without asphalt surface course.
Both candidate parameters will be examined based on the results of the numerical simulation mentioned in the
previous section.
At first, taking the GRL as λ and adjusting the horizontal axis in Figure 9 with φc / λ , the CRFs can be
expressed as shown in Figure 10. The frequency of the positive gradient in the concrete slab with asphalt surface
course becomes less than that without asphalt surface course. On the contrary, the negative part with asphalt
surface course is much more frequent than that without asphalt surface course. Thus, defining the GRL as λ
might be inappropriate.
Then, taking the ratio of ASD as λ and adjusting the horizontal axis in the similar way, the CRFs can be
expressed as shown in Figure 11. In this case, the CRF curves get closer with each other, which means the CRF
curves with the asphalt surface can be converted to a master CRF curve, if you use the ratio of ASD as the
reduction factor. Accordingly, the ratio of ASD was adopted as the reduction factor of λ in this study.
Figure 12 shows the λ as a function of the thickness of the asphalt layer. The measured ones were computed
as the ratio of ASD using the values in Table 1. Although the effect of the thickness of concrete slab is very
small, there is a little difference between the dense asphalt concrete and the porous asphalt concrete.
From these results, we derived the following equations as a function of the thickness of the asphalt layer:
For dense asphalt concrete surface,
λ = 1.43 − 0.114 ⋅ has + 0.00316 ⋅ has2 (8)
For porous asphalt concrete surface,
λ = 1.41 − 0.118 ⋅ has + 0.00339 ⋅ has2 (9)
where, has is the thickness of asphalt surface course. The range where these equations are valid would be limited
in the asphalt thickness of from 5 up to 10 cm which is the range of the experiment sections. Figure 13 plots Eqs
(8) and (9) in the same figure, showing that the reduction effect of porous asphalt concrete is a little greater than
that of dense asphalt concrete.
CONCLUSIONS
In this study, the following conclusions were obtained:
1. Form the temperature measurement in the model pavements, it was confirmed that the surface course
really reduced the temperature gradient in concrete slab and the degree of the reduction effect increased
as the thickness of asphalt surface course increased.
2. It can be said that the asphalt surface temperature is independent on the thickness of the underlaid
concrete slab, as long as the thickness of the asphalt surface course is more than 5cm.
T. Nishizawa, S. Shimeno, A. Komatsubara and M. Koyanagawa 6

3. From the results of the back-calculation, it was found that the estimated thermal diffusivity of porous
asphalt concrete was a little less than that of normal dense asphalt concrete. The estimated values
seemed to be reasonable comparing to the values obtained by the other researchers.
4. The numerical simulations revealed that the thickness of asphalt surface course considerably influenced
the temperature gradient in concrete slab.
5. Less than 4cm thick asphalt surface might rather increase the temperature gradient in concrete slab.
6. If the reduction factor is defined as a ratio of the addition of the average and standard deviation of
temperature gradient in concrete slab, the CRFs could be converted to a master curve which was
independent on the thickness of concrete slab.
7. Equations which represent the relationship between the reduction factor and the thickness of asphalt
surface course were derived based on the simulation results as Eqs. (8) and (9).
REFERENCES
1. Nishizawa, T., S. Shimeo, A. Komatsubara, and M. Koyanagawa., A Design Method of Composite
Pavement with Asphalt Surface Course and Continuously Reinforced Concrete Base Course, Proc. 8th
International Symposium on Concrete Roads, Vol. 1, Lisbon, Portugal, 1998, pp.117-128.
2. Iwama, S., Experimental Studies on the Structural Design of Concrete Pavement, Pavement Laboratory
Public Works Research Institute, Ministry of Construction, 1964.
3. Manual of Portland Cement Concrete Pavement, Japan Road Association, 1984.
4. Himeno, K., T. Watanabe, and T. Maruyama., Temperature Distributions in Asphalt Pavements, Proc. of
3rd Paving in Cold Areas, Canada/Japan Science and Technology Consultations, 1986, pp.243-275.
5. Shina, T., K. Matsui, and T.F. Smith., Estimation of Temperatures in Asphalt Pavement Using Ground
Climate Observation Data, Japanese Journal of Pavement Engineering, Vol.2, 1997, pp.105-112.
6. Zienkiewicz, O.C. The Finite Element Method, Third Edition, McCraw-Hill, 1977.
7. Matsui K., T. Nishida, Y. Tsuchibashi, and K. Shioda., Estimation of Thermal Parameters of Mass
Concrete Structures by Back-Analysis, Proc. of Annual Meeting of Japan Concrete Institute, Vol.16, No.1,
1994, pp.1347-1352.
8. Nishida, T., K. Shioda, Y. Tsuchibashi, and K. Matsui., Estimation of Thermal Parameters of Concrete
based on In Situ Data, Japanese Journal of Materials, Concrete Structures and Pavements, JSCE,
No.544/V32, 1996, pp.89-100.
9. Japan Society of Civil Engineers, Specification of Concrete for Construction, 1996.
10. Tokuda, H., and M. Shoya., Considerations on Measured Thermal Characteristics of Concrete, Proc. JSCE,
No.212, 1973, pp.89-98.
T. Nishizawa, S. Shimeno, A. Komatsubara and M. Koyanagawa 7

TABLE 1 Statistics of measured temperature gradient in concrete slab [oC/cm]

Cross Average Standard Maximum Minimum

Section ID Deviation
C20 0.005 0.216 0.839 -0.300
A5C20 0.013 0.168 0.750 -0.306
P5C20 0.003 0.174 0.694 -0.233
P10C20 0.002 0.114 0.450 -0.172
C15 0.001 0.266 1.000 -0.389
A10C15 0.009 0.128 0.608 -0.184
P10C15 0.004 0.104 0.431 -0.208

TABLE 2 Results of regression analysis

Cross Section Gradient of Correlation

ID Regression Coefficient
Line
A5C20 0.739 0.930
P5C20 0.790 0.963
P10C20 0.434 0.805
A10C15 0.569 0.792
P10C15 0.479 0.831

TABLE 3 κ estimated by back-calculation [ × 10-7m2/sec]

Cross Section Asphalt Concrete Subbase &

ID Concrete Slab Subgrade
Surface
A10B15 9.84 -- 11.12
C15 -- 23.70 14.34
A10C15 10.22 17.00 7.60
P10C15 8.24 17.60 6.16
C20 -- 17.40 14.76
A5C20 7.52 16.20 9.44
5C20 7.93 14.90 6.47
P10C20 8.54 14.90 7.22

TABLE 4 κ Averaged for Each Material Type [ × 10-7m2/sec]

Material Type κ
Dense Asphalt Concrete 9.19
Porous Asphalt Concrete 8.24
All Asphalt Concrete 8.72
Concrete Slab without Surface Layer 20.56
Concrete Slab with Surface Layer 16.12
All Concrete Slab 17.39
Subbase & Subgrade 9.64
T. Nishizawa, S. Shimeno, A. Komatsubara and M. Koyanagawa 8

Figure 1 Cross Sections of Model pavements for Temperature Measurement

Figure 2 Temperature Distributions in the Model Pavements on 21st July, 1996

Figure 3 Relative Frequencies of Temperature Gradient of the Model Pavements

T. Nishizawa, S. Shimeno, A. Komatsubara and M. Koyanagawa 9

Figure 4 Comparisons of Surface Temperatures Measured on the Model Pavements

Figure 5 Comparisons of Temperature Gradients of the Model Pavements

T. Nishizawa, S. Shimeno, A. Komatsubara and M. Koyanagawa 10

Figure 6 Comparisons between Measured and Computed Temperature Distributions on 21st July, 1996.

Figure 7 Comparisons between Measured and Computed Temperature Gradients

T. Nishizawa, S. Shimeno, A. Komatsubara and M. Koyanagawa 11

Figure 8 Effects of Thickness of Asphalt Surface Course on Temperature Gradient in Concrete Slab
(Thickness of Concrete Slab hc=15cm, Dense Asphalt Concrete Surface)

Figure 9 Cumulative Relative Frequencies of Temperature Gradient φ over one year

(Dense Asphalt Concrete Surface)
T. Nishizawa, S. Shimeno, A. Komatsubara and M. Koyanagawa 12

Figure 10 Cumulative Relative Frequencies of Temperature Gradient φ Modified by Gradient of Regression Line
(Dense Asphalt Concrete Surface)

Figure 11 Cumulative Relative Frequencies of Temperature Gradient φ Modified by Ratio of Average+Standard

Deviation (Dense Asphalt Concrete Surface)
T. Nishizawa, S. Shimeno, A. Komatsubara and M. Koyanagawa 13

Figure 12 Reduction Factor λ versus Thickness of Asphalt Surface Layer

Figure 13 Proposed λ Expressed as a Function of Thickness of Asphalt Surface

 T. Nishizawa, S. Shimeno, A. Komatsubara and M. Koyanagawa 14

List of Table
TABLE 1 Statistics of measured temperature gradient in concrete slab [oC/cm]
TABLE 2 Results of regression analysis
TABLE 3 κ estimated by back-calculation [ × 10-7m2/sec]
TABLE 4 κ Averaged for Each Material Type [ × 10-7m2/sec]

List of Figure
Figure 1 Cross Sections of Model pavements for Temperature Measurement
Figure 2 Temperature Distributions in the Model Pavements on 21st July, 1996
Figure 3 Relative Frequencies of Temperature Gradient of the Model Pavements
Figure 4 Comparisons of Surface Temperatures Measured on the Model Pavements
Figure 5 Comparisons of Temperature Gradients of the Model Pavements
Figure 6 Comparisons between Measured and Computed Temperature Distributions on 21st July, 1996.
Figure 7 Comparisons between Measured and Computed Temperature Gradients
Figure 8 Effects of Thickness of Asphalt Surface Course on Temperature Gradient in Concrete Slab
(Thickness of Concrete Slab hc=15cm, Dense Asphalt Concrete Surface)
Figure 9 Cumulative Relative Frequencies of Temperature Gradient φ over one year
(Dense Asphalt Concrete Surface)
Figure 10 Cumulative Relative Frequencies of Temperature Gradient φ Modified by Gradient of Regression Line
(Dense Asphalt Concrete Surface)
Figure 11 Cumulative Relative Frequencies of Temperature Gradient φ Modified by Ratio of Average+Standard
Deviation (Dense Asphalt Concrete Surface)
Figure 12 Reduction Factor λ versus Thickness of Asphalt Surface Layer
Figure 13 Proposed λ Expressed as a Function of Thickness of Asphalt Surface

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