1.

Authentic leadership
Authentic leadership is defined as a consistent behavioral pattern of internally‐
guided moral action and genuine interaction with others, based on accurate self‐
knowledge and objective use of relevant information (Walumbwa et al., 2008)

Authentic leadership is defined as “a process that draws from both positive

psychological capacities and a highly developed organizational context, which
results in both greater self-awareness and self-regulated positive behaviors on the
part of leaders and associates, fostering positive self-development” (Luthans &
Avolio, 2003, p. 243).

Authentic leadership is defined as “a pattern of leader behavior that draws upon

and promotes both positive psychological capacities and a positive ethical climate
to foster greater self-awareness, an internalized moral perspective, balanced
processing of information, and relational transparency on the part of leaders
working with followers, fostering positive self-development” (Walumbwa et al.,
2008, p. 94).

Avolio et al. (2009, p. 424) suggest that four factors “cover the components of
authentic leadership”: (1) balanced processing refers to the importance of data
analysis prior to decision making; (2) internalised moral perspective refers to self-
regulating behaviours; (3) relational transparency refers to the importance of open
information sharing with appropriate level of emotionality; (4) self-awareness
refers to understanding personal strengths and weaknesses and sense-making
processes.
Authentic leadership is defined as 'a pattern of transparent and ethical leader
behaviour that encourages openness in sharing information needed to make
decisions while accepting input from those who follow' (Avolio et al. 2009) 

2. Dark leadership 
Dark leadership is defined as leadership that takes advantage of followers for
personal gain (Conger, 1990, p. 44).

Dark leadership is defined as negative leadership (Inyang, 2013; McCleskey,

2013). What characterizes dark leadership is negative interpersonal interactions,
selfishness, and a disregard for the wellbeing of subordinates (Reed & Bullis,
2009).

3. Destructive leadership 
Destructive leadership is defined as “The systematic and repeated behaviour by a
leader, supervisor, or manager that violates the legitimate interest of the
organization by undermining and/ or sabotaging the organization's goals, tasks,
resources, and effectiveness and/ or the motivation, well-being or job satisfaction
of subordinates.”

Destructive leadership is defined as a systematic and repeated set of behaviours

by a leader that have a significant negative (ie, destructive) impact on
organizational and/or employee outcomes.
 4. Ethical leadership 
Ethical leadership is defined as “the demonstration of normatively appropriate
conduct through
personal actions and interpersonal relationships, and the promotion of such conduct
to followers
through two-way communication, reinforcement, and decision-making” (Brown et
al., 2005).

5. Narcissistic Leadership
Narcissism—a personality trait encompassing grandiosity, arrogance, self-
absorption, entitlement, fragile self-esteem, and hostility—is an attribute of many
powerful leaders.

Narcissistic leaders have grandiose belief systems and leadership styles, and are
generally motivated by their needs for power and admiration rather than
empathetic concern for the constituents and institutions they lead. 

6. Paternalistic leadership
Paternalistic leadership is defined as fatherly leadership that combines strong
authority with concern and considerateness (Cheng, et al., 2000). 

Paternalistic leadership is defined as a leadership approach that merges strict

discipline and power with paternal benevolence and moral integrity (Farh and
Cheng, 2000).

Paternalistic leadership is defined as long-term care behavior which contains

work and non-work welfare.
Paternalistic Leadership is defined as “a style that combines strong discipline
and authority with
fatherly benevolence” (Cheng, Zhou, and Farh, 2000)

Paternalistic leadership is defined as the combination of both leader

authoritarianism and benevolence

7. Servant leadership
Servant leadership is defined as "leadership that puts the needs of others and the
organization first, is characterized by openness, vision and stewardship, and results
in building community within organizations."

Servant leadership is defined as a leader's desire to motivate and guide followers,

offer hope, and provide a more caring experience through established quality
relationships (Greenleaf and Spears, 2002).

Servant leadership is defined as having a motivation to serve others through the

following characteristics/constructs: altruistic calling, emotional healing, wisdom,
persuasive mapping and organizational stewardship (Barbuto &Wheeler, 2006).

Servant leadership is defined as leadership focused on followers, whereby

followers are leader’s primary concern and organizational concerns are peripheral. 

8. Spiritual leadership 
Spiritual leadership is defined as comprising the values, attitudes, and behaviors
that are
necessary to intrinsically motivate one's self and others so that they have a sense of
spiritual
survival through calling and membership
Spiritual leadership is defined as a leader with high spirit toward his employee to
achieve organizational vision and mission.

Spiritual leadership is defined as a leadership model that supports others in

connecting with their spiritual selves which is the wellspring of creativity, values
and morality as well as finding one's calling in life (Fairholm, 1997)

9. Transactional leadership 
Transactional leadership is defined as an instrumental approach to
organizational leadership and is generally associated with a task orientation
towards management (Conger, 1999). 

Transactional leadership is defined as a transaction or exchange among leaders,

colleagues, and followers based on the leader discussing with others what is
required and specifying the conditions and rewards that will be received if those
requirements are fulfilled (Bass, 1985).

Transactional leadership is defined as not interested in elevating the morality of

his or her collaborators. This is a more restrictive type of leadership and is focused
exclusively on meeting expected goals and objectives

Transactional leadership is defined as trading one thing for another (quid pro

quo), whereas transformational leadership is more focused on change.

Transactional leadership is defined as a model of leadership that guide or

motivate subordinates towards goals set by clarifying role and task demands

10. Transformational leadership 
Transformational leadership is defined as a style of leadership that transforms
followers to rise above their self-interest by altering their morale, ideals, interests,
and values, motivating them to perform better than initially expected (Bass, 1985;
Yukl, 1999).

Transformational leadership is defined as a relationship between a leader and

followers based on a set of leader behaviors perceived by subordinates as
exhibiting idealized influence, motivational inspiration, intellectual stimulation,
and individual consideration (Bass, 1985).

Transformational leadership is defined as a leadership style that stimulates

followers to change their beliefs, values, capabilities, and motives to raise
performance beyond self-interest for the benefit of the organi- zation (Avolio,
1999)

Transformational leadership is defined as the process of cultivating followers'

commitment to organizational objectives and shaping the culture in ways
consistent with the organizational strategy (Yukl, 2002).

Transformational leadership is defined as "the process of influencing major

changes in the attitudes and assumptions of organization members and building
commitment for the organization's mission or objectives" (Tracey & Hinkin, 1994).

Transformational leadership is defined as a leader's behavior that influences

followers by broadening and elevating their goals and providing them with
confidence to perform beyond the expectations specified in an implicit or explicit
exchange agreement (Dvir, Eden, Avolio, & …

11. Participative leadership 
Participative leadership is defined as the degree to which a supervisor allows
his/her subordinates to have input in decision making.
Participative leadership is defined as shared influence and joint decision making
between a leader
and their followers (Armenakis, Harris, & Mossholder, 1993; Koopman &
Wierdsma, 1998)

Participative leadership is defined as sharing problem solving with followers by

consulting them before making a decision (Kahai et al., 1997).

Participative leadership is defined as the equalization of power and sharing of

problem solving with followers by consulting them before making a decision.

Participative leadership is defined as a master-master relationship with group

members in whom a leader will develop his leadership abilities by consulting and
encouraging employees participation in decision-making

Participative leadership is defined as sharing of problem solving by consulting

with team members before making a decision (Bass, 1990; Bass et al., 1975).

12. Burnout
Burnout is defined as a syndrome or state of physical, emotional, and mental
exhaustion, as well as cynicism towards one's work in response to chronic
organizational stressors (Boyd, 1978) 

Burnout is defined as “feeling hopeless and unwilling to deal with work.”

Burnout is defined as a combination of three elements: (1) emotional exhaustion:

the depletion of emotional energy by continued work-related demands, (2)
depersonalization: a sense of emotional distance from one’s patients or job, and (3)
low personal accomplishment, which is a decreased sense of self worth or efficacy
related to work.
Burnout is defined as a psychological syndrome of emotional exhaustion,
depersonalization, and reduced personal accomplishment that occurs among
individuals who work with other people, in particular in conflicting or otherwise
critical situations ( Maslach & Schaufeli 1993)

Burnout is defined as a 'state of emotional exhaustion caused by psychological

and emotional demands made on people' both on and off the job (Jackson, Schwab
and Schuler, 1986),

Burnout is defined as a state in which individuals expect little reward and

considerable punishment from work because of a lack of valued reinforcement,
controllable outcomes, or personal competence. 

13. Career success 

Career success is defined as “the accomplishment of desirable work-related
outcomes at any point in a person's work experiences over time” (Arthur et al.,
2005, p. 179).

Career success is defined as the “positive psychological or work-related

outcomes or achievements one has accumulated as a result of one's work
experiences” (Judge, Cable, Boudreau, & Bretz, 1995, p. 486) 

Career success is defined as the outcomes or achievements one has accumulated

as a result of one's work experiences.

14. Career commitment 

Career commitment is defined as one's attitude toward one's vocation, including
a profession (Blau, 1988)
Career commitment is defined as “the strength of one's motivation to work in a
chosen career role” (Hall, 1971, p.59). 

Career commitment is defined as the devotion an individual has to the sequenced

career progression within his/her profession or occupation (Pelz & Andrews,
1966).

Career commitment is defined as the extent to which the worker wishes to

develop and advance in his/her career.

15. Career transition 
A career transition is defined as “the period during which an individual is either
changing roles (objective) or changing orientation to a role (subjective)” (Louis,
1980, p. 330). 

Career transition is defined as “a change of job

or profession, or a change in one's orientation to work while continuing in the same
job” (Louis, 1980, p. 330).

Career transition is defined as the period of adjustment prior to and following an

identifiable career event.

16. Challenge stressors 
Challenge stressors are defined as “appraised as promoting accomplishment of
job tasks and
the personal development of the individual” (Podsakoff, 2007, p. 87) …

Challenge stressors are defined as ''demands in the workplace that tend to be

appraised as promoting the accomplishment of job tasks and the personal
development of the individual.'' 
Challenge stressors are defined as working conditions that “although potentially
stressful, have associated potential gains for individuals,” whereas hindrance
stressors are defined as working conditions …

17. Hindrance stressors 
Hindrance job stressors are defined as job demands or work circumstances that
involve excessive or undesirable constraints that interfere with or inhibit an
individual's ability to achieve valued goals (Cavanough et al., 2000) …

Hindrance stressors are defined as sources of stress that are “appraised as barriers

or obstacles to the accomplishment of job tasks and the personal development of
the individual” (Podsakoff, 2007, p. 88).

Hindrance stressors are defined as “job demands viewed as obstacles to personal

growth or demands that interfere with one's ability to achieve work-related goals
(Cavanaugh et al. 2000) …

Hindrance stressors are defined as “work-related demands or circumstances that

tend to constrain or interfere with an individual's work achievement and that do not
tend to be associated with potential gains for the individual” [1]. 

18. Depersonalization
Depersonalization is defined as a “negative, callous, or detached response to
various aspects of the job” (Maslach et al., 2001, p. 399).

Depersonalization is defined as an unfeeling and impersonal response toward the

recipients of one's service, treatment or instruction
 19. Emotional exhaustion
Emotional exhaustion is defined as the depletion of energy; those who are
exhausted feel overextended, drained and unable to recover

Emotional exhaustion is defined as the perception that one's emotional resources

have been completely expended (Cordes & Dougherty, 1993, Maslach & Jackson,
1981).

Emotional exhaustion is defined as being overwhelmed by work and is

considered the first stage of burnout. 

Emotional exhaustion is defined as feelings of being “emotionally spent” and

overextended by one's work (Maslach & Jackson, 1981).

20. Coping
Coping is defined as the person's constantly changing cognitive and behavioral
efforts to manage specific external and/or internal demands that are appraised as
taxing or exceeding the person's resources (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984b) …

Coping is defined as the cognitive and behavioral efforts made to master, tolerate,

or reduce external and internal demands and conflicts among them. 

Coping is defined as learned behaviors that contribute to survival

in the face of life-threatening dangers (eg, Miller, 1980; Ursin, 1980) …

Coping is defined as cognitive processes, such as denial, repression, suppression,

and intellectualization, as well as problem-solving behaviors that are invoked to
reduce anxiety and other distressing emotion states.
 21. Emotion suppression 
Emotion suppression is defined as conscious attempts to inhibit the ongoing
stream of emotional experiences whether covert, overt, or both …

 Expressive suppression is defined as the attempt to hide, inhibit or reduce

ongoing emotion-expressive behavior (Gross and Levenson, 1993; Gross and John,
2003).

Emotional suppression is defined as the conscious inhibition of one's own

emotional expressive behavior while emotionally aroused (Arnold, 1960).

22. Core self-evaluations 
The core self-evaluations are defined as basic conclusions or bottom-line
evaluations that individuals hold about themselves (Judge et al., 1997).

Core self-evaluations are defined as "fundamental premises that individuals hold

about themselves and their functioning in the world" (Judge, Erez, & Bono, 1998,
p. 168).

Core self-evaluations are defined as “fundamental evaluations that people make

about themselves, their worthiness, competence, and capability” (Judge, Bono,
Erez, & Locke, 2005 Judge, TA, Bono, JE, Erez, A. and Locke, EA 2005 …

Core self-evaluations are defined as “basic, fundamental appraisal[s] of one’s

worthiness, effectiveness, and capability as a person” (Judge et al., 2003, p. 304)
and are indicated by several well-studied personality traits: self-esteem,
generalized self-efficacy, locus of control, and neuroticism (Judge, Locke,
Durham, & Kluger, 1998).
 23. Curiosity
Curiosity is defined as a positive emotional-motivational system associated with
the recognition, pursuit, and self-regulation of novel and challenging
opportunities …

Curiosity is defined as the desire to know or learn, and research shows that those

with higher trait curiosity are more likely to allocate attention to novel and
challenging stimuli (Kashdan et al., 2004).

Curiosity is defined as the desire that motivates individuals to learn new ideas,

eliminate information gaps, and solve intellectual problems (Litman, 2008).

24. Career salience 
Career salience is defined as the "importance of work and a career in one's total
life" (Greenhaus, 1971, p. 209) 

Career salience is defined as aspirations for work as the central feature of adult

life, regardless of financial necessity or under conditions of free choice (Almquist
& Angrist, 1971, p. 263)

Career salience is defined as the relative importance of work and career in one’s
life overall (Greenhaus & Simon, 1971).

25. Deviant work behavior
DWB is defined as those behaviors that deviate norms and ethical standards of the
organization so that they threaten well-being of the organization (Anderson et al.,
2010), its members (Pai and Lee, 2011), or both (Robinson & Bennett, 1995;
Spector & Fox, 2010; Perri, 2011) 
Counterproductive or deviant work behavior is defined as volitional employee
behavior that harms, or at least intends to harm, the legitimate interests of an
organization (Sacket & DeVore, 2001; Spector & Fox, 2002).

Deviant workplace behavior (DWB) is defined as voluntary behavior that violates

significant organizational norms and threatens the well-being of an organization
and its members (Robinson & Bennett, 1995)

26. Ethical climate 
Ethical climate is defined as employees' shared perceptions of the ethical
practices and procedures of a firm (Victor and Cullen 1988) 

Ethical climate is defined as ''those aspects of work climate that determine what

constitutes ethical behavior at work''

Ethical climate is defined as ''the prevailing perceptions of typical organizational

practices and procedures that have ethical content'' (Victor and Cullen, 1988: 101). 

Ethical climate is defined as “the shared perceptions of what is regarded ethically

correct behaviors and how ethical situations should be handled in an organization”
(Victor and Cullen 1987, p. 51) 

27. Emotional intelligence 
Emotional intelligence is defined as one's ability to accurately identify, appraise,
and discriminate
among emotions in oneself and others, understand emotions, assimilate emotions
in thought,
and to regulate both positive and negative emotions in self and others (Mayer,
Caruso …
 Emotional Intelligence is defined as "the ability to monitor one's own and other's
feelings and emotions, to discriminate between them, and to use the information to
guide one's thinking and actions". 

Emotional intelligence is defined as “an array of non-cognitive capabilities,

competencies and skills that influence one's ability to succeed in coping with
environmental demands and pressures” (p. 14)

Emotional intelligence is defined as an individual's ability to accurately perceive

reality so as to under- stand and regulate their own emotional responses as well as
adapt and respond to others (Mayer and Salovey, 1997; Pellitteri, 2002) 

Salovey, & Caruso, 1999) summarize the four dimensions of emotional

intelligence postulated by Salovey and Mayer: the perception of emotion, the
integration and assimilation of emotion, knowledge about emotions, and
management of emotions

According to Daniel Goleman, an American psychologist who helped to popularize

emotional intelligence, there are five key elements to it:

 Self-awareness.

 Self-regulation.

 Motivation.

 Empathy.

 Social skills.

28. Self-regulation 
Self-regulation is defined as the ways in which people control and direct their
own actions (Fiske & Taylor, 1991) 
Self-regulation is defined as the process through which people control, direct, and
correct their own actions as they move toward or away from various goals. 
Self-regulation is defined as self-generated thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that
are planned and cyclically adapted based on performance feedback to attain self-set
goals (Zimmerman, 1989) 
Self-regulation is defined as the willingness to exert effort toward one's
most important goals, while taking setbacks and failures as opportunities to learn,
identify weaknesses and address them, and develop new strategies toward
achieving those goals …

29. Empathy
Empathy is defined as an affective state that stems from the apprehension of
another's emotional state or condition, and that is congruent with it. 
Empathy is defined as the physician's ability to respond to and improve his or her
patients' emotional state. 
Empathy is defined as being able to discriminate the affective
states of others, knowing how another feels, and vicariously experiencing the
aroused emotion (Feshbach, 1982; Under- wood and Moore, 1982) …

30. Emotional labor 
Emotional labor is defined as role-prescribed up regulation of positive emotion.

Emotional labor is defined as managing emotion for remuneration (Hochschild,

1983) 

Emotional labor is defined as the labor to enhance, fake, or suppress emotions to

comply with an organization's display rules (Grandey, 2000).
Emotional labor is defined as what employees perform when they are required to
feel, or at least project the appearance of feeling certain emotions as they engage in
job-relevant interactions (Hochschild 1983). 

Emotional labor is defined as a gesture in a social exchange; it has a function

within the exchange and
should not be understood merely as a facet of personality (Hochschild, 1979)

Emotional labor is defined as a form of emotional regulation in which workers

are expected to display certain emotions as part of their job and to promote
organizational goals.

31. Flexibility 
Flexibility is defined as 'the capacity to adapt' across four dimensions; temporal,
range, intention and focus. 

Cognitive flexibility is defined as the readiness with which the person's concept

system changes selectively in response to appropriate environmental stimuli; it is
assessed by inviting the subject to expand the groups he has created on the original
sorting task …

Flexibility is defined as the ability of a manufacturing system to cope

with changing circumstances (Buzacott and Mandelbaum, 1985) or instability
caused by the environment (Mascarenhas, 1981). 

32. Goal congruence 
Goal congruence is defined as the degree to which the goals pursued by students
match those that teachers encourage them to pursue.
Goal congruence is defined as the alignment of personal vested interests with the
stated goal of the group …

Goal congruence is defined as "the extent to which the private goals of the

negotiator and the goals of the constituents [match]" (Perry & Angle, 1979, p.
488) 

Goal congruence is defined as the degree of fit between personal and

organizational goals. 

33. Goal orientation

Goal orientation is defined as striving to demonstrate aptitude and seek favorable
judgments, whereas a performance-avoidance orientation tries to avoid failure
(Elliot & Church,. 1997). 

Goal orientation is defined as an integrated pattern of motivational beliefs that is

represented by different ways of approaching, engaging in, and responding to
achievement activities (Ames, 1992; Dupeyrat & Mariné, 2001).

Goal orientation is defined as an individual's set of beliefs that reflect the reasons
why they approach and engage in academic tasks (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002;
Linnenbrink & Pintrich, 2002a; Pintrich, 2000b; Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2002;
Wentzel, 1999).

Goal orientation is defined as the students' reasons or goals for doing a task (Pei-
Hsuan Hsieh, Cho, Liu, & Schallert, 2006) that influence their actions, reactions,
and motivation for learning. (Shim & Ryan, 2005).
 34. Impression management 
Impression management is defined as "The processes whereby people seek to
control or influence
the impressions that others form" (Rosenfeld et al, 2002: 4). 

Impression management is defined as the conscious distortion of responses in an

attempt to present a favorable image (Paulhus, 1984, 1991). 

Impression management is defined as ''the process by which individuals attempt

to control
the impressions others form of them'' (Leary & Kowalski, 1990, p. 34)

Impression management is defined as “conscious or unconscious attempts to

influence images during interaction” (1999: 322)

35.  Individualism/collectivism 
Individualism/collectivism is defined as the relationship between the individual
and the collective that prevails in a particular society (Hofstede 2001, p 213).

Individualism–collectivism is defined as “the degree to which people in a country

prefer to act as individuals rather than as members of groups” (Hofstede, 1994, p.
6).

Individualism–collectivism is defined as the degree to which people see

themselves or their collective group as more important …

 Individualism-collectivism is defined as the degree to which individuals are

integrated into groups (Hofstede & McCrae, 2004). 
 36. Uncertainty avoidance 
Uncertainty avoidance is defined as the extent to which individuals within a
culture are made nervous by situations that are unstructured, unclear, or
unpredictable, and the extent to which these individuals attempt to avoid such
situations by adopting strict codes of behavior …

Uncertainty Avoidance is defined as the extent to which members of an

organization or society strive to avoid uncertainty by reliance on social norms,
rituals, and bureaucratic practices to alleviate the unpredictability of future events.

Uncertainty avoidance is defined as “the extent to which the members of a

culture feel threatened by uncertain or unknown situations” (Hofstede 1991, p.
113). 

37. Power distance 
Power distance is defined as 'the extent to which the less powerful members of
institutions and organizations within a country expect and accept that power is
distributed unequally' (Hofstede, 1980). 

Power distance is defined as the extent to which one accepts that power in

institutions and organizations is distributed unequally (Hofstede, 2001).

Power Distance is defined as the degree to which members of an organization or

society expect and agree that power should be unequally shared. 

38. Masculinity–femininity 
Masculinity/femininity is defined as a preference for personal accomplishment,
success, heroism,
severity, and material success (masculine values), as opposed to a preference for
relationships,
modesty, attention to the weak and quality of life (feminine values) …

Masculinity–femininity is defined as the relative emphasis on the achievement

and interpersonal harmony which characterizes gender differences in some national
cultures. 

Masculinity/femininity is defined as a preference for personal accomplishment,

success, heroism, severity, and material success, as opposed to a preference for
relationships, modesty, attention to the weak and quality of life …

Masculinity/femininity, is defined as the degree to which 'masculine' values such

as assertiveness, competition, and success are emphasized as opposed to such
values as quality of life, warm personal relationships, and service …

39. Long term orientation 
Long term orientation is defined as the extent to which a society exhibits a
pragmatic, future-oriented perspective rather than a conventional historic or short-
term perspective (Hofstede, 2001). 

Long-term orientation is defined as the expectation that the current direction of

R&D efforts and
expenses will continue in the future (from Lusch and Brown, 1996) 

Long-term orientation is defined as the degree to which people's actions are

driven by long-term goals and results, rather than the short-term results and the
need for immediate gratification.
 40. Indulgence vs. restraint 
Indulgence is defined as “a society that allows relatively free gratification of basic
and natural human desires related to enjoying life and having fun.”

Indulgence is defined as "the extent to which people try to control their desires

and impulses …

Restraint is defined as “a society that controls gratification of needs and regulates

it by means of strict social norms.” Indulgent societies believe themselves to be in
control of their own life and emotions; restrained societies believe other factors
dictate their life and emotions.

41. Job autonomy 
Job autonomy is defined as an individual's sense of choice in terms of work
methods, pace, and effort
(Hackman & Oldham, 1980; Spector, 1986). 

Job autonomy is defined as the degree to which the job offers considerable

liberty, proving free
hand and choice to the individual in scheduling the work and also defining the
means to achieve
the tasks (Hackman & Oldham 1975; Marchese & Ryan, 2001; Morgeson,
Delaney …

Job autonomy is defined as "the degree to which the job provides substantial

freedom,
independence and discretion in scheduling the work and in determining the
procedures to be
used in carrying it out (Hackman and Oldham, 1980: p. 162)."
 42. Job engagement 
Job engagement is defined as relatively activated and energized, it can be
predicted that aspects of personality that are themselves more activated and
energized will be reflected in engagement.

Job engagement is defined as “a positive, fulfilling, and work-related state of

mind that is characterized by vigor, dedication, and absorption” (Schaufeli et al.,
2002, p. 74).

Job engagement is defined as a state of immersion in work such that employees

demonstrate enthusiasm for completing individual tasks while maintaining a
deeply felt connection to their job role.

Job engagement is defined as an individual’s active participation in an

organization using their personal energy and self, as defined by their beliefs and
transferred into productivity, which allows a closer relationship between an
organization and the individual including potentially commitment (Rich, Lepine, &
Crawford, 2010).

43. Job involvement 

Job involvement is defined as the extent to which the individual identifies
psycho- logically
with his/her job (Blau, 1985b).

Job involvement is defined as the extent to which the individual psychologically

identifies with his/her job, ie feels that the job represents the core of one's self-
image (Kanungo, 1982a).

Job involvement is defined as the degree to which the individual identifies with a

job, ie the importance of a job in one's life (Dubin, 1956)
Job involvement is defined as the measure of the degree to which employee is
involved in his job and takes part in decision-making.

44. Job embeddedness
Job embeddedness is defined as ''the combined forces that keep a person from
leaving his or her job'' (Yao, Lee, Mitchell, Burton, & Sablynski, 2004, p. 159). 

Job embeddedness is defined as the phenomenon where the inner /outer

performance of the job and its result are affected by the composition of the overall
network to which the individual belongs [33].

Job embeddedness is defined by three sub‐dimensions: links, fit, and sacrifice

(Mitchell et al., 2001)

Job embeddedness is defined as the extent to which employees are enmeshed or

entrenched within, connected, attached, or tied to their job which keeps them from
leaving their current job (Mitchell et al., 2001; Yao et al., 2004)

Job embeddedness is defined as “the totality of forces that keep people in their

current employment situations” (Feldman & Ng, 2007, p. 352). The determinants
of job embeddedness are suggested to be fit,t links, and sacrifice (Mitchell,
Holtom, Lee, Sablynski, & Erez, 2001) 

Job embeddedness is defined as “the combined forces that keep a person from

leaving his or her job” (Yao, Lee, Mitchell, Burton & Sablynski, 2004, p.159)

45. Job crafting
Job crafting is defined as the self-initiated changes that employees make in their
own job demands and job resources to attain and/or optimize their personal (work)
goals.
Job crafting is defined as “the physical and cognitive changes individuals make in
the task or relational boundaries of their work. (Wrzesniewski & Dutton, 2001, p.
179).

Job crafting is defined as changing the boundaries and conditions of job tasks and
job relationships and of the meaning of the job (Wrzesniewski & Dutton, 2001). 

46. Job-relatedness
Job-relatedness is defined as "The extent to which a test either appears to measure
content relevant to the job situation or appears to be valid."

Job relatedness is defined as the extent to which a test appears to measure content

relevant
to the job situation and appears to be predictively valid (1993)

Job relatedness is defined as the degree to which the selection process is (or

appears to be in the case of face valid job relatedness) relevant for the job the
applicant is hoping to earn

Job-relatedness is defined as: “The extent to which a test either appears to

measure content relevant to the job situation or appears to be valid

47. Job enrichment 
Job enrichment is defined as creating changes in job dimensions (except the
rights of its director), job physical conditions, and fundamental tasks in order to
increase job satisfaction of an individual who takes the responsibility of executing
or performing its tasks
Job enrichment is defined as work that allows employees to experience
responsibility,
growth, learning and personal development (Herzberg, 1966, p. 61)

Job enrichment is defined by the authors as a method which “seeks to improve

both task efficiency
and human satisfaction by building into people's jobs, quite speci- fically, greater
scope for
personal achievement and recognition, more challenging and responsible work,
and …

Job enrichment is defined as increasing components of the horizontal and vertical

dimensions of an individual s 'work. When a job is enriched on the horizontal
dimension, the worker performs a larger work unit involving increments in the
variety of task elements. When it is enriched on the vertical dimension, the worker
is allowed to participate in the setting of production goals and has more control
over the job he/she performs.

48. Job complexity 

Job complexity is defined as the extent to which the job (1) lacks
repetitiveness and routineness, (2) provides opportunities for exercising
independent judgment, and (3) requires creativeness and originality in
the performance of duties. 

Job complexity is defined as a characteristic of the job “where high complexity

infers a lack of routine repetitive work in favor of work involving high intellectual
demands and/orfrequent changes in task-related requirements— often
involving the synthesis or interpretation ofcomplex data”. (Oswald, Campbell…
Job complexity is defined as 'a summary construct composed of separate task
dimensions such
as variety, autonomy, challenge, significance, and feedback' (Mowday et al., 1982:
59)

Job complexity is defined as: Job complexity = Total number of activities

frequently performed by worker

Job complexity is defined as the degree to which a job is multifaceted and

difficult to perform.

49. Job satisfaction
Job satisfaction is defined as his affective feelings or attitudes toward his job, his
organization, and his work environment.

Job satisfaction is defined as the “feelings a worker has about his job” (Smith,

Kendall, & Hulin, 1969, p. 6). 

Job satisfaction is defined as the feelings an employee has about the job in

general.

Job satisfaction is defined as the extent to which an employee feels positively or

negatively toward his/her job (Locke, 1976; Odom et al., 1990).

50.  Job security 
Job security is defined as 'a psychological state in which workers vary in their
expectations of future job continuity within an organization' (Kraimer, Wayne,
Liden, & Sparrowe, 2005, p. 390). 

Job security is defined as a job with a single employer

Job security is defined as the degree to which employees feel that their
employment situation is stable …

51. Job enlargement 
Job enlargement is defined as "Assigning workers additional same level
activities, thus increasing the number of activities they perform"(Dessler, 2005,
p.138). 

Job enlargement is defined as increasing the number of tasks a worker performs,

with all of the tasks at the same level of responsibility, and is also sometimes
referred to as “horizontal job loading” (Parker, 1998)

Job enlargement is defined as the horizontal level expansion of a job by widening

the scope and activities related to the job. It involves increasing the duties and
responsibilities associated at the same job level

52. Job rotation 
Job rotation is defined as lateral transfer of workers among a number of different
workstations where each requires different skills and responsibilities.

Job rotation is defined as the organized movement of an employee from one

position to another position at a designed period in the same department (Malinski,
2002; Storey, 2001)

Job rotation is defined as a strategy to diversify the tasks assigned to individuals

as well as developing associated skills [11, 20].

Job rotation is defined as the extent to which employees are assigned to areas

outside their functional specialties in order to broaden their knowledge 
Job rotation is defined as the planned shift of workers back and forth among
different tasks and different departments (Bobbitt et al., 1978)

Job rotation is defined as the interchange of workers and tasks at specified

intervals of time.

53.  Job design 
 Job design is defined more broadly as “encapsulating the processes and outcomes
of how work is structured, organized, experienced, and enacted” (Grant, Fried, &
Juillerat, 2010, p. 418). 

Job design is defined as determining the specific job content, the methods used at

work and the relationships between jobs to correspond the firm's technological and
organisational, and the employees' social and personal expectations

Job design is defined as specifying the contents or methods of any job in such a

way that various requirements of the job holder can be effectively satisfied
(Buchanan, 1979).

Job design is defined by (1) whether the job content is clear, (2) whether there
will be unambiguous feedback on performance, and (3) whether the employee is
given opportunity to participate in decision making

Job design is defined as “the specification of the con- tents, methods, and

relationships of jobs
in order to satisfy technological and organizational requirements as well as the
social and personal
requirements of the jobholder” 
Job design is defined as: The study, creation, and modification of the
composition, content, structure, and environment within which jobs and roles are
enacted.

54. Job stress

Job stress is defined as “inability of workforces to cope the job pressure due to
hole of job demands and employees competencies to justify the job needs” [10].

Job stress is defined as feeling resulting from individuals' feeling of malfunction

himself/herself
due to events occurring in work environment (Parker & Decotiis, 1983) 

Job stress is defined as a feeling of psychological strain and tension from the job,

which
results from exposure to stressors 

Job stress is defined as “a situation wherein job-related factors interact with the

worker to change his or her psychological and/or physiological condition such that
the person is forced to deviat from normal functioning”(Newman & Beehr, 1979,
p. 1). 

Job stress is defined as “the harmful physical and emotional responses that occur

when the requirements of the job do not match the capabilities, resources, or needs
of the worker.”

According to Salami (2011), job stress is defined as the experience of unpleasant

negative emotions such as tension, depression, anger, frustration, and anxiety
which result from different aspects of work. 
 55. Knowledge work 
Knowledge work is defined as the application of comprehended information and
viewed as a set of knowledge creation, distribution, and use processes. 

Knowledge work is defined as work needing a great degree of

problem-solving and high level of qualifications in its workers. 

Knowledge work is defined as non- repetitive, non-routine work, that entails

substantial levels of cognitive activity.

56. Knowledge sharing behavior 
Knowledge sharing behavior is defined as the degree to which an individual
conducts knowledge sharing activities in a group meeting (Davenport and Prusak,
1998) …

Knowledge sharing behavior is defined as the act of making the needed

knowledge available to other people within the organization (Abzari, et al., 2008). 

Knowledge sharing behavior is defined as (Cyr & Choo, 2010, p. 825) “… the

behavior by which an individual voluntarily provides other members of the
organization with access to his or her knowledge and experiences.”

57. Knowledge management 
Knowledge management is defined as the way that organizations create, capture,
store, re-use and protect knowledge to achieve organizational objectives [37] …

Knowledge management is defined as: “the systematic, explicit, and deliberate

building, renewal, and application of knowledge to maximize an enterprise's
knowledge-related effectiveness and returns from its knowledge assets” (Wiig,
1993) …
Knowledge management is defined as the organized and systematic
process of generating and disseminating information, and selecting, distilling,
and deploying explicit and tacit knowledge to create unique
value that can be used to achieve a competitive advantage in the marketplace by an
organization.

58. Leader–member exchange 
Leader–member exchange is defined as the quality of exchange between a
supervisor and an employee (Graen & Scandura, 1987).

Leader–member exchange is defined as the quality of the professional

relationship between leader and a particular follower. A high-quality relationship is
characterized by high levels of trust, respect, and mutual obligation (Graen & Uhl-
Bien, 1995) 

Leader member exchange is defined as “(a) system of components and their

relationships (b) involving both members of a dyad (i.e., the relationship between a
leader and each of his/her subordinates), (c) involving interdependent patterns of
behavior, (d) sharing mutual outcome instrumentalities and (e) producing
conceptions of environments causing maps and value” (Scandura, Graen, &
Novak, 1986, p. 580).

59. LMX differentiation 
LMX differentiation is defined as the degree of within-group variation that exists
when a leader forms different quality of relationships with different members (eg,
Erdogan & Bauer, 2010; Liden, Erdogan, Wayne, & Sparrowe, 2006)
LMX differentiation is defined as. … a process by which a leader, through
engaging in differing types of exchange patterns with subordinates, forms different
quality exchange relationships (ranging from low to high) with them

60. In-group favoritism 
In-group favoritism is defined as positive orientations towards one's own
racial/ethnic group, while out-group derogation constitutes negative orientations
towards other racial/ethnic groups. 

In-group favoritism is defined as the "positive feelings and special treatment for

people we have defined as being part of out in-group, and negative feelings and
unfair treatment for others simply because we have defined them as being in the
out-group" (Aronson, 2004, p. 353)

In-group favoritism is defined as a more favorable view of one's in-group

relative to an out-group
(Mullen et al.,1992; Tajfel & Turner, 1979).

61. Locus of control

Locus of control is defined as a generalized expectancy that rewards,
reinforcements or outcomes in
life are controlled either by one's own actions (internality) or by other forces
(externality) …

Locus of control is defined as internal when individuals tend to attribute

environmental events to themselves and as external when individuals attribute such
events to things outside their power (Lefcourt, 1976; Rotter, 1966; Strickland,
1978) 
The locus of control is defined as “the degree to which the individual perceives
that the reward (obtained) follows from or is contingent upon his own behavior or
attributes” (Lam & Mizerski, 2005, p. 218; Rotter, 1966) …

Locus of Control is defined as the tendency of people to ascribe achievements

and failures to either internal factors, they are in control, (effort, ability,
motivation), or external factors, they are being controlled, (chance, luck, others'
actions) (Rotter, 1966) …

External Locus of Control is defined as one's feeling of outcome being fully

independent of his own actions, ie outcome being the result of luck, chance, fate or
powerful others …

Internal locus of control is defined as the perception that rewards are contingent

on an individual's own behavior. On the other hand, external locus of control refers
to the belief that rewards are controlled by outside factors (Rotter, 1966) 

62. Machiavellianism
Machiavellianism is defined as a behavior in which an individual uses another
person as an instrument for achieving his/her goals (Byrne & Whiten, 1988;
Christie & Geis, 1970; Linton & Wiener, 2001; Wilson, Near, & Miller, 1996)

Machiavellianism is defined as “a process by which the manipulator gets more of

some kind of reward than he would have gotten without manipulating, while
someone else gets less, at least within the immediate context” (Christie and Geis,
1970, p. 106)

Machiavellianism is defined as a strategy of social conduct that involves

manipulating others for personal gain (Wilson et al. 1996, p. 295)
 63. Mentoring 
Mentoring is defined as 'a deliberate pair more skilled or experienced person with
a lesser skilled or experienced one, with the agree goal of having the lesser skilled
person grow and develop specific competencies' (Murra p. xiv) …

Mentoring is defined as a supportive relationship between a youth or young adult

and someone
who offers support, guidance and concrete assistance as the younger partner goes
through a
difficult period, takes on important tasks or corrects an earlier problem[3] …

Mentoring is defined as a developmental relationship that involves organizational

members of unequal status or, less frequently, peers” (Bozionelos, 2004, p. 25) …

Mentoring is defined as a relationship with purpose, suggestions are lacking

about how that
purpose can be achieved.

64. Moral competence 
Moral competence is defined as 'the capacity to make decisions and judgments
which are moral (ie based on internal principles) and to act in accordance with
such judgments' (Kohlberg 1964 Kohlberg, L. 1964 …

Moral competence is defined as the ability to apply moral principles in action,

speech and achievement purposes. 

Moral competence is defined as an “orientation to perform altruistic behaviors

towards others and the ability to judge moral issues logically, consistently, and at
an advanced level of development” 
Moral competence is defined as effective evaluation of issues and/or events that
results in sound decision making and eventual successful moral conduct.

65. Moral Disengagement

Moral disengagement is defined as a set of cognitive mechanisms that permit

individuals to commit harmful acts and avoid the guilt feelings that are
normally associated with such behavior.

Moral disengagement is defined as the social-cognitive processes that enable

ordinary people to commit negative actions against others.

66. Perceptual moral attentiveness 
Moral attentiveness is defined as the extent to which an individual chronically
perceives and considers morality and moral elements in his or her experiences
(Reynolds, 2008, p. 1028).

Perceptual moral attentiveness is defined as the degree to which a person

observes and recognizes moral issues in day-to-day activities, whereas reflective
moral attentiveness is defined as the degree to which a person considers or reflects
on moral issues (Reynolds, 2008). 

67. PERSON-JOB FIT

Person Job fit is defined as the degree to which individual's knowledge;
preferences, activities and skills match the job requirements (Brikch, jeffs, 2006)
Person-job fit is defined as the fit between the abilities of a person and the
demands of the job or the needs/de- sires of a person and the attributes of the job
[16].

Person–job fit is defined as the relationship between a person's characteristics and

those of the job or task (Edwards 1991; Kristof 1996). 

68. Person-Organization Fit

Person-organization fit is defined as the congruence of the personality traits,
beliefs, and values of individual persons with the culture, strategic needs, norms,
and values of organizations (O'Reilly, Chatman, and Caldwell 1991) …

Person–organization fit is defined as congruency between the values, beliefs, and

goals of the organization and those of its employees (Netemeyer et al. 1997). 

Person–organization fit is defined as the compatibility between people and entire

organizations (Lauver & Kristof-Brown, 2001; Sekiguchi, 2007).

69. Neuroticism
Neuroticism is defined as a predisposition to experience negative affect (McCrae,
1990), and therefore those who are high in neuroticism experience more anxiety,
depression, hostility, and self-consciousness (McCrae & Costa, 1986) …

Neuroticism is defined as a measure of affect and emotional control, with low

levels suggesting good control over emotions and stability, whereas individuals
with high levels may be somewhat sensitive and nervous with a propensity to
worry (Costa & McCrae, 1992) …
neuroticism is defined as a tendency to experience negative emotional states,
accompanied by heightened anxiety or depression, anger and guilt, as well as
increased tendency for somatization of psychological problems 

Neuroticism is defined as the degree to which stimuli elicit negative emotions

from the person. Individuals at low levels of neuroticism will be emotionally stable
and resilient in the face of stimuli in their environment.

Neuroticism s defined as the general emotional ability of the personality, his

emotional
over-responsiveness and his liability to neurotic breakdown under stress …

70. Newcomer socialization 
Newcomer socialization is defined as a process by which an employee who is
new to the organization or to a particular business unit learns to fit into that group
and is perceived as a valued member.

Newcomer socialization is defined as the acquisition of “knowledge, skills,

behaviors, and attitudes required for effective participation in an organization”
(Allen et al., 1999) and represents a process that can have a significant influence
on the new employee's adjustment (Bauer …

Newcomer socialization is defined as the process of new employees fitting into

and becoming members of organizations (Jablin, 2001; Van Maanen & Schein,
1979).
 71. Organizational citizenship behavior 
Organizational citizenship behavior is defined as “individual behavior that is
discretionary, not
directly or explicitly recognized by the formal reward system and that in the
aggregate promotes
the effective functioning of the organization” (Organ, 1988, p. 4). 

Organizational Citizenship Behavior is defined as behaviors that benefit others,

perhaps even to the detriment of the actor, and those behaviors that, in aggregate
over time, contribute to organizational effectiveness (Organ et al., 2006; Smith et
al., 1983) 

Organizational citizenship behavior is defined as behavior not directly

recognized by the formal reward system but that which contributes to
organizational effectiveness (Smith, Organ, & Near, 1983; see also Organ,
Podsakoff, & MacKenzie, 2006) …

Organizational citizenship behavior is defined as the voluntary work that does

not fall under the official incentive system in the organization and is meant to
enhance its performance, efficiency and effectiveness (Febles, 2005) 

Organizational citizenship behavior is defined as “performance that supports the

social and psychological environment in which task performance takes
place”(Organ, 1997, p. 95).

Organ (1988) deconstructed the dimension of general compliance and added

additional dimensions of OCB. This deconstruction resulted in a five-factor model
consisting of altruism, courtesy, conscientiousness, civic virtue, and
sportsmanship.  
 72. Altruism
Altruism is defined as “the intention to benefit others as an expression of internal
values, regardless of social or motivational reinforcement” (Price et al., 1995, p.
257).

 Altruism is defined as feeling or acting on behalf of the welfare of others in cases

where self-interest could not be involved (Jencks, 1990). 

Altruism is defined as helping another at a cost to oneself [Sober, p 17, 15].

Altruism is defined as behavior that benefits others while costing self.

73. Courtesy
Courtesy is defined as alerting others of changes that will affect their work, for
example, advance notice, reminders, briefing, and passing along information. 

Courtesy is defined as behaviors aimed at preventing work-related problems with

others from occurring. 

Courtesy is defined as discretionary behavior on the part of individual aimed at

preventing work-related problems with others (Organ, 1988a; Podsakoff et al.,
2000). 

74. Conscientiousness
Conscientiousness is defined as an individual's dependability (careful, thorough,
responsible, and organized) and volition (hardworking, achievement-oriented, and
persevering).

Conscientiousness is defined as behavioral inhibition and constraining

impulsivity.
Conscientiousness is defined as the propensity to follow socially prescribed
norms for impulse control, to be goal directed, to plan, and to be able to delay
gratification.

Conscientiousness is defined as a tendency to plan ahead and be diligent and fair

(Ross et al., 2009)

75. Civic virtue 
Civic virtue is defined as 'behavior on the part of an individual that indicates that
he/she responsibly participates in, is involved in, or is concerned about the life of
the company' (Podsakoff et al., 1990). 

Civic virtue is defined as subordinate participation in organization political life

and supporting the administrative function of the organization (Deluga, 1998).

Civic virtue is defined as an individual's willingness to participate actively in

organizational governance. 

Civic virtue is defined as participate responsibly in, or concern about the life of

the company

76. Sportsmanship
Organ (1988) defined sportsmanship as the behavior of warmly tolerating the
irritations that are an unavoidable part of nearly every organizational setting.

Sportsmanship is defined as refraining from actions which may lead to

unfavorable tension at the workplace and maintaining synergistic atmosphere
within the organization against any adverse incidents(Organ, 1988, 1990;
Podsakoff and et al., 2000).
Sportsmanship is defined as the ProSocial absence of complaints; tolerating the
inevitable inconveniences and impositions of work without whining and grievances
(Organ, 1988) 

Sportsmanship is defined as any behavior demonstrating tolerance of less than

ideal circumstances without complaining …

Sportsmanship is defined as toleration without complaint of less than desirable

organizational conditions …

77. Organizational Commitment

Organizational commitment is defined as the desire on the part of an employee to
remain a member of the organization.

Organizational commitment is the individual's psychological attachment to the

organization.

Meyer and Allen's (1991) three-component model of commitment was created to

argue that commitment has three different components that correspond with
different psychological states. 

78. Affective Commitment

Affective commitment is defined as “an affective or emotional attachment to the
organization such
that the strongly committed individual identifies with, is involved in, and enjoys
membership in,
the organization” (Allen & Meyer, 1990, p. 2). 
Affective commitment is defined as “positive feelings of identification with,
attachment to, and involvement in, the work organization” (Meyer & Allen, 1984,
p. 375). 

Affective Commitment is defined as a desire to remain a member of an

organization due to an emotional attachment to, and involvement with, that
organization.

79. Continuance commitment 
Continuance commitment is defined as “the extent to which employees feel
committed to their organizations by virtue of the costs that they feel are associated
with leaving” (Meyer & Allen, 1984, p. 375). 

Continuance commitment is defined as the perception of costs associated with

leaving the organization (Meyer & Allen, 1991, p. 67).

80. Normative commitment 
Normative commitment is defined as a ''feeling of obligation to continue
employment'' …

 Normative Commitment is defined as “Commitment on the basis of a sense of

duties toward organization”

 Normative commitment is defined as the totality of internalized normative

pressures to act in a way which meets organizational goals and interests. (Wiener
1982, p. 421) …
 81. Organizational justice
Organizational justice is defined as “the extent to which employees are treated
with justice at their workplace” (for a review see Cropanzano, Byrne, Bobocel, &
Rupp, 2001).

Organizational justice is defined as the processes and procedures being

measured, regular and that the staffs find their leaders impartial, sincere and that
they find the deeds logical (Dessler, 1999). 

Organizational justice is defined as the “perceptions of fairness and their impact

on behavior in organization” (Beugre´ 1998).

Organizational justice is defined as an individual's perception of fairness of

actions or decisions undertaken by an organization (Emerson 1976; Greenberg
1987). 

Organizational justice is defined as distributive, procedural, and interactional

justice. 

82. Distributive justice 
Distributive justice is defined as “the perceived fairness of resources received”
(Cropanzano
& Ambrose 2001: 121)

Distributive justice is defined as the fairness in the distribution of rewards to

individuals (eg, wages, promotions) based on the results achieved by them.

Distributive justice is defined as the individual's perception that the outcomes

that they receive are fair (Adams, 1965; Greenberg, 1990) …
Distributive justice is defined as “the fairness of output in term of contribution,
needs and equity perspective” [19, 38] …

83. Procedural justice
Procedural justice is defined as the extent to which the procedures used in the
decision-making and reward distribution processes are viewed as fair (Lind &
Tyler, 1988). 

Procedural justice is defined as the fairness of formal procedures underlying the

decisions the
organization makes concerning employees (Thibaut & Walker, 1975)

Procedural justice is defined as the fairness of decision-making processes

(Leventhal, 1980; Thibaut & Walker, 1975).

Procedural justice is defined as an employee's perception that the procedures

followed by the organization in determining who receives benefits are fair (Folger
& Greenberg, 1985; Greenberg, 1987; Lind & Tyler, 1988) …

Procedural justice is defined as the perceived fairness of procedures used in

decision making about the distribution of outcomes …

There are six rules that apply to procedural justice, "Leventhal's rules", are
consistence, bias suppression, accuracy, correctability, representativeness, and
ethicality. 

84. Interactional justice
Interactional justice is defined as the fairness of interpersonal treatment,
including treating individuals with interpersonal sensitivity and providing an
explanation (Bies & Moag, 1986).
Interactional justice is defined as the customers' perception of the extent to
which they have been
treated with justice, honesty, and courtesy in their personal interaction with the
organisation's
employees in charge of the service recovery (Maxham & Netemeyer, 2002,
2003 …

Greenberg (1990; 1993) suggested that the concept of interactional justice

comprises two dimensions, namely interpersonal justice and informational justice.

85. Interpersonal justice

Interpersonal justice refers to the extent to which managers behave decently,
courteously, and with dignity toward subordinates.

86. Informational justice

Informational justice refers to the extent to which managers inform subordinates
and other colleagues about decision-making and resource distribution processes
(Colquitt et al., 2001).

87. Organizational cynicism
Organizational cynicism is defined as general and specific attitudes characterized
with
anger, hopelessness, disappointment and a tendency to distrust individuals, groups,
ideologies, social abilities or institutions (Andersson, 1996:1397-1398)

Organizational cynicism is defined as 'a negative attitude toward one's

employing organization, comprising three dimensions: (1) a belief that the
organization lacks integrity; (2) negative affect toward the organization; and (3)
tendencies to disparaging and critical behaviors …

Organizational cynicism is defined as implicit or explicit harsh criticism which is

given related
to the organization, negative opinions and negative beliefs (Kalağan, 2009). 

88. Ostracism
Social ostracism is defined as the perception of being ignored by others in one's
presence (Williams,
1994, in press).

 Ostracism is defined as forced exit from desired social groups.

Ostracism is defined as the deliberate act of excluding and ignoring another

person or group

89. Personality
Personality is defined as patterns of emotional and motivational responses that
develop over
the life of the organism; are highly influenced by early life experiences; are
modifiable, but not
easily changed, by behavioral or teaching methods; and greatly
influence (and are influenced by) cognitive processes.

assertiveness, excitement seeking, warmth, activity, and positive emotions.[3]

That these underlying factors can be found is consistent with the lexical

hypothesis: personality characteristics that are most important in peoples' lives will
eventually become a part of their language and, secondly, that more important
personality characteristics are more likely to be encoded into language as a single
word.

The five factors of most dominant personality measure “the big five” are:

 Openness to experience (inventive/curious vs. consistent/cautious).
Appreciation for art, emotion, adventure, unusual ideas, curiosity, and
variety of experience. Openness reflects the degree of intellectual curiosity,
creativity and a preference for novelty and variety a person has. It is also
described as the extent to which a person is imaginative or independent and
depicts a personal preference for a variety of activities over a strict routine.
High openness can be perceived as unpredictability or lack of focus, and
more likely to engage in risky behaviour or drug taking.[4] Also, individuals
that have high openness tend to lean towards being artists or writers in
regards to being creative and appreciate the significance of the intellectual
and artistic pursuits.[5] Moreover, individuals with high openness are said to
pursue self-actualization specifically by seeking out intense, euphoric
experiences. Conversely, those with low openness seek to gain fulfillment
through perseverance and are characterized as pragmatic and data-driven—
sometimes even perceived to be dogmatic and closed-minded. Some
disagreement remains about how to interpret and contextualize the openness
factor.[clarification needed]

 Conscientiousness (efficient/organized vs. easy-going/careless). A tendency
to be organized and dependable, show self-discipline, act dutifully, aim for
achievement, and prefer planned rather than spontaneous behavior. High
conscientiousness is often perceived as stubbornness and obsession. Low
 conscientiousness is associated with flexibility and spontaneity, but can also
appear as sloppiness and lack of reliability.

 Extraversion (outgoing/energetic vs. solitary/reserved). Energy, positive

emotions, surgency, assertiveness, sociability and the tendency to
seek stimulation in the company of others, and talkativeness. High
extraversion is often perceived as attention-seeking, and domineering. Low
extraversion causes a reserved, reflective personality, which can be
perceived as aloof or self-absorbed.[6] Extroverted people tend to be more
dominant in social settings, opposed to introverted people who may act more
shy and reserved in this setting.

 Agreeableness (friendly/compassionate vs. challenging/detached). A
tendency to be compassionate and cooperative rather
than suspicious and antagonistic towards others. It is also a measure of one's
trusting and helpful nature, and whether a person is generally well-tempered
or not. High agreeableness is often seen as naive or submissive. Low
agreeableness personalities are often competitive or challenging people,
which can be seen as argumentativeness or untrustworthiness.[6]

 Neuroticism (sensitive/nervous vs. secure/confident). Neuroticism identifies

certain people who are more prone to psychological stress.[8] The tendency to
experience unpleasant emotions easily, such as anger, anxiety, depression,
and vulnerability. Neuroticism also refers to the degree of emotional stability
and impulse control and is sometimes referred to by its low pole, "emotional
stability". A high stability manifests itself as a stable and calm personality,
but can be seen as uninspiring and unconcerned. A low stability expresses as
a reactive and excitable personality, often very dynamic individuals, but they
 can be perceived as unstable or insecure.[6] It has also been researched that
individuals with higher levels of tested neuroticism, tend to have worse
psychological well being.[9]

90. Perceived Organizational Support

Perceived organizational support is defined as "The extent to which employee
perceives that their contributions are valued by their organization and that the firm
cares about their well-being" (Eisenberger et al, 1986: 501)

Perceived organizational support is defined as the degree to which employees

believe that their organization values their contributions and cares about their well-
being (Rhoades & Eisenberger, 2002)

Perceived organizational support is defined as “the perception of being valued

and cared about by the organization” (Eisenberger, Fasolo, & Davis-LaMastro,
1990, p. 52)

91. Perceived supervisor support
Perceived supervisor support is defined as employees' general views about the
degree to which
their supervisors value their contribution and care about their well-being
(Eisenberger, Stinglhamber, Vandenberghe, Sucharski, & Rhoades, 2002; Kottke
& Sharafinski, 1988)

Perceived supervisor support is defined as the general view of subordinates

regarding the degree to which their supervisors value their contribution, care about
their well-being, and provide instrumental and emotional assistance (Stinglhamber
& Vandenberghe, 2003)
Perceived supervisor support is defined as the extent to which subordinates
perceive their supervisor to be concerned with their benefits and appreciative of
their contribution (Kottke & Sharafinski, 1988). 

 Perceived supervisor support is defined as the degree to which employees form

impressions that their supervisors care about their wellbeing, value their
contributions and are generally supportive (Eisenberger et al. 2002)

92. Perceived employability 

Perceived employability is defined as the individual's perception of
his or her possibilities to achieve a new job for whom the worker think to be
skilled, that is to have available alternatives in the labour market. 

Self-perceived employability is defined as 'the perceived ability to attain

sustainable employment appropriate to one's qualification level'.

Perceived employability is defined as the individual's perception of his or her

possibility to achieve a new job.

93. Pragmatism
Pragmatism is defined as "the truth of any assertion is to be evaluated from
its practical consequences and its bearing on human interests" (1993, vol. 2, p.
2319) …

Pragmatism is defined as an approach “that debunks concepts

such as 'truth' and 'reality' and focuses instead on 'what works' as the truth
regarding the research question under investigation”.
Pragmatism or 'strategic pragmatism' is defined as the ability of
leaders/organizations to define an ultimate goal whilst being prepared to alter
immediate or short-term approaches to achieve the desired final outcome. 

Pragmatism is defined as "a movement consisting of varying but associated

theories, originally developed by Charles S. Peirce and William James and
distinguished by the doctrine that the meaning of an idea or a proposition lies in its
observable practical consequences …

94. Procrastination
Procrastination is defined as postponing or delay on performing a task or
decision, it can be assumed to influence performance, as the time pressure caused
by the delay can decrease punctuality or accuracy …

 Procrastination is defined as delaying a task that is under an individual's control,

where the delay itself is under the control of the individual, and the task is one that
needs to be completed (Ackerman & Gross, 2005). 

 Procrastination is defined as the tendency to put off doing something until a

future date unnecessarily.

Procrastination is defined as the avoidance of the implementation of an

intention …

 Procrastination is defined as intentionally putting off something that should be

done …
 95. Proactive personality
Proactive personality is defined as a disposition toward taking action to influence
one's environment (Bateman & Crant, 1993). 

Proactive personality is defined as a belief in one's ability to overcome

constraints by situational forces and the ability to effect changes in the
environment (Bateman & Crant, 1993).

Proactive personality is defined as one's dispositional tendency to initiate change

in a variety of situations (Bateman & Crant, 1993).

Proactive personality is defined as a “relatively stable tendency to effect

environmental change” (Bateman & Crant, 1993, p. 103).

96. Psychological stress

Psychological stress is defined as a reaction to the environment in which there is
(a) the threat of a net loss of resources, (b) the net loss of resources, or (c) a lack of
resource gain following the investment of resources.

Psychological stress is defined as an individual's response to a context where they

perceive there to be: (a) a threat of a loss to their resources; or (b) the actual
depletion of resources; or (c) insufficient replenishment of resources following the
expenditure of resources

Psychological stress is defined as "a particular relationship between the person

and his or her environment that is appraised by the person as taxing or exceeding
his or her resources and endangering his or her well-being."

Psychological stress is defined as the perception or appraisal of certain events as

stressful or burdensome (Cohen & Williamson, 1988; Lazurus & Folkman, 1984). 
Psychological stress is defined as an internal subjective state involving the
perception of threat
to one's well-being (see definition by Krantz, Contrada, Hill, & Friedler, 1988)

97. Psychological strain 
Psychological strain is defined as symptoms of mental strain that result in poor
psychological and physiological well-being (Karasek, 1979) 

Psychological strain is defined as an “individual's psychological response to the

stressors” [2, p. 834] such as fatigue, tiredness, exhaustion and burn-out …

Psychological strain is defined as the potential psychological outcomes of

negative perceived stress (Barling, 1990), such as anxiety, depression, difficulty
making decisions and forgetfulness (Broadbent et al., 1982; Tepper, 2001)

Psychological strain is defined as the frequency with which a person experiences

undesirable psychological states, such as anger (Caplan, Cobb, French, Harrison &
Pinneau, 1980).

98. Psychological capital 
Psychological capital is defined as a core psychological factor of positivity in
general, and POB criteria meeting states in particular, that go beyond human and
social capital to gain a competitive advantage through investment/development of
'who you are' (Luthans …

Psychological capital is defined as “one's positive appraisal of circumstances and

probability for success based on motivated effort and perseverance” (Luthans et al.,
2007, p. 550).
 Psychological capital is defined as the positive and developmental state of an
individual as characterized by high self-efficacy, optimism, hope and resiliency.

Psychological capital is defined as "an individual's positive psychological state of

development and is characterised by: having confidence (self efficacy) to take on
and put in the necessary effort to succeed at challenging tasks; making a positive
attribution (optimism) about succeeding now and in the future; persevering toward
goals and, when necessary, redirecting paths to goals (hope) in order to succeed;
and when beset by problems and adversity, sustaining and bouncing back and even
beyond (resilience) to attain success" (Luthans et al., 2006: 387; Luthans, Youssef
& Avolio, 2007: 3).

99. Psychological empowerment 
Psychological empowerment is defined as a form of intrinsic motivation to
perform
tasks, manifested in four cognitive dimensions: meaningfulness, competence,
choice,
and impact (Spreitzer, 1995; Thomas & Velthouse, 1990) 

Meaning is the value an individual attributes to personal work goals and results in
high commitment and concentration of energy;

Competence or self-efficacy, is an individual’s beliefs in his or her capability to

perform activities with skill and mastery.

Self-determination refers to an individual’s sense of having a choice in initiating

and regulating actions and work behaviours; and

Impact reflects the degree to which an individual can influence strategic or

operating outcomes at work (Spreitzer 1995).
 100. Perception of Organizational Politics
Perception of Organizational Politics is defined as: “An individual’s perceptions
of others’ self-interested acts or behaviors; these acts are frequently associated with
the manipulation of organizational policies and often include coercive tactics even
at the expense of others for short-term gains.” (Abbas, Raja, Darr, &
Bouckenooghe, 2012 Page. 3)

Perceptions of organizational politics is defined as “an individual’s subjective

evaluation about the extent to which the work environment is characterized by co-
workers and supervisors who demonstrate such self-serving behavior” (o Ferris,
Harrell-Cook, and Dulebohn (2000, p. 90).

Organizational politics is defined as "social influence attempts directed at those

who can provide rewards that will help promote or protect the self- interest of the
actor" (Cropanzano et al, 1995: 7).

Organizational politics is defined as a social influence process in which behavior

is designed to maximize personal short- or long-term interest, which is either
consistent with or at the expense of others' interests

101.  Psychological Contracts

The psychological contract is defined as an individual's beliefs about the terms
and conditions of a reciprocal exchange agreement between that person and
another party (Rousseau, 1989)

The psychological contract is defined as “individual beliefs, shaped by the

organization, regarding terms of an exchange agreement between individuals and
their organization” (Rousseau, 1995, p. 9). 
 A psychological contract is defined as the mutual expectations held by
employees and their employers regarding the terms and conditions of the exchange
relationship (Kotter, 1973; Rousseau & Tijoriwala, 1998).

Psychological contract is defined as individuals' pre-employment beliefs about

their future employment, including promises they want to make to their future
employers and
inducements they expect to receive in return (Anderson and Thomas 1996; De Vos
et al …

102. Psychological contract breach 
Psychological contract breach is defined as the cognition that the organization
has failed to meet
one or more obligations within the scope of the psychological contract whereas the
employee
has fulfilled his or her obligations (Morrison and Robinson, 1997)

Psychological contract breach is defined as the employee's cognition that he/she

has received less than was promised (Morrison & Robinson, 1997).

Psychological contract breach is defined as the belief of an employee that the

organization has failed to deliver its obligations (Lambert, Edwards, & Cable,
2003; Morrison & Robinson, 1997). 

Psychological contract breach is defined as “one's perception that another has

failed to fulfill adequately the promised obligations of the psychological contract”
(Robinson 1996, p. 576)
 103. Political skill 
Political skill is defined as “the ability to effectively understand others at work,
and to use such knowledge to influence others to act in ways that enhance one's
personal and/or organizational objectives” (Ferris et al., 2005, p. 127)

104. Resistance to change 
Resistance to change is defined as "any conduct that serves to maintain the status
quo in face of pressure to alter the status quo" (Zaltman & Dun- can, 1977). 

Resistance to change is defined as any dissenting actions that slow, oppose, or

obstruct
a change management effort (Armenakis and Harris, 2009; Giangreco and
Peccei …

Resistance to change is defined as an individual's tendency to resist or avoid

making changes, to devalue change generally, and to be averse to change across
diverse contexts and types of change (Oreg, 2003) …

105. Readiness to Change

Readiness to change is defined as the extent to which an individual is prepared to
participate in a different organizational activity (Huy, 1999) …

Readiness to change is defined as an attitude that implies the individuals'

willingness to change their own work behaviours and work routines and to
generate new knowledge and skills (Frese and Plüddemann 1993) …

Readiness to change is defined as “the degree to which an individual is motivated

to change problematic behavior patterns. 
 106. Role ambiguity 
Role ambiguity is defined as the lack of clarity and predictability of the outcomes
of one's behavior. 

Role ambiguity is defined as the lack of clarity of role expectations and the

degree
of uncertainty regarding the outcomes of one's role performance …

Role ambiguity is defined as supervisees' uncertainty about supervisory

expectations and performance in accordance with these expectations, as well as
uncertainty about their supervisors' evaluation criteria. 

107. Role conflict 
Role conflict is defined as the degree of in-congruity or incompatibility of
expectations associated with the role …

Role conflict is defined as the 'simultaneous occurrence of two or more sets of

pressures' in the work place 'such that compliance with one would make
compliance more difficult with the other' (Kahn et af., 1964) 

Role conflict is defined as a psychological state in which roles have negative

consequences or impact on the individual or on others (O'Neil, 1990, p. 25)

108. Safety leadership 
Safety leadership is defined as leaders' positive behavior in handling
organizational safety issues (eg, Slates, 2008)
 109. Safety climate 
Safety climate is defined as the shared perception among workers regarding their
organization's
policies, procedures, and practices with respect to the relative value and
importance of safety
(Griffin and Neal, 2000; Zohar, 1980, 2000, 2011, in press)

Psychosocial safety climate is defined as “organizational policies, practices, and

procedures for the protection of worker psychological health and safety” (Dollard
and Bakker, 2010, p. 580).

Safety climate is defined as employees' perceptions pertaining to safety policies,

procedures, and
practices (Zohar, 1980, 2002).

Safety climate is defined as “snapshot” of employees’ perceptions of the current

environment or prevailing conditions that impact on safety.

Safety climate is defined as the shared perceptions of employees about the value

and importance of safety to the organization (DeJoy, Schaffer, Wilson,
Vandenberg, & Butts, 2004). 

Safety climate is defined as efforts to minimize risk of harm to patients and

providers through both system effectiveness and individual performance (Smith,
Cronenwett, & Sherwood, 2007). 

110. Safety performance 

Safety performance is defined as the actions or behaviors that individuals exhibit
in almost all jobs to
promote the health and safety of workers, clients, the public, and the environment 
Safety performance is defined as the ability of a safety-critical system to handle
periodic capacity, load and timing requirements; this is a fundamental safety
property.

Safety performance is defined as the total expected value of the relevant

behaviors that individuals engage in over a standard period of time to maintain and
promote workplace safety (Griffin & Neal, 2000; Motowidlo, 2003) 

111. Self-estrangement 
Self-estrangement is defined as a lack of intrinsic fulfillment in work. 

Self-estrangement is defined as "the degree of dependence of the given behavior

upon anticipated future rewards".

Self-estrangement is defined as the inability to find self-rewarding activities or

the degree of dependence of the given behavior upon anticipated future rewards
(Seeman, 1959, p. 790).

Self-esteem
Self-esteem is defined as one's belief regarding how well one is living up to the
standards of value prescribed by the worldview.

Self-esteem is defined as the evaluation an individual makes and customarily

maintains with regard to him-or herself (Coopersmith, 1967).

Self-esteem is defined as the individual's global positive or negative attitude

toward himself.

Self-esteem is defined as a person's overall self-evaluation of his or her worth.

Implicit and
explicit self-esteem are subtypes of self-esteem.
Implicit self-esteem is defined as an automatic, overlearned, and nonconscious
evaluation of the self that guides spontaneous reactions to self-relevant stimuli
(Greenwald & Banaji, 1995; Pelham & Hetts, 1999)

 Explicit self-esteem is defined as the deliberately and consciously reasoned

evaluations of the self, whereas implicit self-esteem is defined as highly efficient
evaluations of the self occurring spontaneously and outside of awareness or control
(Greenwald & Banaji, 1995)

112. Self-efficacy 
Self-efficacy is defined as an estimation of one's ability to successfully perform
target behaviors to produce out- comes (Bandura, 1986).

Self-efficacy is defined as the expectation that one can successfully perform a

behavior (Bandura, 1977). 

Self-efficacy is defined as the belief in one's ability to execute successfully a

certain course of behavior.

Perceived self-efficacy is defined as people's judgments of their capabilities to

organize and execute courses of action required to attain designated types of
performances." (Bandura. 1986. p.391) 

113. Social capital 
Social capital is defined as those features of social structures—such as levels of
interpersonal trust and norms of reciprocity and mutual aid—which act as
resources for individuals and facilitate collective action (Coleman 1990; Putnam
1993a)
Social capital is defined as “. . . the sum of the actual and potential resources
embedded within, available through, and derived from the network of relationships
possessed by an individual or social unit” (Nahapiet & Ghoshal, 1998, p. 243)

Social capital is defined as resources embedded in one's social networks,

resources that can be accessed or mobilized through ties in the networks(Lin
2001a)

Social capital is defined as the social networks and interactions that inspire trust

and reciprocity among citizens.

Organizational social capital is defined as a resource reflecting the character of

social relations within the organization. 

114. Social support 
Social support is defined as one's perceptions of supportive behaviors from
individuals in his or her social network (eg, parents, teachers, classmates, close
friends, school), that enhance functioning and/or may buffer him or her from
adverse outcomes (Malecki & Demaray, 2002 …

Workplace social support is defined as the degree to which individuals perceive

that their well-being is valued by workplace sources, such as supervisors and the
broader organization in which they are embedded (Eisenberger, Singlhamber,
Vandenberghe, Sucharski, & …

“Social support is defined as information leading the subject to believe that he is

cared for and loved, esteemed, and a member of a network of mutual
obligation” (p. 300).
 115. Self- reflection
Self reflection is defined as: careful thought about your own behaviour and
beliefs. Self-reflection is defined as introspection (Benton, 1971). In other words,
to self-reflect is to examine intensively one's own thoughts and feelings (Lexicon,.
1990). 

Pajares (2002) explains self-reflections as “Through self- reflection, people make

sense of their experiences, explore their own cognitions and self-beliefs, engage in
self-evaluation, and alter their thinking and behavior accordingly.”

Self-reflection is defined as meditation or serious thought about one's character,

actions, and motives. 

116. Critical reflection

Critical reflection is defined as problem solving or investigation caused by a
moment of thought (Dewey, 1933).

Critical reflection is defined as “the process by which adults identify the

assumptions governing their actions, locate the historical and cultural origins of
these assumptions, question the meaning of these assumptions, and develop
alternative ways of thinking”. (Stein, 2000, p. 3). 

Reflection is a meta-cognitive process that occurs before, during and after

situations with the purpose of developing greater
understanding of both the self and the situation so that future encounters with
the situation are informed from previous encounters. 
 117. Succession planning 
Succession planning is defined as the drive to empoly high-potential individuals
for different leading posts in every organization with the purpose to maintain the
leadership high quality for now and future given the existing constraints (Charenet,
2001, p176) …

Succession planning is defined as "a dynamic, on-going process of systematically

identifying, assessing, and developing leadership talent; and recognizing key
contributors to meet future organizational strategic and operational needs"
(Kimball, 2005: as cited in …

118. Talent management 
Talent management is defined as a systematic and dynamic process
of discovering, developing and sustaining talent what works depends on the
context and the way the organisation implements practices.

Talent management is defined as the systematic attraction, identification,

development, engagement, retention and deployment of those individuals who
possess high potential that creates a particular value to an organization …

Talent management is defined as an HR- focused management

process that allows organizations to overcome difficulties and to systematically
close the gap between the required talents and the existing talents on their way to
their targets …
 119. Supervisor undermining 
Supervisor undermining is defined as behavior that is intended to hinder, over
time, the ability [of subordinates] to establish and maintain positive interpersonal
relationships, work-related success, and favorable reputations (Duffy, Ganster, &
Pagon, 2002, p. 332) …

120. Abusive supervision 
Abusive supervision is defined as “subordinates' perceptions of the extent to
which their supervisors engage in the sustained display of hostile verbal and
nonverbal behaviors, excluding physical contact” (Tepper, 2000, p.178) …

Abusive supervision is defined as frequent negative acts perpetrated by someone

with power, whereas incivility is not necessarily perpetrated by someone with high
power and is not necessarily persistent, one would expect abusive supervision to
have stronger …

121. Thriving (at work)

Thriving is defined as the psychological state in which individuals experience
both a sense of vitality and learning. 

Thriving is defined as being “fully engaged intellectually, socially, and

emotionally in the college experience” (Schreiner, 2010 a, p. 4).

Thriving is defined as healthy development and optimal well-being (Lerner,

2004).

Thriving is defined as “the effective mobilization of individual and social

resources in response to risk or threat, leading to positive mental or physical
outcomes and/or positive social outcomes” (p. 237).
Thriving is defined as “growing well or vigorously”

122. Trust
Trust is defined as believing others in the absence of clear-cut reasons to
disbelieve, then it can be shown over a series of studies that high trusters are not
more gullible than low trusters …

Trust is defined as customer confidence in the quality and reliability of the

services
offered by the organization. 

According to Rotter (1971)

Trust is defined as an expectancy that the promise of an individual or group can

be relied upon 

 Trust is defined as a group of beliefs held by a person derived from his or her

perceptions about certain attributes

123. Well-being 
Well-being is defined as that combination of attributes leading to a mentally and
physically
comfortable psychological state.

Well-being is defined as happiness or a positive evaluation of one's life in general

(Diener, 1984; Diener, Suh, Luca, & Smith, 1999).

 Psychological well-being is defined as employees' attitudes and feelings about the

work context (Diener, 2000).
Psychological well-being is defined as states that emerge from feeling of
satisfaction with one's close interpersonal relationships and with one's occupation
and financial situation (Bar-On, 2005)

Psychological well-being is defined as a sense of feeling healthy leading to a

complete awareness of personal integrity which also includes spiritual elements of
life.

Psychological well-being is defined as the extent to which a person is satisfied

with his/her whole life ( Campbell, et al, 1976; Andrew and Whitney, 1976).

Subjective well-being is defined as people's positive evaluations of their lives,

including pleasant emotions, fulfillment, and life satisfaction

Subjective well-being is defined as the subjective measurement of the overall

satisfaction with life (see Camfield, 2003) 

Spiritual well- being is defined as satisfaction with one's relationship with a

higher being, and one's sense of meaning and purpose in life (Ellison & Smith,
1991; Kamya, 199'7; Paloutzian & Ellison, 1982). 

Spiritual well-being is defined as people's perception of the quality of their

spiritual life (Paloutzian &
Ellison, 1991).

Social well- being is defined as an individual's self-report of the quality of his or

her relationship with other people, the neighborhood, and the community (Keyes
1998, Larson 1993).
Social well-being is defined as ''the appraisal of one's circumstances and
functioning in society''
(Keyes, 1998, p. 122)

Communal well- being is defined as 'the whole network of social conditions

which enable human individuals and groups to flourish and live a fully, genuinely
human life' (Deneulin, 2004, p. 7).

Human well-being is defined as an aggregation of five components: basic material

needs, health, security, good social relations, and freedom of choice and actions
(with the latter component being seen as an emergent property of the other

 Whistle-blowing is defined as “the dis- closure by organization members (former

or current) of illegal, immoral, or illegitimate practices under the control of their
employers, to persons or organizations that may be able to effect action …

Whistle-blowing is defined as being applicable to situations in which behavior

is observed that is illegitimate, illegal, or immoral (Near and Miceli, 1985, p.6). 

Whistle-blowing is defined as when an employee reveals wrongdoing within an

organisation either to the public or to those in positions of authority. Channels
Camerer (1996 )

124. Work–family conflict 
Work–family conflict is defined as a form of inter-role conflict in which the role
pressures from the work and family domains are mutually incompatible in some
respect.
Work-family conflict is defined as a type of inter-role conflict, wherein at least
some work and family responsibilities are not compatible and have resultant effects
on each domain (Boles, Howard, & Donofrio, 2001; Greenhaus & Beutell, 1985)

Work–family conflict is defined as inter-role conflict in which role pressures

from the work and family domains are mutually incompatible (Greenhaus &
Beutell, 1985).

125. Work–family enrichment
Work–family enrichment is defined as the extent to which experiences in one
role improve the quality of life, namely performance or affect, in the other role
(Greenhaus & Powell, in press)

Work–family enrichment is defined as when the experiences in one role improve

the quality of life for the individual in the other role 1 (Greenhaus & Powell,
2006).

Work–family enrichment is defined as the extent to which resources generated in

one domain, work or family, are applied in the other domain in a way that benefits
the other domain (Greenhaus and Powell, 2006). 

Work-family enrichment is defined as the extent to which experiences in one

role or function, improve quality of life (performance or affection) in another role
or function (Greenhaus & Powell, 2006). 
 126. Work Alienation 
Work alienation is defined as a sense of separation of the individual from work
and the workplace (Ashforth, 1989)

Work alienation is defined as a cognitive sense of separation of the individual

from work and the workplace, that is, a lack of job involvement and organizational
identification (Kanungo, 1979; Seeman, 1975)

work alienation is defined as feelings of disappointment with career and

professional development.

Work alienation is defined as a discrepancy between the workers' perception of

objective task conditions along specific dimensions (control, purpose, and self-
expression) and their expectations regarding these dimensions, which is further
intensified by the importance or salience of these dimensions. The outcome is a
feeling of powerlessness, meaninglessness, and hence a sense of self-estrangement
in work

127. Workplace ostracism 

Workplace ostracism is defined as the extent to which an individual perceives
that he or she is
ignored or excluded by others at workplace (Ferris et al., 2008) 

Workplace ostracism is defined as “the extent to which an individual perceives

that he or she is excluded and ignored by others at work” (Williams, 2001).

Workplace ostracism is defined as the exclusion, rejection or ignoring of an

individual (or group) by another individual (or group) that, hinders ones ability to
establish or maintain positive interpersonal relationships, work-related success, or
favorable reputation within ones place 
Workplace ostracism is defined as the perception that one is being ignored or
excluded, and interchangeably used with social exclusion, which includes the
similar behavioral experiences of being rejected, excluded, or isolated (Ferris et al.,
2008, pp. 1348 - 1350) …

128. Workplace incivility 
Workplace incivility is defined as a low intensity behavior with ambiguous
intent, while workplace bullying is assumed to have high intensity and intent. 

Workplace incivility is defined as “low-intensity, deviant behavior with

ambiguous intent to harm the target, in violation of work- place norms for mutual
respect. 

129. Workplace aggression 
Workplace aggression is defined as intentional harm-doing (physical, emotional,
and/or job-related) directed to- ward other organization members and/or the
organization itself. 

Workplace aggression is defined as any behavior intended to harm an individual

within an organization or an organization itself (Baron & Neuman, 1996; Neuman
& Baron, 1998). 

Workplace aggression is defined as behavior that is intended to violate

organizational norms and threaten the wellbeing of an organization and its workers
(Baron &Neuman, 1996; Douglas &Martinko, 2001; Martinko & Zellars, 1998) …
 130. Workplace learning
Workplace learning is defined as the acquisition of knowledge and skills as
individuals attempt authentic vocational tasks supported by more skilled peers or
experts. 

Workplace learning is defined as a process whereby people, as a function of

completing their organizational tasks and roles, acquire knowledge, skills, and
attitudes that enhance individual and organizational performance …

Workplace learning is defined as that which occurs as part of an organised

workplace-accredited program, embedded within the organisation's authority and
accountability structure. 

Informal learning as “an aspect of workplace learning that specifically involves

those learning activities that employees initiate in the workplace, involve the
expenditure of physical cognitive, or motional effort, and result in the
development of professional knowledge and skills” (p.502).

131. Learning organization

Learning organization is defined as organization where people continually
develop their capacity to achieve results they desire, whereby new patterns of
thinking are nurtured, collective aspirations are freed and people learn to learn
together (Senge, 1990). 

Learning organization is defined as “an organization skilled at creating,

acquiring, and transferring knowledge and at modifying its behavior to reflect new
knowledge and insights” (Bateman & Snell, 2014, p. 300).
Learning organization is defined as an organization that exhibits adaptability,
learns from mistakes, explores situations for development, and optimizes the
contribution...

Learning organization is defined as one that is characterized by continuous

learning for continuous improvement and by the capacity to transform itself. The
definition captures a principle but in and of itself is not operational. 

132. Transfer learning

Transfer learning is defined as the ability to use knowledge or skills learned for
an original set of tasks in an original domain to solve problems on a different set of
tasks and/or in a different domain.

Learning transfer is defined as the ability to apply what has been learned to
novel situations and tasks.

Transfer learning is defined as exporting knowledge from previously learned

source to a target task ([14], [62], [24],. [3]). 

Transfer learning is defined as how to make full use of source domain data to
improve learning performance of target domain data. In this paper, we use the
basic concepts following the common transfer learning analysis [14]. 

133. Organizational learning culture

Organizational learning culture is defined as “an organization skilled at
creating, acquiring, and transferring knowledge, and at modifying its behavior to
reflect new knowledge and insights” (Garvin, 1993, p. 80). 
Organizational learning culture is defined as ―an. organization skilled at
creating, acquiring, and transferring knowledge, and at modifying its behavior to
reflect new knowledge and insights‖ [3]. 

Organizational learning culture is defined as a culture that values employee

development. Such cultures provide continuous learning opportunities to their
employees.

134. Unlearning
Unlearning is defined as throwing away concepts learnt in the past to give space
for possible new learning. 

Unlearning is defined as 'moving away from something rather than moving

towards something. 

Unlearning is defined as the “process by which firms eliminate old logics and
make room for new ones” by Prahalad and Bettis. 

Unlearning is defined as the questioning and destruction process of knowledge,

logic and patterns established, in order to propose new ...