Safety Science 131 (2020) 104923

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Safety Science
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/safety

A positive human health perspective on how spiritual leadership weaves its T

influence on employee safety performance: The role of harmonious safety
passion
⁎
Moazzam Alia, Shahzad Aziza, Tan Nhat Phamb,c, Mayowa T. Babalolad, Muhammad Usmane,
a
Department of Management Sciences, University of Okara, Okara, Pakistan
b
School of Business - International University, Linh Trung Ward, Thu Duc District, Ho Chi Minh City 700000, Vietnam
c
Vietnam National University, Ho Chi Minh City, VietnamLinh Trung Ward, Thu Duc District, Ho Chi Minh City 700000, Vietnam
d
Department of Leadership and Organizational Agility, College of Business and Economics, United Arab Emirates University, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
e
Department of Management Sciences, COMSATS University Islamabad, Lahore Campus, 1.5 KM Defence Road, off Raiwind Road, Lahore, Pakistan

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The present study examined the relationship of spiritual leadership with employees’ safety performance – safety
Spiritual leadership compliance and safety participation. The study also proposed that harmonious safety passion mediates the
Harmonious safety passion positive associations of spiritual leadership with safety compliance and safety participation. Based on time-
Safety compliance lagged survey data collected from 305 supervisor-employee dyads, the results revealed that spiritual leadership
Safety performance
is positively associated with employees’ safety compliance and safety participation, both directly and indirectly,
Safety participation
via harmonious safety passion. Our findings contribute to the literature by signifying the role of spiritual lea-
dership and harmonious safety passion in shaping employees’ safety behaviors, which are beyond employees’
self-enactment of safety behaviors and include voluntary safety-related behaviors. The findings also carry useful
practical implications for managers that can help them curb safety-related issues at work.

1. Introduction between leadership and safety-related outcomes at work (e.g., Barling

Workplace safety is a serious concern for leadership in organiza-
tional context because of the alarming rate of occupational injuries and
fatalities (Chughtai, 2015; Han et al, 2019; Inness et al., 2010).
International Labour Organization (ILO) (2020) reported that over two
million people succumb to work-related fatal diseases and injuries, and
around 6000 people die due to workplace accidents and diseases every
day. Such occupational injuries and incidents also have severe de-
structive consequences for employees’ behaviors and performance
outcomes and organizations’ long-term success (Chughtai, 2015; Khan
et al., 2018). Thus, an insight into the factors that can positively con-
tribute to employees’ safety performance is imperative to reduce work-
related injuries and incidents (Han et al., 2019; Kelloway et al., 2006;
Khan et al., 2018).
Past research suggests that leaders’ positive behaviors contribute
significantly to improve employees’ safety performance (Chughtai,
2015; Khan et al., 2018). The literature, however, has predominantly
focused on transformational leadership while examining the links
et al., 2002; Hoffmeister et al., 2014). Despite several calls to study
different other leadership styles in association with safety-related out-
comes (Clarke, 2013; Khan et al., 2018; Chughtai, 2015) to yield a
deeper understanding of the leadership-employees’ safety performance
link, research on this link is limited to a few studies – ethical leadership
(Chughtai, 2015; Khan et al., 2018), empowering leadership (Martínez-
Córcoles et al., 2013), authentic leadership (Eid et al., 2012; Borgersen
et al., 2014), and safety leadership (Lu and Yang, 2010). This con-
stitutes a serious omission, given the grave consequences of workplace
safety-related issues for employees and the growing calls to study the
links between different leadership styles with employees’ safety-related
outcomes to better comprehend the effectiveness of leadership for
countering workplace safety issues.
The present investigation fills this research void by studying the
links between spiritual leadership and two dimensions of employees’
safety performance (i.e., safety compliance – “adhering to safety proce-
dures and carrying out work in a safe manner” and safety participation –
“helping coworkers, promoting the safety programme within the

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: moazzamali@uo.edu.pk (M. Ali), shahzad.aziz@uo.edu.pk (S. Aziz), nhatpham1729@gmail.com (T.N. Pham),
mayowa.babalola@uaeu.ac.ae (M.T. Babalola), hmusman@cuilahore.edu.pk (M. Usman).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssci.2020.104923
Received 12 December 2019; Received in revised form 13 July 2020; Accepted 16 July 2020
0925-7535/ © 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
M. Ali, et al.
workplace, demonstrating initiatives and putting effort into improving
safety in the workplace” (Neal et al., 2000, p. 101). Safety compliance
includes behaviors that are specified in the job description (Neal and
Griffin, 2006). Safety participation consists of behaviors that go beyond
job norms and are discretionary in nature (Neal and Griffin, 2006). Both
safety participation and safety compliance have been considered in the
present work, as previous studies suggest that these two dimensions of
safety performance are complementary (Neal et al., 2000; Chughtai,
2015). Indeed, safety participation, which reflects extra-role safety
behaviors, has a major role in overcoming the safety-related issues at
work by nurturing and promoting a safety climate in the organization
(Neal and Griffin, 2006).
Spiritual leadership is defined as “comprising the values, attitudes,
and behaviors that are necessary to intrinsically motivate oneself and
others so that they have a sense of spiritual survival through calling and
membership” (Fry, 2003, p. 711). Spiritual leadership has been con-
sidered in this study, as we believe that the quintessence – a simulta-
neous application of spiritual, ethical, and social values and rational
determinants in business decisions – that differentiates spiritual lea-
dership from other positive leadership styles, such as ethical, authentic
leadership, servant leadership, and transformational leadership (Fry
et al., 2005; Yang et al., 2019) can positively contribute to employees’
safety performance. Through such a simultaneous application of spiri-
tual, ethical, and social values and rational determinants, spiritual
leadership creates a work environment characterized by autonomous
motivation, positive emotions, helping others voluntarily, participative
decision making, and care and concern for others (Fry and Slocum,
2008; Yang et al., 2019). Autonomous motivation, positive emotions,
helping others voluntarily, participative decision making, and care and
concern for others are considered as the key determinants of positive
human health behaviors (Koestner et al., 2008) and individuals’ safety
performance (Chughtai, 2015; Martínez-Córcoles et al., 2011; 2013;
Neal and Griffin, 2006). Positive human health behaviors include
helping and supporting others voluntarily (Sneed and Cohen, 2013),
developing high-quality relationships (Cohen, 2004), interventions to
develop mental and physical health of the self and the others (Park
et al., 2016), self-regulation (Kubzansky et al., 2011) that enhance co-
workers’ safety-related knowledge and safety motivation and positively
influence their safety performance (Chughtai, 2015; Curcuruto et al.,
2015; Guo et al., 2016; Martínez-Córcoles et al., 2013; Neal and Griffin,
2006). Moreover, positive human health – better psychological and
physical health – leads to better team coordination and decision
making, improved task attention, and enhanced ability to comprehend
the human–machine interactions, and thus can reduce human error and
the occurrence of accidents at work (Torp and Moen, 2006; Scaife et al.,
2006). Thus, we contend that to the extent that spiritual leadership has
theoretical relevance with positive human health, it can improve em-
ployees’ safety performance at work. Indeed, prior studies have made
invaluable contributions by revealing spiritual leadership’s favorable
Fig. 1. The proposed Model.
2
Safety Science 131 (2020) 104923
influences on important employee outcomes, including a sense of
meaningfulness and calling (Fry et al., 2005), task performance and
proactive work behaviors (Wang et al., 2019), citizenship behaviors
(Chen and Yang, 2012), work engagement, and spiritual and psycho-
logical wellbeing (Fry et al., 2017). However, to date, no study has
explored the link of spiritual leadership with employees’ safety out-
comes at work.
Moreover, although leadership’s positive influence on employees’
safety-related outcomes at work is generally acknowledged, the me-
chanisms through which leaders positively contribute to these out-
comes are relatively less known (Eid et al., 2012; Chughtai, 2015; Khan
et al., 2018). We fill this gap by drawing on the dualistic model of work
passion (Vallerand et al., 2003) to extend the concept of harmonious
passion into the workplace safety context. Specifically, we propose a
novel concept of harmonious safety passion – employees’ autonomous
internalization of safety-related behaviors, initiatives, and practices
into their identities that reflect in their wanting to engage in safety-
related behaviors, initiatives, and practices through volition and per-
sonal endorsement – as a psychological mechanism through which
spiritual leadership weaves its favorable impact on employees’ safety
performance.
The choice of harmonious safety passion as a mediating mechanism
of the spiritual leadership-safety performance link is inspired by its
potential to explicate why spiritual leadership positively affects safety
performance. For instance, using collective processes of social influence
and a bottom-up interactional approach, spiritual leadership develops
employees’ sense of autonomous motivation, which helps them auton-
omously internalize work activities into their identities (Fry et al.,
2005; Khani et al., 2013). Moreover, past research on harmonious
passion has highlighted that the autonomous internalization of an ac-
tivity plays an imperative role in shaping and developing individuals’
harmonious passion towards the activity (Anser et al., 2020; Ho et al.,
2018; Mageau et al., 2009). Furthermore, extant research has revealed
that autonomous motivation enhances the level of individuals’ com-
pliance with and participation in safety-related norms, procedures,
programs, and rules at the workplace (Chughtai, 2015; Martínez-
Córcoles et al., 2011; Simard and Marchand, 1997; Neal and Griffin,
2006). However, despite its potential to serve as a mechanism under-
lying the spiritual leadership-employees’ safety performance link, there
is not a single study that has studied the interrelationships between
spiritual leadership, harmonious passion, and safety performance in the
safety context. Thus, our model that links spiritual leadership and safety
performance incorporates harmonious safety passion as a mediator of
the spiritual leadership-safety performance link. By doing so, we not
only advance the literature on the leadership-harmonious passion link
but also contribute to the safety literature by introducing a novel con-
cept (i.e., harmonious safety passion) that foregrounds and extends the
potential benefits of harmonious passion for safety at work. Our theo-
retical model is depicted in Fig. 1.
M. Ali, et al.
In sum, the uniqueness and value of the present work lie in its ex-
tension of the spiritual leadership theory and the concept of harmo-
nious work passion into the workplace safety context and its con-
tributions to three important knowledge areas – spiritual leadership,
harmonious work passion, and workplace safety. For this purpose, the
study proposed and tested a model that links spiritual leadership with
employees’ safety performance – safety participation and safety com-
pliance, both directly and indirectly via harmonious safety passion. In
this way, the current work enhances the value of the consequential
potential of spiritual leadership in shaping employees’ harmonious
safety passion and safety performance, which extends beyond em-
ployees’ self-enactment of safety behaviors (safety compliance) to entail
safety behaviors that are discretionary in nature and targeted at the
safety of others (safety participation). By showing that spiritual lea-
dership positively contributes to safety participation and safety com-
pliance, both directly and indirectly, via harmonious safety passion, the
present work suggests that spiritual leadership behaviors not only
contribute to individuals’ focus on personal safety but also encourage
them to partake in voluntary safety-related activities at work, such as
solving coworkers’ safety-related issues. Thus, the current study pre-
sents spiritual leadership and harmonious safety passion as mechanisms
that can help managers deal with the safety-related issues at the
workplace and their destructive consequences for employees and or-
ganizations.
2. Theory and hypotheses development
2.1. Spiritual leadership and safety compliance
Past research has revealed that safety-related awareness can en-
hance employees’ compliance with safety-related rules and procedures
that help them ensure preventive measures at the workplace (Chughtai,
2015; Khan et al., 2018). Moreover, safety-related knowledge and skills
not only help them understand safety norms but also develop and
sharpen their capabilities to effectively handle workplace safety issues
(Neal and Griffin, 2006). In the similar vein, autonomy and participa-
tion in decision making inspire individuals to learn and practice safety-
related norms and procedures that contribute towards the effective
implementation of safety programs and reduce fatalities and injuries at
the workplace (Chughtai, 2015; Martínez-Córcoles et al., 2013; Neal
and Griffin, 2006).
Building on spiritual leadership theory, the present study contends
that spiritual leadership can enhance employee’s safety compliance, as
through transcendent vision and hope/faith, spiritual leadership in-
spires employees to demonstrate positive human health behaviors (Fry
and Cohen, 2009) that include the nourishment of physical health of the
self and coworkers through preventive measures (Ryff and Singer,
1998; Park et al., 2016), helping and supporting other voluntarily
(Sneed and Cohen, 2013), and high-quality social relationship (Cohen,
2004). Prior safety literature suggests that helping and supporting
others at the workplace enhances coworkers’ safety-related knowledge
and motivation that positively contributes safety performance (Guo
et al., 2016; Curcuruto et al., 2015). Similarly, high-quality social re-
lationships enable employees to share and exchange their ideas,
queries, and work-related issues, including safety-related issues at work
with co-workers (Guo et al., 2016; Usman and Ahmad, 2018; Usman
et al., 2019). The process of sharing and exchanging safety-related ideas
and issues enhances employees’ safety-related knowledge and skills and
improve their capabilities to comprehend safety issues that enable them
to adhere the safety-related rules and procedures at work (Neal and
Griffin, 2006) and take discretionary safety initiatives (Guo et al.,
2016). Proceeding further, previous studies suggest that psychological
ill-health and poor physical health are major contributing factors in the
injuries and accidents at work, as poor health results in distraction, a
lack of team coordination, motivation, and task attention, impairment
in memory, inability to understand complex human–machine
3
Safety Science 131 (2020) 104923
interactions, poor decision making, and human error (e.g., Scaife et al.,
2006; Rajgopal, 2010; Smith et al, 2000; Størseth, 2006). On the con-
trary, better psychological health and physical health lead to better
team coordination and decision making, improved attention at the task,
and enhanced ability to comprehend the human–machine interactions,
and thus can positively influence employees’ safety performance (Torp
and Moen, 2006; Scaife et al., 2006).
Furthermore, by using a bottom-up interactional approach, spiritual
leaders listen to their employees responsively and encourage their
participation in decision making (Fry et al., 2005; Khani et al., 2013)
that can enhance employees’ compliance with safety standards and
regulations at work (Martínez-Córcoles et al., 2013; Simard and
Marchand, 1997). Finally, spiritual leadership empowers and en-
courages employees’ autonomous behaviors that help them accomplish
their work roles and enhance their identification with the organization
(Bayighomog and Arasli, 2019; Chen and Li, 2013). Past research has
revealed that employees’ autonomous behaviors at work and their
identification with the organization can motivate them to adhere to
procedures and norms that play a central role in accomplishing safety at
work (Martínez-Córcoles et al., 2013; Hofmann and Morgeson, 1999).
Thus, it can be expected that spiritual leadership can enhance em-
ployees’ safety compliance in the workplace.
H1:. Spiritual leadership is positively related to employees’ safety
compliance behaviors.
2.2. Spiritual leadership and safety participation
Spiritual leadership theory (Fry and Slocum, 2008; Fry et al., 2017)
suggests that through altruistic values and a transcendent vision,
spiritual leaders develop employees’ intrinsic motivation to learn and
practice behaviors, such as helping others and demonstrating concern
for others that are fundamental to positive human health. Consistent
with these tenets, past research suggests that altruistic love and the
transcendent vision, spiritual leadership promotes helping behaviors
and self-regulation, encourages employees to build trust-based re-
lationships at the workplace, and instill in them a sense of meaning,
positive emotions and concern for others’ personal and professional
needs (Fry, 2008; Tkaczynski and Arli, 2018; Yang and Fry, 2018). Such
attitudes and behaviors as forgiveness, concern for others’ personal and
professional needs (Lawler-Row et al., 2008), meaning and purpose
(Kim et al., 2014; Roepke et al., 2014), helping others voluntarily
(Sneed and Cohen, 2013), trust-based social relationships (Cohen,
2004; Uchino, 2013), self-regulation (Kubzansky et al., 2011), and
positive emotions (Cohen and Pressman, 2006; Kok et al., 2013) are
considered as individuals’ fundamental health assets that inspire them
to participate in safety-related issues at work (Ryff and Singer, 1998;
Kok et al., 2013). Indeed, concern for others’ personal and professional
needs and positive emotions and close, trust-based relationships at the
workplace inspire employees to participate in and promote preventive
and voluntary safety behaviors at the workplace and encourage them to
share safety-related knowledge with peers that can help them enhance
safety participation at the workplace (Fry and Cohen, 2009; Fry, 2008).
Therefore, we argue that spiritual leadership can positively shape em-
ployees’ safety participation.
Importantly, by developing followers’ sense of membership and
calling, spiritual leaders energize and mobilize them to gain spiritual
experience by demonstrating spiritual behaviors, which are crucial for
the development of the psychological and physical wellbeing of the self
and others (Fry et al., 2017). Likewise, spiritual leadership shapes a
work environment which characterized by altruistic love, and such an
environment not only intrinsically motivate employees to take discre-
tionary initiatives to develop a safe work environment but also helps
coworkers overcome safety-related issues and ensure positive human
health at the workplace (Fry and Slocum, 2008). In sum through the
transcendent vision coupled with altruistic love and hope, spiritual
M. Ali, et al.
leadership intrinsically motivates and spiritually drives employees to
demonstrate safety participation at the workplace.
H2:. Spiritual leadership is positively related to employee’s safety
participation behaviors.
2.3. Harmonious safety passion
The dualistic model (Vallerand et al., 2003, 2007) presents work
passion in the form of its two dimensions – harmonious work passion
and obsessive work passion – and posits that the processes of in-
dividuals’ internalization of work activities into their identities that
shape these two forms of passion are different. Obsessive work passion
is defined as individuals’ controlled and forceful work activities’ in-
ternalization, which develops an internal pressure for engaging in the
work activities (Vallerand et al., 2003). On the contrary, harmonious
work passion is defined as work activities’ autonomous internalization
by individuals into their identities through personal endorsement and
volition (Vallerand et al., 2003). Harmonious work passion reflects
positive emotions that motivate individuals to involve in relationships
or activities that correspond to the target of their passion (Anser et al.,
2020; Vallerand et al., 2014). With this line of reasoning in mind, the
present study considers employees’ safety performance at the work-
place as a target activity of passion and proposes a novel concept of
harmonious safety passion. Drawing from the general conceptualization
of harmonious work passion (Vallerand et al., 2003), we extend the
concept of harmonious passion into the workplace safety context and
define harmonious safety passion as positive emotions that shape in-
dividuals’ autonomous internalization of safety-related behaviors, ac-
tions, and practices into their identities and result in their wanting to
engage in safety-related behaviors through volition and personal en-
dorsement.
We specifically focus on harmonious safety passion because, as
compared to obsessive work passion, harmonious work passion is more
consistent in positively contributing to employees’ positive work-re-
lated behaviors (Burke et al., 2015; Ho et al., 2018). Moreover, as
harmonious passion reflects an individual’s strong internal motivation
to involve in activities (Vallerand et al., 2003), it can be extended into
organizations’ safety programs that can result in employees’ improved
safety performance.
2.4. Harmonious safety passion as a mediator
The spiritual leadership theory suggests that through developing a
sense of calling and membership among followers, spiritual leadership
creates positive social emotions among individuals that facilitate au-
tonomous internalization of spiritual values, altruistic behaviors and
concern for others that are core elements of self-initiated discretionary
initiatives (e.g., safety-related discretionary initiatives) to serve others,
community and society (Fry, 2003; Fry et al., 2017). Moreover, spiritual
leadership creates a culture based on altruistic love and offers em-
ployees autonomy to engage in voluntary social initiatives that posi-
tively affect individuals’ passion for participating in discretionary in-
itiatives to serve others (Fry, 2003; Fry et al., 2017). As taking care of
others’ health and safety is the central component of both serving others
and spiritual values (Fry and Cohen, 2009; Fry, 2008; Yang and Fry,
2018), we argue that spiritual leadership positively influences em-
ployees’ harmonious safety passion. Consistent with this argument,
prior research has shown that leaders who evoke positive emotions
among followers can spark endured feelings of autonomous motivation
toward an activity (harmonious passion), which encourages their par-
ticipation in extra-role behaviors (Dasborough and Ashkanasy, 2002;
Cardon, 2008). Ho and colleagues also revealed that positive social
emotions and autonomy can develop individuals’ harmonious passion
(Ho and Pollack, 2014; Ho et al., 2018). Accordingly, as spiritual lea-
ders provide their followers with positive emotions and autonomy, we
4
Safety Science 131 (2020) 104923
expect spiritual leadership to positively shape employees’ harmonious
safety passion.
In turn, as spiritual leadership shapes employees’ harmonious safety
passion, we propose that employees’ safety performance should be
enhanced. Harmoniously passionate individuals not only partake in
work and life activities with candidness but also flexibly engage
themselves in a task to gain positive experiences (Vallerand et al.,
2014). Flexible engagement in tasks facilitates positive affection, ab-
sorption, and flow (Hodgins and Knee, 2002; Jackson and Marsh,
1996). Indeed, harmoniously passionate individuals possess a better
ability of attention and assimilation that provides them with energy to
put extra-efforts in their work roles (Forest et al., 2012). As compared
with others, harmoniously passionate individuals devote more energy
and time to the work activities and demonstrate more dedication to
their work role to gain favorable outcomes (e.g., task performance,
satisfaction, and psychological wellbeing) (Ho et al., 2011; Vallerand
et al., 2014). Therefore, employees who are harmoniously passionate
about safety can be predicted to devote more energy and time to safety-
related issues at work that can result in improved safety participation
and safety compliance.
Additionally, past research suggests that safety participation and
safety compliance can be facilitated by enhancing employees’ sense of
autonomous motivation, interpersonal cooperation, safety-related cap-
abilities and initiatives (Chughtai, 2015; Martínez-Córcoles et al., 2011,
2013; Simard and Marchand, 1997; Neal and Griffin, 2006). As har-
moniously passionate individuals build strong interpersonal relation-
ships with others (e.g., coworkers) that not only boost their relational
satisfaction but also improve their capability and motivation to engage
in helping behaviors and devote extra energy to perform both discre-
tionary and in-role behaviors at work (Anser et al., 2020; Astakhova,
2015; Philippe et al., 2010), harmonious safety passion should foster
employees’ participation in and compliance with safety-related issues at
work, as doing so benefits others at work (Neal et al., 2000). Based on
the above arguments, we expect, to the extent that spiritual leadership
shapes employees’ harmonious safety passion, harmonious safety pas-
sion should positively influence safety compliance and safety partici-
pation.
H3:. Harmonious safety passion mediates the positive relationship
between spiritual leadership and employees’ safety compliance.
H4:. Harmonious safety passion mediates the positive relationship
between spiritual leadership and employees’ safety participation.
3. 3. Research method
3.1. 3.1. Research context
Past research has highlighted the manufacturing sector as one of the
most vulnerable to injuries and fatalities at the workplace (Kapp, 2012).
As such, in the present study, we collected data from the Vietnamese
Manufacturing sector; as according to the Ministry of Labour, Invalids
and Social Affairs, over 8000 accidents occurred at the workplace in
2018 in the country that injured over 8200 and killed 1039 people
(Department of Work Safety, 2018). The report further explained that
almost 46% of these injuries and accidents occur due to non-compliance
to safety-related procedures and lack of voluntary participation in
safety-related campaigns (Department of Work Safety, 2018). Despite
the measures taken by the Government of Vietnam, workplace injuries
and accidents tend to escalate, and the manufacturing sector is con-
sidered as the major contributor towards this escalation (Department of
Work Safety, 2018; Trinh et al., 2019). In this backdrop, it is imperative
to gain deeper insight to offer appropriate recommendations to man-
agers on how to better foster employees’ safety compliance and parti-
cipation in the manufacturing sector in Vietnam.
Vietnam has a collectivist culture that is inspired by Confucianism,
M. Ali, et al.
which is deeply rooted in spiritual values to serve the community.
Although spiritual leadership theory was originated in the in-
dividualistic culture (Wang et al., 2019), past research has shown the
transformability and effectiveness of spiritual leadership in collectivist
cultures. For instance, a recent study conducted in South Korea, an
equally collectivistic culture, found that leaders’ spiritual values were
positively related to the achievement of organizational goals (Kang
et al., 2017). Similarly, another study conducted in the Confucianism
context revealed that spiritual leadership undermines the wrongdoing
of the followers and helps organizations protect their resources (Wang
et al., 2017). Taken together, the Vietnamese manufacturing sector
represents a suitable research context for understanding spiritual lea-
dership-employees’ safety performance link.
3.2. Data collection and analysis
We collected data from 305 supervisor-employee dyads in 49
manufacturing firms operating in Vietnam. Initially, a random sample
of 60 companies listed on the Hochiminh Stock Exchange was chosen.
Access was managed in 49 companies through personal social re-
sources. Initially, 500 potential respondents were chosen randomly.
Four hundred and thirty-two of the initially contacted employees
agreed to participate in the survey and promised to provide the contact
of their immediate supervisors. Those respondents who showed a
willingness to participate in the survey were provided with sealed re-
turn envelopes containing the promise of confidentiality, the survey
questionnaires, and an information sheet that explained key constructs
and research objectives.
Data from employees were collected in two waves that were sepa-
rated by four months. Data about spiritual leadership, work experience,
education, age, and gender were gathered in the first wave, in which
375 filled responses were received. Data about harmonious safety
passion were collected in the second wave, which produced 323 filled
responses. Responses were matched using secrets codes placed on the
envelope. However, 12 responses that had missing data or did not ad-
just to trap questions were excluded from further analysis. Thus, 311
usable responses were obtained from employees.
After completing the two waves of data collection from employees,
data about employees’ safety performance were collected from the
immediate supervisors of those employees, who had responded in both
collection waves. We received 307 responses from the supervisors. We
excluded two cases for which one supervisor rated two subordinates on
their safety performance to ensure that one supervisor rated only one
subordinate on his/her safety performance. Thus, the final sample
consisted of 305 unique supervisor-employee dyads. That is, 305 su-
pervisors rated 305 employees on their safety performance.
The purpose of collecting data from two sources and two waves was
to reduce common method variance (Podsakoff et al., 2003). Harman’s
single factor was also employed to examine the data for the common
method bias. Therefore, the items of all the constructs were constrained
into a single factor, which resulted in explaining 35.11% of the total
variance, which was below the threshold – 50% (Hair et al., 2010).
Thus, it was concluded that the common method variance was not a
problem.
The sample included 154 males and 151 females. The respondents’
education statistics were as follows: 21.2% had matriculation certifi-
cates (10 years of schooling), 19.2% had intermediate certificates
(12 years of schooling), 29% had undergraduate degrees, and 30.6%
had master’s degrees. The average age and experience of the re-
spondents were 37.84 years and 8.08 years, respectively. The partici-
pants belonged to different levels and functional areas of organizations.
Such a diverse sample enhances the generalizability of the results
(Hirschi, 2012). SPSS 25.0 and structural equation modeling (SEM) in
AMOS 25.0 were used to analyze the data.
5
Safety Science 131 (2020) 104923
3.3. Measures and scales
All the variables were assessed using five-point Likert scales an-
chored on 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree).
3.3.1. Spiritual leadership
We assessed spiritual leadership by adapting a 17-item scale from
Fry et al. (2005). “I have faith in my supervisor’s vision for its employees”
(vision), “I persevere and exert extra effort to help my supervisor succeed
because I have faith in what he/she does” (hope/faith), and “My supervisor
is honest and without false pride” (altruistic love) were sample items. As
all the three dimensions of spiritual leadership – vision, altruistic love,
and hope/faith – were highly correlated, we performed a second-order
confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) to examine whether all the dimen-
sions load on a single latent factor. All the dimensions demonstrated
satisfactory levels of loading onto a single latent factor, with fit indices
– χ2(116) = 259.05, χ2/df = 2.23, IFI = 0.96, CFI = 0.96,
TLI = 0.95, GFI = 0.91, and RMSEA = 0.06. Thus, it was appropriate
to use spiritual leadership as a second-order construct.
3.3.2. Harmonious safety passion
We assessed harmonious safety passion by adapting a ten-item scale
from Robertson and Barling (2013). “I am passionate about the safety at
work” and “I get pleasure from taking care of the safety of the self and others
at the workplace” were the sample items.
3.3.3. Safety compliance
Safety compliance was assessed by adapting a three-item scale from
Neal and Griffin (2006). “She/he ensures highest levels of safety when she/
he carries out her/his job” was a sample item.
3.3.4. Safety participation
We assessed safety participation by adapting a three-item scale from
Neal and Griffin (2006). “She/he voluntarily carries out tasks or activities
that help improve workplace safety” was a sample item.
3.4. Control variables
Past publications (Han et al., 2019) suggest that age, gender, edu-
cation, and work experience can influence employees’ safety perfor-
mance, and thus, can confound the results. Likewise, previous studies
(Li et al., 2017) indicate that harmonious passion can vary across dif-
ferent age groups, gender, and education level. Thus, employees’ age,
education, work experience, and gender were controlled.
4. Results
4.1. Non-independence of the data
The respondents of the present study came from 49 firms. Therefore,
data were examined for non-independence. For this purpose, we fol-
lowed Bliese (2000) and calculated ICC (1) for the outcome variables.
The ICC (1) values of safety compliance and safety participation were
0.02 (ns) and 0.01 (ns), respectively. Therefore, we concluded that the
non-independence of the data was not a problem.
4.2. Correlations, means, and standard deviations
Correlations, standard deviation, and means are presented in
Table 1.
4.3. Measurement model
CFA was used to assess the measurement model consisted of spiri-
tual leadership (SL), harmonious safety passion (HSP), and safety par-
ticipation (SP), and safety compliance (SC). All the items loaded
M. Ali, et al. Safety Science 131 (2020) 104923

Table 1
Means and correlations.
Construct Means SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

1. Spiritual leadership 2.67 1.02

2. Harmonious safety passion 3.20 1.13 0.51**
3. Safety compliance 3.04 1.07 0.21** 0.30**
4. Safety participation 3.31 1.12 0.27** 0.41** 0.18**
5. Age 37.84 8.34 −0.03 0.01 −0.04 −0.02
6. Gender 1.49 0.50 −0.05 0.03 −0.01 0.02 0.04
7. Education 2.69 1.12 −0.12* −0.07 0.03 −0.04 0.04 0.04
8. Work experience 8.08 6.47 −0.02 0.04 −0.01 −0.01 0.85** 0.06 0.08

Note. n = 305. * P < .05. ** P < .01 level (2-tailed). SD = Standard deviation. Gender: 1 = male, 2 = female.

Table 2 relationships of spiritual leadership with both the outcome variables –

Reliability and convergent validity and discriminant validities. safety compliance (β = 0.24, p < .001) and safety participation
Construct 1 2 3 4 α AVE MSV ASV
(β = 0.28*, p < .001). The fit indices – χ2 (225) = 414.52, χ2/
df = 1.84, TLI = 0.94, IFI = 0.95, CFI = 0.95, and RMSEA = 0.05, –
1. Spiritual leadership 0.86 0.95 0.74 0.25 0.12 indicated a good fit of the structural model, suggesting that hypothesis
2. Harmonious safety 0.50 0.72 0.87 0.52 0.25 0.17 1 and hypothesis 2 were supported.
passion
3. Safety compliance 0.20 0.30 0.71 0.85 0.51 0.16 0.10
Then in structural model 2, harmonious safety passion was included
4. Safety participation 0.26 0.40 0.17 0.77 as the mediator of the direct positive association of spiritual leadership
0.83 0.60 0.16 0.09 with safety compliance and safety participation (see Fig. 2). The fit
indices – χ2 (486) = 780.07, χ2/df = 1.60, RMSEA = 0.04,
Notes. n = 305. AVE = Average variance extracted. MSV = Maximum shared TLI = 0.94, CFI = 0.95, and IFI = 0.94 – demonstrated a good fit of the
variance. ASV = Average shared variance. Bolded values on the diagonals of
structural model 2. Finally, to examine the significance of harmonious
columns 2 to 5 are the square root values of AVE. CR = Composite reliability.
safety passion as the mediating mechanism of the positive relationships
of spiritual leadership with safety participation and safety compliance,
significantly on their respective constructs. The fit indices – χ2
we used the bootstrapping technique with a sample of size 2000 (95%
(486) = 780.07, χ2/df = 1.60, RMSEA = 0.04, CFI = 0.95,
confidence interval). The results revealed significant indirect relation-
IFI = 0.95, and TLI = 0.94 – demonstrated that the model had a sa-
ships of spiritual leadership with safety compliance (β = 0.19, 95%
tisfactory fit.
confidence interval did not overlap with zero) and safety participation
From Table 2, it is evident that Cronbach alpha (α) > 0.70 for all
(β = 0.25, 95% confidence interval did not overlap with zero) (see
the variables of this study. Additionally, average variance extracted
Table 4). Thus, hypothesis 3 and hypothesis 4 were supported.
(AVE) > 0.50, and the square root values of AVE (bolded values on the
diagonal of Table 2) were greater than inter-construct correlations.
Moreover, average shared variance (ASV) < maximum shared var- 5. Discussion
iance (MSV), and MSV and ASV < AVE. Thus, internal consistency,
discriminant validity, and convergent validity of the scales were sa- Responding to the calls (Chughtai, 2015; Nahrganget al., 2011;
tisfactory. Khan et al, 2018) to further excavate the role of positive leadership
Additionally, using AMOS, the present study conducted four-factor, styles in overcoming the safety-related issues at workplace, the theo-
three-factor, two-factor, and one-factor models CFAs to establish the retical relevance of spiritual leadership for positively contributing to
distinctiveness among the understudied variables by gauging Δχ2, CFI, human health (Fry et al, 2005; Fry and Slocum, 2008), and the lack of
TLI, and RMSEA. The results presented in Table 3 indicate that four empirical studies on the spiritual leadership-employees’ safety perfor-
factors model consisting of spiritual leadership, harmonious safety mance association, the present study theorized and empirically tested a
passion, safety compliance, and safety performance showed a better fit model posited that spiritual leadership is positively associated with
with data as compared to the alternative models, including the three- employees’ safety performance – safety compliance and safety partici-
factor model, two-factor model, and the single-factor model. Thus, the pation. The study also proposed that harmonious safety passion med-
understudied four constructs depicted a satisfactory level of distinc- iates the positive association between spiritual leadership and safety
tiveness. performance – safety participation and safety compliance. Based on
time-lagged survey data collected from 307 supervisor-employee dyads
4.4. Structural model in 49 manufacturing firms in Vietnam and analyzed using SEM, the
results supported the proposed relationships.
The structural model was assessed in three steps. The direct re- The results revealed that spiritual leadership is positively related to
lationships of spiritual leadership and with the outcome variables – employees’ safety compliance and safety participation. In line with
safety compliance and safety participation - were examined in the first spiritual leadership theory, (Fry, 2003; Fry et al., 2005), the findings
step in structural model 1. The analysis revealed a significant direct indicate that through a transcendent vision, hope/faith, and altruistic

Table 3
Confirmatory Factor Analysis of Discriminate Validity.
Models Factors χ2 df χ2/df Δχ2 RMSEA CFI TLI

Model1 4 Factor: SL, HSP, SC, SP 779.13 486 1.60 – 0.04 0.95 0.94
Model 2 3 Factors: SL, HSP, SC + SP 1533.31 492 3.15 754.8 0.08 0.81 0.80
Model 3 2 Factors: SL + HSP: SC + SP 2578.98 494 5.22 1045.67 0.11 0.63 0.61
Model 4 1 Factor: SL + HSP + SC + SP 2820.00 495 5.69 241.02 0.12 0.59 0.56

Notes: SL = spiritual leadership, HSP = harmonious safety passion, SC = safety compliance, SP = safety participation.

6
M. Ali, et al.
Fig. 2. Harmonious safety passion as a mediator of the relationship between spiritual leadership and safety performance.
Table 4
Direct and indirect effects and 95% confidence intervals (model 2).
Parameter Estimate LL
Standardized direct effects
Spiritual leadership → Safety compliance 0.04 -0.16
Spiritual leadership → Safety participation 0.02 -0.13
Spiritual leadership → Harmonious safety passion 0.58* 0.45
Harmonious safety passion → Safety compliance 0.32* 0.14
Harmonious safety passion → Safety participation 0.43* 0.29
Standardized indirect effects
Spiritual leadership → Harmonious safety 0.19* 0.08
passion → Safety compliance
Spiritual leadership → Harmonious safety 0.25* 0.17
passion → Safety participation
Notes: *Empirical 95% confidence interval does not overlap with zero. n = 305
(bootstrapping by specifying a sample of size 2000). LL = lower limit.
UP = upper limit.
love, spiritual leadership positively contributes to safety participation
and safety compliance. The findings signify the role of spiritual lea-
dership in positively influencing employees’ safety behaviors that are
beyond the self-enactment of safety behaviors at work and include
those voluntary safety-related behaviors that ensure others’ safety at
work. By bringing to the fore, spiritual leadership as an important de-
terminant of employees’ safety performance at work, the findings ex-
tended the scarce literature on the leadership-employees’ safety per-
formance link (Chughtai, 2015; Khan et al., 2018).
Importantly, the present study established harmonious safety pas-
sion as an important mechanism underlying the association between
spiritual leadership and employees’ safety compliance and the asso-
ciation between spiritual leadership and employees’ safety participa-
tion. The findings meaningfully expanded our understanding of why
spiritual leadership is positively related to employees’ safety perfor-
mance – safety compliance and safety participation. The findings in-
dicate that through the transcendent vision, hope/faith, and altruistic
love, spiritual leadership enables employees to autonomously
Safety Science 131 (2020) 104923
internalize positive social emotions, such as empathy, care and concern
for others, and appreciation for demonstrating social values and dis-
UP cretionary safety-related initiatives (Fry et al., 2017) that, in turn, in-
stigate them to comply with safety standards as well as go beyond to
engage in discretionary safety-related behaviors at work. These findings
0.25 are comparable with the literature on harmonious passion that con-
0.19
0.69
cluded that harmoniously passionate employees demonstrate an en-
0.50 hanced sense of care and concern for others and are willing to guide and
0.58 help coworkers at the workplace (Forest et al., 2012; Ho et al., 2018).
0.32
5.1. Theoretical contributions
0.36
By theorizing and developing a model that links spiritual leadership
with employees’ safety performance, both directly and indirectly, via
harmonious safety passion, the work at hand contributed to the lit-
erature in several ways. First, although a few studies have explored the
relationship between positive leadership styles – ethical leadership
(Chughtai, 2015; Khan et al., 2018) and safety leadership (Lu and Yang,
2010) – and safety-related outcomes at work, our knowledge of spiri-
tual leadership-employees’ safety performance link is meager at best. By
revealing spiritual leadership as an important determinant of both
safety participation and safety compliance, the present work con-
tributed to the literature on leadership-safety performance connection
(Chughtai, 2015; Khan et al., 2018) and enhanced the nomological
network of predictors of employees’ safety performance (Chughtai,
2015; Khan et al, 2018; Pilbeam et al., 2016). Given the grave con-
sequences of workplace safety-related issues for employees’ psycholo-
gical wellbeing and physical health and growing calls to study the role
of different positive leadership styles in improving employees’ safety
performance, these contributions are timely and relevant.
Second, a plethora of studies has revealed that spiritual leadership
positively contributes to employees’ positive work-related outcomes,
such as employees’ sense of calling and meaningfulness (Fry et al.,
2005), innovative behaviors and task performance (Wang et al., 2019),
citizenship behaviors (Chen and Yang, 2012), and psychological
7
M. Ali, et al.
wellbeing (Fry et al., 2017). Despite being insightful, none of the stu-
dies have theorized or empirically tested the spiritual leadership-safety
performance link. Our study advanced this body of knowledge by es-
tablishing positive associations of spiritual leadership with safety
compliance and safety participation.
Third, the spiritual leadership theory (Fry et al., 2005) indicates that
spiritual leadership develops behaviors that are fundamental to positive
human health. However, little has been done so far to empirically verify
the positive influences of spiritual leadership on employees’ safety-re-
lated behaviors and outcomes. Therefore, the present study is an im-
portant step towards extending the spiritual leadership theory into the
workplace safety context and empirically showing the positive re-
lationship between spiritual leadership and employees’ safety perfor-
mance. In doing so, this study contributed to the scarce literature on the
positive human health perspective of spiritual leadership (Fry and
Slocum, 2008) and offered an alternative vantage point to look at
employees’ safety performance.
Finally, by extending the concept of harmonious passion into the
workplace safety context and establishing harmonious safety passion as
an underlying mechanism of the relationships of spiritual leadership
with employees’ safety compliance and safety participation, this study
extended the scope of the harmonious passion (Anser et al., 2020; Ho
et al., 2018). In doing so, the study advanced the literature on em-
ployees’ safety performance (Chughtai, 2015; Neal and Griffin, 2006)
by foregrounding spiritual leadership and harmonious passion as im-
portant predictors of employees’ safety performance. Indeed, the study
highlighted the consequential potential of both spiritual leadership and
harmonious safety passion for improving employees’ safety perfor-
mance.
5.2. Practical implications
The present study carries several practical implications that can
help managers improve employees’ safety performance – safety com-
pliance and safety participation behaviors. First, managers should
adopt a spiritual leadership style to clarify the transcendental im-
portance of having a genuine concern for the self and others at the
workplace that would intrinsically motivate employees to learn and
practice behaviors that are fundamental to positive human health.
Second, managers as spiritual leaders should build a work environment
characterized by altruistic love that would motivate employees to take
discretionary initiatives to ensure a safe workplace. Third, managers
can also organize formal and informal meetings and discussions tar-
geted at the importance of safety at work and clarify the standards that
can enhance employees’ ability to better comprehend the hu-
man–machine interactions at work and reduce work-related injuries
and other health-related issues. The managers can also initiate aware-
ness campaigns and seminars to help employees internalize different
behaviors that are fundamental to positive human health and safety at
work. Managers should organize training and mentoring sessions to
shape and develop employees’ passion for workplace safety. Finally,
managers should use their social influence through intellectual dis-
course to help employees make better moral choices when dealing with
workplace safety issues.
5.3. Limitations and future research directions
The present study has some important limitations that must be
noted. First, the time-lagged and two source data may not have the
issue of common method bias, but may not help us draw strong causal
inferences about the hypothesized relationships. To make strong causal
about our hypothesized relationships, future research should use
longitudinal or experimental designs. Moreover, our findings are based
on data collected from employees in manufacturing firms from
Vietnam. However, the concept of spiritual leadership can vary across
different contexts. Thus, future studies in other countries can enhance
8
Safety Science 131 (2020) 104923
the validity of our findings.
Additionally, although the present study explored harmonious
safety passion as an underlying mechanism of the relationships of
spiritual leadership with safety compliance and safety participation,
there may be some important variables that can mediate these re-
lationships of spiritual leadership with safety compliance and safety
participation. For instance, spiritual leadership tends to improve the
quality of relationships among employees (Fry et al., 2005), such as
relational social capital (trust-based, high-quality relationships). Fur-
thermore, relational social capital instigates a sense of obligation
among individuals and intrinsically motivates them to promote care
and concern for others and strive for a collective purpose (Abdullah
et al., 2019; Yang and Farn, 2009; Chang, 2017). It would be an in-
teresting vantage point for future researchers to examine relational
social capital as an underlying mechanism of the relationships of
spiritual leadership with safety compliance and safety performance.
Additionally, the present study did not take into account the contingent
factors of the relationship of spiritual leadership with safety compliance
and safety participation. Future research should explore different con-
tingent factors the hypothesized relationships. For example, justice
orientation describes an individual’s tendency to internalize moral va-
lues and pay attention to fairness at work (Sasaki and Hayashi, 2014). It
is likely that, as compared with others, individuals with high justice
orientation take more care of the self and others at work and consider
others’ safety as their moral obligation to ensure fairness at work. Fu-
ture studies should consider justice orientation as a moderator to ex-
plore its influence on the hypothesized relationship. Finally, the present
study did not control transformational leadership. As such, we en-
courage future studies to control for transformational leadership to
better gauge whether spiritual leadership demonstrates predictive
variance in predicting safety performance over and above transforma-
tional leadership (Wang et al, 2019).
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