Mbuya 2003 PDF

Mineralogy and Geochemistry of the
Reef 1 Footwall Basalt at the
Bulyanhulu Orogenic Lode-Gold
Deposit, Tanzania
Paul William Mbuya
Thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements

for the degree of Master of Science in Geology
The University of Auckland
2003
“The true geologist will never spare himself when his work is
in question. He must be prepared to work long hours, to
endure cold and heat and wet and hunger, and at times risk
life and limb (though not without consideration of the
advantage to be gained). He should allow no difficulty that
can be overcome to stop him. Streams must be forded,
precipices climbed, tent and clothes and food swagged many
miles up and down stream, through bush, up mountain sides,
etc.”
“Instructions to Field Officers”

P.G. Morgan, June 1920.
___________________________________________________________________________________Abstract
ABSTRACT
The world-class Bulyanhulu gold deposit (12 M oz) is in the Sukumaland greenstone
belt, Northwestern Tanzania. The main mineralised vein, Reef 1, occurs at the contact of the
hanging wall felsic metavolcanic rocks and the footwall mafic metavolcanic rocks; it contains
massive quartz together with pyrite, pyrrhotite and minor chalcopyrite. Gold occurs in Reef 1
as free gold grains closely associated with sulfides, particularly pyrite and chalcopyrite, or
enclosed in sulfide grains.
Alteration in the footwall basalt is characterised by extensive chloritisation,
calcification, silicification, and local sericitisation, which are strongest near the vein. The
mineral assemblage hornblende-pyroxene-albite-chlorite-iron-titanium oxide-epidote-quartz is
gradually replaced by the assemblage calcite-chlorite-quartz-pyrite-muscovite+ chalcopyrite+
siderite at about 60 to 70 m from Reef 1.
Geochemical analysis of the footwall rocks by ICP, XRF, and Leco analyses found
that very few elements show consistent enrichment or depletion patterns towards Reef 1. The
Barrick ICP database consists of about 11,000 vein and wall rock analyses, whereas my XRF
analyses examined geochemical trends in the Reef 1 footwall rocks only. Calcium, Cu, V, Ni,
Zn, Mn, and Cr show close correlation between their ICP and XRF concentrations. Overall,
the XRF concentrations of most elements show more consistent trends than the ICP data. The
lack of trends in the ICP data is partly due to poor digestion, particularly for major elements
like Na and K, and/or sampling in clusters rather than using regular sampling intervals within
lithological units. Analyses of basalt only samples, show stronger correlation with the basalt
mineralogy than whole core analyses that include both veins and host rock, so the former
method is preferred to test for geochemical indicators of alteration halos.
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_________________________________________________________________________Acknowledments
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would firstly like to thank my M.Sc. supervisors, Dr. Jeffrey Mauk and Associate
Professor Patrick Browne, who managed to strike the perfect balance between providing
direction and encouraging independence. I further thank my principal supervisor Dr. Jeffrey
Mauk for suggesting this exciting topic and arranging financial assistance. I am grateful to
many people in the Department of Geology who have assisted me in the course of this work,
in particular Mark Simpson for helping and showing me various sample preparation methods
and Corel Draw techniques, Ian Warren and Erin Hollinger, for reviewing my manuscript at
various stages of this project, and the economic geology group for enlightening discussions
regarding mineral deposits.
I would also like to thank the technical staff of the Geology Department, in particular
John Wilmhurst for helping me in XRF analysis, Barry Curham for his assistance in thin
sections and polished mounts preparations, and Dr Ritchie Sims with XRD interpretations.
I warmly thank all my fellow geologists, especially Francisco, Grace, Stuart, and
Andrew, and my friends outside of the University, in particular George and Rogers.
I am indebted to the New Zealand Vice Chancellor’s Committee for awarding me this
scholarship and to Barrick Gold Corporation for permission to use their geochemistry
database as well as financially supporting my field and research work. I am grateful to many
people who assisted me during my field work in Tanzania, particularly John Kapusta, Dr. Jay
Hodgson, Etienne Du Plessis, Marc Boisvert, Larry Thon, Peet Prinsloo, Dr. Zak Sanfo, Alen
Lyons, Abbakari Jumanne, Ally Kassim, Mayala Nkuli, Roden Machano, and Ernest Kika.
Special thanks to dad, mum, and family for your love, encouragement and continuous
support throughout my studies. Seke, I am indebted to you for your patience and love over the
past year.
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_________________________________________________________________________Table of contents
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT............................................................................................................................................. II
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS...................................................................................................................... III
TABLE OF CONTENTS......................................................................................................................... IV
LIST OF FIGURES............................................................................................................................... VIII
LIST OF TABLES .................................................................................................................................. IX
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Gold in Tanzania: Background ...................................................................................................................... 3
1.3 Bulyanhulu Gold Deposit................................................................................................................................ 4

1.3.1 Location...................................................................................................................................................... 4
1.3.2 Previous work............................................................................................................................................. 4
1.3.3 Aims of this study........................................................................................................................................ 5
CHAPTER 2 REGIONAL AND LOCAL GEOLOGY ......................................................................... 7
2.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................................... 7
2.2 Geological setting of Tanzania........................................................................................................................ 7
2.4 The Sukumaland greenstone belt................................................................................................................... 9
2.5 Bulyanhulu gold deposit................................................................................................................................ 11

2.5.1 Lithological units...................................................................................................................................... 11
2.5.2 Mineralization .......................................................................................................................................... 11
2.5.3. Alteration................................................................................................................................................. 14
CHAPTER 3 SAMPLING AND ANALYTICAL METHODS............................................................. 15
3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................................... 15
3.2 Sampling techniques...................................................................................................................................... 15
3.3 Analytical methods ........................................................................................................................................ 15

3.3.1 X-ray fluorescence analysis...................................................................................................................... 15
3.3.1.1 Major elements by Norrish Fusion .................................................................................................... 16
3.3.1.2 Trace elements by Compton Correction ............................................................................................ 16
3.3.2 Assay Techniques...................................................................................................................................... 16
3.3.3 Inductive coupled plasma analysis ........................................................................................................... 17
3.3.4 Leco analysis ............................................................................................................................................ 18
CHAPTER 4 MINERALOGY............................................................................................................ 19
4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................................... 19
4.2 Previous studies ............................................................................................................................................. 20
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4.3 Mineralogy ..................................................................................................................................................... 20

4.3.1 General..................................................................................................................................................... 20
4.3.2 Sulfide minerals ........................................................................................................................................ 21
4.3.2.1 Pyrite ................................................................................................................................................. 21
4.3.2.2 Chalcopyrite ...................................................................................................................................... 22
4.3.2.3 Pyrrhotite........................................................................................................................................... 22
4.3.3 Oxide minerals.......................................................................................................................................... 22
4.3.3.1 Ilmenite .............................................................................................................................................. 22
4.3.3.2 Magnetite........................................................................................................................................... 23
4.3.4 Silicate minerals ....................................................................................................................................... 23
4.3.4.1 Quartz................................................................................................................................................ 23
4.3.4.2 Chlorite.............................................................................................................................................. 24
4.3.4.6 Hornblende ........................................................................................................................................ 27
4.3.4.7 Iron-titanium oxide ............................................................................................................................ 27
4.3.4.8 Titanite............................................................................................................................................... 29
4.3.4.9 Epidote............................................................................................................................................... 29
4.3.4.10 Muscovite......................................................................................................................................... 29
4.3.5 Carbonate minerals .................................................................................................................................. 29
4.3.5.1 Calcite ............................................................................................................................................... 29
4.3.5.2 Siderite............................................................................................................................................... 30
4.3.5.3 Ankerite ............................................................................................................................................. 30
4.3.6 Gold .......................................................................................................................................................... 30
4.4 Mineral associations and assemblages ......................................................................................................... 31

4.4.1 Igneous/metamorphic mineral assemblages............................................................................................. 31
4.4.2 Alteration mineral assemblages ............................................................................................................... 32
4.5 Discussion and conclusions ........................................................................................................................... 33
CHAPTER 5 GEOCHEMISTRY....................................................................................................... 36
5.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................................... 36
5.2 Inductively Coupled Plasma Geochemistry ................................................................................................ 36

5.2.1 Statistical analyses ................................................................................................................................... 37
5.2.1.1 Agglomerate, ash flow tuff, lapilli tuff, quartz-feldspar porphyry ..................................................... 38
5.2.1.2 Basalt, gabbro, diabase, mafic dyke .................................................................................................. 38
5.2.1.3 Quartz veins, stringers, quartz carbonate veins ................................................................................ 39
5.2.1.4 Intermediate tuff, pyrite zone............................................................................................................. 39
5.2.1.5 Argillite.............................................................................................................................................. 39
5.2.2 Correlation matrices................................................................................................................................. 39
5.2.3. Elemental concentration variation in the wallrock ................................................................................. 39
5.2.3.1 Gold assay, silver, copper, bismuth, lead, sulfur, zinc, cobalt, and iron........................................... 40
5.2.3.3 Barium, potassium, and phosphorus ................................................................................................. 43
5.2.3.4 Cadmium ........................................................................................................................................... 44
5.2.3.5 Nickel................................................................................................................................................. 44
5.2.3.6 Strontium ........................................................................................................................................... 44
5.2.4. Vertical longitudinal variations of elemental concentration in Reef 1 .................................................... 45
5.2.4.2 Aluminium.......................................................................................................................................... 46
5.2.4.3 Arsenic............................................................................................................................................... 46
5.2.4.5 Cadmium ........................................................................................................................................... 50
5.2.4.6 Potassium .......................................................................................................................................... 51
5.2.4.7 Manganese......................................................................................................................................... 51
5.2.4.8 Nickel................................................................................................................................................. 51
5.2.4.9 Phosphorus ........................................................................................................................................ 51
5.2.4.10 Lead ................................................................................................................................................. 51
5.2.4.11 Scandium and vanadium.................................................................................................................. 52
5.2.4.12 Zinc.................................................................................................................................................. 52
5.2.4.13 Gold, silver, and copper ...................................................................................................................... 52
5.2.5 Element abundances determined by ICP versus depth ............................................................................ 52
5.2.6 Comparison of two ICP databases for the Reef 1 footwall basalt ............................................................ 55
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5.3 X-ray fluorescence abundance versus depth trends ................................................................................... 55

5.3.1 Major oxides:............................................................................................................................................ 58
5.3.2 Trace elements.......................................................................................................................................... 58
5.4 Comparison of ICP and XRF data............................................................................................................... 59
5.5 Average composition of the least altered Reef 1 footwall mafic metavolcanic rocks............................... 63
5.6 Discussion ....................................................................................................................................................... 65
5.7 Conclusions .................................................................................................................................................... 69
CHAPTER 6 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS ......................................................................... 71
6.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................................... 71
6.2 Alteration ....................................................................................................................................................... 74
6.3 Pathfinder elements....................................................................................................................................... 79
6.4 Elements concentration trends in the Reef 1 footwall basalt ..................................................................... 83
6.5 Correlation matrices ..................................................................................................................................... 86
6.6 Sampling and analytical methods ................................................................................................................ 88
6.7 Summary ........................................................................................................................................................ 92
6.8 Recommendations and future work............................................................................................................. 93
REFERENCES ...................................................................................................................................... 95
APPENDIX 1 SAMPLE DESCRIPTIONS........................................................................................... 101
APPENDIX 2A X-RAY FLUORESCENCE MAJOR ELEMENTS CONCENTRATIONS ................... 110
APPENDIX 2B X-RAY FLUORESCENCE TRACE ELEMENTS CONCENTRATIONS.................... 113
APPENDIX 3 PETROGRAPHIC DESCRIPTIONS............................................................................. 116
1. Transmitted light petrography..................................................................................................................... 116
2. Reflected light petrography .......................................................................................................................... 136
APPENDIX 4 INDUCTIVELY COUPLED PLASMA ANALYSES- BASIC STATISTICS................... 139
APPENDIX 5. ELEMENTAL ICP DATA DESCRIPTIONS................................................................ 144
APPENDIX 6A & 6B. AVERAGE COMPOSITIONS OF THE LEAST ALTERED REEF 1 FOOTWALL
MAFIC METAVOLCANIC ROCKS. .................................................................................................... 145
APPENDIX 7. LECO ANALYSIS RESULTS OF THE REEF 1 FOOTWALL MAFIC METAVOLCANIC

ROCKS................................................................................................................................................ 146
APPENDIX 8. ICP ANALYSES FOR THE REEF 1 FOOTWALL MAFIC METAVOLCANIC ROCKS.
............................................................................................................................................................. 148
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APPENDIX 9A. ELEMENTS CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS IN THE AGGLOMERATE. ............ 152
APPENDIX 9B. ELEMENTS CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS IN THE BASALT. .......................... 153
APPENDIX 9C. ELEMENTS CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS IN THE ARGILLITE....................... 154
APPENDIX 9D. ELEMENTS CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS IN THE ASH TUFF........................ 155
APPENDIX 9E. ELEMENTS CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS IN THE DIABASE.......................... 156
APPENDIX 9F. ELEMENTS CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS IN THE PYRITE ZONE. ................. 157
APPENDIX 9G. ELEMENTS CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS IN QUARTZ VEIN. ........................ 158
APPENDIX 9H. ELEMENTS CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS IN STRINGERS............................. 159
APPENDIX 10. MICROPROBE RAW DATA FOR IRON-TITANIUM OXIDE IN THE REEF 1
FOOTWALL MAFIC METAVOLCANIC ROCKS. .............................................................................. 160
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___________________________________________________________________________List of figures
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. The location of Tanzania within Africa. .....................................................................4

Figure 2. Bulyanhulu location within the Sukumaland greenstone belt.....................................8
Figure 3. Simplified geology of Bulyanhu property showing positions of drill holes. ............12
Figure 4. Typical lithological units at the Bulyanhulu gold deposit ........................................13
Figure 5. Photomicrographs showing mineralogical associations and textures in the Reef 1
footwall basalt at the Bulyanhulu gold deposit. ...............................................................25
Figure 6. Representative X-ray powder diffraction plots of the Reef 1 footwall basalt samples
analysed in this study........................................................................................................28
Figure 7. Schematic diagram showing mineralogical and textural changes with distance from
Reef 1................................................................................................................................31
Figure 8. Calcium concentration along drill holes: A. KMC-0852; B. KMC-0856;................41
Figure 9. Distribution of gold in the Reef 1 quartz vein determined by ICP. ..........................46
Figure 10. Distribution of silver in the Reef 1 quartz vein determined by ICP........................47
Figure 11. Distribution of copper in the Reef 1 quartz vein determined by ICP......................47
Figure 12. Distribution of lead in the Reef 1 quartz vein determined by ICP..........................48
Figure 13. Distribution of sulfur the Reef 1 quartz vein determined by ICP. ..........................48
Figure 14. Distribution of potassium in the Reef 1 quartz vein determined by ICP. ...............49
Figure 15. Distribution of arsenic in the Reef 1 quartz vein determined by ICP. ....................49
Figure 16. Distribution of bismuth in the Reef 1 quartz vein determined by ICP. ..................50
Figure 17. Calcium ICP concentrations along drill holes.........................................................53
Figure 18. Magnesium ICP concentration along drill hole KMC-0657. ..................................54
Figure 19. Aluminium ICP concentration along drill hole EX 4549/014. ...............................54
Figure 20. Iron XRF concentrations along drill hole EX 4549/006. ........................................57
Figure 21. Calcium XRF concentrations along drill hole KMC-0657. ....................................57
Figure 22. XRF versus ICP analyses for the Reef 1 footwall basalt ........................................62
Figure 23. Total alkali versus silica for the Reef 1 footwall basalt. .........................................64
Figure 24. Titanium concentrations along drill hole KMC-0657.............................................65
Figure 25. Concentrations along drill hole UX 4580/014: A. LOI; B. Carbonates; C. Sulfides
..........................................................................................................................................78
Figure 26. Sodium concentrations along drill holes: A. UX 4600/009; B. KMC-0815A. .......82
Figure 27. Potassium and Rb concentrations along drill hole UX4600/009 ...........................87
Figure 28. Schematic diagram of a drill core indicating two different types of sampling done
for this study. ....................................................................................................................88
Figure 29. Chromium and Mn XRF concentrations along drill holes ......................................90
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___________________________________________________________________________List of tables
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. Elements in each lithological unit that have concentrations above the overall average
for all analyses. .................................................................................................................38
Table 2. Significant elemental correlations that were determined from data set 1 (see section
5.1) geochemical database. Correlation is considered to be significant if it is more than
70 %. There are no significant negative correlation coefficients in the Bulyanhulu Reef 1
and wall rocks...................................................................................................................42
Table 3. Summary of behaviour of elements (ICP) in the basalt towards Reef 1. ...................54
Table 4. Comparison of two ICP databases for basalt..............................................................56
Table 5. Concentration trends of major element oxides towards Reef 1 in the basalt. ............58
Table 6. Geochemical concentration trends of trace elements towards Reef 1........................59
Table 7. Regression line slope and linear correlation coefficient results for XRF versus ICP
concentrations analysis. ....................................................................................................61
Table 8. Comparison of the average composition of the least altered Reef 1 footwall basalt
with fresh basalt standard compositions (Dutro, Dietrich, and Foose, 1989). .................63
Table 9. Comparison of Bulyanhulu deposit alteration zone with alteration zones around other
lode gold deposits. ............................................................................................................73
Table 10. Geochemical trends of elements towards Reef 1. ....................................................83
Table 11. Gold: Ag ratio in the Reef 1. ...................................................................................86
Table 12. Average concentrations of trace elements in the least altered Reef 1 footwall basalt.
..........................................................................................................................................92
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____________________________________________________________________ Chapter 1 Introduction
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction
Archean orogenic lode gold deposits are structurally controlled wall rock and/or vein
hosted mineralisation that occur in all rock types of Archean granite-greenstone terrains and
are considered to be epigenetic with respect to their host rocks (Groves et al., 1988). These
deposits are widespread in most Archean granitoid-greenstone terrains and account for almost
twenty percent of cumulative world gold production (Hagemann and Cassidy, 2000). Some of
the world’s largest gold deposits, e.g. Golden Mile (Australia), Hollinger-McIntyre (Canada)
are in Archean cratons. Other Archean cratons with significant gold deposits are the Dharwar
craton of southern India, the Sao Francisco craton of South America, the Kaapvaal craton of
South Africa, the Zimbabwe craton of Zimbabwe and the Tanzania craton of Tanzania. These
Archean gold deposits tend to occur in clusters within mining camps defined as areas of about
100 km2 (Hagemann and Cassidy, 2000).
Archean orogenic lode-gold deposits are typified by quartz-dominant vein systems
with 3-5 percent sulfides, dominantly Fe-sulfides, and 5-15 percent carbonate minerals. The
quartz veins in greenschist facies domains, may also contain albite, muscovite, and chlorite.
Sulfide mineralogy commonly reflects the host rock, with arsenopyrite being more common
in hosting metasedimentary rocks, and pyrite and/or pyrrhotite more common in hosting
meta-igneous rocks (Eilu, Mikucki, and Groves, 1988). The ore mineralogy of these deposits
is rather simple with free gold and/or gold sited in pyrite + pyrrhotite + arsenopyrite, with a
heterogeneous distribution of accessory scheelite, tellurides, stibnite, galena, sphalerite,
chalcopyrite, magnetite, haematite and anhydrite (Groves and Foster, 1991).
Gold bearing veins exhibit variable enrichments in As, B, Bi, Hg, Sb, Te, Se, and W,
and the base metals concentrations are generally close to background values (Eilu, Mikucki,
1
and Groves, 1988). Wallrock alteration involves massive introduction or redistribution of
SiO2 and more localised introduction of Na2O; Rb, Li and Ba are also commonly enriched,
and there is a distinctive suite of immobile elements (e.g. Al, Ti, V, Y, Zr) and relatively
immobile elements (Fe, Mg, Cr, Ni, Sc) (Groves and Foster, 1991).
Wallrock alteration shows much stronger lateral variation around the ore zones than
vertical variation in the plane of the ore bodies. The mineral assemblages and width of the
zones vary with wallrock type and crustal level of hydrothermal alteration, but generally,
significant amounts of CO2, S, K, H2O and LILE are added into most alteration zones (Eilu,
Mikucki, and Groves, 1988).
Carbonate alteration is typically associated with gold mineralisation in greenstone
belts, but it is so widespread that it is a poor guide to gold mineralisation. However, this
alteration is a good guide to major structures that control gold deposits. The abundance and
size of known deposits in an area are important indicators of the potential of all but the most
poorly explored areas (Hodgson, 2000).
Gold associated trace elements have often been used as pathfinder elements in
exploration for lode-gold deposits. There is however high variability in the relative trace-
element enrichment between gold deposits. Specifically, no single pathfinder element or
combination of elements can be used with confidence in all geologic situations, and hence
exploration programs designed around one particular suite of pathfinder elements may not be
applicable to other deposits or rather districts (Eilu, Mikucki, and Groves, 1988). For
example, at Bronzewing lode-gold deposit, Western Australia, anomalous values of CO2, K,
Rb, and Sb, define wider zones than does anomalous gold (Eilu, Mikucki, and Dugdale,
2001). However, at the Bulletin lode-gold deposit, Western Australia, anomalies defined by
Te, W, Sb, and As form significant exploration targets extending beyond the Au anomaly
(Eilu and Mikucki, 1998).
2
1.2 Gold in Tanzania: Background
Archean granitoid-greenstone terranes are an important source of gold worldwide
(Barley and McNaughton, 1988) and Tanzania is no exception. The United Republic of
Tanzania lies on the east coast of Africa bounded by latitudes 1ºS and 11º45'S and longitudes
29º36'E and 40º29'E (Figure 1). It shares borders with Kenya and Uganda to the north;
Rwanda, Burundi and Zaire to the west; and Zambia, Malawi and Mozambique to the south.
The geological framework of Tanzania reflects the history of the African continent (Petters,
1991). The present geomorphology is a result of a series of events that began with the
evolution of an Archean Craton with subsequent modification by metamorphic reworking and
accretion of other continental matter, covered with continentally derived sediments of the
Karoo and post Karoo Tectonic Domain.
Gold was found in the Tanzanian Archean craton during the German colonial period
but was not exploited. Little development took place subsequently under British
administration until the 1930s when an increase in gold price led to the development of
several small underground mines including the Geita Gold Mines and Buhemba Mine. The
latter when closed in 1970 had produced 408,000 oz of gold from ore that averaged 10-12 g/t
Au. Mining remained a low profile activity since independence in 1961 despite state
participation through the state mining corporation, STAMICO (Straaten, 1984). However, the
mid 1990s liberalisation policy has given much impetus, through international mining
companies, and increased development and production is now underway
(http://www.africaonline.co.tz/madini/Geology/).
3
1.3 Bulyanhulu Gold Deposit
1.3.1 Location
The Bulyanhulu Gold Mine is located within the Sukumaland Greenstone belt in the
Kahama District of the Shinyanga Region in the in the United Republic of Tanzania.
Accessibility to the site is by means of a road from Mwanza (about 350 km to the NE) or air.
Figure 1. The location of Tanzania within Africa.
1.3.2 Previous work
Phillips (1990) noted that for Archean lode gold deposits in greenschist facies domain,
the wall rock alteration processes and consequent mineral assemblages are receiving little
current research compared to the information they might potentially supply. Research work on
the Bulyanhulu deposit is limited despite the huge database owned by the company. This
4
database, which includes geological, and geotechnical logging information, and ICP and XRF
geochemical data provide a good resource for scientific studies on the project.
Usually Fe-bearing carbonates are products hydrothermal events as observed in many
typical Archean lode gold deposits. However, underground inspection at Bulyanhulu mine
found that carbonate alteration in both the hanging wall and footwall were not iron bearing
but intensely calcareous. In one thin section report (unpublished), Lakefield Research, listed
calcite as the only carbonate in the footwall rocks of Bulyanhulu gold deposit. Very little
carbonate, and no iron bearing carbonate constitutes the Reef 1 quartz veins (Barclay, 2000).
Unlike other Archean lode gold deposits whose textures and fabric relations suggest
that the sulfides predate regional deformation and metamorphism, the Bulyanhulu Reef 1
fabric relations indicate that sulfides and gold overprint vein quartz and are late syn-tectonic
or post-tectonic with respect to regional deformation (Barclays, 2000).
1.3.3 Aims of this study
Wall rock alteration and associated mineralogical patterns around lode gold deposits
are important as exploration tools because they extend both laterally and along strike further
than the gold ore itself. However, alteration along the strike of the vein may be extensive but
usually lacks any variation/zonation especially for a homogeneous wall rock. On the other
hand, lateral alteration may be limited or extensive, but zonation is more likely to be present.
This zonation can be used as a guide to ore. The zonation reflects the variation in the
mineralogical, and hence elemental content of the wall rocks.
However, as seen in section 1, alteration and associated element distributions around
orogenic lode gold deposits differ from one deposit to the other, or even within a single
deposit, depending on factors like the nature of the host rocks, fluid composition, and duration
of hydrothermal activity. This implies that, though orogenic lode gold deposit have many
common features, still every deposit or mine camp, has to be studied separately to determine
5
unique features such as ore-related elemental distribution, which may be useful for that
particular deposit or mine camp.
Hence, this work will identify the nature and extent of the alteration zoning sequence
related to the Bulyanhulu lode-gold deposit in the Reef 1 footwall mafic metavolcanic rocks.
The mineral assemblages and textures related to the alteration zones will be discussed.
Lithogeochemical methods, particularly comparison of different analytical methods, and
sampling and sample selection will be outlined and recommendations for exploration made.
6
_______________________________________________________ Chapter 2 Regional and Local Geology
CHAPTER 2
REGIONAL AND LOCAL GEOLOGY
2.1 Introduction
Lode gold deposits are preferentially localised in structures/shear zones in Archean
granitoid-greenstone terranes, within major cratons, e.g., Australia, Brazil, Canada, South
Africa, and Zimbabwe (Groves and Foster, 1991). Van Straaten (1984) noted that even the
smaller cratons like Tanzania host Archean lode gold deposit. The Bulyanhulu gold deposit is
hosted by the Sukumaland greenstone belt in the Tanzania Craton (Figure 2).
2.2 Geological setting of Tanzania
Tanzania, like South Africa and Zimbabwe, is on a 2.8-2.5 Ga Archean craton (Anhaeusser
and Viljoen, 1986; Vennemann and Smith, 1999). Progressively younger crystalline rocks rim
this granitic nucleus with sediments and volcanics of recent times occupying the rifted
grabens, coastal plain and inland basins. Rocks belonging to the Archaean, Proterozoic,
Palaeozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic are well represented (Harpum, 1970). The Central
Plateau of the country is mainly composed of the Archean craton, situated approximately
between latitudes 3°S and 6°S and between longitudes 31°30’E and 35°E, and covers an area
of about 500,000 km2. The craton is limited to the east and southeast by the Lower to Middle
Proterozoic Usagaran Belt (2.0- 1.8 Ga) and the late Proterozoic (900- 500 Ma)
polymetamorphic Mozambique Belt, which bears superimposed orogenies of different ages.
Towards the southwest, the craton is bounded by the Early to Middle Proterozoic Ubendian
Belt (2.0 Ga) and westward by the Late Proterozoic Karagwe-Ankolean Belt and early
Palaeozoic Bukoban Tectonic Domain. The northwestern margin is defined by the contact
with the Ruwenzorian Belt of Uganda (2.0 Ga). Continentally derived sediments of
Mesoproterozoic and younger ages cover part of the craton
7
(http://www.africaonline.co.tz/madini/Geology/). The northern limit of the Tanzania craton is
uncertain: the granite-greenstone association of the craton grades, in an area of very poor
exposure, into complexly deformed gneisses of the Uganda Basement (Borg and Shackleton,
1997).
Location of Bulyanhulu Property within the

Sukumaland Greenstone Belt
33°00’E
3°00’S 3°00’S
3°30’S
Legend
0 Km 50 Mafic volcanic rocks
Scale:
Granitoids
Fault
32°00’E Dyke
Figure 2. Bulyanhulu location within the Sukumaland greenstone belt.
2.3 The Tanzania Craton
Within the craton, structural relationships between the greenstone belts and the
surrounding granites are not well understood, as some granites are discordant and intrusive
whereas others display comformable contacts with the greenstones (Borg and Shackleton,
1997).
8
This Tanzania Craton is made of two tectonic domains namely the Dodoman Tectonic
Domain and the overlying Nyanzian Tectonic Domain. The rocks of the Dodoman Tectonic
Domain appear to be older than the greenstones and granites. The Dodoman is mainly of
sedimentary origin and forms a band over the southern part of the Craton. On the other hand
the Nyanzian tectonic Domain consists mainly of mafic volcanic rocks and immature
sediments, and forms the greenstone belts of the central Craton
(http://www.africaonline.co.tz/madini/Geology/). The greenstone belts in the Nyanzian
System include two concentric ovoid greenstone belts in the north-western part of the craton
that have been interpreted largely based on airborne magnetometer surveys. The outer zone of
the Nyanzian System is comprised of Upper Nyanzian Series rocks including the Geita,
Mabale and eastern portion of Sukumaland Greenstone Belts. The inner zone is composed of
Lower Nyanzian Series including Rwamagaza and western Sukumaland Greenstone Belt. The
Bulyanhulu Deposit is situated on the inner zone of the Sukumaland Greenstone belt, in rocks
believed to be part of the Lower Nyanzian Series (Figure 2).
2.4 The Sukumaland greenstone belt
The Sukumaland greenstone belt, which hosts the Bulyanhulu Gold Mine is covers an
approximate area of 20,000 km2 and is estimated by geophysical methods to be about 5-7 km
thick. It is estimated to be 2808 + 3 Ma using U/Pb of single zircon of rhyolite (Borg, 1994).
However, recent studies have yielded an estimated whole rock Sm – Nd isochron age of 2823
+ 44 Ma, for the metabasalts of the Sukumaland greenstone belt (Manya and Maboko, 2003),
who have interpreted this age to represent the eruption of the oldest mafic volcanic rocks in
the Sukumaland greenstone belt.
Economic gold mineralisation in the Tanzania Craton is principally associated with
the greenstone belts of the Nyanzian System. As observed elsewhere in the world, virtually all
lithotypes of the greenstone belt host abundant gold occurrences, whereas little gold
9
mineralisation is known from granitoids (Skwarnecki, 1987; Sango, 1988). Rocks
metamorphosed and altered at lower to mid greenschist facies form the most common host to
orogenic lode-gold mineralisation. The dominant style of deformation in these deposits is
brittle-ductile. In general, at greenschist facies, a brittle style of deformation dominates in the
most competent rock type, e.g., granitoids and other felsic rocks, whereas ductile deformation
tends to be more dominant in mafic and ultramafic rocks (Groves, 1988). Ore mineralisation
in the Sukumaland greenstone belt is mainly gold and sulfides in shear zones and quartz veins
in intermediate volcanics. The age of gold and sulfides mineralisation has been estimated to
be around 2.7 Ga, based on Pb model ages from galena in quartz veins, but other studies using
Pb from galena in quartz veins yield ages of about 2.5 Ga (Petters, 1991).
Only 40% of the volcanic rocks in this greenstone belt are mafic. Basalts are mainly
tholeiitic and rhyolites plot in the tholeiitic field too. Graphitic shales contain significant
amounts of organic carbon and show additional signs of graphitisation via shear zones. There
are no ultramafic rocks in the Sukumaland greenstone belt, and unlike other greenstone belts
in the Tanzania craton, it lacks clastic sediments, which suggests that the rocks in this
greenstone belt may represent the distal part of a marine basin, with the more marginal
portions of the basin assimilated by the widespread migmitisation around 2.5 Ga, and/or the
area was linked with neighbouring greenstone belts that have a higher proportion of clastic
sediments (Borg and Shackleton, 1997).
10
2.5 Bulyanhulu gold deposit
2.5.1 Lithological units
The Archean bedrock in the Bulyanhulu area is comprised of volcanic and
sedimentary rocks metamorphosed from sub-greenschist to greenschist facies. These rocks
have been intruded by granites of the Granite Gneiss Terrane. The Bulyanhulu area is flat and
has few exposures other than occasional granitic hills approximately 6 km from site. A
mbuga, a low swampy area consisting of black clayey soil, crosses the property diagonally
from southwest to northeast and obscures much of the geology. The area has extensive
lateritic and saprolitic weathering profiles that have developed to a depth of about 80 m
(Kilborn, 1998).
A portion of granitic body underlies the extreme south, southwest and northeast parts
of the property. Most of the rest of the property is reported to be occupied by undifferentiated
volcanic rocks, presumably because there is little information. The best known area is a
central belt which trends northwest across the property and where drilling has been
concentrated. Rocks within this belt strike northwest and dip steeply northeast (Figure 3).
Mafic volcanic rocks are the most abundant on the property, and are typically fine grained,
light grey to grey green flows with minor volcaniclastic rocks (Figure 4C, 4D, and 4E).
2.5.2 Mineralization
The Bulyanhulu deposit was formerly considered to be a base metal-poor massive
sulfide deposit. However, the massive sulfide unit does not contain gold, but occurs as a
continuous unit in the hanging wall of the mineralised vein and is used as a marker horizon.
Pyrite, pyrrhotite, calcite and secondary quartz occur as veinlets and minor stockworks in both
the shear and wall rocks. Locally, sulfides occur as disseminations.
11
_____________________________________________________ Chapter 2 Regional and Local Geology
Figure 3. Simplified geology of Bulyanhu property showing positions of drill holes.
12
Figure 4. Typical lithological units at the Bulyanhulu gold deposit. (core trays are 0.8 m
long): A. Agglomerate; B. Quartz vein hand specimen; C. Pillow basalt outcrop; D. Quartz
vein-basalt contact; E. Basalt; F. Quartz-feldspar porphyry. Abbreviations: g= granitic
fragment; m= mafic fragment; vg= visible gold; q= quartz; ch= chlorite; cr= carbonate rim;
p= pyrite; a= argillite; b= basalt; c= calcite; qfv= quartz-feldspar vein.
The mineralised zone strikes at about 315° and dips steeply, at more than 85°, to the northeast
with an average width of about 5 m. Gold is hosted in a structurally controlled, mainly
massive quartz vein but locally brecciated. The quartz sulfide vein is localised within a
metasedimentary unit at the contact of the hanging wall felsic metavolcanic rocks and the
footwall mafic metavolcanic rocks. The sheared metasedimentary unit was probably less
competent and hence provided a convenient route for hydrothermal fluids, e.g. Groves and
Barley, 1994 noted that although there are no unique host rocks to mineralisation of lode gold,
particular host rocks or lithological contacts between well defined host rocks are commonly
selectively mineralised within specific greenstones. Reef 1 stretches east-west for

13
approximately 9 km, and has a vertical depth of at least 2 km. This geometry is generally
consistent with other Archean lode gold deposits, e.g., Condie (1981) observed that gold
bearing quartz veins in Archean lode gold deposits, range up to 5 m thick and extend
discontinuously along strike for up to 2 km. Most gold occur as disseminated mineralisation
in these quartz veins, in microfractures associated with calcification, or as specks of visible
gold within the quartz veins (Figure 4B). These steeply dipping quartz-sulphide reefs, Reef 1,
Reef 0 and Reef 2, occur in a graphitic shear zone. Reef 0 is thought to be a splay of the main
and dominant Reef 1 and it occurs intermittently within the extensive pyritic zone on the
hanging wall. Reef 0 is of lower grade, and contains no graphite. Reef 2 is also splayed, and
there are at least 10 different Reef 2s located in different stratigraphic positions, from Reef
2A, which is stratigraphically lowermost, to Reef 2J, stratigraphically the uppermost.
2.5.3. Alteration
Hydrothermal alteration is very extensive and structurally controlled surrounding lode
gold deposits. Typically zones of regional calcite-chlorite alteration replace regional
greenschist facies metamorphic assemblages (Hagemann and Cassidy, 2000). Detailed
geological logging of drill core indicated that the dominant alteration types are silicification,
calcification, chloritisation, graphitisation, muscovite and hematitisation. However, only
silicification, calcification and graphitisation occur at any significant intensity, and unlike
silicification and calcification, which are pervasive, extending by tens of metres from the
shear zone, graphitisation, which extends few centimetres to about two meters, is very
localised, mostly occurring along shear zones. The weathering profile is quite shallow,
ranging from units to tens of meters in places.
14
_________________________________________________ Chapter 3 Sampling and Analytical Methods
CHAPTER 3
SAMPLING AND ANALYTICAL METHODS
3.1 Introduction
Reef 1 has been diamond drilled intensively, less than 50 m spaced sections above the
4500 m elevation and on at least 100 m spaced sections below this. Down dip spacing of
mineralised intercepts is variable. In most of Reef 1, the top 500 to 1000 m were closely
drilled, while holes in the deeper zones were more widely spaced. Core recovery data was
recorded for all samples. An average recovery exceeds 98 percent and is very good in both
barren rock and highly silicified portions of mineralisation. Argillaceous parts of the reef are
friable and crumble, resulting in slightly lower core recoveries.
3.2 Sampling techniques
The logged diamond drill holes were all sampled in the immediate footwall of Reef 1.
Also for selected holes, a suite of samples was collected from the most altered parts, closest to
Reef 1, to the least altered parts, away from Reef 1.
The entire core was geologically logged before being sampled. Whenever possible
sample intervals were bounded by lithological contacts. Sample lengths varied from 20 to 40
cm, although where possible, core sample lengths were standardised at 30 cm. Some core, e.g.
that from mineralised zones was cut in half or, if the core was not competent, divided 50 per
cent ‘in tray’. At times the core was split by a hammer and chisel.
3.3 Analytical methods
3.3.1 X-ray fluorescence analysis
Sixty six representative whole-rock samples were collected from six drill holes over a
strike length of 3.5 km of Reef 1, and analysed for major and trace element concentrations by
X-ray fluorescence at the Department of Geology, The University of Auckland, using a

15
Siemens SRS 3000 sequential X-ray spectrometer with a Rh tube, and the following the
procedures:
3.3.1.1 Major elements by Norrish Fusion
Major element beads, with diameter of 40mm, were prepared with Norrish flux,
lanthanum oxide heavy absorber flux, in a ratio of 1.26 g of ignited sample to 6.75 g of flux.
Thirty five international standards were employed in the calibration, which uses theoretical
fixed alphas as the matrix correction method. The software used is Spectra 3000 software
V2.0.
3.3.1.2 Trace elements by Compton Correction
Trace element briquettes, with diameter of 40mm, were prepared with 10 g of rock
powder and a liquid PVP/methyl cellulose binder. The trace calibration is based on 35
international standards, and uses the Compton peak as the matrix correction with empirical
intensity based jump corrections for trace element lines below Fe. The software used is
Spectra 3000 software V2.0. Appendix 2 presents the results.
3.3.2 Assay Techniques
All the collected samples were analysed by Chemex Laboratories of Vancouver. As a
standard, Chemex analysed each sample for gold, silver, and copper content and specific
gravity. Some samples were re-submitted for 32-element analysis by ICP and the assay results
have been provided by Kahama Mining Corporation Limited.
Each half core sample, delivered in plastic bags to Chemex, was passed through a TM
Rhino crusher to yield crushed material with more than 60 percent passing a 10-mesh screen.
A split weighing approximately 250 g was taken using a stainless steel Jones riffle splitter.
The crushed split was ground using a ring mill pulveriser to yield at least 90 percent of the
ground material passing a 150-mesh screen. From the pulverised sample, a 30 g subsample
was taken for fire assay to determine gold grade, a 1.0 g subsample was taken for aqua regia
digestion to determine copper and silver content, and a 2.0 g subsample was taken for specific
16
gravity determination. At this stage assaying for gold follows a standard fire assay method
with atomic absorption spectroscopy. Detection limits are from 5 to 10,000 ppb. If the grade
recorded exceeds 1.0 g/t, the sample is analysed using a metallic screen assay technique.
Assaying for silver and copper requires a 1.0 g pulverised sample that is digested with
concentrated nitric acid and aqua regia. The acidic solution is diluted to 25 ml with
demineralised water, mixed and analysed by atomic absorption spectrometry. When copper
values greater than 1 percent are determined, a 0.4 g sample cut from the pulp is re-assayed.
Where silver values greater than 15 g/t are returned, half assay ton fire assays with
gravimetric finish are performed.
3.3.3 Inductive coupled plasma analysis
A nitric acid aqua regia digestion is used for digestion. However, pure nitric acid is
used in the early stages of digestion to facilitate dissolution of sulfide minerals and the
destruction of organic matter. Aqua regia acid digestion is useful for precious metals like Au
and most sulfides taking most metals into solution, and also useful in determination of Pb, Zn,
Co, Cu, and Ni (Stanton, 1966). However, this partial leach digestion system does not
completely dissolve all elements, especially those hosted in aluminosilicate and clay minerals.
In plasma emission spectroscopy, a sample solution is introduced into the core of an
inductively coupled argon plasma (ICP) at temperature of approximately 8000ºC. At this
temperature all elements become thermally excited and emit light at their characteristic
wavelengths. This light is collected by the spectrometer and passes through a diffrction
grating that serves to resolve the light into a spectrum of its constituent wavelengths. Within
the spectrometer, this diffracted light is then collected by wavelength and amplified to yield
an intensity measurement that can be converted to an elemental concentration by comparison
with calibration standards.
17
3.3.4 Leco analysis
Thirty nine samples of the Reef 1 footwall basalt were submitted to Amdel NZ Ltd.,
for the Leco analysis. The results (see discussion) helped determine what fractions of the LOI
values are sulfides or carbonates. A small sample (about 1 gram) is weighed into a ceramic
crucible and heated to 1500ºC in a high frequency electrical field under an oxygen
atmosphere. Carbon and sulfur are converted to carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide
respectively, which are measured volumetrically.
18
____________________________________________________________________ Chapter 4 Mineralogy
CHAPTER 4
MINERALOGY
4.1 Introduction
This chapter presents detailed descriptions of ore and gangue minerals in the Reef 1
footwall basalt. Geological logging of the Reef 1 footwall basalt indicates a continuous
gradation from strongly altered rocks adjacent to Reef 1 to least altered rocks away from Reef
1. Another factor that prompted the study of Reef 1 footwall rocks is the relatively
homogeneous nature of these rocks compared with the hanging wall felsic volcanic rocks. The
minerals are grouped by type for convenience. Sample locations, nature of sample, and
petrographic methods used are described in Appendix 1.
Twenty-one thin sections from seven drill holes have been studied. Details of samples,
petrographic properties, and respective drill holes are described in Appendix 2. The samples
were selected to represent intervals from least altered, about 120 m from the vein, to most
altered footwall basalt. It was not possible to obtain a completely unaltered basalt sample but
the least altered samples contain enough information to indicate the nature of unaltered basalt.
Transmitted light petrography studies also checked for other mafic minerals that were not
detected by XRD analyses. The carbonate staining technique of Dickson (1966) was used on
all samples.
Most of the collected Reef 1 footwall basalt samples are metamorphosed to
greenschist facies, and locally to subgreenschist facies, and have undergone some degree of
hydrothermal alteration. Thus the nature of unaltered footwall basalt, which will allow for
textural and mineralogical description of more altered rocks, can only be approximated using
the least altered sample.
19
4.2 Previous studies
The Reef 1 footwall rocks at Bulyanhulu are comprised mainly of mafic metavolcanic
rocks, namely basalt, and diabase and mafic dykes. The basalt is by far the most widespread
lithological unit at Bulyanhulu.
Chamberlain (2000) described the basic metavolcanic rocks in the Bulyanhulu area as
aphanitic, microcrystalline, and light green to grey-green in colour. Microscopically,
phenocrysts, mainly plagioclase, form about 30 percent of the rock and the texture is
generally inequigranular porphyritic. Primary minerals in the basic metavolcanic rocks are
plagioclase feldspar, mainly labradorite, augite, olivine, and Fe-Ti oxides. Replacement
minerals are actinolite, chlorite, epidote, albite, sericite, and carbonate. Barclay (2000)
observed that the sulfides at Bulyanhulu are mainly pyrite and less common chalcopyrite,
minor pyrrhotite, and trace sphalerite, arsenopyrite, and galena.
4.3 Mineralogy
4.3.1 General
Ore Mineralogy: Groves and Foster (1991) noted that some free gold occurs in rich
quartz veins lodes but much of Au mineralisation is an integral part of wall rock alteration.
They further observed that the ore mineralogy is quite simple with gold sited in pyrite+
pyrrhotite+ arsenopyrite, with heterogeneous distribution of tellurides, stibnite, galena,
sphalerite, chalcopyrite, magnetite, haematite, and anhydrite. However, Harris (1986) showed
that lode gold deposits may contain complex assemblages of sulfides, sulfoarsenides, and
sulfosalts. At Bulyanhulu, the ore mineralogy is rather simple with gold occurring as free gold
or possibly in electrum, in close association with pyrite and chalcopyrite. However, Au
mineralisation is preferentially localised in the Reef 1 quartz veins and the wall rocks are
barren of economic gold mineralisation unless where quartz veins and sulfide stringers are
present.
20
Alteration mineralogy: Kerrich (1983) argued that a ubiquitous feature of gold bearing
gold deposits in Archean greenstone belts is the presence of abundant carbonate minerals.
Quartz and carbonates are dominant gangue in hydrothermal veins and are typically present in
the extensive domains of alteration, which envelop veins.
The ankerite-dolomite carbonate alteration, which is very common in other Archean
greenstone hosted lode gold deposits is absent at Bulyanhulu, and the pervasive wallrock
carbonate alteration is dominantly calcite. Like other Archean lode gold deposits, minerals
characteristic of alteration, e.g., calcite, are present even in the quartz veins.
The proportion of igneous/metamorphic and hydrothermal minerals varies
considerably between samples, as do the textures and structures. Appendix 3 presents
individual mineral petrographic descriptions for the Bulyanhulu Reef 1 footwall basalt.
4.3.2 Sulfide minerals
The documentation of sulfide minerals is based on geological logging of drill core and
petrographic studies. Sulfide minerals were not detected by XRD analysis, presumably due to
their low concentrations.
4.3.2.1 Pyrite
In basalt hand samples pyrite occurs as small, less than 1 cm across, disseminated (2-3
%), cubic crystals mainly in fractures and joints. Elsewhere pyrite occurs as disseminations in
quartz veinlets and sheared, bleached and brecciated basalt where it is in approximate
abundances of 2 percent. Locally, pyrite occurs in small subround and elongate clasts in basalt
in concentrations of less than 1 percent.
Apart from the above forms of pyrite occurrence in basalt, which were consistent with
the occurrence forms described by Pough (1996), the study of polished mounts shows that
pyrite also occurs as small, disseminated, anhedral to subhedral clasts, less than 0.05 mm, in
approximate abundance of 1to 2 percent. In some places pyrite appears to replace ilmenite and
iron-titanium oxide crystals, whereas in other places it is partly replaced by chlorite.
21
4.3.2.2 Chalcopyrite
Geological logging of drill core indicates that chalcopyrite is not as widespread as
pyrite and pyrrhotite in the basalt. Chalcopyrite generally occurs as disseminations both in the
quartz-carbonate veinlets and the hosting basalt.
Microscopic studies support hand sample observations, i.e., chalcopyrite occurs in
very low abundances as small, less than 0.1 mm but locally up to 0.2 mm across, anhedral to
subhedral phenocrysts. Locally chalcopyrite is replaced by chlorite and vice versa.
Microscopic studies show that chalcopyrite occurs as disseminations mainly in quartz-
carbonate veinlets.
4.3.2.3 Pyrrhotite
In hand samples pyrrhotite occurs as disseminations, with approximate abundance of 2
to 3 percent, preferentially localised in quartz-carbonate veinlets. However, the concentration
of pyrrhotite disseminations can reach up to 7 percent over short intervals, approximately 10
cm. Pyrrhotite also occurs in moderate abundance as stringers in quartz-carbonate veinlets,
and as disseminated pyrrhotite (5-7 %) at the margins of pillow structures. Minor (1 %)
disseminated pyrrhotite occurs in the mafic dyke unit. Despite the relatively high abundance
of pyrrhotite seen during core logging, no pyrrhotite was seen in polished mounts.
4.3.3 Oxide minerals
Like the sulfide minerals, the Fe- and Fe-Ti- oxides were seen only in drill core, X-ray
diffraction analysis did not detect any oxide mineral.
4.3.3.1 Ilmenite
Ilmenite was seen in one locality only during core logging. In the drill core it occurs as
very fine-grained black crystals over 18 cm within a diabase dyke.
Microscopic studies indicated the presence of ilmenite only in one sample in which it
occurs as very small (0.1-1 mm) phenocrysts. The ilmenite phenocrysts appear to replace
mainly iron-titanium oxide, and to a lesser extent pyrite and chalcopyrite.
22
4.3.3.2 Magnetite
Megascopic observation of basalt samples showed that magnetite occurs as
disseminations in short intervals (2-15 cm) with variable abundances (7-12 %). In some
intervals the magnetism of disseminated magnetite is quite weak, possibly due the effects of
carbonate alteration, with some magnetite crystals crosscut by chlorite. In places magnetite
occurs as anhedral to subhedral crystals, which are very fine grained, approximately 1 mm in
across, with carbonate rims.
In one particular occurrence, magnetite is hosted by gabbro dyke in the form of very
fine stringers (Figure 5A). These stringers crosscut each other and some feldspar phenocrysts.
This observation suggests that there was more than one episode of magnetite formation in the
Reef 1 footwall basalt. Overall, magnetite appears to be preferentially localised mainly in the
diabase dykes, and to a less extent in the gabbroic dykes.
4.3.4 Silicate minerals
4.3.4.1 Quartz
Quartz is one of the most abundant alteration minerals. X-ray diffraction data for the
basalt show quartz in all the analysed Reef 1 footwall basalt samples. It occurs as veins and
veinlets, which may be straight and subparallel to foliation or random and irregular. It also
fills vesicles and fractures/joints. The quartz veins and veinlets may be black, dark grey or
milky white, with disseminated sulfide, mainly pyrite, mineralisation.
Most quartz veins and veinlets are associated with carbonate, mainly calcite,
alteration. The abundance of quartz appears to increase (at least locally) toward Reef 1. The
quartz (+ carbonate) veinlets fracture the basalt extensively and commonly have irregular
trends and crosscut each other (Figure 5B). The crosscutting relationships of quartz veins
observed during geological logging of drill core, suggest that there were at least 3 episodes of
quartz veining in the basalt. Some of the grey quartz-carbonate veinlets are brecciated and/or
23
recrystalised giving them a mottled appearance. Some dark grey quartz crystals have
carbonate rims, locally forming pressure shadows in places.
Under the microscope, pre-hydrothermal alteration quartz occurs mainly as anhedral to
subhedral, subangular to subrounded phenocrysts of variable sizes (0.2-0.3 mm) and
abundances (10-12 %). As a secondary mineral it mainly occurs in association with calcite in
veinlets or as subhedral crystals of recrystallised quartz (approximately 1 mm) with
approximate abundance of 7 percent. It is mainly replaced by calcite and chlorite, but some
quartz veinlets crosscut chlorite veinlets. Locally, quartz replaces albite and is closely
associated with ore minerals, mainly pyrite. Some quartz phenocrysts are fractured by other
quartz veinlets.
4.3.4.2 Chlorite
Like quartz, chlorite has been documented in all Reef 1 footwall basalt samples.
Chlorite is one of the most abundant metamorphic and alteration minerals. As a primary
(metamorphic) mineral it occurs as phenocrysts and groundmass (10-15 %). The phenocrysts
are generally 0.3 to 0.5 mm and mostly anhedral.
Secondary/hydrothermal chlorite occurs as 0.3 mm anhedral crystals, in abundances of
10-15 percent, replacing hornblende. As a secondary mineral chlorite also occurs as fibrous
veins replacing albite and calcite, and grains cross cutting iron-titanium oxide, albite,
hornblende, and quartz.
Locally chlorite is being replaced by quartz and later chlorite. Chlorite-quartz-calcite
veinlets are fibre-like and have schistose texture (Figure 5C), and have been variably altered
to pyrite and /or chalcopyrite.
Petrographic studies show that chlorite occurs as very fine-grained crystals forming a
schistose texture. Some basalt samples have chlorite occurring as slightly foliated crystals
forming greenish fibres that enclose more resistant minerals like quartz and form pressure
24
shadows. In most places the pressure shadows have been filled by calcite. Chlorite occurs in
Figure 5. Photomicrographs showing mineralogical associations and textures in the Reef 1

footwall basalt at the Bulyanhulu gold deposit. A. Feldspar crystals fractured by magnetite
stringers (AU 54445); B. Quartz-carbonate vein crosscutting chlorite (sample no. AU 54466);
C. Intensely foliated chlorite and quartz-carbonate chlorite vein (sample no. AU 54419); D.
Iron-titanium oxide and calcite replacing hornblende (sample no. AU 54396); E. Quartz-
calcite replacing siderite (centre) and feldspar (bottom), all are hosted in a chlorite
groundmass (sample no. AU 54445). All views are 1.14X0.78 mm under crossed polars.
Abbreviations: f= feldspar; ms= magnetite stringer; s= siderite; ch= chlorite; qcv= quartz
carbonate vein; qccv= quartz carbonate chlorite vein; l= iron-titanium oxide; c= calcite; h=
hornblende; qc= quartz-calcite.
25
higher abundance along fracture and joint planes, and locally as very small crystals in
groundmass.
4.3.4.4 Albite
In hand samples, albite occurs as large equidimensional, up to 1 cm in diameter, grey
to off white laths preferentially localised within gabbroic dykes. The presence of albite in the
Reef 1 footwall basalt samples has been confirmed by XRD. Albite peaks are strongest in the
least altered basalt samples. Magnetite stringers crosscut some albite crystals. Albite
phenocrysts are localised in intervals of 10 cm to 1 m.
Microscopic studies indicate that albite occurs as subhedral to euhedral, locally
anhedral, phenocrysts, approximately 0.2-1 mm in diameter, with an approximate abundance
of 5-7 percent. Albite is replaced mainly by calcite and chlorite, and locally, by quartz, iron-
titanium oxide, pyrite, and siderite.
In some samples, albite is almost 100 percent replaced and only pseudomorphs of
phenocrysts are present. In a few highly altered basalt samples even the albite pseudomorphs
could not be documented, but XRD detected the presence of albite in such samples.
4.3.4.5 Pyroxene
Due to the fine-grained nature of the Reef 1 footwall basalt, pyroxene was not
documented during hand sample observations. X-ray diffraction analysis data did not indicate
the presence of pyroxene in any of the analysed basalt samples.
Microscopic studies indicate that pyroxene occurs in low abundances (2-3 percent) in
the least altered basalt samples. Pyroxene occurs as subhedral phenocrysts, 0.3-0.5 mm
across, and has been locally replaced by metamorphic hornblende. In other places, anhedral to
subhedral pyroxene crystals have been almost completely replaced by calcite and chlorite.
26
4.3.4.6 Hornblende
Hornblende was not seen in hand specimen. However, its presence in the Reef 1
footwall basalt samples has been confirmed by XRD, with peaks strongest in the least altered
basalt samples (Figure 6A).
Under the microscope, hornblende occurs preferentially in the least altered basalt as subhedral
to euhedral phenocrysts of approximately 0.7-1 mm, may be as small as 0.5 mm. The
approximate abundances of hornblende, where present, in the basalt range from 7 to 10
percent (rarely 15 %).
Hornblende is replaced by iron-titanium oxide, calcite, albite, quartz, and chlorite
(Figure 6D). Locally, hornblende is almost completely replaced by calcite and chlorite and
only pseudomorphs exist.
4.3.4.7 Iron-titanium oxide
Megascopic examination of basalt samples shows that iron-titanium oxide minerals
are fairly abundant, approximately 5 percent, in almost all intervals of the basalt, but
particularly in the weakly altered basalt.
Iron-titanium oxide minerals occur as very fine grained, light-brown to yellowish
brown crystals. Iron-titanium oxide crystals generally occur at random with the exception of
strongly foliated areas where they are aligned approximately subparallel to foliation.
Thin section examination of basalt samples shows that iron-titanium oxide minerals
occur as anhedral to euhedral crystals, 0.1-0.7 mm across, with approximate abundance of 5-
15 percent (rarely up to 30 percent). Locally iron-titanium oxide forms very narrow dendritic
veinlets.
Microprobe analysis of one basalt sample no. AU 54396 (Appendix 10) suggests that
the iron-titanium minerals occur as mixed phases with leucoxene, titanite, ilmenite, and
calcite. This relationship may partly be contributed by the alteration of iron-titanium oxide
minerals to leucoxene, titanite, calcite and chlorite. Despite the seemingly high concentrations
27
B
A
Peak Intensity Peak Intensity
chlorite (14.01D)
chlorite (13.95D)
hornblende (8.44D)
chlorite (7.03D) chlorite (7.06D)
(sample no. AU 54461).

chlorite (4.71D)
chlorite (4.696D)
quartz (4.24D )
albite (4.03D)
albite (3.67D)
chlorite (3.53D) chlorite (3.54D)
quartz (3.34D) albite (3.19D)
hornblende (3.14D )
calcite (3.02D ) calcite (3.03D)
calcite (2.82D)
Degrees 2q
muscovite (2.56D)
Degrees 2q
muscovite (2.56D)
quartz (1.82D)
quartz (1.56D)
28
analysed in this study: A. Least altered basalt (sample no. AU 54388); B. Altered basalt
Figure 6. Representative X-ray powder diffraction plots of the Reef 1 footwall basalt samples
of iron-titanium oxide during petrographic studies, they were not identified during XRD
analyses.
4.3.4.8 Titanite
Titanite was not seen in any of the basalt samples during hand sample examination.
However, microscopic observation indicates that titanite in the footwall basalt is very
localised. It occurs as 1-2 percent anhedral crystals of approximately 0.4 mm, and an
abundance of 1-2 percent. X-ray diffraction analysis did not detect titanite.
4.3.4.9 Epidote
Megascopic examination of basalt samples showed that epidote occurrence is very
local and of low abundance (< 1 %). It occurs as very fine subhedral grains disseminated in a
bleached and brecciated diabase dyke, over a very narrow interval (< 2 cm).
Under the microscope epidote occurs as subhedral to euhedral crystals, approximately
0.05 mm, comprising about 1 percent of the sample. X-ray diffraction analysis did not
indicate the presence of epidote in any of the analysed basalt samples.
4.3.4.10 Muscovite
In hand specimen, muscovite seems to be quite localised in occurrence, noted
especially where the basalt is strongly foliated, particularly adjacent to Reef 1. Muscovite was
seen during geological logging and XRD analysis of the Reef 1 footwall basalt samples
(Figure 6). Only a few XRD patterns had muscovite peaks, the most intense in the strongly
altered basalt.
4.3.5 Carbonate minerals
4.3.5.1 Calcite
In hand samples, calcite occurs as off white to grey veinlets, less than 1 mm to 5 cm
wide that are commonly straight where they occur along joint planes or irregular elsewhere.
Calcite also rims other crystals like quartz and magnetite, commonly filling pressure shadows.
The presence of calcite in almost all the Reef 1 footwall basalt samples is supported by XRD.
29
Calcite may also occur as very fine-grained crystals filling vesicles in the footwall basalt,
confirmed by staining, or with quartz in veins and veinlets.
Microscopic observation shows that calcite occurs as crystals with strong cleavage in
veinlets and pseudomorphs of other crystals such as albite. The calcite crystals are subhedral
to euhedral, locally anhedral, approximately 0.3 to 0.9 mm in diameter, with approximate
abundances of 15-20 percent. Calcite also occurs as groundmass, fills in fractures and vesicles
in quartz crystals, partially replaces iron-titanium oxide, and almost completely replaces
albite.
4.3.5.2 Siderite
No siderite was observed during geological logging of drill core, presumably due to its
fine-grained nature and/or local occurrence. Microscopic examination identified it in only one
thin section, where it occurs as subhedral crystals, about 0.5 mm in diameter (Figure 5E), with
an approximate abundance of 4 percent.
Some siderite crystals are crosscut by chlorite and lesser pyrite. In general, siderite
appears to be preferentially localised in the strongly altered basalt. X-ray diffraction analyses
did not indicate the presence of siderite in any of the analysed basalt samples.
4.3.5.3 Ankerite
Ankerite was not seen during geological logging nor thin section studies examination.
However, XRD analysis for one basalt sample (AU 54436) identified ankerite. Presence of
ankerite in this sample was confirmed by carbonate staining of the sample. These
observations suggest that, although ankerite may be found in the footwall basalt, these
occurrences are localised. The basalt sample containing ankerite is fairly altered and proximal
to Reef 1, approximately 12 m from the reef.
4.3.6 Gold
The form of gold mineralisation in the Reef 1 was not studied since the focus of this
work was on the Reef 1 footwall basalt. However, Chamberlain (2000) reports the occurrence
30
of gold as small rounded grains within and at the boundaries of the chalcopyrite or as crack
infill. Microscopically, gold may also occur as inclusions in pyrite.
4.4 Mineral associations and assemblages
The mineral associations depicted from geological logging of drill core, petrographic studies,
and XRD analyses suggest gradational changes of the mineral assemblages that reflect the
changes in the intensity of hydrothermal alteration with distance from Reef 1 (Figure 7).
Overall, the mineralogy of the footwall basalt can be grouped into two assemblages: the
igneous/metamorphic mineral assemblage and the hydrothermal alteration mineral
assemblage.
Quartz vein Alteration Textural change
Proximal zone:
Sericite
Hornblende totally replaced by chlorite, calcite and opaques Moderate to strong foliation
Plagioclase replaced by calcite, chlorite and local sericite
~120m
Intermediate zone:
Chlorite
Quartz
Calcite
Hornblende replaced by up to 90% chlorite, calcite, and opaques Weak to moderate foliation
Plagioclase replaced by up to 60% calcite and chlorite
Plagioclase (albite)
Hornblende
Distal zone:
Hornblende weakly replaced by chlorite Local weak foliation developed
Plagioclase weakly replaced by calcite and chlorite
Figure 7. Schematic diagram showing mineralogical and textural changes with distance from
Reef 1.
4.4.1 Igneous/metamorphic mineral assemblages
The Reef 1 footwall basalt primary mineral assemblage, is comprised of albite –
pyroxene – hornblende + magnetite. The overprinting metamorphic mineral assemblage is
characterised by chlorite – iron-titanium oxide – albite – hornblende + pyroxene. The igneous
– metamorphic mineral assemblage was subsequently altered to a hydrothermal alteration
assemblage comprised of quartz – calcite – chlorite – pyrite + muscovite. Chlorite and quartz
are present in variable concentration in both the strongly and the least altered basalt, whereas
the occurrence of hornblende, pyroxene, and to a lesser extent albite, is limited to the least
31
altered basalt, at least 60 m from Reef 1. In this assemblage quartz is the product of
crystallisation of igneous mineral phases during regional metamorphism, whereas chlorite is
the product of alteration of the ferromagnesian minerals, hornblende and pyroxene, during the
regional sub-greenschist to greenschist metamorphism. Locally, albite occurs at distances of
less than 60 m from Reef 1, but in such cases it is pseudomorphed and almost completely
replaced, mainly by calcite. Iron-titanium oxide, an alteration product of Ti-rich minerals,
which is made up principally of rutile, was documented in high concentrations during
geological logging of drill core and petrographic studies, but surprisingly did not show up in
X-ray diffraction patterns. Iron-titanium oxide is ubiquitous in almost all the samples, but
because it is preferentially more concentrated in the least altered basalt it has been included in
the metamorphic mineral assemblage.
4.4.2 Alteration mineral assemblages
The hydrothermal alteration mineral assemblage in the Reef 1 footwall basalt is
characterised by quartz – chlorite – calcite – pyrite + muscovite. Quartz and chlorite in this
assemblage are products of hydrothermal alteration related to Reef 1 mineralisation. This is
supported by replacement textures observed in petrographic studies. Calcite has been
documented in basalt samples. However, the concentration of calcite is highly variable, and is
not always a function of distance from Reef 1, i.e., some relatively weakly altered basalt
samples seem to have higher calcite content than the strongly altered basalt samples. This
might suggest that calcite alteration is more dependent on the degree of fracturing in the
basalt. X-ray diffraction suggests that muscovite occurs in very small amounts in most of the
basalt samples. However, high concentration of muscovite were found only in two samples
from two drill holes, and in both cases the high concentrations were within 1 m of Reef 1.
32
4.5 Discussion and conclusions
In general, at a megascopic scale, the least altered footwall basalt at Bulyanhulu
deposit is dark green, fine to medium grained, and massive but locally pillowed. The
moderately altered footwall basalt is light green to dark green, weakly foliated, and has a local
mottled appearance as a result of carbonates filling vesicles. The hand samples of the most
altered footwall basalt are pale green to greyish green and moderately to strongly foliated.
They have a bleached appearance as a result of intense calcite, quartz, and muscovite
alteration.
The original igneous-metamorphic assemblage is generally chlorite-albite-iron-
titanium oxide-hornblende + pyroxene that gradually passes (with increasing degree of
alteration) to a chlorite-quartz-calcite-pyrite + muscovite hydrothermal alteration assemblage.
Other minerals, such as titanite, epidote, magnetite, ilmenite, siderite, ankerite, and
chalcopyrite occur in weakly to strongly altered basalt and are not very useful for describing
the alteration as they occur in trace amounts. However, the presence of minerals such as
ilmenite replacing other hydrothermal minerals, e.g., pyrite and chalcopyrite, suggests the
occurrence of more than one phase of hydrothermal alteration.
Previous studies have indicated that the main plagioclase feldspar at Bulyanhulu is
labradorite (Chamberlain, 2000). However, present petrographic studies and XRD analysis
indicate that the plagioclase feldspar in the Reef 1 footwall basalt at Bulyanhulu is albite.
Similarly, the study by Chamberlain (2000) reports the presence of actinolite, whereas this
study’s XRD analyses suggest the presence of hornblende. This work did not find any
sphalerite, arsenopyrite, or galena as reported by Barclay (2000), as these sulfides occur only
in trace amounts.
The intensity of hydrothermal alteration and replacement textures and hence the width
of alteration zones varies considerably from one drill hole to another. This might be
associated with the varying width of Reef 1 and/or the degree of fracturing of the country rock
33
in particular locations. However, the transition from least to strongly altered basalt is very
gradational, in most cases over 5 to 10 m. The strongly altered basalt is generally less than 70
m, and least altered basalt more than 70 m from Reef 1.
In the Reef 1 footwall basalt, a hydrothermal mineral assemblage of calcite – quartz –
chlorite + muscovite gradually replaces the original igneous/metamorphic mineral assemblage
of quartz-chlorite – iron-titanium oxide – albite – hornblende + pyroxene towards the vein.
The order of replacement seems to be pyroxene → hornblende → albite → iron-titanium
oxide → chlorite → quartz. Also, noted during geological logging of drill core, is the
increasing pyrrhotite concentration with drill hole depths. This might imply some degree of
vertical mineralogical zonation. Eilu et al. (1997) noted that pyrite is the predominant sulfide
mineral in lode gold deposits in greenschist facies host rocks, whereas pyrrhotite is the
predominant sulfide mineral in lode gold deposits in amphibolite facies host rocks. The
dominant occurrence of pyrrhotite at greater depths at Bulyanhulu might suggest that
metamorphism reached at least locally amphibolite grade at these depths.
From these mineralogical relationships, i.e., mineral alteration and overprinting, it can
be argued that wall rock alteration post-dated peak metamorphism. The mineralogical studies
also show that at Bulyanhulu economic gold mineralisation is not an integral part of wall rock
alteration but is limited to the quartz veins.
The ore mineralogy at Bulyanhulu is fairly simple with native gold and/or electrum
localised in the pyrite + chalcopyrite + pyrrhotite. Some mineral relationships, e.g.,
replacement of pyrite by ilmenite or replacement of chlorite by another chlorite, suggest the
presence of discrete pulses of hydrothermal fluids or varying conditions. However, Groves
and Foster (1991) suggested that multiple phases of mineralisation are common in the
Archean lode gold deposits. They further argued that these multiple phases probably represent
the fluid continuum within an evolving brittle-ductile shear zone rather than temporally
discrete pulses of hydrothermal activity.
34
Eilu et al. (1997) observed that around all lode gold deposits in greenschist facies host
rocks, calcite and chlorite characterise distal alteration and are gradually replaced by sericite
and Fe-bearing dolomite or ankerite with increasing proximity to ore. However, at
Bulyanhulu the Fe-bearing carbonates are almost absent.
Wall rock alteration is pervasive throughout the entire strike of Reef 1 and extends
into the footwall rocks for 60 to70 m from Reef 1. The zonation of alteration mineral
assemblages is not clear-cut and distinct but quite gradual and possibly overlapping locally.
Because of the fine grained nature of the Reef 1 footwall mafic metavolcanic rocks, the
mineralogical changes observed from the least to intensely altered basalt, are best recognised
in hand sample by rock colour change from dark greyish green to bleached light grey. This
might be useful for regional exploration purposes as it may give an indication of the
proximity to a major structure like Reef 1. Eilu and Mikucki (1998) noted that irrespective of
the extent of the alteration halo, progressive changes in alteration mineralogy always form a
consistent sequence toward zones of highest fluid flux and, thus, potential gold
mineralisation. However, subsequent studies should concentrate in the Reef 1 hanging wall
felsic metavolcanic rocks, because due to its lithological heterogeneous nature, it is likely that
the mineralogy, width, and zonation of alteration will be quite different from the observations
made in the footwall mafic metavolcanic rocks.
35
__________________________________________________________________ Chapter 5 Geochemistry
CHAPTER 5
GEOCHEMISTRY
5.1 Introduction
This section summarises the geochemical characteristics of wall rocks and veins at the
Bulyanhulu deposit. This was to identify geochemical patterns that might be useful as
exploration guidelines. The geochemical database used can be divided into three sets: (1)
Approximately 11,000 ICP analyses of veins and wall rocks, obtained by a commercial
laboratory for Barrick Gold Corporation (sample preparation done at the mine site); (2)
Inductively coupled plasma and Leco analyses for the Reef 1 footwall metavolcanic rocks
determined by a commercial laboratory (sample preparation done at the University of
Auckland), and (3) X-ray fluorescence analyses of the Reef 1 footwall metavolcanic rocks
done at the University of Auckland. The lack of any clear geochemical trends in set 1,
necessitated acquisition of data set 2 and 3, which involved analysing separately the Reef 1
footwall rocks only on one hand and footwall rocks and hosted veins on the other. Analyses in
sets 2 and 3 helped to accurately tie up the geochemistry with the Reef 1 footwall basalt
mineralogy. The Reef 1 footwall metavolcanic rocks were selected for this purpose because of
their relatively homogeneous nature compared to the hanging wall metavolcanic rocks. X-ray
fluorescence and Leco analyses were done on the same samples that were used to obtain the
second set of ICP analyses.
5.2 Inductively Coupled Plasma Geochemistry
This section presents the results of approximately 11,000 ICP analyses, for (1) Reef 1,
(2) the hanging wall felsic metavolcanic rocks, and (3) the footwall mafic metavolcanic rocks,
from more than three hundred drill holes. Samples were prepared on site and analysed at a
commercial laboratory on behalf of Barrick Gold Corporation. Inductively coupled plasma
data analyses for 34 elements include: Ag, Al, As, B, Ba, Be, Bi, Ca, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Ga,
36
Hg, K, La, Mg, Mn, Mo, Na, Ni, P, Pb, S, Sb, Sc, Sr, Ti, Tl, U, V, W, and Zn. Silver and Cu
were also analysed by fire assay, and Au was analysed only by fire assay. Twelve elements
have all their analyses at or below detection levels: Be, Ga, Hg, La, Mo, Na, Sb, Ti, Tl, U, and
W, and are not discussed further. For the remaining elements, all values that were below
detection levels were replaced with half of the element’s detection limit values. Because the
exact concentration of the element that is below detection level is not known, half of the
element’s detection limit is taken as an average. Basic statistical analyses on elemental
concentrations provided maximum, minimum, average, and standard deviation values for each
of the 23 elements with analyses above detection limits, in the 14 lithological units studied
(Appendix 4).
5.2.1 Statistical analyses
Fourteen lithological units have more than 20 ICP analyses (Table 1). Data from these
units were used for basic statistical analysis including maximum and minimum values, mean,
and standard deviation. However, only eight lithological units with more than 300 analyses
were used to determine correlation coefficients. The analysis yielded more reliable
correlations with bigger sample numbers (Table 2). In addition, the geochemistry of wall
rocks adjacent to high and low grade parts of Reef 1 was assessed to recognise trends. Trends
of elements with depth in individual holes were studied using scatter plots of element
abundance versus depth. I plotted the concentrations of various elements in the Reef 1 vertical
longitudinal sections of the vein.
The basic statistical analyses are documented in detail in appendix 5. The statistical
analysis helped to indicate elements that occur in higher proportions in particular lithologies.
An element is considered to occur in a high proportion if its concentration is above the overall
average, which is obtained from its concentration in all the analysed lithologies. The
following table summarises the results.
37
Table 1. Elements in each lithological unit that have concentrations above the overall average
for all analyses.
Lithological unit Elements Number of analyses
AGLM Ba, K, P 311

BSLT Al, Ca, Cd, Cr, Mg, Mn, Sc, V 3541
ARGL As, Co, K, P, Pb, S, Zn, Au 1890
ASTF K, P 734
MFDY Al, Cr, Mg, Ni, V 80
DIAB Al, Ca, Cr, Mg, Sc, V 1712
GABR As, Bi, Cd, Co, Mg, Mn, Pb, S, Sr, Zn 23
ITUF Cd, Fe, Mn, Sr 63
LPTF Ba, K, P 128
PYZN Cd, Fe, Mn, Pb, S, Sr 338
QCVN Ca, Cd, Cr, Mn, Sc, Sr, V 114
QFPP Ba, P 71
QZVN As, Bi, Cd, Co, Cr, Fe, Pb, S, Zn, Au, Cu, Ag 925
STRS As, Co, Pb, S, Au, Ag, Cu 520
AGLM= agglomerate, BSLT= basalt, ARGL= argillite, ASTF= ash flow tuff, MFDY= mafic
dyke, DIAB= diabase, GABR= gabbro, ITUF= intermediate tuff, LPTF= lapilli tuff,
PYZN= pyrite zone, QCVN= quartz carbonate veins, QFPP= quartz-feldspar porphyry dyke,
QZVN= quartz veins, STRS= stringers
Table 1 indicates that geochemical results allow clustering of the lithological units into
the following groups: (1) agglomerate, ash flow tuff, lapilli tuff, and quartz-feldspar porphyry,
(2) basalt, gabbro, diabase, and mafic dyke, (3) quartz veins, stringers, and quartz carbonate
veins, (4) intermediate tuff and pyrite zone, and (5) argillite.
5.2.1.1 Agglomerate, ash flow tuff, lapilli tuff, quartz-feldspar porphyry
These lithological units are all felsic rocks that commonly occur in the Reef 1 hanging
wall. The quartz-feldspar porphyry is intrusive but all other units are metavolcanic rocks.
These units appear to be richer in Ba, K, and P (Table 1).
5.2.1.2 Basalt, gabbro, diabase, mafic dyke
These units occur in both the hanging wall and footwall of Reef 1. They are all
intrusive rocks with the exception of basalt. They are enriched in Al, Mg, Cr, and V. Gabbro
38
is a mafic intrusive rock, but like the quartz veins and stringers, it is richer in As, Co, Pb, and
S.
5.2.1.3 Quartz veins, stringers, quartz carbonate veins
Quartz veins and stringers are all relatively rich in As, Co, Pb, and S. In addition, the
quartz veins are richer in Bi, Cd, Fe, and Zn. Quartz carbonate veins are characterised by high
concentrations of Ca, Cd, Cr, Mn, Sc, Sr, and V.
5.2.1.4 Intermediate tuff, pyrite zone
These units both commonly occur in the hanging wall of Reef 1. The intermediate tuff
is less common but the pyrite zone is continuous and occurs at the base of the felsic volcanic
rock sequence, and is being used as a marker horizon. They are characterised by being richer
in Cd, Fe, Mn, and Sr. In addition, the pyrite zone is richer in Pb and S.
5.2.1.5 Argillite
This metasedimentary unit occurs in the shear zone at the contact of the hanging wall
felsic and footwall mafic volcanic rocks and within the mafic volcanic rocks. Where it occurs
at the contact between the felsic and mafic volcanic rock units, it commonly hosts the Reef 1
quartz vein. Argillite contains high concentrations of As, Co, P, K, Pb, S, and Zn.
5.2.2 Correlation matrices
This section presents the results of correlation matrices for eight lithological units.
These units were selected on the basis of the number of analyses. Lithological units with
fewer than 300 analyses seem not to yield reliable correlation matrices, because I found that
using lithological units with too few analyses yielded unrealistic values close to 1 for almost
all the elements. The selected lithological units are ash flow tuff, quartz vein, basalt,
agglomerate, argillite, pyrite zone, stringers, and diabase. Table 2 summarises the results.
5.2.3. Elemental concentration variation in the wallrock
Twenty-eight concentrations versus depth scatter plots were prepared for each of the twenty-
three elements. Appendix 5 summarises element concentrations versus depth trends, basic
39
statistical analysis, and the elements’ distributions on the vertical longitudinal section of Reef
1. Most of the plots constructed from the ICP data show no discernible trends (Figures 8A and
8B). However, several drill holes show weak trends between groups of data in the same drill
hole (Figure 8C). Furthermore, the documented weak patterns are only inferred because there
are no data from areas between the sampled intervals. About 80 percent of Cd ICP
concentrations are below detection level. Manganese, Ba, P, Pb, and Sc have concentrations
above detection, but are very low, so that the difference between maximum and minimum
values is very small and therefore concentration versus depth plots will not yield strong
patterns.
5.2.3.1 Gold assay, silver, copper, bismuth, lead, sulfur, zinc, cobalt, and iron
Local high concentrations of gold, silver, and copper occur in the footwall mafic
metavolcanic rocks. Their concentrations in felsic metavolcanic rocks are very low except
locally in the ash flow tuff adjacent to the Reef 1 hanging wall. Felsic and mafic metavolcanic
rocks have lower Bi concentrations, being lowest in the footwall mafic metavolcanic rocks.
About half of Pb concentrations are below detection. However, Pb generally occurs in
concentrations above average in gabbro, pyrite zone, and argillite. The concentration of Pb is
generally below average in the felsic metavolcanic rocks. The above average concentrations
of S and Co are commonly associated with the pyrite zone, gabbro and the argillite. The
concentrations of S and Co are generally below average in the felsic metavolcanic rocks,
particularly in the ash flow tuff. However, there are local occurrences of high S
concentrations in the basalt. Iron occurs in higher concentrations in the pyrite zone,
intermediate tuff, and locally in argillite.
40
A
KMC-0852
10
abundance (wt %)
8
6
Ca
4
2
0
600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200
depth (m)
B
KMC-0856
10
abundance (wt %)
8
6
Ca
4
2
0
50 150 250 350 450 550 650
depth (m)
C
KMC-0876
10
8
abundance (%)
6
Ca
4
0
180 380 580 780
depth (m)
Figure 8. Calcium concentration along drill holes: A. KMC-0852; B. KMC-0856;

C. KMC-0876.
41
Table 2. Significant elemental correlations that were determined from data set 1 (see section
5.1) geochemical database. Correlation is considered to be significant if it is more than 70 %.
There are no significant negative correlation coefficients in the Bulyanhulu Reef 1 and wall
rocks.
Lithology Positive correlations

Agglomerate Ag with Cu and Bi
Cu with Bi
Al with Co, Fe, Mg, Ni, Sc, and V
Co with Fe, Mg, Ni, Sc, and V
Cr with Ni
Fe with Mg, Mn, Sc, and V
Mg with Ni, Sc, and V
Mn with V
Sc with V
Argillite Ag with Cu
Co with S
Ba with K
Sc with V
Al with Sc and V
Pyrite zone Ba with K
Fe with S
Sc with V
Ag with Cu
Stringers Co with S
Mg with Sc
Sc with V
Au assay with Ag assay
Ag assay with Cu assay
Ash flow tuff Al with Sc and V
Ba with K
Fe with S
Sc with V
Au assay with Ag assay
Ag with Cu
Quartz veins Al with Mg, Sc, and V
Fe with S
Mg with Sc
Sc with V
Basalt Sc with V
Ag with Cu
Fe with Mn
Diabase Ag assay with Cu assay
Sc with V
42
5.2.3.2 Aluminium, calcium, magnesium, manganese, scandium, vanadium, and chromium
There is an increase in Al from the hanging wall felsic metavolcanic rocks to the
footwall mafic volcanic rocks. Scandium and V occur in higher abundances in the mafic
metavolcanic rocks, basalt and diabase. Overall the felsic metavolcanic rocks, and in
particular the agglomerate, have very low Sc and V concentrations. Hence, Sc and V increase
where passing from the hanging wall felsic metavolcanic rocks to the footwall mafic
metavolcanic rocks. Furthermore, V occurs in above average concentrations in the mafic
dyke, and very low concentrations in the argillite.
There is a gradual increase in Ca, Mg, and Cr concentrations in passing from the
hanging wall felsic metavolcanic rocks to the footwall metavolcanic rocks. In the footwall
mafic metavolcanic rocks, basalt, and locally the diabase and mafic dyke have the highest Ca,
Mg, and Cr concentrations. The concentrations of these elements are generally low in the
hanging wall felsic volcanic rocks, particularly in agglomerate. Magnesium has high
concentrations in gabbro but low concentrations in argillite. Manganese occurs in high
concentrations in basalt, gabbro, intermediate tuff, and pyrite zone. The concentration of Mn
is locally high in argillite, but generally low in felsic volcanic rocks, especially agglomerate.
5.2.3.3 Barium, potassium, and phosphorus
In 56 percent of the analyses, Ba was below detection. In other analyses its abundance
generally decreases sharply in passing from the hanging wall felsic metavolcanic rocks to the
footwall mafic metavolcanic rocks. Potassium is concentrated in the Reef 1 hanging wall
felsic metavolcanic rocks: agglomerate, lapilli tuff, and ash flow tuff, and argillite. Potassium
is generally low in the mafic metavolcanic rocks. Phosphorus occurs in above average
concentration in the felsic metavolcanic rocks: agglomerate, lapilli tuff, and ash flow tuff, and
quartz-feldspar porphyry dyke. The concentration of P is locally higher in the argillite. Thus
there is generally a decrease in Ba, K, and P from the hanging wall felsic volcanic rocks to the
footwall mafic metavolcanic rocks.

43
5.2.3.4 Cadmium
Cadmium was not detected in about 80 percent of the samples. However, the
remaining analyses show that Cd has relatively high concentrations in most lithological units
with the exception of felsic metavolcanic rocks, argillite, diabase, stringers, and mafic dyke.
5.2.3.5 Nickel
Nickel occurs above average concentrations in the mafic dyke. High concentrations
also occur locally in the quartz veins and argillite. Nickel concentrations are generally lower
in the felsic metavolcanic rocks, especially in agglomerate.
5.2.3.6 Strontium
Strontium occurs in concentrations above average in the pyrite zone, intermediate tuff,
and gabbro. Locally, quartz veins have high concentrations of Sr, and it is generally higher in
the agglomerate than in basalt or other felsic rocks like ash flow tuff.
5.2.3.7 Discussion of ICP results
The above grouping of elements, closely follow lithological changes, and hence
mineralogy, particularly in the relatively homogeneous Reef 1 footwall mafic metavolcanic
rocks. High Au, Ag, Cu, Bi, Zn, Pb, and S, characterises the vein structures, that is, Reef 1
quartz veins and stringers, and the argillite which hosts the Reef 1 quartz veins. The
occurrence of S with the base metal cations suggests the presence of trace sulfide minerals,
which could not be seen. The same observation applies for Au and Ag, which may be
occurring as electrum.
The second group of Al, Ca, Sc, V, Mg, and Cr, increase in passing from the Reef 1
quartz veins to the footwall mafic metavolcanic rocks. The increasing Al concentration is in
line with the local occurrence of muscovite adjacent to Reef 1, as well as increasing
abundance of albite, hornblende, and pyroxene, with distance from Reef 1. Pattern displayed
by Mg concentration versus depth plot reflects increasing contents of hornblende and
pyroxene with drill hole depth. The trend displayed by Ca is not marked as that shown by Al
44
because mineral phases hosting Ca occur in more or less all intervals, changing from calcite
near Reef 1 to hornblende and pyroxene away from it. The third group of Ba, K, and P,
characterises increase in concentration from Reef 1 towards the hanging wall. This suggests
the occurrence of abundant muscovite and presumably apatite and/or barite or other P and Ba
bearing phase(s) in the hanging wall felsic metavolcanic rocks. The occurrence of Ni in the
mafic dyke suggests a magmatic origin for the group 1 and 2 elements, or an episode of
mineralisation.
5.2.4. Vertical longitudinal variations of elemental concentration in Reef 1
Element distributions using ICP concentrations were plotted on vertical longitudinal
sections of the Reef 1 quartz vein (Figure 9 to 16). The exercise was completed using the Reef
1 quartz vein spatial location data and average element concentrations. Twenty three elements
with at least twenty percent of analyses above detection limit were individually averaged over
the thickness of the vein at every drill hole piercing point. The concentrations were multiplied
by the respective sample interval width. The sum of the assay X length for the quartz veins in
each drill hole was then divided by the width of the Reef 1 quartz veins in the particular drill
hole to obtain average elements concentration (Stone and Dunn, 1994). The ESRI
ArcMap/ArcGIS and Corel Draw version 10 softwares at the Department of Geology, the
University of Auckland were used to construct the long sections. The following is a summary
from the examination of the elements’ spatial concentrations in the quartz veins:
5.2.4.1 Iron, barium, calcium, cobalt, chromium, magnesium, sulfur, and strontium
The concentrations of Fe, Ba, Ca, Co, Cr, Mg, S (Figure 13), and Sr are highly
variable (high to low) throughout the quartz veins. There is no discernible correlation between
any of these elements with the grade of Au mineralisation.
45
5.2.4.2 Aluminium
Elevated Al concentrations occur in the eastern (>24200 E) and upper levels of the
western (<22400 E) portions of Reef 1. There is no spatial association of Al with the grade of
Au mineralisation.
5.2.4.3 Arsenic
High As concentrations occur in the western (<22400 E) and upper levels (>3800 RL)
of the extreme eastern portions of the Reef 1, moderate As concentrations occur between
levels 3400 and 4000 RL in the central portions of the reef but low As concentrations occur in
the deep levels, <3200 RL and <3400 RL of the western and central portions respectively
(Figure 15). There is a positive association between As concentrations and Au mineralisation
in the eastern and locally in the central portions of the reef. However, elsewhere there is no
spatial relationship between them.
Figure 9. Distribution of gold in the Reef 1 quartz vein determined by ICP (see text).
46
Figure 10. Distribution of silver in the Reef 1 quartz vein determined by ICP (see text).
Figure 11. Distribution of copper in the Reef 1 quartz vein determined by ICP (see text).
47
Figure 12. Distribution of lead in the Reef 1 quartz vein determined by ICP (see text).
Figure 13. Distribution of sulfur the Reef 1 quartz vein determined by ICP (see text).
48
Figure 14. Distribution of potassium in the Reef 1 quartz vein determined by ICP (see text).
Figure 15. Distribution of arsenic in the Reef 1 quartz vein determined by ICP (see text).
49
Figure 16. Distribution of bismuth in the Reef 1 quartz vein determined by ICP (see text).
5.2.4.4 Bismuth
The high concentrations of Bi occur in all levels of the western (<22400 E) and locally
in the central portions of Reef 1 (Figure 16). Areas with high Bi concentrations seem to be
closely associated with high grade gold mineralisation. Specifically, almost all areas with high
Bi concentrations have high grade Au mineralisation but not all portions with high grade Au
mineralisation have high Bi concentrations.
5.2.4.5 Cadmium
High concentrations of Cd occur in the eastern and locally western portions of Reef 1.
In the eastern part of the reef, high Cd concentrations form an east to west plunging trend. In
the east and locally west parts of the quartz veins, high Cd concentrations show a fair
association with high grade Au mineralisation. However, in the central portions, the high
grade Au mineralisation is associated with low Cd concentrations.
50
5.2.4.6 Potassium
Low concentrations of K occur in the extreme west and deep levels of the central and
eastern portions of Reef 1 (Figure 14). There is no clear correlation between K with the grade
of Au mineralisation.
5.2.4.7 Manganese
The concentration of Mn seems to decrease from west to east. Hence, the high grade
Au mineralisation in the western portion of Reef 1 is associated with high Mn concentrations,
in the central portions with moderate concentrations, and in the eastern portions with low
concentrations.
5.2.4.8 Nickel
There is a weak decrease in Ni concentration towards deeper levels. Hence, high grade
Au mineralisation in the shallow levels roughly coincides with high Ni concentrations,
whereas high grade Au mineralisation in the deeper levels is more commonly associated with
low Ni concentrations.
5.2.4.9 Phosphorus
The spatial distribution of P is quite patchy but, in general, medium to high P
concentrations occur in the western and locally central portions of Reef 1. However, there is
no spatial association between the grade of Au mineralisation and the concentration of P in
the reef.
5.2.4.10 Lead
High concentrations of Pb occur in the shallow levels in the eastern and central
portions of Reef 1 and also occur locally in the western portions of the quartz veins (Figure
12). In general, the concentration of Pb does not seem to have a close association with high
grade Au mineralisation, because high concentrations of Pb in the western and central
portions roughly coincide with the occurrence of high grade Au mineralisation there, whereas
low concentrations in the eastern portion roughly coincide with the high grade Au
mineralisation.
51
5.2.4.11 Scandium and vanadium
High concentrations of Sc and V occur in the western and eastern portions of Reef 1,
whereas low concentrations of these elements are localised in the central portions. There is no
spatial relationship between the concentration of Sc and V with the grade of Au
mineralisation in the quartz veins.
5.2.4.12 Zinc
High concentrations of Zn occur in the eastern and deep levels of the central and
western portions of Reef 1, whereas low Zn concentrations occur in the shallow levels of the
western portions of the reef. The high grade Au mineralisation is associated with high Zn
concentrations in the eastern and deep levels of central and western portions and with low Zn
concentration in the shallow western portion of the quartz veins. Zinc concentrations
elsewhere in the reef does not have association with the grade of Au mineralisation.
5.2.4.13 Gold, silver, and copper
High concentrations of Au occur in the lower western and central portions of Reef 1.
High concentrations of gold are patchy in the eastern portion of Reef 1. The occurrence of
high concentrations of Ag is similar to that of Au, with the exception of the eastern portions,
where high concentrations of Ag are more widespread (Figure 9 and 10).
Copper concentrations are quite erratic throughout the entire vein. However, the local
high concentrations of copper appear to be more concentrated in the western portions of Reef
1, consistent with occurrence of high gold and silver concentrations (Figure 11).
5.2.5 Element abundances determined by ICP versus depth
This section presents ICP results that I obtained for the Reef 1 footwall metavolcanic
rocks from four drill holes. The analysed samples were whole rocks, that is, host rock plus
veins/veinlets. The samples were prepared for analysis at the Department of Geology, the
University of Auckland, and analysed by the same commercial laboratory used to analyse
whole rock samples set 1 (see section 5.1) of Bulyanhulu bedrock. The ICP package used is
52
ME-ICP41, which is an improved version of the older G32 package. This section also
illustrates the variation of elements’ concentrations with depth for data set 2 (see section 5.1).
Abundance versus depth scatter plots per drill hole have been constructed for each of the 17
elements with above detection ICP analyses (e.g., Figure 17A, 17B, 18, and 19). Table 3
summarises variations in the abundance of each element as each drill hole approaches Reef 1.
Concentrations of Ag, As, B, Ba, Be, Bi, Ga, Hg, K, La, Mo, Na, Sb, Tl, U, S, and W, are
below detection and have been omitted. For some plots however, the variations are very
erratic and the regression line does not show marked variation (e.g. Figure 17B).
Reef 1
B KMC-0812 R2 = 0.0023
10
concentration (%)
8
Reef 1
6
Ca
4
2
0
540 560 580 600 620
depth (m)
Figure 17. Calcium ICP concentrations along drill holes. A. UX 4580/014;

B. KMC-0812.
53
2
KMC-0657 R = 0.8787
concentration (wt %)
5
4
Reef 1
3
Mg
2
1
0
1250 1270 1290 1310 1330
depth (m)
Figure 18. Magnesium ICP concentration along drill hole KMC-0657.
2
EX 4549/006 R = 0.2959
6
concentration (%)
Reef 1
4
3 Al
2
1
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
depth (m)
Figure 19. Aluminium ICP concentration along drill hole EX 4549/014.
Table 3. Summary of behaviour of elements (ICP) in the basalt towards Reef 1.
Drill hole Increasing trends Decreasing trends Constant trends
EX 4549/006 Zn, Sc, Ti, V, Mn, P, Pb, Ni, Cr Sr, Cu, Mg

Fe, Al, Ca, Cd, Co
KMC-0812 Sr Al, Cd, Co, Fe, Mg Ca, Cr, Cu, P, Pb, Sc

Mn, Ni, Ti, V
KMC-0657 Zn, Sc, V, Mn, Pb, Cr Ti, P Cu, Ca

Ni, Fe, Mg, Al, Cd, Co
UX 4580/014 Al, Ca, Co, Cr, Mg, Mn, Ni P, Pb, Ti, Zn Cd, Cu, Fe, V
54
5.2.6 Comparison of two ICP databases for the Reef 1 footwall basalt
Table 4 presents two sets of ICP analytical data. Data set 1 represents elements
concentrations in the footwall basalt, which have been determined by averaging elements
concentrations in the basalt using the mine’s ICP database. Data set 2 represents elements
concentrations in the Reef 1 footwall basalt, which have been determined by averaging the
elements concentrations in the basalt using data obtained by a commercial laboratory (see
section 5.1).
Average concentrations are listed as BDL when over 75 % are below detection limit.
Elements that are below detection level in both datasets are B, Be, Ga, Hg, La, Mo, Na, Sb,
Tl, U, and W. Overall, there are no significant differences between the two data sets. The
small differences might be due to minor sample heterogeneities possibly because two separate
batches of basalt samples are involved. Under natural and practical conditions, the
heterogeneity of the distribution, in this case basalt samples, is never nil and always strictly
positive (Pitard, 1993; Thompson, 2002; Quinlan, 1976). The total number of analyses may
partly contribute to these minor differences because the second dataset has far fewer analyses,
39, than the first dataset, 10,470.
5.3 X-ray fluorescence abundance versus depth trends
Sixty six Reef 1 footwall basalt from six drill holes were sampled for analysis by
XRF. For drill holes UX 4600/009 and KMC-0815A, I only sampled the host rock, whereas
samples from drill holes EX 4549/006, KMC-0812, KMC-0657, and UX 4580/014 included
quartz and carbonate veins and veinlets. Sampling of the host rock only was done so as to
obtain the basalt geochemistry that will accurately represent the Reef 1 footwall basalt
mineralogy.
Hence, this section summarises the results of elemental concentration and LOI
variation with depth trends in the footwall basalt (e.g., Figure 20 and 21). The XRF analyses
55
are used to determine the concentrations of ten major elements and eighteen trace elements.
Table 4. Comparison of two ICP databases for basalt.
Average concentration Average concentration

Element in basalt (ICP data 1) in basalt (ICP data 2)
Ag (ppm) 0.25 BDL
Al (%) 3.91 3.78
As (ppm) 29.72 BDL
B (ppm) BDL BDL
Ba (ppm) 8.32 BDL
Be (ppm) BDL BDL
Bi (ppm) 2.39 BDL
Ca (%) 5.74 4.83
Cd (ppm) 0.94 2.03
Co (ppm) 38.78 41.46
Cr (ppm) 106.58 83.59
Cu (ppm) 164.79 184.38
Fe (%) 6.83 7.18
Ga (ppm) BDL BDL
Hg (ppm) BDL BDL
K (%) 0.05 BDL
La (ppm) BDL BDL
Mg (%) 2.62 2.73
Mn (ppm) 1729.97 1697.54
Mo (ppm) BDL BDL
Na (%) BDL BDL
Ni (ppm) 64.84 49.23
P (ppm) 280.35 205.83
Pb (ppm) 2.64 8.61
S (%) 0.3 0.35
Sb (ppm) BDL BDL
Sc (ppm) 17.19 14.71
Sr (ppm) 58 37.8
Ti (%) BDL 0.11
Tl (ppm) BDL BDL
U (ppm) BDL BDL
V (ppm) 150.78 183.13
W (ppm) BDL BDL
Zn (ppm) 86.3 97.77
N.B: BDL = below detection limit
Scatter plots, complete with regression lines and R2 values have been constructed for
each of these elements, for each of the six sampled drill holes.
56
EX 4549/006 2
R = 0.6804
22
concentration (%)
Reef 1
17
Fe2O 3
12
7
0 50 100
depth (m)
Figure 20. Iron XRF concentrations along drill hole EX 4549/006.
2
KMC-0657 R = 0.3364
14
12
concentration (%)
10
Reef 1
8
CaO
6
4
2
0
1250 1270 1290 1310 1330
depth (m)
Figure 21. Calcium XRF concentrations along drill hole KMC-0657.
57
5.3.1 Major oxides:
The summary of major elements abundances along drill holes is presented in Table 5.
Table 5. Concentration trends of major element oxides towards Reef 1 in the basalt.
Drill hole Increase Decrease Constant
UX 4600/009 SiO2, Al2O3, Na2O Fe2O3, CaO MgO, P2O5

K2O, TiO2 LOI, MnO
KMC-0815A Fe2O3, LOI SiO2, TiO2, Al2O3 Mn, K2O

CaO, Na2O, P2O5
EX 4549/006 TiO2, Fe2O3, MnO Al2O3, MgO, CaO, Na2O SiO2, K2O
P2O5, LOI
KMC-0812 SiO2, K2O TiO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3 CaO, Na2O, LOI
MnO, MgO, P2O5
KMC-0657 MnO, LOI SiO2, TiO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3 CaO, K2O
MgO, Na2O, P2O5
UX 4580/014 MnO, MgO, CaO, LOI SiO2, Na2O, K2O, P2O5 TiO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3
5.3.2 Trace elements
This section describes the trace elements geochemical trends. Niobium has near
constant concentration values ranging from 3 to 5 ppm, La and U have most values between 0
and 3 ppm, and Th from 0 to 1, hence the concentration trends of these elements are not very
marked. The concentration versus depth trends for the XRF trace elements are summarised in
Table 6.
58
Table 6. Geochemical concentration trends of trace elements towards Reef 1.
Drill hole Increasing Decreasing Constant
UX 4600/009 Rb, Sr, Ba, Zn Zr, Ga, Y, Pb,

Sc, V, Cr Ce, Ni, Cu
KMC-0815A Zn, Ni Zr, Ga, Sr, Y, Rb, Sc, Cr, Cu

Ba, Ce, V
EX 4549/006 Zr, Ga, Y, Sr, Ba, Cr, Rb, Zn, Ce, Sc

Pb, V Ni, Cu
KMC-0812 Rb, Sr, Ba, Pb, Zr, Ga, Y, Ni Zn, Ce, V

Sc, Cr, Cu
KMC-0657 Zn, Pb, Sc, Zr, Ga, Sr, Rb, Ba

Cr, Ni, Cu Y, Ce, V
UX 4580/014 Sc, V, Cr, Ni, Zr, Ga, Rb, Sr, Pb

Cu Y, Zn, Ba, Ce
5.4 Comparison of ICP and XRF data
Inductively coupled plasma partial analyses and XRF total analyses of thirty-nine Reef
1 footwall basalt samples from four drill holes were compared by simple regression scatter
plots. The XRF analyses are relatively more qualitative than ICP analyses. The sample
preparation for ICP analysis involved digestion of mineral phases by aqua regia. The
digestion is very effective for some mineral phases like carbonates and sulfides but is
commonly incomplete for other phases like aluminosilicates. Hence metal cations like Al,
Mg, and Fe contained in aluminosilicates like hornblende and pyroxene are rarely wholly
released into solution during digestion and as such most ICP analyses are only partially
qualitative. The elements that are incompletely digested include Al, Cr, Fe, Mg, Ni, P, Pb, Sc,
59
and Sr. Based on plots of these elements (Figure 22A to 22E), equations of regression lines
and linear correlation coefficients were determined.
The slope of a regression line is an estimate of the average amount of an element
released during sample digestion for ICP analysis. Sketchley and Sinclair (1987) observed
that the average level of digestion and detection by ICP analyses is between 25 and 50 percent
for most elements, whereas linear correlation coefficients range from 0.4 to 0.9. Table 7
summarises the results of the comparison exercise.
From Table 7, Ni, Mn, V, Zn, Pb, Cu, and Ca have the highest regression line slopes,
which implies that they were readily released during digestion. Zinc, V, Ni, Mn, Cu, Ca, P,
Mg, Fe, and Cr have the highest correlation coefficients indicating that the ICP analyses for
these elements fairly reflect the trends determined by the XRF analyses. Furthermore, Table 8
shows that although some elements were not released in great amounts during digestion, e.g.,
Cr, Fe, Mg, and P, their ICP analyses trends still reflect the trends in the XRF analyses. Most
ICP concentrations are consistently lower than XRF concentrations, possibly due to
incomplete digestion of some silicate minerals. However, for Pb and Cu, XRF concentrations
are lower than ICP concentrations, which suggest that minerals containing these elements,
possibly galena and chalcopyrite, were almost completely digested. Likewise, an element like
Pb was released into solution in fair amounts but its ICP analyses trend did not reflect the
trends in its XRF analyses. However, the absolute concentrations of Pb are very low, hence its
concentration trends might not be meaningful.
The maximum analytical values for SiO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3, MgO, CaO, and LOI, are
much higher than the mean. The maximum concentration values for these elements may be
considered anomalous and are the cause of the high variability of the elements concentrations
that is reflected by their large standard deviations (Appendix 6a and 6b).
60
Table 7. Regression line slope and linear correlation coefficient results for XRF versus ICP concentrations
analysis.
Element Regression line slope Linear correlation coefficient
Al -0.15 -0.25
Ca 0.6 0.8
Cr 0.44 0.83
Cu 1.4 1
Fe 0.62 0.9
Mg 0.39 0.71
Mn 0.71 1
Ni 0.75 0.88
P 0.44 0.63
Pb 0.65 0.29
Sc 0.44 0.44
Sr 0.18 0.22
V 0.69 0.67
Zn 0.99 0.98
61
A B ICP = 0.6169XRF - 0.8794

Correlation IICP = -0.1512XRF + 5.6463 Correlation
coefficient = -0.24 coefficient = 0.899
25 N = 39
N = 39
14
20
12
10
Al 15
Fe ICP
ICP 8
Al XRF 10 Fe XRF
6
vs ICP vs ICP
4
5
2
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25
0 5 10 15
Fe XRF
Al XRF
Correlation C ICP = 1.4326XRF + 5.4941 Correlation D ICP = 0.7057XRF - 0.0232

coefficient=0.995
coefficient=0.997
400 0.45
350 0.40
0.35
300
0.30
250
Mn ICP
0.25
Cu ICP
Cu XRF Mn XRF vs ICP

200 0.20
vs ICP
150 0.15
0.10
100
0.05
50 0.00
0 0.0 0.5 1.0
0 100 200 300 400 Mn XRF
Cu XRF
Correlation E ICP = 0.6566XRF + 4.3135

coefficient=0.29
30
25
20
Pb ICP
15 Pb XRF
vs ICP
10
0
0 10 20 30
Pb XRF
Figure 22. XRF versus ICP analyses for the Reef 1 footwall basalt. A. Aluminium; B. Iron;
C. Copper; D. Manganese; E. Lead.
62
5.5 Average composition of the least altered Reef 1 footwall mafic metavolcanic rocks
Geological logging of drill core classified the Reef 1 footwall mafic metavolcanic
rocks as andesite. The XRF analyses of the least altered Reef 1 mafic metavolcanic rock were
used to construct Appendix 6a and 6b. The former represents the average chemical
composition of the least altered Reef 1 footwall metavolcanic rock only (without quartz-
carbonate veins), and Appendix 6b represents the average chemical composition of the Reef 1
mafic metavolcanic rock including quartz-carbonate veins.
Table 8. Comparison of the average composition of the least altered Reef 1

footwall basalt with fresh basalt standard compositions (Dutro, Dietrich, and Foose, 1989).
Major elements Bulyanhulu basalt Average basalt USGS-BHV0-1 basalt
SiO2 48.79 49.20 49.80

TiO2 1.13 1.84 2.60
Al2O3 13.30 15.74 14.00
Fe2O3 13.25 10.92 11.00
MnO 0.30 0.20 0.18
MgO 5.72 6.73 7.20
CaO 7.88 9.47 11.30
Na2O 2.22 2.91 2.20
K2O 0.20 1.10 0.62
P2O5 0.09 0.35 0.32
LOI 6.76 1.49 0.36
Total 99.64 99.95 99.58
N.B: Least altered basalt used to represent average Bulyanhulu basalt composition.
Reef 1 footwall metavolcanic rock samples from drill holes UX 4600/009 and KMC-
0815A, were biased towards sampling the host rock only, whereas samples from drill holes
EX 4549/006, KMC-0812, KMC-0657, and UX 4580/014 were whole rocks, that is, they
included the host rock plus the veins and veinlets. Hence, the compositions of the least
altered Reef 1 footwall metavolcanic rocks from drill holes UX 4600/009 and KMC-0815A
63
12
UX 4600/009 KMC-0815A
EX 4549/006 KMC-0812 Trachyte

Trachy-
Na2O + K2O (wt%)
andesite Rhyolite
8 KMC-0657 UX 4580/014
Basaltic
Trachy-
andesite
Basalt Dacite
4
Andesite
Picro- Basaltic
basalt Andesite
0
34 39 44 49 54 59 64 69 74
SiO2 (wt%)
Figure 23. Total alkali versus silica for the Reef 1 footwall basalt.
can be used as representative of the Reef 1 footwall metavolcanic rocks (Appendix 6). All
samples from drill hole UX 4600/009 fall within the basalt field. Most samples from drill hole
KMC-0815A also do so, but some plot in the picro-basalt and the basaltic andesite fields too
(Figure 23). This suggests that the veins are dominantly composed of calcite, which dilutes
the overall silica concentration in the basalt. One mafic metavolcanic rock sample from drill
hole UX 4580/014 plots in the dacite field probably because the respective core is cross cut by
a quartz-feldspar porphyry dyke. The introduction of silica-bearing fluids is probably
associated with this porphyry dyke.
In general the least altered Reef 1 footwall basalt has less silica, Ti, Mg, Ca, Na, P,
and Al compared to the standard basalt. However, the Bulyanhulu basalt has a particularly
high value of LOI and slightly higher Mn and Fe relative to the standard basalts. Potassium
concentration lies between those of the two standard basalts whereas the concentration of Na
in Bulyanhulu basalt is about the same with Na concentration in the USGS basalt (Table 8).
This suggests that the effects of alteration on least altered Reef 1 footwall basalt are quite
significant when compared with the fresh basalt. High LOI value reflects the high content of
64
carbonate and sulfide alteration minerals in the Reef 1 footwall basalt, which is consistent
with high Fe concentration, since the main sulfide at Bulyanhulu is pyrite, and Mn probably
substitutes for Fe.
5.6 Discussion
The following elements have concentrations at, or below detection, levels and are not
included in the following discussion: B, Be, Ga, Hg, La, Mo, Na, Sb, Ti, Tl, U, and W. The
low values may be due to the very low concentrations of the elements or incomplete digestion
of major silicates by aqua regia.
The decrease in Al and Fe towards Reef 1 reflects the mineralogical observations, in
which the ferromagnesian minerals: hornblende and pyroxene, abundance decreases towards
Reef 1. However, contradicting trends in some drill holes may reflect the local occurrence of
muscovite and magnetite. The general decrease in XRF Na towards Reef 1 (Table 4) reflects
the observation of decreasing albite towards the reef.
Titanium decreases towards Reef 1 in three of the six drill holes (Figure 24) consistent
with less iron-titanium oxide. With the exception of drill hole UX 4580/014, in which K
decreases towards Reef 1, there is a slight increase in K towards Reef 1 in other drill holes,
consistent with local increase of muscovite adjacent to Reef 1.
KMC-0657 R2 = 0.7978
concentration (wt %)
0.20
0.15
Reef 1
0.10 Ti
0.05
0.00
1250 1270 1290 1310 1330
depth (m)
Figure 24. Titanium concentrations along drill hole KMC-0657.
65
Loss on ignition (LOI) values, decrease towards Reef 1. In most drill holes, LOI
increases towards Reef 1 only in drill hole UX 4600/009. In the other drill holes, LOI
increases towards Reef 1 consistent with mineralogical observations, where the amount of
calcite and pyrite, and hence intensity of alteration, increases towards Reef 1. In drill hole
KMC-0812, LOI is near constant.
Silica decreases in three, and increases in two of the six drill holes. The decreasing
trends are rather unexpected as logging and petrography indicates increasing silicification
towards Reef 1. Concentration trends for Ca are very contradicting in different drill holes
possibly because Ca is hosted in different mineral phases in the altered and least altered
basalt. Furthermore, there was incomplete digestion of some Ca-bearing aluminosilicate
phases (e.g., hornblende and pyroxene) in the least altered Reef 1 footwall basalt (Table 6).
In general, the hanging wall felsic metavolcanic rocks and the quartz-feldspar
porphyry dyke are characterised by above average concentrations of Ba, K, and P. Potassium
is presumably hosted in mica (the mineralogy of Reef 1 hanging wall was not covered by the
current study). Day (1963) observed that the ionic radii of divalent Ba (1.43 Å) and univalent
K (1.33 Å) are sufficiently similar to allow Ba to be accommodated within K minerals. This is
supported by the observed positive correlation of Ba with K.
The footwall mafic metavolcanic rocks are characterised by above average
concentrations of Al, Mg, Cr, V, Sc, and Ca. In the mafic dyke, Ni and Mn occur in above
average concentrations. The presence of these elements reflects the occurrence of albite,
hornblende, pyroxene, and chlorite in the mafic metavolcanic rocks. Goldschmidt (1958)
noted that the chromic ion has a radius similar to that of Al so that isomorphous substitution
in aluminous minerals is possible. On the other hand the ionic size of trivalent V (0.65 Å) is
close to that of ferric iron (0.67 Å), which makes possible for V to enter in certain Fe
minerals, e.g., hornblende and pyroxene. This may also explain the positive strong correlation
of V with Al. On the other hand divalent Ni (0.78 Å) may be substituting for divalent Mg
66
(0.78 Å) in the mafic dyke. This is consistent with the observed positive correlations
between these elements (Table 2).
Quartz veins, stringers, argillite, and gabbro are characterised by the presence of As,
Co, S, + Bi, + Cd, + Fe, + Au. These elements seem to be closely associated with vein and
mafic intrusive rocks. The presence of Fe and S reflects abundant pyrite in the units,
particularly in the quartz veins, stringers, and argillite. Goldschmidt (1958) and Bronlow
(1996) noted that there is a very strong relationship between As and S as indicated by their
similar radii, As (1.18 Å) and S (1.04 Å). Thus As can replace S in sulfide minerals (including
pyrite). Cobalt is always present in pyrite, and to a lesser extent in pyrrhotite (Goldschmidt,
1958). These observations are supported by the positive correlation of Fe and Co with S in the
Bulyanhulu wall rocks. Due to the similarities in geochemical properties, the pyrite zone is
essentially an intermediate tuff with abundant pyrite clasts (Appendix 4).
The total alkali versus silica diagram (Figure 23, only least altered Reef 1 footwall
rocks are plotted), helped to solve the problem of naming the Reef 1 footwall mafic
metavolcanic rocks, which has been logged as andesite, but is in fact basalt. A few samples
plot out of the basalt field in the andesitic basalt and the picro-basalt fields. Initially, this was
thought to be due to the presence of variable amounts of quartz and carbonate veins in the
basalt. This possibility was checked by analysing two separate batches of the Reef 1 footwall
metavolcanic rocks, one comprising Reef 1 footwall host rocks only, and the other with host
rocks and veins. In the former batch, all samples from one drill hole plotted within the basalt
field, whereas samples from the other drill hole plotted in the basalt, basaltic basalt, and picro-
basalt fields. This shows that the composition of the Reef 1 footwall mafic metavolcanic
rocks is generally basaltic, but locally silicification is variable, and the rock composition
ranges from picro-basalt to basaltic basalt. In the later batch, most samples plotted within the
basalt field and a few in the picro-basalt field. Only one sample plotted in the dacite field. A
quartz-feldspar porphyry dyke crosscuts this sample. Samples with veins generally contain
67
less silica than the rock only samples. This should not be expected from samples containing
host rock and quartz-carbonate veins. A possible explanation for this is that the bulk of the
veins are composed of carbonates rather than quartz. The greater amount of carbonate in the
rock possibly dilutes silica concentration.
The trends indicated by variations in Ti concentration with depth more or less reflect
the occurrence of Ti bearing minerals in the basalt, i.e., iron-titanium oxide in both the least
altered and strongly altered and titanite in the more highly altered basalt. However, iron-
titanium oxide is a mixture of Fe-, Ti-, and Ca- bearing minerals (see microprobe results,
Appendix 10), including leucoxene/rutile, titanite, ilmenite, and calcite.
Comparison of basalts XRF versus ICP data (Figures 22A to 22E & Table 7) suggests
that the ICP analyses for Ca, Cu, Mn, Ni, V, and Zn reflects the trends shown in the XRF
analyses fairly well. This implies that ICP analyses for these elements, with the exception of
Ca, which is usually not fully released due to incomplete digestion, may be used as an
economical analytical technique to obtain multi-element data for the purpose of
lithogeochemical surveys. Hence, trends displayed by ICP data for these elements can be
examined for their usefulness in geochemical exploration.
Before any sampling program is undertaken the purpose of geochemical survey should
be fully understood. Garret (1983) observed that in the majority of cases it is logistically
impossible to sample the target population in totality. Thus only part of a rock unit is sampled,
from which analyses, statistical inferences, and interpretations are made. Hence, the choice of
target and sample population is critical. This has been tested in the three data sets prepared in
this study, that is, the two sets ICP analyses (both included the host rock and crosscutting
veins/veinlets), the XRF analyses for the host rock plus veins, and the XRF analyses for the
host rock only (see section 5.1). The first two were used to study the elements’ distribution
trends along drill holes from Reef 1. Furthermore, since the ICP and XRF analyses of the host
rock plus veins were made on the same samples, this enabled comparison of the two methods,
68
and hence identified the elements, which could be analysed by the cheaper ICP method. The
comparison of XRF analyses of the host rock only with XRF analyses of the rock plus veins
helped to estimate the effects hydrothermal alteration on the host rock, but more importantly
the element trends from host rock only analyses tied up closely with the observed
mineralogical variations in the basalt.
The concentration versus depth scatter plots of dataset 1 (see section 5.1), obtained
from Barrick, lack any clear trends (e.g., Figure 8A to 8C). However, Reef 1 footwall rock
samples from data set 2 (see section 5.1), this study, show trends in the concentration versus
depth scatter plots. It has been shown in this study that there is no significant difference in the
absolute concentrations between the two ICP datasets (Table 7), yet set 2 shows clearer
patterns. The lack of clear trends is most likely due to irregular sampling intervals within
particular lithologies, which resulted in clustering of data and lack of continuous coverage
along drill holes.
5.7 Conclusions
1. X-ray fluorescence data from host mafic metavolcanic rock only samples closely reflect the
igneous, metamorphic, and hydrothermal alteration mineralogy, so for the whole rock
geochemical results to meaningfully reflect the mineralogy, samples to be analysed should be
of the host rock only without any veins or veinlets.
2. The Reef 1 footwall basalt has been affected mainly by silicification and calcification. The
intensity of alteration is locally variable but generally increases towards Reef 1.
3. The least altered Reef 1 footwall mafic metavolcanic rock is indeed basalt and not an
andesite as it has been reported. However, locally basaltic andesites occur. The basalt is an
Fe-tholeiite because its composition follows closely the Fe-tholeiite basalts of Western
Australia and is consistent with observations by Borg and Shackleton (1997).
4. The ICP analyses for Cu, Mn, Ni, V, Cr, and Zn may be used as a quick and cheap method
for exploration, because mineral phases containing these elements are fairly readily digested
69
by aqua regia, and ICP trends are consistent with XRF trends. Manganese and Cr might be
more useful as they show more consistent trends.
70
_______________________________________________________ Chapter 6 Discussion and conclusions
CHAPTER 6
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
6.1 Introduction
In many respects, the mineralogy of Bulyanhulu gold deposit is similar to that of most
other Archean lode-gold deposits. The main minerals of the gold bearing zone, Reef 1, are
quartz, calcite, muscovite, pyrite, chalcopyrite, pyrrhotite, and minor amounts of graphite.
Characteristic gold-associated minerals at Bulyanhulu are pyrite-chalcopyrite and possibly
electrum, which like Au, are more abundant in the Reef 1 quartz vein and less abundant in the
wall rocks.
Hodgson (1990) noted that the mineralogical and chemical nature of alteration facies
depends on the type of wall rocks. Altered rocks and the element association of the
mineralisation record the mineralogy and chemical changes. Hodgson (1990) observed that
although the patterns of carbonate alteration can be explained in terms of progressive fluid-
rock interactions, there is a poor spatial correlation of gold with larger scale zones of
progressive carbonate alteration, which characterise large areas along the major breaks, and
silicification and Sulfidation, with which gold is closely associated, are commonly
superimposed on the more widespread carbonate alteration.
In the Reef 1 footwall basalt at Bulyanhulu, hornblende, pyroxene, albite, and epidote,
characteristic of least altered rocks, are altered to the assemblage calcite-quartz-chlorite-pyrite
+ muscovite in the proximal zones of alteration. Proximal to fluid conduits, the basalt is
bleached (Figure 4D) as a result of most hornblende-chlorite being altered to quartz-calcite-
muscovite. The Al and Fe released during the alteration of the ferromagnesian minerals
probably combine with alkalis, Na and/or K, and S introduced by hydrothermal fluids to form
muscovite and pyrite respectively.
71
The siting of gold varies among various orogenic lode gold deposits. In some deposits
it is dominantly in veins, and in others it is dominantly in sulfidised wall rocks (Eilu et al.,
1999). At Bulyanhulu, economic gold mineralisation is restricted within the Reef 1 quartz
vein at the contact of felsic and mafic metavolcanic rocks.
Eilu et al. (1999) noted that hydrothermal fluids are normally out of equilibrium with
the wall rocks, in terms of parameters such as P, T, pH, and fO2, and that wallrock alteration
zones commonly mark the passage of these fluids. Wallrock alteration haloes can be used in
exploration for mineralisation. Eilu et al. (1999) noted that the mineral assemblages and width
of the alteration zones in Archean lode-gold deposits vary with wall rock type and crustal
level of hydrothermal alteration and an alteration halo may extend laterally from gold
mineralisation for a few centimetres up to 1-2 km.
Colvine et al. (1988) noted that the extent of alteration depends on the size of the
deposit and the size and duration of the hydrothermal system. In general, there is a positive
correlation between the size of the deposit and the lateral extent of alteration.
At Bulyanhulu, some alteration zones are narrow, approximately 1 to 5 m, e.g.,
muscovite alteration, whereas others like carbonate alteration, are wider and more extensive.
The pervasive carbonate alteration at Bulyanhulu, has been documented to about 60-70 m
from Reef 1, and for about 3.5 km along the strike of Reef 1.
At Bulyanhulu, changes at the alteration zone boundaries are reflected by the gradual
mineralogical and textural trends across the alteration sequence. Metamorphic chlorite,
hornblende, albite, recrystalised quartz, epidote, pyroxene, characterise distal alteration and
are gradually replaced by hydrothermal chlorite and quartz, calcite, pyrite, chalcopyrite, and
pyrrhotite with increasing proximity to Reef 1. In addition, titanite and possibly ilmenite are
replaced by iron-titanium oxide but still iron-titanium oxide seems to be slightly more
abundant in the least altered basalt than in basalt adjacent to Reef 1. The intensity of
72
deformation/foliation, and volume of quartz-carbonate veins increase significantly adjacent to
Reef 1. The above alterations are consistent with observed increase in LOI and CO2.
Table 9. Comparison of Bulyanhulu deposit alteration zone with alteration zones around other
lode gold deposits.
Alteration zones in basalt-hosted Archean lode gold deposits
Deposit Proximal alteration Distal alteration
Bronzewing (Eilu, Mikucki, and Dugdale, 2001) ankerite-dolomite-muscovite-albite-quartz-pyrite calcite-chlorite-albite-quartz

Bulletin (Eilu and Mikucki, 1998) calcite-dolomite-chlorite-sericite calcite-epidote/actinolite
East Lode (Golden Mile) (Eilu, Mikucki, and Groves, 1997) ankerite-siderite calcite-epidote/actinolite
Bulyanhulu (this study) calcite-pyrite-chlorite+sericite+chalcopyrite hornblende-albite+pyroxene
Some of the alteration zone boundaries, such as muscovite and carbonate, can be
recognised when logging drill core. The carbonate alteration boundary can be tested using
dilute HCl. In passing from unaltered basalt through least altered to strongly altered basalt the
rock will have nil to weak to vigorous reaction indicating the relative abundance of calcite in
the altered basaltHowever, the drill core must be tested in the wallrock itself and not only in
the veins. Testing by dilute HCl can be supplemented by staining (Dickson, 1966). However,
it is still important to have geochemical whole rock analyses, particularly in areas with a
sequence of different rock types within an alteration halo that may produce a set of bleached
and unbleached zones that do not follow the trend in alteration intensity such as in the Reef 1
felsic metavolcanic rocks, which are more heterogeneous than the footwall mafic
metavolcanic rocks. In such cases a set of thin sections of standard alteration zones, defined at
hand specimen scale may help define alteration patterns.
Common minerals in the Reef 1 footwall basalt are:
(1) Chlorite commonly occurs in the least altered basalt, as a product of regional
metamorphism, but is also part of the proximal assemblage due to hydrothermal alteration
especially where the content of muscovite is low.
(2) Sericite is commonly restricted adjacent to Reef 1. X-ray diffraction shows that
very minor muscovite occur in the least altered basalt.
73
(3) Albite commonly occurs in the least altered basalt, but XRD shows that it locally
occurs in the hydrothermally altered basalt.
(4) Calcite is abundant in proximal zones to Reef 1, but is also occurs in significant
amounts in the least altered basalt.
(5) Ilmenite and magnetite occur very locally over narrow intervals in the least altered
basalt.
(6) Iron-titanium oxide is abundant in both the altered and the least altered basalt, but
seem to be slightly more common in the latter.
(7) Titanite occurs very locally in the least altered basalt in close association with iron-
titanium oxide.
(8) Pyrite and chalcopyrite are restricted in the proximity of Reef 1. They occur in the
least altered basalt very locally and only where the least altered basalt is fractured by quartz-
carbonate vein.
6.2 Alteration
Wallrock alteration haloes are typically well developed around orogenic lode-gold
deposits, and due to their vertical and lateral extent, can be most useful in exploration and ore
body definition. The hydrothermal alteration mineralogy usually depends on the host rock
lithology, the metamorphic grade, and the fluid/rock ratio (Eilu et. al., 2001). Groves and
Foster (1991) observed that wallrock alteration in Archean lode gold deposits involved
massive introduction of CO2, K2O, S and H2O. Silica is either introduced or redistributed.
The elevated concentrations of Au and Ag in the quartz veins, as well as pervasive carbonate
alteration and silicification of wall rocks, together with the development of sericite adjacent to
Reef 1 qualitatively suggest that hydrothermal fluids contributed SiO2, H2 + CO2, and K2O to
the wall rocks.
Kerrich (1983) observed that Au-bearing vein deposits in Archean greenstone belts
reveal a broad empirical relationship between carbonate composition and the nature of the
74
wallrock that the vein transects. Transitions in wallrock over the length of individual veins are
reflected by the corresponding changes in carbonate gangue composition. These observations
are supported by chemical mass balances that the wall rock dominates the supply of the
bivalent metal cations, and CO2, are introduced by hydrothermal fluids. He also noted that in
the peripheral zones of alteration envelopes, depletions of CaO and MgO exceed additions of
SiO2, K2O, and other volatiles since additions become progressively smaller as fluid
penetration into wall rocks decreases, that is, leaching predominates over precipitation.
Observation of carbonate-filled fractures and pyrite + pyrrhotite + chalcopyrite in the Reef 1
quartz veins may suggest that some Ca and Fe were taken into solution in the peripheral
alteration zones and combine with CO2 and H2S contributed by hydrothermal fluids to yield
carbonate and sulfide minerals in veins.
Groves and Foster (1991) noted that in greenschist facies settings, alteration minerals
overprint peak-metamorphic assemblages, thus hydrothermal alteration post-dated peak
metamorphism, and in most host rocks there is a wide zone of pervasive carbonate alteration,
with a central core of ankerite and ferroan dolomite grading out into calcite-chlorite rich
zones. Penczak (1999) noted that the primary composition of host rock has a major influence
on the composition of alteration minerals, and subsequently recrystalised metamorphic
minerals. He cited an example of the presence of aluminous minerals: andalusite, chloritoid,
staurolite, and garnet in basalt, rhyolite, and diorite, but their absence in ultramafic rocks at
the Red Lake mine, as being attributable to the low Al content and low Fe/(Fe + Mg) in
ultramafic rocks. Likewise, the composition of carbonate rocks is also influenced by primary
rock composition, e.g., the carbonate composition in peridotitic komatiite is magnesite or
dolomite, whereas the basaltic komatiite with a relatively lower Mg number carbonate
mineralogy consists of ankerite. However, the absence of Fe-carbonate alteration at
Bulyanhulu seems not to be influenced by the wall rock composition, since wall rocks and
veins at Bulyanhulu lack Fe-carbonates but the average chemical composition of basalt
75
suggests that they are not Fe-poor. At the Fe and Mg average concentrations of 13.2 percent
and 5.7 percent respectively, the Reef 1 footwall mafic metavolcanic rocks have a
composition close to that of distal calcite-chlorite altered Fe-tholeiite at the Bulletin lode gold
deposit, Wiluna, Western Australia (Eilu and Mikucki, 1998), and the calcite-chlorite zone in
the Fe-tholeiite at the Bronzewing gold deposit, Yilgarn Craton, Western Australia (Eilu et al.,
2001). Unlike the alteration zones at Bulletin, Bronzewing, and most other Archean lode gold
deposits, which contain ankerite and ferroan dolomite, alteration on the Reef 1 footwall basalt
lacks Fe-carbonates. Like Bulyanhulu, the Bulletin and Bronzewing have low TiO2
concentrations, less than 1 percent, but have significant contents of Ti-bearing minerals
(titanite and rutile/iron-titanium oxide in the unaltered and altered zones respectively for
Bulletin and ilmenite and rutile/iron-titanium oxide in the unaltered and altered zones
respectively for Bronzewing).
The paragenesis of metamorphic and alteration minerals at Bulyanhulu was
determined from the mineral crosscutting relationships and replacement textures. The Reef 1
footwall mafic rocks have been subjected to greenschist facies metamorphism and
hydrothermal alteration (Mbuya et al., 2002) and perhaps sea water alteration as suggested by
the presence of abundant albite in the least altered Reef 1 footwall rocks. A hydrothermal
mineral assemblage of calcite-chlorite-pyrite+ muscovite overprints the igneous/metamorphic
mineral assemblage of hornblende-albite-chlorite-iron-titanium oxide+ epidote. The presence
of albite in the pre-hydrothermal alteration mafic metavolcanic rocks may suggest that the
primary igneous mineralogy of pyroxene-plagioclase+ magnetite was altered by sea water,
which altered Ca-rich plagioclase, labradorite, to a Na-rich plagioclase, albite, or else the
albite could be a product of regional metamorphism. Hence the mineral assemblage in the
least altered basalt is albite-hornblende-iron-titanium oxide-chlorite, with minor epidote.
Hornblende and chlorite have replaced almost all the primary igneous magnetite, whereas
76
primary labradorite has been albitised. Chamberlain (2000) observed olivine and labradorite
in thin sections of Bulyanhulu basalt but I did not document these minerals during my study.
Hydrothermal alteration in the Reef 1 footwall basalt at Bulyanhulu can be
summarised by the following equations (Colvine et al., 1988), which have been written to be
consistent with observed geochemical mass balances for altered gold-bearing basalts: K, H2O,
CO2, and S, have been added and Na may have been removed.
Pre-hydrothermal alteration breakdown of alteration of labradorite to albite:

(1) 3(Ca,Na)Al2Si2O8 + CO2 + 0.5H2O → Ca2Al3Si3O12(OH) + 3NaAlSi3O8 + CaCO3 + 2.5H2O
Plagioclase Epidote Albite Calcite
Hydrothermal alteration of albite to muscovite and quartz:

(2) NaAlSi3O8 + K+ + 2H+ → KAl3Si3O10(OH)2 + 6SiO2 + 3Na+
Albite Sericite Quartz
Hydrothermal alteration of amphibole to hydrothermal chlorite, calcite, and quartz:

(3) 2Ca2(Mg,Fe2+)4Fe3+AlSi7O22(OH)2 + 4CO2 + 2H2O + 1/3O2 → Mg5Al2Si3O10(OH)8 + 4CaCO3
Amphibole Mg-chlorite Calcite
+ 5/3Fe3O4 + 11SiO2
Magnetite Quartz
Alteration of titanite to iron-titanium oxide:

(4) CaTiSiO5 + CO2 → TiO2 + CaCO3 + SiO2
Titanite Rutile Calcite Quartz
Zonation in Au-related alteration mineral assemblages is best shown in basalts by the
juxtaposition of the chlorite-albite-hornblende assemblage with calcite-chlorite-pyrite-
muscovite wall rock adjacent to veins. Sodium is stripped from areas of highest fluid: rock
ratio, eventually resulting in breakdown of plagioclase. Sulfide rich mineralised wall rocks
and the breakdown of Fe silicates in areas of mineralisation indicate that sulfidation is an
important process in alteration (Colvine et al., 1988).
Loss on ignition values for the Reef 1 footwall rocks generally increase towards Reef
1 (Figure 25A to 25C). Leco analysis of these samples show that organic carbon and sulfate
sulfur are almost negligible. Hence the main components of LOI came from the ignition of
sulfide and carbonate minerals. In figures 25A and 25B, the variation of carbonate content
with depth closely follows the LOI trend, with the exception of sample at about 50 m, whose
77
LOI is mainly sulfide. A closer examination of the Leco analyses results (Appendix 7) shows
that carbonate minerals are far more abundant than sulfide minerals. The LOI values of the
Reef 1 footwall basalt are slightly lower (by about 1%) than those of basalts of similar
chemical composition, that is, the Fe-tholeiites of the Bulletin and Bronzewing gold deposits
of Western Australia.
A UX 4580/014
2
R = 0.1652
20
15
Reef 1
LOI (%)
10 LOI
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
depth (m)
B UX 4580/014
2
R = 0.524
Concentration (%)
15
Reef 1
10
Carbonate
(%)
5
0
0 50 100
Depth (m)
C UX 4580/014 R2 = 0.002
0.10
Concentration (%)
0.08
Reef 1
0.06
0.04 Sulfide
(%)
0.02
0.00
0 50 100
Depth (m)
Figure 25. Concentrations along drill hole UX 4580/014: A. LOI; B. Carbonates; C. Sulfides.
78
6.3 Pathfinder elements
Alteration zonation reflects chemical changes within the alteration envelope around
Reef 1. These changes can be used to determine the useful Au pathfinder elements.
Integration of mineralogical and geochemical parameters is essential if maximum benefit is to
be obtained from alteration studies because specific pathfinder elements may show systematic
variations from proximal to distal alteration zones.
Rose (1979) observed that pathfinder elements for the exploration of ‘epithermal’
precious metal deposits are commonly Ag and Au, but also Sb, As, Hg, Te, Se, S, and U can
be useful.
Tingley and Berger (1985) noted that in the Round Mountain district, areas that are
enriched in gold and silver are also anomalous in the pathfinder elements As, Sb, Tl, Hg, F,
Mo, and W. The gold deposits are not characteristically enriched in Cu, Zn, and Pb, although
locally these base metals occur in anomalous amounts. The abundances of pathfinder
elements vary considerably throughout the district, but the greatest amount of enrichment
occurs in the areas with the highest precious metal content.
Eilu and Mikucki (1998) noted that exploration targets at Bulletin gold deposit are
defined by regional As (>6 ppm) and Sb (>0.6 ppm) anomalies that extend laterally for >150
m from mineralised shear zone. Other anomalies at Bulletin are defined by local enrichments
of Te (> 10 ppb), W (>0.6 ppm), Sb (>2 ppm) and As (>28 ppm) and extend beyond the shear
zone and the Au anomaly (>6 ppb). Au itself has a restricted dispersion with an anomaly
extending from 1-35 m from ore and being restricted to within the shear zone itself. Amongst
individual geochemical parameters, only As and Sb show significant, consistent, and smooth
trends near ore at Bulletin.
Eilu et al. (2001), noted that the broadest anomaly surrounding the Bronzewing gold
deposit is defined by Te (>10 ppb), which extended beyond the 400X600 m study area.
Anomalous values for CO2, K, Rb, and Sb define wider zones than does anomalous Au (>4
79
ppb). However, the authors argue that despite the above anomalies none of the individual
pathfinder elements define consistent gradients towards ore at Bronzewing, but the respective
dimensions of individual geochemical anomalies can be used as an extensive and stepwise
vectors towards ore. This sequence is, from species with broadest dispersion first, as follows:
Te > CO2/Ca > Sb > Ag > Bronzewing ore.
Colvine et al. (1988) noted that micas in alteration zones in greenschist facies lode-
gold deposits contain Cr, Ba, V, and Fe, which often occurs in association with, carbonates
and imparts the distinctive emerald green colour to the rock. They also noted that although
most gold deposits record massive introductions of CO2, K2O, S, and H2O in addition to Au,
as well as increases in As, Sb, W, Mo, B, Ag, Li, Ba, Rb, and Cr, these elements have not
been used to readily identify alteration haloes around gold deposits. They argue that the lack
of recognisable patterns may be attributed to protolith heterogeneity, because original
compositions greatly influence the absolute abundances of elements in altered rocks. They
recommend that normalisation should be done so as to produce meaningful results from
geochemical studies.
Groves and Foster (1991) noted that Archean lode gold deposits show characteristic
association of Au with As, W, Ag, Sb, Te, and B, with generally low Mo and base metals.
However, Kerrich (1983) observed that in the Abitibi greenstone belt, gold-bearing quartz-
carbonate veins at Yellowknife, located within a sequence of metabasalts, posses As contents
in the range of 10,000 ppm with low B, yet at the Dome mine similar quartz veins also
transecting basalts have As contents of approximately 100 ppm, but abundant tourmaline,
which hosts B. Hence, Kerrich (1983) concludes that the factors controlling the magnitude of
enrichment of Au-associated elements in a given deposit are not well understood although the
above observations suggest that caution should be taken when using these element variation
trends in geochemical exploration. This shows that different deposits may vary in their
80
enrichment in particular gold associated elements. Thus a geochemical parameter that is
useful pathfinder in one system may not be so in another.
The scale of geochemical exploration is another factor, which may influence the
potential usefulness of an element as gold pathfinder. For example, in the Timmins gold
camp, in the Abitibi greenstone belt, only seven elements, namely, As, Au, B, Cu, Li, Pb, and
Sb, are useful for geochemical exploration, and have emphasized that CO2, S, Ba, Zn, K2O, or
Ag can not be used for geochemical exploration for gold (Kerrich, 1983). However, at the
regional scale, Davies et al. (1982) have demonstrated anomalies of CO2-K-Rb-As associated
with the Timmins gold camp. This shows that it is important to extend geochemical studies
beyond the present mine area at Bulyanhulu. This will also help delineate the quartz and
chlorite zone limits, since the full extent of chlorite-quartz assemblage at Bulyanhulu remains
unclear.
The most useful geochemical indicators are those that show consistent and strongest
correlation with gold and have the most widespread dispersion around all or most of the units.
However mass balance calculations should be used to test the validity of enrichment or
depletion trends. Though several elements showed increasing or decreasing concentration
patterns towards Reef 1 at Bulyanhulu, only Cr and Mn trends were clear and consistent. The
contradicting trends towards Reef 1 (Table 3, 5, and 6) may be apparent, hence application of
mass balance calculations may help test the trends, or may be due to the limited number of
drill holes studied so far. More geochemical analysis will help delineate the real trends.
Eilu et al. (1998) observed that although there are cases where gold associated
dispersion aureoles have been used with success in identifying prospective structures and
expanding exploration target dimensions, e.g., arsenic dispersion aureoles for the Hollinger-
McIntyre system, in Timmins, Abitibi greenstone belt, and carbonation alkali indices for the
Kerr-Addison deposit, many cases exist where consistent variations in pathfinder element
contents are non-existent or ambiguous despite the fact that these elements are anomalous and
81
define recognisable dispersion haloes, e.g., the Wattle-Gully mine of the Victoria goldfields
where element profiles show no significant gradients in Au, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn or S
concentrations around the deposit, although these elements are enriched in the deposit itself.
At Bulyanhulu, although several elements show clear geochemical trends towards Reef 1, and
strong correlation between ICP and XRF analyses, the trends are contradicting in different
drill holes (e.g., Figures 26A and 26B).
A UX 4600/009
R2 = 0.2713
concentration (%)
4.0
3.0 Reef 1
2.0 Na2O
1.0
0.0
0 50 100
depth (m)
B KMC-0815A
R2 = 0.5778
concentration (%)
4
3
Reef 1
2 Na2O
1
0
588 638 688
depth (m)
Figure 26. Sodium concentrations along drill holes: A. UX 4600/009; B. KMC-0815A.
Some geochemical anomalies are limited in their lateral extent but quite extensive
along the strike of veins. They do not expand the exploration area laterally, they can be useful
when exploring along the strike of the mineralised structure. At Bulyanhulu, the occurrence of
elevated element concentrations is coincident with the location of alteration zones. For
82
example, the K2O anomaly, which reflects the occurrence of muscovite adjacent to Reef 1,
does not extend beyond 1 to 5 m of Reef 1, but has been found, in this study, to extend
intermittently for about 3.5 km along the strike of Reef 1.
6.4 Elements concentration trends in the Reef 1 footwall basalt
Patterns displayed by elements like Ca, Si, Mg, Al, and Fe may not be potentially very
useful as geochemical indicators to ore as they are hosted in minerals that occur in both the
least and strongly altered basalt (Table 10).
Table 10. Geochemical trends of elements towards Reef 1.

Expected behaviour towards
Mineral Possible element association Reef 1
Calcite Ca Enrichment
Quartz Si Minor enrichment
Chlorite Mg, Si Minor enrichment
Sericite K, Al, Si Enrichment
Albite Na, Al, Si Depletion
Hornblende Ca, Na, Mg, Fe, Al, Ti, Si Depletion
Pyroxene Ca, Na, Mg, Fe, Al, Si Depletion
Electrum/native gold Au Enrichment
Electrum Ag Enrichment
Chalcopyrite Cu Enrichment
Another factor that affects the use of ICP trends in studying patterns for these
elements is the incomplete digestion of some mineral phases containing some of the above
elements. For example, the concentrations of Ca for the XRF analyses generally decrease, but
they appear to increase for the ICP analyses. This may be due to the fact that Ca in calcite,
which is abundant close to Reef 1, is readily released into solution during digestion in ICP
analysis but Ca in hornblende and pyroxene is not. Aluminium behaves in a similar manner,
because it is readily released from muscovite, which is proximal to Reef 1, but hornblende
and pyroxene are not completely digested. Likewise XRF Mg shows a general decrease
towards Reef 1, but ICP Mg indicates an opposite trend of increasing concentration towards
Reef 1. This might be due to complete digestion of chlorite, which occurs in all zones but is
83
slightly more enriched close to Reef 1, but hornblende and pyroxene, which occur at the distal
areas, are incompletely digested. However, despite the fact that some Fe is contained in the
minerals that are incompletely digested like hornblende and pyroxene its XRF and ICP trends
are more or less similar. This suggests that the bulk of Fe is contained in sulfides, rather than
aluminosilicates.
Sodium and K show strong patterns for the XRF data, but about half of their ICP
concentrations are below detection. The other analyses for these elements have very small
difference between the maximum and minimum values, such that patterns displayed by these
data won’t be very strong (Appendix 8). However, Na XRF data show a definite decreasing
concentration towards Reef 1, reflecting decreasing abundances of hornblende, pyroxene, and
albite towards the reef. Potassium XRF data show a general increasing trend towards Reef 1
consistent with increasing muscovite. More robust analytical methods may help determine
more accurate concentrations of Na and K, which might be very useful at Bulyanhulu, since
these elements occur in specific minerals, albite and muscovite, in the least altered and
strongly altered basalt respectively.
Loss on ignition values increase towards Reef 1 consistent with increasing amount of
carbonates and sulfides in the proximity of the reef. However, the analyses of samples by
Leco have shown that the dominant contributor to the LOI values are carbonates rather than
sulfides, hence CO2 content increases towards Reef 1.
Silver and Co were analysed only by ICP. Cobalt shows a general increase towards
Reef 1. With the exception of only one sample, all ICP Ag concentrations are below
detection. Despite the fact that the ICP concentrations of Cu are generally higher than the
XRF analyses, the ICP Cu trends are very erratic possibly reflecting the presence or absence
of local chalcopyrite within quartz-carbonate veins in the footwall basalt. However, the Cu
XRF concentrations display a slightly clearer general increase towards Reef 1.
84
The individual XRF and ICP trends for Ti, Ni, and Zn are very similar. However these
trends are contradictory in different drill holes. Hence although these elements show strong
correlation between ICP and XRF data, they are still not very useful until the problem of
contradicting trends is solved, probably through more geochemical analyses. Manganese
shows very similar ICP and XRF trends, with a general increasing concentration towards Reef
1. Manganese appears to occur in close association with Fe. Chromium shows a clear increase
towards Reef 1 in both the ICP and XRF data.
All trends are presented in tables 3, 5, and 6. The trends correlate well with the linear
correlation coefficients determined from the comparison of ICP and XRF data (Table 7).
Hence, for Bulyanhulu deposit, the following elements are potentially useful for exploration
as they indicate clear trends towards ore: Cu, Cr, K, Na, Mn, LOI/CO2. However, ICP
concentrations for K and Na are very low due to the incomplete digestion problem, and hence
ICP trends for these elements are not very marked. However, the XRF trends for K and Na
show very strong patterns towards the reef.
Some elements’ ICP concentration trends, e.g. Zn, Ni, Mn, Fe, Cu, and Cr, show
strong correlation to their XRF concentration trends, which suggest that their ICP
concentration patterns can be used for geochemical interpretation. However, a closer
examination shows that the ICP and XRF data show conflicting patterns in different drill
holes. This is the case for all the above elements with the exception of Cu, Cr, Co, Zr, and
Mn. The contradictory trends among drill holes might suggest the presence of some local less
altered zones within the hydrothermally altered basalt. However, such zones were not
observed.
The concentration of Cr increases notably at about 70 to 80 m from Reef 1. Similarly,
the concentration of Mn increases significantly at about 50 to 60 m from Reef 1. Although Co
and Zr show increasing and decreasing concentration trends towards Reef 1 respectively, the
concentration values for each of these elements are more or less similar and hence the patterns
85
are not very strong. Thus, it can be suggested that the concentration variations along drill
holes of Cr and Mn are generally consistent with the alteration zone boundary approximately
60 to 70 m from Reef 1. However, Na and K might be more useful as they display clearer
trends, and unlike Mn and Cr, which occur in trace amounts within other minerals, Na and K
are major components of known minerals at Bulyanhu.
6.5 Correlation matrices
The strong positive correlation of Au with Ag in the Reef 1 quartz veins and the
adjacent overlying ash flow tuff, suggests that apart from the visible gold, gold might also
occur in electrum. Gold/silver ratios range from 10 (most common) to 1 (less common) (Eilu
et al., 1997). The average Au/Ag ratio for Reef 1 is 1.56, but there are local occurrences of
very high ratio, as is indicated by the high maximum value and standard deviation.
Table 11. Gold: Ag ratio in the Reef 1.
Au Assay Ag Assay Au/Ag

Maximum 619.59 152 42.6
Minimum 0.01 0.15 0.02
Average 15.54 10.25 1.56
Std. Dev. 44.63 15.61 2.56
The strong positive association of Cu with Ag in all lithologies with the exception of
the pyrite zone (Table 2, Appendix 9) imply that possibly Ag in these lithological units is
closely associated with chalcopyrite. Surprisingly, the correlation coefficients of Au with Fe
and Cu are not very strong despite the close association of gold with pyrite and chalcopyrite.
Another significant, positive elemental correlation is that of Al-Sc-V and Sc-V. The fact that
these correlations are present in almost all lithological units may be related to trace quantities
of these elements, occurring in common silicate minerals such as micas. The strong positive
correlation of Ba with K seems to be localised in lithological units adjacent to the Reef 1
quartz veins. This may be related to the occurrence of muscovite adjacent to Reef 1, and
probably Ba is to some extent substituting for K. Potassium seem to be substituted by Rb,

86
which is reflected in the abundance versus depth plots for these elements (Figures 27A and
27B). The association Fe-S is localised in the quartz veins, ash flow tuff, and the pyrite zone
(Table 2), probably reflecting the relatively abundant pyrite in these units (Appendix 9).
A UX 4600/009
R2 = 0.1996
1.0
concentration (%)
0.8
Reef 1
0.6
K2O
0.4
0.2
0.0
0 50 100
depth (m)
B UX 4600/009 R2 = 0.1683
30
concentration (ppm)
25
Reef 1
20
15 Rb
10
5
0
0 50 100
depth (m)
Figure 27. Potassium and Rb concentrations along drill hole UX4600/009: A. K2O; B. Rb
Letnikov and Vilor (1981) noted that during hydrothermal activity, commonly
chalcophile elements e.g. Pb, Cu, Zn, As, Ag, and Sb, are enriched in the veins but lithophile
elements e.g. Mn, V, Zr, Cr, and Ti, on their periphery. Hence, there is poor correlation
between the two groups. This might explain why there is no strong correlation between these
elements at Bulyanhulu.
87
6.6 Sampling and analytical methods
My sampling program at Bulyanhulu was designed to:
(a) Obtain samples representing both altered and unaltered Reef 1 footwall mafic
metavolcanic rocks
(b) Cover as much as possible the alteration extent in the Reef 1 footwall rocks and along the
strike of Reef 1, which will provide information in areas beyond economic gold
mineralisation.
My selection of samples for analysis was done in two different ways (Figure 28). One
batch sample from two drill holes, UX 4600/009 and KMC-0815A, contained the host rock
only, inset 1, whereas the second batch from four drill holes, EX 4549/006, KMC-0812,
KMC-0657, and UX 4580/014 contained the host rock and the veins, inset 2. Every sample in
the later batch was split into three portions, which were each analysed by ICP, XRF, and Leco
methods. This was done to obtain a benchmark on which ICP and XRF analyses from exactly
the same samples can be compared, and to also obtain an indication of the volatile
components in the footwall basalt, which have previously be grouped under LOI value. X-ray
quartz
-carbonate
1 2 vein
basalt
Figure 28. Schematic diagram of a drill core indicating two different types of sampling done
for this study.
fluorescence analysis was done on the first batch of basalt samples, which contained only the
host rock, so as to obtain the whole rock geochemistry of the wall rocks only, which was used
to link more accurately the mineralogy with the litho-geochemistry. The link between the
88
geochemistry and mineralogy was not very clear when data set 1 (see section 5.1) was used.
The data set 1 was obtained from the mine database, which was determined by analysing the
host rocks plus veins.
It has been shown in this study that for some elements, the ICP concentrations
correlate well with XRF concentrations along drill holes (Table 7). Thus although the ICP
method is a partial analysis it is useful for elements like Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, and Zn, at
Bulyanhulu because it reflects their trends. However, some elements hosted in incompletely
digested phases like silicates and clays are incompletely dissolved in all partial leach aqua
regia digestion systems. Thus, elements like Al, B, Be, Ca, Cr, Ga, K, La, Mg, Sc, Sr, Tl, W,
Ba, Ti, Na, and K will rarely be fully dissolved and as such their absolute concentrations will
never match those generated by stronger digestion techniques or XRF.
Of the above elements, whose ICP trends are consistent with XRF trends, only Mn
show consistent and clear increasing concentration trends towards Reef 1. Copper trends are
consistent in about all drill holes but the curves are too erratic to show clear patterns,
presumably due to the local occurrence of chalcopyrite, which is probably the main host of Cu
at Bulyanhulu. Iron, Ni, and Zn show clear trends but are contradictory in different drill holes.
The correlation coefficient for Cr is not as strong as those of Cu, Fe, Zn, and Ni, but it shows
consistent and clear increasing concentration trends towards Reef 1. Hence Mn and Cr might
potentially be useful for exploration as they both indicate a marked increase in their
concentrations around 50 to 70 m from Reef 1, reflecting the gradual change in the
mineralogy of the Reef 1 footwall basalt.
A closer look at the elements absolute concentrations shows that for most elements the XRF
concentrations are higher than ICP concentrations. This is expected due to difficulties in
digesting some mineral phases during sample preparation. However, elements like Pb and Cu
show opposite trends, as they have higher ICP than XRF concentrations. This may partly due
to the fact that Pb and Cu at Bulyanhulu are mainly hosted in sulfide minerals, probably
89
galena and chalcopyrite respectively, which are almost completely digested during ICP
sample preparation. However, Pb concentration values are too low for meaningful trends to be
interpreted.
Digestion/leaching procedure uses nitric acid-aqua regia digestion. The use of pure nitric acid
in the early stage of the digestion facilitates both the dissolution of sulfide minerals and the
destruction of organic matter.
Reef 1
B
Reef 1
Figure 29. Chromium and Mn XRF concentrations along drill holes: A. Cr in UX 4600/009;
B. MnO in UX4580/014.
90
Another factor may be the procedure used in preparing sulfide samples for XRF
analysis, in which the sulfides have to be converted to relatively insoluble sulfates, before
being analysed. Hence it is possible that some of these metal cations precipitated in the form
of sulfates during this procedure. In any case this needs to be looked more closely since the
correlation between ICP and XRF concentrations for Cu is very close (0.995) but for Pb is
poor (0.29). However, this test may not be very significant since the concentrations of Pb is
very low.
The ICP lower detection limits of some pathfinder elements are relatively high,
especially for W (10 ppm), La (10 ppm), Ga (10 ppm), Mn (5 ppm), P (10 ppm), Tl (10 ppm),
and U (10 ppm) which might limit their usefulness as some of these elements occur in very
low concentrations at Bulyanhulu. The XRF lower detection limits are higher for the
following elements: Ba (9.6 ppm), Ce (12.8 ppm), Sc (5.2 ppm), and V (4.6 ppm). Overall
these detection limits are higher compared to those recommended for pathfinder element
analysis in lode gold environment: Ag= 0.01 ppm, As= 0.2-1 ppm, Au= 0.2-1 ppb, B= 1 ppm,
Bi= 0.01 ppm, Cd= 0.01-0.1 ppm, Hg= 3-5 ppb, Mo= 0.1 ppm, Sb= 0.01-0.05 ppm, Se= 0.01
ppm, Te= 1-2 ppb, W= 0.1 ppm. These data are based on published average concentration
ranges for these elements in unmineralised rocks and research on background ranges in
various rock types and thresholds related to lode gold deposits (Eilu et al., 1997). Perhaps
some elements could give more discernible trends and much wider dispersion zones if
analytical methods with minimum lower detection limits (e.g., 0.1-0.01 ppm) were employed.
Eilu et al. (1997) noted that the detection limit required for reliable use of any pathfinder
element in geochemical analyses must be below the general background level of the area
studied. Table 12 presents the average concentrations of trace elements in the least altered
Reef 1 footwall basalt at Bulyanhulu.
91
Table 12. Average concentrations of trace elements in the least altered Reef 1 footwall basalt.
Trace elements Concentration (ppm)
Sc 42
V 290
Cr 133
Ni 59
Cu 104
Zn 93
Ga 17
Rb 9
Sr 94
Y 22
Zr 68
Nb 3
Ba 64
La 1
Pb 3
Ce 11
Th 0
U 1
The lack of any clear trends in almost all the elements concentration variations with
depth in data set 1 (see section 5.1) is most likely due to:
(1) Inclusion of veins and veinlets in the analysed samples
(2) The lack of regular sampling intervals within individual lithological units and
alteration zones.
Joyce (1989) recommends that samples should be a continuous half or quarter of cores
at intervals of say, 2, 5, and 10 m (except where lithological style suggests shorter or variable
intervals). Sampling for ICP analysis at Bulyanhulu would probably have yielded clearer
patterns if sampling was continuous and at regular intervals within individual lithological
and/or alteration units.
6.7 Summary
Gold mineralisation at Bulyanhulu is located in a greenschist facies metamorphic
setting, in a shear zone termed Reef 1. The Reef 1 quartz vein is hosted in argillite. Alteration
in this deposit is typical of other Archean greenstone hosted lode gold deposits. The main
92
exception to the more typical alteration trends is the lack of Fe-carbonates in proximal
alteration zones (Table 9). At Bulyanhulu, irrespective of the width of the alteration zone, the
gradational variation in alteration mineralogy forms a consistent sequence towards Reef 1.
This sequence, and hence elemental associations, are similar throughout the Reef 1 footwall
rocks and are independent of the grade of gold mineralisation.
Chromium and Mn show a consistent and steady increase in concentration towards
Reef 1. This increase is more pronounced around 50 to 70 m from Reef 1, coincident with the
boundary of the calcite-chlorite-quartz-pyrite-muscovite alteration zone. However, mass
balance calculations will help confirm these trends for elements like Fe, Zn, and Ni, whose
ICP trends correlate strongly with XRF trends within individual drill holes, but lack
consistency among different drill holes.
6.8 Recommendations and future work
(1) Because the mineralogical and geochemical indicators for lode gold deposits vary
depending on the host rock, metamorphic grade, style of deformation, and size of the deposit,
every deposit must be treated on its own merit by following a systematic approach to define
alteration and dispersion of gold pathfinder elements. That involves mapping alteration
mineralogy/zones by core logging, systematic sampling from the wall rocks towards the ore
body taking into considerations, alteration and lithological boundaries, sample size, and the
amount of core recovery in a particular interval. The least altered wall rock sample should be
selected, because this will help determine the mineralogy of the primary host rock. Elements
should be analysed to the detection limit possible, and mass balance calculations performed to
determine which elements are mobile and hence more useful for studying dispersion pattern.
(2) Drill core logging should be used as a guide to sampling. At least one sample
should be taken from each alteration zone. Sampling should be done at regular intervals
within a particular alteration zones.
93
(3) When sampling for geochemistry samples should be of host rock only, i.e., they
should not contain veins. The lack of trends in the ICP and basalt plus veins XRF data show
the importance of systematic sampling of the host rock only in the evaluation of geochemical
trends in the wall rocks. The problem of conflicting trends in XRF data may be tested through
more systematic sampling, as the current sampling of 6 drill holes is still limited considering
the size of Bulyanhulu deposit.
(4) As noted in (1) above mass balance calculations should be used to complement the
observed patterns. Variations in the altered host rock are not only the result of hydrothermal
metasomatism but can also be products of: (a) primary rock forming processes, (b) processes
which involve material transfer e.g. sea water metasomatism, metamorphism, etc. (Stanley
and Madeisky, 1994)
(5) More robust analytical methods should be used to analyse mineral phases containing Na
and K, because unlike other elements like Ca, Al, and Mg, which occur in minerals found in
both the altered and unaltered basalt (Table 10), Na and K occur only in minerals that occur in
the least and strongly altered basalt, that is, albite and muscovite respectively.
94
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Appendices
APPENDIX 1 SAMPLE DESCRIPTIONS
AU Rock Field Rock Name Rock Description Locality Description Map Ref
Number Number
54375 PM001 Agglomerate Light grey, medium to coarse grained Surface drill hole no. KMC-0732, 19957 E, 14875 N
groundmass hosting chert, felsic, and core sample collected at 874 m (drill
mafic rock fragments hole depth)
54376 PM002 Agglomerate Light grey, medium to coarse grained Surface drill hole no. KMC-0811F, 22752 E, 15104 N
groundmass hosting chert, felsic, and core sample collected at 1366 m
mafic rock fragments (drill hole depth)
54377 PM003 Lapilli tuff Light grey, fine grained groundmass Surface drill hole no. KMC-0830D, 22008 E, 15086 N
hosting felsic and mafic rock core sample collected at 989 m (drill
fragments hole depth)
54378 PM004 Lapilli tuff Light grey, fine grained groundmass Surface drill hole no. KMC-0839B, 21518 E, 15026 N
hosting felsic and mafic rock core sample collected at 1012 m
fragments (drill hole depth)
54379 PM005 Quartz Pale to dark grey, fine grained Surface drill hole no. KMC-0839C, 21473 E, 14984 N
feldspar groundmass (mainly quartz) hosting core sample collected at 1304 m
porphyry abundant off-white feldspar crystals (drill hole depth)
54380 PM006 Ash tuff Light grey, very fine grained, locally Surface drill hole no. KMC-0854, 22030 E, 15080 N
with pyrite blebs core sample collected at 1657 m
(drill hole depth)
54381 PM007 Ash tuff Light grey, very fine grained, locally Surface drill hole no. KMC-0595A, 23492 E, 14857 N
with pyrite blebs core sample collected at 604 m (drill
hole depth)
54382 PM008 Pyrite zone Light greenish grey intermediate Surface drill hole no. KMC-0780A, 23672 E, 14877 N
metavolcanic rock with abundant core sample collected at 1568 m
pyrite blebs and stringers (drill hole depth)
54383 PM009 Pyrite zone Light greenish grey intermediate Surface drill hole no. KMC-0806H, 24326 E, 14886 N
metavolcanic rock with abundant core sample collected at 1685 m
pyrite blebs and stringers (drill hole depth)
54384 PM010 Argillite Black, very fine grained, with Surface drill hole no. KMC-0806H, 24365 E, 14846 N
abundant graphite along foliation core sample collected at 1791 m
(drill hole depth)
54385 PM011 Mafic dyke Dark greenish grey, fine to medium Surface drill hole no. KMC-0860, 22469 E, 16669 N
grained, locally magnetic core sample collected at 394 m (drill
hole depth)
54386 PM012 Basalt Dark grey, fine to medium grained, Underground drill hole no. EX 24362 E, 14770 N
mostly massive 4549/006, core sample collected at
1.84 m (drill hole depth)
54389 PM015 Basalt Grey, fine grained, fairly veined, Underground drill hole no. EX 24362 E, 14770 N
weakly foliated 4549/006, core sample collected at
101
Appendices
weakly foliated 4549/006A, core sample collected at
weakly foliated 4549/006A, core sample collected at
54394 PM020 Basalt Light grey, fine grained, intensely Underground drill hole no. EX 24362 E, 14770 N
veined, moderately foliated 4549/006A, core sample collected at
54395 PM021 Basalt Dark greenish grey, fine to medium Underground drill hole no. UX 23482 E, 14700 N
grained, locally magnetic 4625/008, core sample collected at
54396 PM022 Basalt Grey, fine grained, fairly veined, Underground drill hole no. UX 23482 E, 14700 N
54398 PM024 Basalt Light grey, fine grained, intensely Underground drill hole no. UX 23482 E, 14700 N
veined, moderately foliated 4625/008, core sample collected at
188 m (drill hole depth)
102
Appendices
54420 PM046 Basalt Light grey, fine grained, intensely Surface drill hole no. KMC-0815 A, 21030 E, 14949 N
veined, moderately foliated core sample collected at 588.93 m
(drill hole depth)
54421 PM047 Basalt Light grey, fine grained, intensely Surface drill hole no. KMC-0815A, 21030 E, 14949 N
veined, moderately foliated core sample collected at 598 m (drill
hole depth)
(drill hole depth)
(drill hole depth)
54424 PM050 Basalt Grey, fine grained, fairly veined, Surface drill hole no. KMC-0815A, 21030 E, 14949 N
weakly foliated core sample collected at 628.1 m
(drill hole depth)
weakly foliated core sample collected at 638 m (drill
hole depth)
(drill hole depth)
(drill hole depth)
54428 PM054 Basalt Dark greenish grey, fine to medium Surface drill hole no. KMC-0815A, 21030 E, 14949 N
grained, locally magnetic core sample collected at 669.76 m
(drill hole depth)
(drill hole depth)
(drill hole depth)
103
Appendices
(drill hole depth)
(drill hole depth)
(drill hole depth)
54434 PM060 Basalt Light grey, fine grained, intensely Surface drill hole no. KMC-0812, 21975 E, 14862 N
(drill hole depth)
(drill hole depth)
veined, moderately foliated core sample collected at 560 m (drill
hole depth)
54437 PM063 Basalt Grey, fine grained, fairly veined, Surface drill hole no. KMC-0812, 21975 E, 14862 N
(drill hole depth)
(drill hole depth)
(drill hole depth)
(drill hole depth)
54441 PM067 Basalt Dark greenish grey, fine to medium Surface drill hole no. KMC-0812, 21975 E, 14862 N
(drill hole depth)
(drill hole depth)
(drill hole depth)
(drill hole depth)
(drill hole depth)
(drill hole depth)
(drill hole depth)
(drill hole depth)
(drill hole depth)
(drill hole depth)
104
Appendices
weakly foliated core sample collected at 1302 m
(drill hole depth)
(drill hole depth)
(drill hole depth)
(drill hole depth)
(drill hole depth)
54467 PM093 Basalt Medium grey, generally fine grained, Surface drill hole no. KMC-0688A, 25980 E, 15100 E
quartz-carbonate veinlets core sample collected at 649.05 m
(drill hole depth)
54468 PM094 Basalt Medium grey, generally fine grained, Surface drill hole no. KMC-0688A, 25980 E, 15100 E
quartz-carbonate veinlets core sample collected at 693 m (drill
hole depth)
54469 PM095 Basalt Medium grey, generally fine grained, Surface drill hole no. KMC-0683, 25680 E, 15000 N
hole depth)
hole depth)
105
Appendices
hole depth)
hole depth)
quartz-carbonate veinlets core sample collected at 1488 m
(drill hole depth)
hole depth)
hole depth)
(drill hole depth)
(drill hole depth)
(drill hole depth)
(drill hole depth)
(drill hole depth)
(drill hole depth)
(drill hole depth)
54483 PM109 Basalt Medium grey, generally fine grained, Surface drill hole no. KMC-0780A, 23520 E, 15301 N
(drill hole depth)
(drill hole depth)
(drill hole depth)
hole depth)
hole depth)
hole depth)
(drill hole depth)
(drill hole depth)
106
Appendices
hole depth)
(drill hole depth)
(drill hole depth)
hole depth)
hole depth)
(drill hole depth)
54497 PM123 Basalt Medium grey, generally fine grained, Surface drill hole no. KMC-0622C, 24070 E, 15118 N
(drill hole depth)
hole depth)
hole depth)
54500 PM126 Basalt Medium grey, generally fine grained, Surface drill hole no. KMC-0693D, 22340 E, 15340 N
(drill hole depth)
hole depth)
hole depth)
54503 PM129 Basalt Medium grey, generally fine grained, Surface drill hole no. KMC-0552B, 21750 E, 15225 N
(drill hole depth)
hole depth)
54505 PM131 Basalt Medium grey, generally fine grained, Surface drill hole no. KMC-0640E, 21660 E, 15199 N
(drill hole depth)
(drill hole depth)
hole depth)
hole depth)
hole depth)
hole depth)
107
Appendices
hole depth)
hole depth)
hole depth)
hole depth)
hole depth)
(drill hole depth)
(drill hole depth)
(drill hole depth)
(drill hole depth)
hole depth)
hole depth)
hole depth)
(drill hole depth)
(drill hole depth)
(drill hole depth)
hole depth)
hole depth)
hole depth)
hole depth)
hole depth)
108
Appendices
hole depth)
54532 PM158 Ash tuff Light greenish grey, moderately Hand sample taken from the 23168 E, 14814 N
calcareous and chloritic, intensely backface at 4787 RL
silicified
54533 PM159 Basalt Dark greenish grey, very fine grained, Hand sample taken from the 23168 E, 14814 N
moderately to intensely foliated, with backface at 4787 RL
minor pyrite
54534 PM160 Ash tuff Greenish grey, fine grained, Hand sample taken from the 22830 E, 14859 N
moderately to intensely foliated backface at 4502 RL
54535 PM161 Basalt Dark greenish grey, massive, Hand sample taken from the 22830 E, 14859 N
moderately siliceous and chloritic backface at 4502 RL
54536 PM162 Basalt Green, intensely sheared and UX 4600/009, core sample collected East zone
brecciated with carbonate veins at 10.3 m (drill hole depth)
54537 PM163 Basalt Light green, very coarse grained with EX 4580/014, core sample collected East zone
elongated dark green hornblende at 15.5 m (drill hole depth)
crystals
109
Appendices
APPENDIX 2A X-RAY FLUORESCENCE MAJOR ELEMENTS CONCENTRATIONS
Depth
Sample no. (m) SiO2 (%) TiO2 (%) Al2O3 (%) Fe2O3 (%) MnO (%) MgO (%) CaO (%) Na2O (%) K2O (%) P2O5 (%) Total 1 (%) Moisture (%) LOI (%)
UX 4600/009
AU 54407 3.15 46.52 0.91 12.01 18.20 0.45 9.37 4.56 0.00 0.01 0.07 92.11 0.06 7.72
AU 54408 14.60 47.52 0.96 13.50 12.01 0.27 5.35 10.50 1.50 0.06 0.08 91.74 0.02 8.04
AU 54409 22.23 47.88 0.92 13.17 10.46 0.28 4.54 10.68 2.67 0.25 0.08 90.93 0.03 8.92
AU 54410 31.21 49.08 1.03 13.62 13.61 0.33 6.03 6.76 1.34 0.13 0.08 92.02 0.03 6.25
AU 54411 41.27 48.54 0.98 13.75 12.55 0.32 4.38 10.01 2.12 0.12 0.07 92.85 0.05 6.73
AU 54412 51.44 48.64 0.92 13.13 11.15 0.32 4.91 8.88 3.16 0.24 0.08 91.43 0.07 8.34
AU 54413 61.30 48.89 0.97 13.62 12.59 0.36 5.83 6.87 3.23 0.23 0.08 92.67 0.01 7.17
AU 54414 71.28 47.39 0.96 13.27 12.42 0.38 6.20 7.49 2.75 0.29 0.08 91.25 0.03 8.53
AU 54415 80.59 53.15 1.04 14.22 11.58 0.24 5.63 4.13 2.88 0.72 0.08 93.66 0.04 5.70
AU 54416 92.74 48.74 0.95 13.26 12.22 0.32 6.64 8.59 2.06 0.19 0.08 93.04 0.05 6.81
AU 54417 100.22 49.01 1.00 13.68 11.48 0.31 6.19 8.23 2.11 0.06 0.08 92.15 0.03 7.64
AU 54418 112.10 52.56 1.01 14.25 12.52 0.33 6.09 5.36 2.21 0.02 0.08 94.42 0.02 5.64
AU 54419 120.31 48.38 1.12 15.05 10.47 0.23 6.15 5.95 2.91 0.84 0.09 91.18 0.06 8.43
KMC-0815A
AU 54420 588.93 45.45 0.93 13.33 16.93 0.22 8.35 4.69 0.93 0.02 0.08 90.92 0.06 8.70
AU 54421 598.00 43.14 0.86 11.74 19.67 0.31 6.80 7.02 0.10 0.01 0.07 89.72 0.07 10.01
AU 54422 608.26 37.20 1.23 13.67 21.14 0.31 7.30 6.13 0.00 1.01 0.11 88.10 0.06 11.61
AU 54423 618.31 49.38 1.08 12.06 13.06 0.26 5.36 7.01 2.32 0.06 0.11 90.72 0.03 8.15
AU 54424 628.10 53.12 1.02 13.82 13.13 0.24 5.58 4.55 2.65 0.08 0.08 94.25 0.04 5.58
AU 54425 638.00 38.96 0.83 10.45 9.60 0.20 4.45 8.10 1.84 0.15 0.07 74.64 0.06 9.37
AU 54426 648.42 47.71 1.25 13.13 16.68 0.29 5.79 5.76 1.23 0.32 0.10 92.26 0.02 7.63
AU 54427 658.47 48.66 1.15 11.80 15.74 0.36 4.43 7.42 0.66 0.62 0.09 90.93 0.02 8.91
AU 54428 669.76 47.47 1.35 14.39 13.51 0.24 6.66 6.67 2.39 0.04 0.09 92.82 0.08 6.45
AU 54429 679.35 40.64 1.48 13.74 18.57 0.38 6.77 7.42 1.39 0.02 0.06 90.47 0.03 9.41
110
Appendices
AU 54430 689.51 53.08 1.19 12.13 10.60 0.25 5.49 8.31 2.91 0.25 0.10 94.30 0.05 5.19
AU 54431 699.05 51.79 1.26 13.85 11.05 0.22 5.58 8.50 3.11 0.14 0.11 95.61 0.04 4.42
AU 54432 708.76 51.11 1.23 13.22 11.68 0.23 5.34 8.66 3.62 0.23 0.10 95.42 0.08 4.10
AU 54433 713.10 54.28 1.37 14.52 10.35 0.22 5.29 7.13 4.01 0.29 0.13 97.58 0.03 2.16
EX 4549/006
AU 54486 1.84 48.45 0.63 14.91 11.33 0.16 7.97 11.05 2.04 0.25 0.06 96.87 0.07 2.40
AU 54487 29.76 41.49 0.59 12.20 11.04 0.17 7.81 11.80 1.39 0.35 0.05 86.89 0.05 12.68
AU 54488 42.16 49.72 0.76 16.20 11.45 0.17 5.74 7.93 4.24 0.21 0.11 96.54 0.09 2.68
AU 54489 60.28 37.75 0.71 10.04 16.13 0.44 5.12 14.53 0.33 0.01 0.06 85.13 0.11 13.62
AU 54490 75.93 47.35 0.95 14.22 14.15 0.21 6.67 8.23 1.55 0.24 0.08 93.65 0.07 5.95
AU 54491 111.92 47.10 1.50 10.72 16.18 0.24 3.50 9.16 2.07 0.29 0.13 90.88 0.09 8.72
KMC-0812
AU 54434 548.05 62.55 0.48 7.03 8.93 0.21 3.23 5.94 0.51 0.90 0.05 89.81 0.12 7.75
AU 54435 554.08 46.88 0.88 12.96 10.40 0.29 5.49 9.25 2.04 0.67 0.08 88.94 0.10 10.31
AU 54436 560.00 46.09 0.88 12.44 10.42 0.19 5.45 6.60 3.69 0.99 0.07 86.82 0.11 11.87
AU 54437 566.76 46.92 0.92 13.05 9.80 0.28 5.29 9.27 2.11 0.94 0.08 88.66 0.08 10.17
AU 54438 572.96 45.45 0.90 12.69 11.82 0.31 5.95 9.52 2.61 0.10 0.08 89.45 0.11 9.65
AU 54439 578.81 50.90 1.03 14.26 11.96 0.31 6.17 5.51 2.81 0.09 0.09 93.14 0.11 5.90
AU 54440 586.33 46.93 1.03 14.10 12.90 0.33 5.86 6.88 2.05 0.68 0.08 90.84 0.10 8.23
AU 54441 592.25 38.19 0.71 9.98 16.22 0.48 5.14 14.49 0.21 0.01 0.06 85.50 0.07 13.95
AU 54442 598.35 55.23 1.02 13.68 13.15 0.29 7.45 2.07 2.02 0.05 0.09 95.04 0.11 4.47
AU 54443 605.30 46.54 0.89 12.64 11.89 0.33 5.86 9.51 2.36 0.05 0.08 90.13 0.09 9.49
AU 54444 612.02 42.95 0.84 11.88 15.88 0.38 5.53 8.73 1.87 0.05 0.07 88.18 0.12 9.73
KMC-0657
AU 54445 1254.88 42.48 0.82 11.30 21.22 0.42 6.52 6.64 0.01 0.01 0.08 89.49 0.14 9.85
AU 54446 1262.90 42.22 0.83 12.03 14.80 0.24 7.18 8.51 0.73 0.56 0.07 87.17 0.11 9.97
111
Appendices
AU 54447 1270.89 44.39 0.90 13.22 13.56 0.21 7.51 7.94 1.86 0.14 0.07 89.80 0.05 9.69
AU 54448 1278.41 45.82 0.97 12.75 14.37 0.23 6.65 7.40 1.94 0.06 0.08 90.27 0.11 8.71
AU 54449 1286.31 49.14 1.19 13.36 14.27 0.22 5.49 7.08 1.82 0.27 0.10 92.95 0.04 6.84
AU 54450 1294.55 46.31 1.03 12.36 18.53 0.32 6.79 5.89 0.48 0.05 0.09 91.86 0.08 6.36
AU 54451 1302.00 47.65 1.20 11.78 15.19 0.27 5.03 9.55 0.93 0.10 0.11 91.81 0.04 8.51
AU 54452 1310.64 47.75 1.13 11.97 12.46 0.25 4.70 10.46 2.55 0.14 0.10 91.51 0.08 8.03
AU 54453 1318.22 48.33 1.17 12.02 13.20 0.25 4.20 10.15 2.06 0.21 0.10 91.69 0.07 7.55
AU 54454 1325.10 45.48 0.92 9.82 13.04 0.20 4.19 14.13 1.02 0.36 0.08 89.25 0.08 10.11
AU 54455 1334.05 50.45 1.24 11.74 14.90 0.21 6.65 8.04 2.42 0.15 0.10 95.89 0.05 3.67
UX 4580/014
AU 54456 1.62 45.67 1.19 10.19 15.80 0.29 4.46 11.44 0.74 0.13 0.10 89.99 0.04 9.16
AU 54457 10.80 45.93 1.09 11.48 14.26 0.25 4.54 10.07 2.44 0.36 0.08 90.50 0.04 8.96
AU 54458 16.25 68.97 0.29 15.64 2.20 0.03 0.81 1.83 4.06 2.81 0.10 96.74 0.05 2.24
AU 54459 30.70 48.36 0.98 12.78 13.30 0.22 5.20 9.24 1.86 0.12 0.11 92.17 0.10 7.12
AU 54460 42.06 47.08 0.95 12.82 11.57 0.21 6.27 8.48 2.57 0.08 0.08 90.11 0.11 8.97
AU 54461 51.73 33.10 0.65 9.25 16.27 0.59 5.77 16.89 0.00 0.01 0.06 82.58 0.09 16.51
AU 54462 62.95 47.75 0.92 13.35 11.45 0.24 5.01 8.61 3.25 0.06 0.08 90.72 0.08 8.34
AU 54463 73.53 49.16 0.98 13.67 12.43 0.29 5.76 7.11 2.83 0.03 0.08 92.34 0.11 7.08
AU 54464 82.45 43.28 0.86 12.00 14.01 0.36 6.69 9.93 0.36 0.61 0.07 88.19 0.10 10.96
AU 54465 93.31 47.39 0.95 13.56 8.72 0.25 4.19 10.70 3.87 0.12 0.08 89.83 0.05 9.83
AU 54466 101.78 45.53 0.81 11.69 10.21 0.33 4.72 11.69 0.16 1.35 0.07 86.57 0.07 12.50
112
Appendices
APPENDIX 2B X-RAY FLUORESCENCE TRACE ELEMENTS CONCENTRATIONS
Sample no. Depth Sc V Cr Ni Cu Zn Ga Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Ba La Pb Ce Th U

(m) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm)
UX 4600/009
AU 54407 3.15 24 223 98 72 35 138 17 1 37 20 60 4 0 0 3 7 0 1
AU 54408 14.60 36 295 165 77 120 89 17 2 71 23 65 3 4 0 1 12 0 1
AU 54409 22.23 32 295 175 77 83 71 16 6 89 23 65 3 100 0 4 10 1 1
AU 54410 31.21 32 313 184 83 104 92 18 3 113 25 69 3 38 0 3 10 0 2
AU 54411 41.27 32 293 180 83 88 69 16 3 180 25 66 4 31 0 3 9 0 0
AU 54412 51.44 36 278 177 73 87 68 15 7 118 20 61 3 69 1 3 10 0 3
AU 54413 61.30 40 300 185 79 52 82 16 6 80 21 63 3 109 0 2 6 1 2
AU 54414 71.28 39 301 180 72 111 78 16 7 68 22 65 3 149 0 2 5 0 1
AU 54415 80.59 50 344 255 59 90 86 17 24 56 23 67 3 94 2 1 10 0 1
AU 54416 92.74 34 284 273 74 74 87 15 3 116 21 64 3 88 0 4 9 0 0
AU 54417 100.22 39 312 193 83 85 75 16 1 123 23 68 3 62 0 1 5 0 2
AU 54418 112.10 39 322 302 70 67 88 17 0 133 23 65 3 20 0 2 8 0 2
AU 54419 120.31 52 366 212 76 70 83 18 27 106 22 67 3 200 1 3 12 0 8
KMC-0815A
AU 54420 588.93 60 302 149 70 96 89 15 0 46 20 62 3 0 0 2 6 1 2
AU 54421 598.00 47 202 58 66 47 72 15 1 67 19 56 3 0 0 1 4 0 3
AU 54422 608.26 54 283 20 46 8 75 21 29 62 26 91 4 0 0 3 7 1 1
AU 54423 618.31 49 295 75 56 109 149 16 2 63 22 86 4 1 0 3 13 0 1
AU 54424 628.10 52 296 104 58 46 110 17 3 115 21 64 3 0 1 2 13 0 2
AU 54425 638.00 43 284 66 43 222 63 16 7 102 22 76 3 19 1 2 9 0 1
AU 54426 648.42 60 267 48 40 16 75 20 9 34 35 83 4 20 3 1 23 1 1
AU 54427 658.47 35 280 22 31 49 75 17 16 37 18 72 3 39 0 2 10 0 1
AU 54428 669.76 56 313 43 55 43 67 20 0 124 32 82 4 0 0 3 12 1 0
AU 54429 679.35 66 328 24 46 3 95 21 1 42 36 84 4 0 0 1 7 0 3
AU 54430 689.51 40 306 208 35 81 78 17 7 105 26 83 4 59 1 2 11 0 1
113
Appendices
AU 54431 699.05 43 289 44 37 21 65 19 3 129 22 80 4 55 0 1 9 0 2

AU 54432 708.76 50 316 31 38 125 70 18 6 85 26 77 4 37 0 1 11 1 0
AU 54433 713.10 54 393 37 37 65 74 20 8 130 29 103 4 80 1 2 16 0 2
EX 4549/006
AU 54486 1.84 46 235 326 108 141 80 15 6 152 17 47 3 57 1 1 10 0 2
AU 54487 29.76 46 253 274 95 44 72 12 10 24 14 39 2 39 0 3 9 0 2
AU 54488 42.16 36 191 94 50 42 105 19 6 84 28 68 3 30 2 3 12 0 2
AU 54489 60.28 30 214 98 63 18 91 12 1 59 18 53 3 0 0 1 8 1 0
AU 54490 75.93 43 298 68 54 216 79 17 6 82 22 61 3 24 1 1 11 0 2
AU 54491 111.92 49 411 16 19 45 73 19 10 67 35 97 5 25 0 3 11 0 0
KMC-0812
AU 54434 548.05 29 195 300 38 997 150 9 31 64 7 35 2 0 3 15 139 9 2
AU 54435 554.08 47 308 199 78 85 81 15 23 88 20 60 3 103 0 2 11 1 2
AU 54436 560.00 44 296 210 62 77 58 17 30 117 16 63 3 148 0 5 8 0 1
AU 54437 566.76 44 305 190 73 84 81 16 31 111 20 62 3 232 0 2 8 0 2
AU 54438 572.96 47 303 185 70 87 82 16 3 90 20 61 3 54 1 1 10 0 1
AU 54439 578.81 35 316 239 68 91 98 18 2 112 21 71 4 163 0 3 7 1 1
AU 54440 586.33 54 333 195 82 69 91 17 22 55 22 68 4 257 2 3 4 0 1
AU 54441 592.25 31 213 102 63 21 91 12 1 59 18 51 2 0 0 2 10 0 2
AU 54442 598.35 23 281 156 86 69 104 19 1 50 15 69 4 26 0 5 7 0 1
AU 54443 605.30 36 285 175 77 76 86 15 1 86 20 60 3 37 0 2 8 1 2
AU 54444 612.02 36 271 140 74 142 102 15 1 64 22 59 4 20 0 1 7 0 1
KMC-0657
AU 54445 1254.88 37 192 44 67 146 98 14 1 68 20 57 3 0 0 2 5 1 2
AU 54446 1262.90 54 296 148 71 89 59 16 16 98 22 60 3 91 1 8 6 0 2
AU 54447 1270.89 54 321 160 59 68 148 16 4 94 19 60 3 35 0 2 4 0 1
114
Appendices
AU 54448 1278.41 54 337 173 56 255 369 16 1 70 22 63 4 5 0 4 13 0 0

AU 54449 1286.31 43 332 62 45 93 142 19 4 115 28 74 4 74 0 2 11 0 1
AU 54450 1294.55 34 303 14 74 768 132 19 1 65 27 77 4 0 0 3 7 1 1
AU 54451 1302.00 37 318 27 35 107 106 17 2 97 28 78 4 21 1 2 7 0 1
AU 54452 1310.64 45 345 34 30 38 78 16 3 86 26 74 4 32 0 3 12 0 0
AU 54453 1318.22 42 341 39 36 97 104 17 3 110 25 78 4 34 0 1 11 0 1
AU 54454 1325.10 38 258 47 29 28 63 15 6 132 27 67 4 56 0 2 15 1 2
AU 54455 1334.05 45 330 21 32 23 79 18 3 93 30 80 4 17 1 3 12 0 2
UX 4580/014
AU 54456 1.62 39 304 30 31 91 122 16 5 146 24 76 4 19 0 3 9 0 0
AU 54457 10.80 42 301 35 36 69 118 17 20 139 23 65 3 29 1 5 9 0 2
AU 54458 16.25 3 34 145 7 1 22 21 76 218 7 109 3 820 10 3 23 1 1
AU 54459 30.70 48 321 78 46 104 108 16 4 184 24 70 4 23 0 6 7 0 1
AU 54460 42.06 54 334 183 73 81 102 17 2 75 23 66 3 28 2 3 8 0 3
AU 54461 51.73 30 213 106 53 101 85 13 0 102 21 51 3 8 0 2 5 0 1
AU 54462 62.95 48 304 182 68 85 86 16 1 110 21 62 3 50 0 1 8 1 2
AU 54463 73.53 47 323 184 73 95 89 17 1 111 23 67 4 28 2 1 7 0 1
AU 54464 82.45 45 275 156 62 68 112 16 18 63 18 60 4 138 2 8 7 0 0
AU 54465 93.31 42 305 238 65 87 59 16 4 135 21 66 3 53 0 3 10 0 2
AU 54466 101.78 39 274 207 57 73 46 14 40 115 18 57 3 187 0 5 7 0 2
115
Appendices
APPENDIX 3 PETROGRAPHIC DESCRIPTIONS
1. Transmitted light petrography
Sample No: AU 54386
DRILL HOLE: EX 4549/006 DEPTH: 1.84 m (Reef 1 at ~ 204 m)
LITHOLOGY: Basaltic andesite
HAND SAMPLE DESCRIPTION:

Generally, the rock sample has a medium grey, medium (locally coarse) grained
groundmass hosting abundant elongated light green hornblende and flaky light brown
leucoxene crystals. Local narrow quartz-carbonate-chlorite veinlets fracture the rock sample
which is otherwise massive. Very small (only visible with the aid of a hand lens), local pyrite
crystals present. The rock sample is weakly to moderately altered (chloritic and calcareous).
ALTERATION INTENSITY: 40 %
MINERALOGY
Primary
minerals Occurrence Abundance Morphology Replacement minerals
Chlorite Phenocrysts, 10 % Anhedral crystals (0.3-0.5 Chlorite → pyrite +

groundmass mm) magnetite + chalcopyrite
Quartz phenocrysts 10-12 % Anhedral-subhedral (0.2- Quartz → leucoxene +
0.3 mm) calcite
Hornblende phenocrysts 20 % Subhedral-euhedral (~ 0.7 Hornblende → leucoxene +
mm) calcite + chlorite
Leucoxene phenocrysts 15 % Anhedral-euhedral (0.5- Albite → calcite
0.7 mm)
Albite phenocrysts 5-7 % Subhedral (~ 0.4 mm)
Pyroxene Phenocrysts 2-3 % Subhedral (0.3-0.5 mm) Pyroxene → hornblende

locally replaced
by hornblende
Secondary
minerals Occurrence Abundance Morphology
Chlorite Anhedral crystals (~ 0.3 mm) 12-15 % Replaces some hornblende crystals
Quartz Subhedral crystals (~ 0.2 mm) ~ 10 % Occurs in veinlets with calcite
Calcite Crystals with well developed 15 % Subhedral to euhedral crystals (up to
cleavages in veinlets and albite 0.9 mm). Some calcite is being
pseudomorphs replaced by pyrite + magnetite +
chalcopyrite)
Pyrite + Anhedral crystals (< 0.1 mm) 5-7 % Microcrystalline occurring within
magnetite + other crystals
chalcopyrite
Muscovite Groundmass? ?
116
Appendices
Sample No: AU 54389
DRILL HOLE: UX 4549/006 DEPTH: 60.28 m (Reef 1 at ~ 204 m)

Generally, the rock sample has a medium grey, mostly fine, locally medium grained
groundmass hosting abundant light brown, anhedral leucoxene, and black quartz crystals. A
brecciated quartz-carbonate vein (~ 20 mm wide) cut the core sample approximately normal
to core axis. The rock sample is moderately sheared and foliated at approximately 15-20º to
core axis. Very fine grained, local pyrite crystals present.
MINERALOGY
Primary Occurrence Abundance Morphology Replacement minerals
minerals
Quartz Phenocrysts ~ 10 % Subhedral, subrounded (up Some quartz crystals cross cut
to 0.25 mm) calcite crystals.
Chlorite Groundmass 10-15 %
Albite Phenocrysts 5-7 % Subhedral-euhedral (~ 1 Albite → calcite + (locally) quartz
mm) → chlorite
Albite → leucoxene
(albite is ~ 100 % replaced)
Leucoxene Phenocrysts 5-10 % Anhedral crystals (up to > Leucoxene → pyrite + magnetite
1 mm) + chalcopyrite
Secondary Occurrence Abundance

minerals Morphology
Quartz Phenocrysts: subhedral, ~ 1 mm 15-20 % Recrystallised quartz
Chlorite Groundmass + veinlets 20 % Fibrous veins replacing albite and calcite
Calcite Groundmass, veinlets (fracture 25 % Calcite occurs mainly as albite pseudomorph
some quartz crystals), and phenocrysts.
pseudomorphs of albite
phenocrysts
Pyrite + Phenocrysts: anhedral, ~ 1 mm <3% Most pyrite + magnetite + chalcopyrite occur
magnetite + within leucoxene crystals
chalcopyrite
117
Appendices
Sample No: AU 54391

Generally, the rock sample has a dark greenish grey, medium (locally coarse) grained
matrix hosting anhedral black magnetite (0.1-0.2 mm) and black quartz crystals. Magnetite
crystals are rimmed by white calcite. The rock sample is more or less massive, with local very
weak foliation at approximately 40˚ to core axis. The rock is fairly altered (chloritic and
calcareous).
MINERALOGY
Primary Occurrence Abundance Morphology
minerals Replacement minerals
Quartz Phenocrysts 5-7 % Subhedral, subangular Quartz → calcite +
(up to 0.4 mm) chlorite
Chlorite Fibrous crystals 15 % Anhedral (> 1 mm)
Albite Phenocrysts 3-5 % Subhedral (0.03-0.07 Albite → chlorite
pseudomorphs mm)
Leucoxene Phenocrysts 15 % Subhedral (up to 0.8 Leucoxene → chlorite +
mm) calcite
Secondary Abundance Morphology

minerals Occurrence
Quartz Phenocrysts: replaced mainly by calcite and to a 15 %
lesser extent by chlorite
Chlorite Phenocrysts: replacing leucoxene, albite, and quartz 25 %
Magnetite Phenocrysts (within leucoxene and chlorite crystals)
Calcite Groundmass and phenocrysts replacing leucoxene 20 %
and quartz crystals
Sample No: AU 54395

Generally, the rock sample has a greenish grey, fine grained groundmass hosting
abundant light brown leucoxene crystals. Local discontinuous quartz carbonate veinlets
present. Very local and small (can be seen only using a hand lens) pyrite crystals present. The
rock is fairly chloritic and moderately calcareous.
118
Appendices
MINERALOGY
minerals
Quartz Phenocrysts 10 % Subhedral (< 0.1-0.2 mm) Quartz → chlorite
Chlorite Phenocrysts/ 15 % Anhedral (~ 0.2 mm) Chlorite → leucoxene
groundmass
Albite Phenocrysts 5-7 % Subhedral ( < 0.2 mm) Albite → leucoxene
Hornblende Phenocrysts 20-25 % Subhedral (up to 0.8 mm) Hornblende → leucoxene
Leucoxene Phenocrysts 25-30 % Anhedral-subhedral (up to

1 mm)
Secondary Occurrence Abundance Morphology

minerals
Quartz Phenocrysts/veinlets 5% Discontinuous veinlets crosscut by
Chlorite Groundmass/veinlets 10 % Anhedral microcrystals in irregular veinlets
Calcite Phenocrysts/veinlets 5% Anhedral microcrystals in quartz veinlets
Sample No: AU 54396

Generally, the rock sample has a dark greenish grey, fine grained groundmass hosting
abundant anhedral black magnetic crystals (presumably magnetite) and local, very small
pyrite crystals. Off white quartz carbonate veinlets of variable widths fracture the rock in
different locations. The rock is fairly chloritic and calcareous, and lacks evidence of shearing.
MINERALOGY
minerals
Chlorite Groundmass/ 10-15 % Anhedral crystals (up to 1 mm) Chlorite → quartz
phenocrysts
Quartz Phenocrysts 10-15 % Anhedral crystals (< 0.3 mm) Quartz → chlorite
Albite Phenocrysts 7-10 % Anhedral-subhedral (0.2-1mm) Albite → quartz
Hornblende Phenocrysts 7-10 % Subhedral (up to > 1mm) Hornblende → albite →
chlorite
Hornblende → calcite
Leucoxene Phenocrysts 3-5 % Anhedral-subhedral (up to > Leucoxene → pyrite +
1mm) magnetite + chalcopyrite

minerals
119
Appendices
Quartz Phenocrysts/veinlets 15-20 % Anhedral phenocrysts (~ 0.3 mm) in

veinlets
Chlorite Groundmass/veinlets 10-15 % Microphenocrysts in veinlets
Calcite Phenocrysts/veinlets 10-15 % Anhedral phenocrysts (0.10-0.15 mm)
Pyrite + Presumably magnetite, occurring 2-3 % Anhedral (< 0.2 mm)
magnetite + within leucoxene crystals
chalcopyrite
Sample No: AU 54399

Generally, the rock sample is medium to dark grey and fine (locally medium) grained.
The rock sample is more or less massive (only one narrow quartz carbonate veinlet,
subparallel to foliation is present). The unit is sheared and foliated at approximately 40-45˚ to
core axis. Abundant but extremely fine leucoxene crystals present.
MINERALOGY
minerals
Chlorite Groundmass 5-7 % Microcrystalline Crosscut by other chlorite
crystals
Quartz Phenocrysts 15 % Anhedral crystals (0.1-0.2 Quartz → chlorite + calcite
mm) unless where
completely replace albite
Albite Phenocrysts 5% Subhedral-euhedral (up to Albite → calcite + quartz
pseudomorph 0.6 mm) (100 % replacement)
Leucoxene Phenocrysts 10 % Anhedral (up to 0.3 mm) Leucoxene →
pyrite/chalcopyrite

minerals Occurrence
Chlorite Irregular veinlets 10 % Fibrous texture mostly altered to pyrite
and/or chalcopyrite
Quartz Phenocrysts and veinlets 10 % Anhedral crystals (< 0.2 mm, unless
where replaced )
Calcite Phenocrysts 40 % Anhedral crystals, some vesicular,
others with strong cleavage.
Pyrite + Phenocrysts (mostly within 3% Anhedral crystals (< 0.15- 0.20 mm).
magnetite + leucoxene and along chlorite
chalcopyrite veinlets)
120
Appendices
Sample No: AU 54407

Generally the rock sample is greenish grey and very fine grained. Irregular
crosscutting quartz carbonate veinlets randomly fracture the rock sample. The rock is strongly
chloritic and moderately calcareous. Local pyrite crystals present.
MINERALOGY
minerals
Chlorite Groundmass 10 % Microcrystals Chlorite → chlorite + quartz
+ leucoxene
Chlorite → calcite → pyrite
Quartz Phenocrysts 5-7 % Microcrystals
Leucoxene Phenocrysts 3-5 % Anhedral (0.01-0.05 mm)
Albite Phenocrysts Subhedral (0.2-0.5 Albite → calcite
pseudomorphs mm)
Hornblende Phenocrysts 1% Subhedral (0.10-0.15 Pyroxene → calcite (~ 100
(relics?) ~2% mm) % replacement)
Pyroxene Phenocrysts Subhedral (~ 0.3 mm)

minerals
Chlorite Groundmass, veinlets: 2 episodes, one with 20 % Microcrystals in
abundant leucoxenes (earlier), and the other groundmass
without (latest)
Quartz Phenocrysts (recrystallised?), veinlets (narrow 10 % Anhedral-subhedral
veinlets that crosscut the chlorite in the (microcrystals to > 1mm)
groundmass)
Calcite Groundmass and phenocrysts. Calcite almost
totally replace albite. Quartz veinlets crosscut
calcite phenocrysts
Pyrite Phenocrysts 5% Anhedral (< 0.1->1mm)
Sample No: AU 54413

Generally, the rock sample is pale greenish grey, and very fine grained. With the
exception of randomly crosscutting irregular off-white quartz carbonate veinlets the rock is
121
Appendices
massive. The rock sample (including the veinlets) is moderately to strongly chloritic. Very
tiny (only visible by the aid of a hand lens), local pyrite crystals present.
MINERALOGY
Chlorite Groundmass 15 % Anhedral?
microcrystals
Quartz Groundmass 10 % Anhedral?
microcrystals
Hornblende Phenocrysts pseudomorphs 5-7 % Subhedral Hornblende → calcite →
(0.5-0.7 mm) chlorite
Leucoxene Phenocrysts 15 % Anhedral- Leucoxene → calcite + chlorite
subhedral
(< 0.2 mm)
Albite Microcrystalline/groundmass ?

minerals
Chlorite Groundmass, veinlets 25 % Veinlets and anhedral crystals replace leucoxene,
hornblende, and calcite
Calcite Groundmass, veinlets: 20 % Veinlets and anhedral crystals (up to 0.7 mm) replace
locally replaced by hornblende
chlorite
Quartz Groundmass, veinlets 15 % Anhedral microphenocrysts in calcite veinlets
Pyrite Phenocrysts 1% Subhedral-euhedral (~ 0.05 mm)
Epidote Phenocrysts 1% Subhedral-euhedral (< 0.05 mm)
Sample No: AU 54426
DRILL HOLE: KMC-0815A DEPTH: 648.42 m (Reef 1 at 589 m)

Generally, the rock sample is greenish grey, and medium (locally coarse) grained
groundmass hosting abundant fine grained, light brown leucoxene crystals. The rock is more
or less massive (with the exception of very local quartz-carbonate veinlets). The rock is fairly
chloritic and moderately calcareous.
122
Appendices
MINERALOGY
Quartz Phenocrysts 5-10 % Anhedral-subhedral (up Quartz → chlorite
to 0.7 mm)
Chlorite Groundmass 10-15 % Interlocking fibrous Chlorite → calcite
crystals
Leucoxene Phenocrysts 5% anhedral Leucoxene → pyrite + magnetite
(up to 0.9 mm) + chalcopyrite
Pyroxene Phenocrysts <2% Subhedral (0.15-0.30 Pyroxene → calcite

(pseudomorphs) mm)

minerals
Quartz Veinlets; some quartz veinlets crosscut 15-20 % Anhedral-subhedral, subangular
chlorite. Microcrystalline - > 1 mm
Chlorite Groundmass/veinlets; some chlorite 30-40 %
veinlets cross cut quartz crystals
Calcite Phenocrysts/veinlets: calcite veinlets ~ 20 % Anhedral-subhedral
crosscut some chlorite and quartz crystals (< 0.5 mm)
Pyrite + Phenocrysts ~1% Subhedral (0.1-1.0 mm)
magnetite +
chalcopyrite
Sample No: AU 54420
DRILL HOLE: KMC-0815A DEPTH: AU 588.93 m (Reef 1 at 589 m)

Generally, the rock sample is pale greenish grey and very fine grained. The rock is
more or less massive with the exception of very narrow discontinuous quartz carbonate
veinlets. In general the rock is fairly chloritic and calcareous, and moderately siliceous. The
rock is non magnetic and there is no visible sulfide mineralisation.
MINERALOGY
Primary Occurrence Abundance Replacement minerals
minerals Morphology
Chlorite Groundmass 5-7 % Locally crosscut by other
chlorite veinlets
Quartz Phenocrysts 3-5 % Subangular, Closely associated with pyrite +
subhedral-anhedral magnetite + chalcopyrite
crystals (< 0.1 mm)
Albite Phenocrysts ? From XRD Albite → chlorite + calcite (~
100 % replacement)
123
Appendices

minerals
Chlorite Groundmass, veinlets 25 % Very narrow veinlets crosscutting and
replacing some calcite but not quartz crystals
Calcite Groundmass, veinlets 35 % Abundant, very fine grained, anhedral
crystals with the exception of places where it
forms veinlets, where crystals are relatively
larger and local cleavage is obvious.
Quartz Phenocrysts in calcite veinlets 15 % Some elongated quartz crystals crosscut and
replace calcite
Pyrite + Microphenocrysts in 15 % Very fine grained anhedral crystals occurring
magnetite + groundmass in the groundmass and in the quartz and
chalcopyrite chlorite crystals
Sample No: AU 54433
DRILL HOLE: KMC-0815A DEPTH: 713.10 m (Reef 1 at 589 m)

Generally, the rock sample is greenish grey, and medium to coarse grained. Abundant
light coloured prismatic minerals (presumably hornblende) give the rock a holocrystalline
texture. Minor disseminated pyrite mineralisation is present. The rock is fairly chloritised and
quartz carbonate veinlets are absent.
MINERALOGY
minerals
Quartz Phenocrysts 10-15 % Anhedral-subhedral
(< 0.3 mm)
Chlorite Groundmass ~ 10 % Microcrystalline
Albite Phenocrysts ~ 10 % Subhedral Albite → calcite
(up to 0.9 mm)
Hornblende Phenocrysts 30-40 % Subhedral-euhedral Hornblende → leucoxene +
(up to 1 mm) albite + quartz
Leucoxene Phenocrysts 5-10 % Anhedral – subhedral Leucoxene → pyrite +
(up to 1 mm) magnetite + chalcopyrite.
Pyroxene Phenocrysts 1-3 % Anhedral -subhedral Pyroxene → calcite +
chlorite

minerals Morphology
Quartz Phenocrysts 5-7 %
Calcite Phenocrysts; partially replacing albite ~ 10 % Subhedral (0.3-0.5 mm)
Pyrite + Phenocrysts; occur within leucoxene <3% Anhedral; microcrystalline
magnetite +
chalcopyrite
124
Appendices
Sample No: AU 54434
DRILL HOLE: KMC-0812 DEPTH: AU 548.05 m (Reef 1 at 548 m)

Generally, the rock sample is pale greenish grey and fine grained. The rock is strongly
sheared and foliated at approximately 50º to core axis with quartz and carbonate veinlets
subparallel to foliation. The rock is strongly siliceous and chloritic. Randomly distributed
microcrystals of leucoxene and pyrite present.
MINERALOGY
Chlorite Groundmass 5% microcrystals Chlorite → calcite
Quartz Phenocrysts 5% Anhedral-subhedral Quartz → calcite
(0.10-0.15 mm)
Albite Microphenocryst ? Presumably albite is
pseudomorphs replaced by calcite

minerals
Chlorite Groundmass/veinlets/phenocrysts 5-7 % Anhedral (0.2-0.5 mm)
Quartz Phenocrysts/veinlets 7-10 % Some quartz veinlets are
enveloped by calcite
Calcite Groundmass/veinlets/microphenocrysts 70 % Calcite veinlets crosscutting all
other crystals
Pyrite Phenocrysts mainly in calcite veinlets 3-5 % Anhedral-subhedral (up to 0.2
mm)
Sample No: AU 54439
DRILL HOLE: KMC-0812 DEPTH: AU 578.81 m (Reef 1 at 548 m)

Generally, the rock sample is medium grey, and fine to medium grained. The rock
sample is more or less massive, with the exception of very local, narrow and discontinuous
quartz carbonate veinlets. Very small (only visible with the help of a hand lens), local pyrite
crystals, and extremely fine grained leucoxene crystals present.
125
Appendices
MINERALOGY
minerals
Chlorite Groundmass 5-7 % Fibrous, forming pressure Abundant microcrystals
shadows around more resistant that form a fibrous
minerals, e.g. quartz groundmass
Quartz Microphenocrysts 3-5 % Subhedral, subrounded (~ 0.1 Recrystallised quartz?
in groundmass mm)
Leucoxene Phenocrysts 10 % Anhedral (generally < 0.15 Leucoxene → pyrite +
mm) magnetite + chalcopyrite
Albite Phenocrysts 3-5 % Subhedral (only pseudomorphs Albite → calcite + quartz
of phenocrysts (~ 0.03 mm) → chlorite (locally
present) pyrite? replaces albite)
( ~100 % replacement)
Hornblende Phenocrysts 2-3 % Subhedral-euhedral (only Hornblende → calcite
pseudomorphs of phenocrysts (hornblende is ~ 100 %
(~ 0.04 mm) present) replaced)

minerals
Chlorite Groundmass, veinlets 25 % Locally replaces albite and
hornblende
Quartz Phenocrysts: replace albite 15 % Also occurs as microcrystals in
calcite veinlets
Calcite Mainly phenocrysts + minor 30 % Almost completely replaces albite
groundmass. The phenocrysts are and hornblende
subhedral (up to 0.3 mm)
Pyrite + Phenocrysts 2% Subhedral (generally < 0.1 mm) and
magnetite + occur within leucoxene crystals.
chalcopyrite
Sample No: AU 54444
DRILL HOLE: KMC-0812 DEPTH: 612.02 m (Reef 1 at 548 m)

Generally, the rock sample is pale greenish grey, and very fine grained. Very narrow,
more or less straight quartz carbonate veinlets fracture the core sample at approximately 25-
30º to core axis. More quartz and calcite occur in bleby form, presumably filling vesicles (1-3
mm in diameter). The rock unit is mostly chloritic and moderately siliceous and calcareous.
Small pyrite blebs (< 1 mm) are locally randomly distributed. There is a very weak evidence
of shearing, i.e., weak foliation at approximately 25-30º to core axis.
126
Appendices
MINERALOGY
Primary Occurrence Abundance Morphology Replacement
minerals minerals
Chlorite Groundmass 10 %
Quartz Microphenocrysts 5%
Leucoxene Phenocrysts 15 % Anhedral (locally forms very Leucoxene →
narrow dendritic vein structures) chlorite + calcite
Albite Local ? From XRD
microphenocrysts?

minerals Occurrence
Chlorite Groundmass, veinlets 30 % Seem to replace all other minerals with
the exception of pyrite
Quartz Very fine crystals in groundmass 20 % Few quartz crystal are up to 0.2 mm,
presumably recrystallised quartz?
Calcite Groundmass 25 % Microcrystalline and seem to
preferentially replace leucoxene
Pyrite Phenocrysts <5% Subhedral to euhedral crystals that
appear to be associated with leucoxene
Sample No: AU 54445
DRILL HOLE: KMC-0657 DEPTH: 1254.88 m (Reef 1 at 1254.88 m)

Generally, the rock sample is dark greenish grey and fine grained. Irregular narrow
crosscutting quartz carbonate veinlets randomly fracture the rock sample. The quartz in the
veinlets is black in colour. The basalt (including veinlets) has been strongly foliated by
shearing at approximately 55-60˚ to core axis. The narrowest quartz carbonate veinlets have
minor disseminated chalcopyrite mineralisation.
MINERALOGY
minerals
Chlorite Groundmass 15-20 % microphenocrysts Chlorite → pyrite + magnetite +
chalcopyrite
Quartz Phenocrysts 5-7 % Anhedral-subhedral
(< 0.05 mm)
Albite Phenocrysts ? subhedral Albite → siderite (~ 100 %
pseudomorphs replacement)
Leucoxene Phenocrysts <3% Anhedral-subhedral Leucoxene → sphene
(up to 0.9 mm)
127
Appendices

minerals
Chlorite Veinlets 25-30 % Anhedral crystals (up to 0.7
mm) in veinlets
Quartz Phenocrysts/veinlets 7-10 % Microphenocrysts in calcite
veinlets
Calcite Phenocrysts/veinlets: pinching and 20-25 % Anhedral-subhedral (< 0.5
swelling calcite veinlets mm)
Muscovite Groundmass? ? From XRD
Pyrite + Occur mainly within chlorite crystals 7-10 % Anhedral microcrystals
magnetite + abundant in chlorite but absent
chalcopyrite veinlets
Sphene Replaces leucoxene 1-2 % Anhedral (~ 0.4 mm)
Siderite Cross cut by chlorite (+ pyrite + magnetite 3-5 % Subhedral crystals (~ 0.4 mm)
+ chalcopyrite) veinlets
Yellowish mica Mica locally replaced by calcite 1-2 % Subhedral crystals (0.2-0.5
(chloritoid?) mm)
Sample No: AU 54451

Generally, the rock sample has a dark greenish grey, fine to medium grained
groundmass that hosts abundant 1-2 mm light grey anhedral leucoxene crystals and 0.5-1.0
mm subhedral , black, non magnetic crystals (presumably ilmenite). The rock is moderately
sheared and foliated at approximately 60-70º to core axis. Leucoxene crystals appear to be
stretched along foliation trend. Few random and irregular quartz carbonate veinlets (~ 1 mm
wide) fracture the rock.. the groundmass is highly chloritic and moderately calcareous.
MINERALOGY
minerals
Chlorite Groundmass 40 % Anhedral
microcrystals
Quartz Phenocrysts 40 % Subhedral (0.2->1.0 Quartz → calcite
mm)
Leucoxene Phenocrysts 5-7 % Anhedral-subhedral Leucoxene → ilmenite?
(0.3-0.7 mm) Leucoxene → calcite + chlorite
Albite Phenocrysts 3-5 % Subhedral -euhedral Albite → quartz + chlorite

minerals
Chlorite Veinlets: crosscut albite crystals 10 % Irregular fibre-like veinlets crosscutting all
other crystals. Form,s pressure shadows
around quartz crystals
Calcite Phenocrysts, veinlets 5% Pseudomorph phenocrysts of albite, veinlets,
and vesicle fills
128
Appendices
Quartz Phenocrysts 5% Anhedral phenocrysts (< 0.5 mm) in calcite

veinlets
Ilmenite? Phenocrysts 5% Small anhedral crystals localised within
leucoxene crystals
Sample No: AU 54455

Generally, the rock sample has a dark greenish grey, fine to medium grained
groundmass, hosting abundant randomly distributed light grey anhedral leucoxene? crystals
(up to 1.5 mm). Abundant black, subangular crystals (black quartz) and local anhedral pyrite
blebs (0.5-3.0 mm). The rock is strongly chloritised and moderately calcareous. There is a
very weak shear/foliation fabric.
MINERALOGY
minerals Morphology
Chlorite Phenocrysts, 15 % Fibrous veinlets, Foliation/fibrous fabric forming
groundmass microcrystalline pressure shadows around quartz
groundmass crystals
Quartz Phenocrysts 5% Subangular to subrounded, Subrounded dark coloured and
fractured by chlorite randomly distributed quartz
veinlets (< 0.1-0.7mm)
Hornblende Phenocrysts 3% Subhedral crystals (up to 1 Highly fractured by chlorite and
mm in length, and 0.8 mm calcite, which replace it
wide)
Leucoxene Phenocrysts 5% Anhedral crystals (up to > Leucoxene replace some albite
1 mm)
Albite Groundmass? ? Albite → quartz + chlorite +
calcite, phenocrysts of albite
totally replaced by quartz, calcite,
and chlorite

minerals
Chlorite Groundmass, veinlets 50 % Microcrystals and pseudomorph phenocrysts of
albite
Quartz Phenocrysts, veinlets 10 %
Calcite Phenocrysts in quartz veinlets 7% Pseudomorph phenocrysts of albite. Also
within chlorite and euhedral pyrite crystals
Pyrite phenocrysts 2% Subhedral crystals that occur within narrow
discontinuous calcite veinlets
Ilmenite? Phenocrysts within leucoxene 2% Anhedral tiny crystals (< 0.05 mm) within
leucoxene crystals
129
Appendices
Sample No: AU 54456
DRILL HOLE: UX 4580/014 DEPTH: 1.62 m (Reef 1 at 102 m)
LITHOLOGY: basaltic andesite

Generally, the rock sample has a greenish grey, coarse grained groundmass hosting
abundant subhedral black magnetite crystals (~ 1 mm) and abundant lath shaped, light green
crystals (presumably feldspars) (0.3 X1 mm)that give the rock a weak holocrystalline texture.
Local quartz-calcite-chlorite veinlet is present. The rock sample is strongly chloritic and fairly
calcareous. Very tiny local pyrite crystals present.
MINERALOGY
minerals
Chlorite Phenocrysts, 10 % Irregular and Fibrous fabric (presumably due to
groundmass continuous shearing) forming pressure shadows on
relatively more resistant minerals, e.g.,
quartz
Quartz Phenocrysts 5% Subangular (< Fractured by calcite and later quartz
0.1-0.5 mm) veinlets
Leucoxene Phenocrysts 5% Subhedral (up to Most of replacement is by magnetite and
> 1.0 mm along to lesser extent chlorite
long section)
Hornblende Phenocrysts 2% Subhedral (< 0.5 Replaced mainly by calcite and chlorite
mm)
Groundmass/mi ? 100 % replaced by quartz and leucoxene,
Albite crocrystalline? which is also replaced by magnetite.

minerals
Chlorite Mainly veinlets and 55 % Irregular veinlets crosscutting quartz,
groundmass hornblende and earlier chlorite
Magnetite Phenocrysts and 7% Anhedral to euhedral closely associated with
pseudomorphs of phenocrysts leucoxene. Cleavages seen in replaced
(up to 1 mm) original albite crystals
Pyrite Phenocrysts/veinlets <1% Irregular unless where small crystal form a
veinlet
Calcite Groundmass, veinlets, 5% Subhedral (up to 0.7 mm)
phenocrysts
Epidote phenocrysts 1% Subhedral (~ 0.05 mm)
Quartz Phenocrysts (recrystallised) 10 % Subhedral-anhedral (< 0.1-0.5 mm)
and veinlets
130
Appendices
Sample No: AU 54462

Generally, the rock sample is greenish grey and very fine grained. Extremely fine
grained, but abundant brownish crystals (presumably leucoxene) are present. White irregular
quartz carbonate veinlets (~ 1 mm wide) and narrower black quartz veinlets, crosscut the rock
sample. Very local pyrite blebbs (< 0.5 mm) present. The greenish tint suggests that the rock
is fairly chloritic.
MINERALOGY
minerals
Chlorite Groundmass 15 % Anhedral Chlorite → chlorite +
microphenocrysts calcite + leucoxene
Quartz Phenocrysts 5-10 % Anhedral (< 0.1 mm)
Albite Groundmass/microphenocrysts ? From XRD Albite → calcite
Leucoxene Phenocrysts 5-7 % Anhedral (< 0.2 mm) Leucoxene → pyrite +
magnetite +
chalcopyrite

minerals Morphology
Quartz Phenocrysts, veinlets 10 %
Calcite Phenocrysts, veinlets 40 % Pseudomorph phenocrysts of albite
Muscovite Groundmass? <5%
Pyrite +
magnetite +
chalcopyrite?
Sample No: AU 54466

Generally, the rock sample is pale greenish grey, and very fine grained. Dark grey
discontinuous quartz carbonate veinlets are subparallel to core jointing. Small blebs of pyrite
are randomly scattered. The rock sample is highly calcareous, moderately siliceous, and
weakly chloritic.
131
Appendices
MINERALOGY
minerals Morphology
Chlorite Irregular 5% Fibrous crystals Chlorite → black pyrite +
veinlets magnetite + chalcopyrite
(Fe oxides?)
Quartz Phenocrysts 10 % Subangular, anhedral (up to 0.5 Quartz → calcite
mm)
Leucoxene Phenocrysts 5-7 % Anhedral (up to 0.2 mm) Leucoxene → pyrite +
concentrated in all areas except magnetite + chalcopyrite
within the quartz carbonate
veinlets.
Albite Phenocrysts 5% Subhedral-euhedral (up to 0.6 mm Albite → quartz + calcite
pseudomorphs in the long axis) Albite → leucoxene →
pyrite + magnetite +
chalcopyrite

minerals Occurrence
Chlorite Veinlets that cross 10 % Chlorite veinlets crosscut some pyrite + magnetite +
cut calcite and quartz chalcopyrite
crystals
Quartz Veinlets 20 % In quartz veinlets, calcite rims quartz crystals as well
as filling some vesicles in quartz crystals, giving some
quartz grains a mottled appearance
Calcite Groundmass, around 40 % Calcite veinlets crosscutting some calcite crystals
quartz veinlets
Pyrite Phenocrysts (mainly <2% Anhedral to subhedral (up to 1 mm)
localised within
quartz carbonate
veinlets
Sample No: AU 54419

Generally, the rock sample is greenish grey with extremely fine grained matrix hosting
very fine grained light brown leucoxene crystals. There is a stockwork veining by irregular
cross cutting quartz carbonate veinlets. The rock is sheared and foliated at approximately 40˚
to core axis.
132
Appendices
MINERALOGY
Quartz Phenocrysts 10 % Anhedral-subhedral,
subangular (< 0.2 mm)
Leucoxene Phenocrysts 5-7 % Anhedral (0.2 mm) Leucoxene → ?pyrite
Albite Pseudomorph 2-3 % Subhedral (~ 0.3 mm) Albite → calcite
phenocrysts

minerals
Quartz Phenocrysts 20 %
Calcite Phenocrysts/veinlets 35-40 %
muscovite Pres. groundmass ?
Pyrite + magnetite + Phenocrysts <1%
chalcopyrite
Yellowish mica (chloritoid?) Mica → calcite <1% Subhedral (~ 0.03 mm)
Sample No: AU 54389

Generally, the rock sample has a medium grey, mostly fine, locally medium grained
groundmass hosting abundant light brown, anhedral leucoxene, and black quartz crystals. A
brecciated quartz-carbonate vein (~ 20 mm wide) cut the core sample approximately normal
to core axis. The rock sample is moderately sheared and foliated at approximately 15-20º to
core axis. Very fine grained, local pyrite crystals present.
MINERALOGY
minerals
Quartz Phenocrysts ~ 10 % Subhedral, subrounded (up to Some quartz crystals cross cut
0.25 mm) calcite crystals.
Albite Phenocrysts 5-7 % Subhedral-euhedral (~ 1 mm) Albite → calcite + (locally)
quartz → chlorite
Albite → leucoxene
(albite is ~ 100 % replaced)
Leucoxene Phenocrysts 5-10 % Anhedral crystals (up to > 1 mm) Leucoxene → pyrite +
magnetite + chalcopyrite

minerals
133
Appendices
Quartz Phenocrysts: subhedral, ~ 1 mm 15-20 % Recrystallised quartz

Chlorite Groundmass + veinlets 20 % Fibrous veins replacing albite and
calcite
Calcite Groundmass, veinlets (fracture some 25 % Calcite occurs mainly as albite
quartz crystals), and pseudomorphs of pseudomorph phenocrysts.
albite phenocrysts
Pyrite + Phenocrysts: anhedral, ~ 1 mm <3% Most pyrite + magnetite +
magnetite + chalcopyrite occur within
chalcopyrite leucoxene crystals
Sample No: AU 54391

Generally, the rock sample has a dark greenish grey, medium (locally coarse) grained
matrix hosting anhedral black magnetite (0.1-0.2 mm) and black quartz crystals. Magnetite
crystals are rimmed by white calcite. The rock sample is more or less massive, with local very
weak foliation at approximately 40˚ to core axis. The rock is fairly altered (chloritic and
calcareous).
MINERALOGY
minerals
Quartz Phenocrysts 5-7 % Subhedral, subangular (up Quartz → calcite + chlorite
to 0.4 mm)
Chlorite Fibrous crystals 15 % Anhedral (> 1 mm)
Albite Phenocrysts 3-5 % Subhedral (0.03-0.07 mm) Albite → chlorite
pseudomorphs
Leucoxene Phenocrysts 15 % Subhedral (up to 0.8 mm) Leucoxene → chlorite + calcite

minerals
Quartz Phenocrysts: replaced mainly by calcite and to a 15 %
lesser extent by chlorite
Chlorite Phenocrysts: replacing leucoxene, albite, and quartz 25 %
Magnetite Phenocrysts (within leucoxene and chlorite crystals)
Calcite Groundmass and phenocrysts replacing leucoxene 20 %
and quartz crystals
134
Appendices
Sample No: AU 54395

Generally, the rock sample has a greenish grey, fine grained groundmass hosting
abundant light brown leucoxene crystals. Local discontinuous quartz carbonate veinlets
present. Very local and small (can be seen only using a hand lens) pyrite crystals present. The
rock is fairly chloritic and moderately calcareous.
MINERALOGY
minerals
Quartz Phenocrysts 10 % Subhedral (< 0.1-0.2 mm) Quartz → chlorite
Chlorite Phenocrysts/gr 15 % Anhedral (~ 0.2 mm) Chlorite → leucoxene
oundmass
Albite Phenocrysts 5-7 % Subhedral ( < 0.2 mm) Albite → leucoxene
Hornblende Phenocrysts 20-25 % Hornblende → leucoxene
Subhedral (up
to 0.8 mm)
Leucoxene Phenocrysts 25-30 %

minerals Occurrence
Quartz Phenocrysts/veinlets 5% Discontinuous veinlets crosscut by chlorite
Chlorite Groundmass/veinlets 10 % Anhedral microcrystals in irregular veinlets
Calcite Phenocrysts/veinlets 5% Anhedral microcrystals in quartz veinlets
Sample No: AU 54396

Generally, the rock sample has a dark greenish grey, fine grained groundmass hosting
abundant anhedral black magnetic crystals (presumably magnetite) and local, very small
pyrite crystals. Off white quartz carbonate veinlets of variable widths fracture the rock in
different locations. The rock is fairly chloritic and calcareous, and lacks evidence of shearing.
135
Appendices
MINERALOGY
minerals
Chlorite Groundmass/ 10-15 % Anhedral crystals (up to 1 mm) Chlorite → quartz
phenocrysts
Quartz Phenocrysts 10-15 % Anhedral crystals (< 0.3 mm) Quartz → chlorite
Albite Phenocrysts 7-10 % Anhedral-subhedral (0.2-1mm) Albite → quartz
Hornblende Phenocrysts 7-10 % Subhedral (up to > 1mm) Hornblende → albite →
chlorite
Hornblende → calcite
Leucoxene Phenocrysts 3-5 % Anhedral-subhedral (up to > Leucoxene → pyrite +
1mm) magnetite + chalcopyrite

minerals Occurrence
Quartz Phenocrysts/veinlets 15-20 % Anhedral phenocrysts (~ 0.3 mm) in veinlets
Chlorite Groundmass/veinlets 10-15 % Microphenocrysts in veinlets

Calcite Phenocrysts/veinlets 10-15 % Anhedral phenocrysts (0.10-0.15 mm)
Pyrite + Presumably magnetite, 2-3 % Anhedral (< 0.2 mm)
magnetite + occurring within leucoxene
chalcopyrite crystals
2. Reflected light petrography

Twenty one drill core samples from four drill holes were selected for preparation of
polished mounts for studying the pyrite + magnetite + chalcopyrite. The selection of samples
was based from results of hand samples observation and transmitted light petrography studies,
from which samples containing the seemingly difficult to identify pyrite + magnetite +
chalcopyrite were selected for reflected light microscopic studies. This section summarises
the results of the study.
Sample No: AU 54396
Mineral Occurrence Abundance Replacement

Morphology
Magnetite Phenocrysts 15-20 % Anhedral (0.3-0.6 mm)
Pyrite Phenocrysts 1-2 % Anhedral-subhedral (< 0.05 mm)
(tarnished) Phenocrysts <1% Subhedral (~ 0.1 mm)
Pyrite?
136
Appendices
Sample No: AU 54426
Mineral Occurrence Abundance Replacement

Morphology
Ilmenite Phenocrysts 7-10 % Subhedral (up to > 1 mm) Ilmenite → leucoxene + pyrite +
chalcopyrite
Pyrite Phenocrysts 1% Subhedral (~ 0.01 mm)
Chalcopyrite Phenocrysts <1% Subhedral (< 0.01 mm)
Sample No: AU 54456
Mineral Occurrence Abundance Morphology Replacement

Magnetite Phenocrysts 5-7 % Anhedral-subhedral (up to 0.6 mm) Magnetite → gangue
minerals
Pyrite Phenocrysts 1% Subhedral-anhedral (< 0.05 mm) Pyrite → gangue
minerals
Chalcopyrite Phenocrysts 1% Anhedral (< 0.1 mm) Chalcopyrite → gangue
minerals
Sample No: AU 54399

Pyrite Phenocrysts 1% Anhedral-subhedral (~ 0.1 mm) Pyrite → gangue minerals
Chalcopyrite Phenocrysts <1% Anhedral-subhedral (< 0.05 mm) Gangue minerals →
chalcopyrite
Sample No: AU 54395
Mineral Occurrence Abundance Morphology

Replacement
Pyrite Phenocrysts <1% Anhedral (up to 0.25 mm) Pyrite → gangue minerals
Chalcopyrite Phenocrysts <1% Anhedral (< 0.1 mm) Chalcopyrite → gangue minerals
137
Appendices
Sample No: AU 54391
Occurrence Abundance Morphology Replacement

Mineral
Magnetite Phenocrysts 7-10 % Subhedral (up to > 1 mm) Magnetite crystals
crosscut by chlorite
Chalcopyrite Phenocrysts <1% Anhedral-subhedral (< 0.01 mm) Chalcopyrite ↔ gangue
minerals
Sample No: AU 54433

Chalcopyrite Phenocrysts 1% Anhedral-subhedral (up to 0.2 mm) Chalcopyrite →
gangue minerals
Pyrite Phenocrysts <1% Anhedral (< 0.1 mm) Pyrite → gangue
minerals
Sample No: AU 54466
Mineral Occurrence Abundance Morphology

Replacement
Pyrite Phenocrysts 1-2 % Anhedral (up to 1 mm) Pyrite → gangue minerals
Chalcopyrite Phenocrysts <1% Anhedral (~ 0.1 mm) Gangue minerals → chalcopyrite
138
Appendices
APPENDIX 4 INDUCTIVELY COUPLED PLASMA ANALYSES- BASIC STATISTICS
Lithological unit AGLM ANDS ARGL ASTF BSDY DIAB GABR ITUF LPTF PYZN QCVN QFPP QZVN STRS
Number of samples 311 3541 1890 734 80 1712 23 63 128 338 114 71 925 520
Maximum Ag (ppm) 6.0 42.2 23.4 14.4 5.2 40.1 0.2 7.8 2.2 11.8 11.6 2.0 94.2 32.0
Minimum Ag (ppm) 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
Average Ag (ppm) 0.20 0.25 1.29 0.58 0.21 0.31 0.12 0.76 0.16 0.92 0.85 0.27 10.00 2.91
Ag Standard deviation 0.40 0.87 2.04 1.26 0.59 1.67 0.04 1.30 0.23 1.10 1.66 0.39 13.48 4.42
Overall Ag average (ppm) 1.34
Maximum Al (%) 5.30 6.85 5.74 5.66 5.77 6.07 6.76 6.76 5.17 5.58 5.41 4.41 5.97 5.65
Minimum Al (%) 0.30 0.30 0.12 0.16 2.00 0.01 0.33 0.33 0.33 0.11 0.15 0.17 0.01 0.10
Average Al (%) 1.37 3.91 1.02 1.57 4.14 3.80 2.08 2.78 1.11 2.15 2.57 0.84 1.16 1.50
Al Standard deviation 0.92 0.89 0.90 0.93 0.66 0.87 2.04 1.53 0.81 1.37 1.21 0.69 1.06 1.33
Overall Al average (%) 2.14
Maximum As (ppm) 1490 2410 3210 3280 44 7050 890 890 118 670 1130 1540 7360 14210
Minimum As (ppm) 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Average As (ppm) 37.30 29.72 105.71 56.07 6.26 22.28 151.06 68.29 13.82 67.85 47.65 42.18 262.65 196.30
As Standard deviation 138.99 81.71 161.87 152.83 8.82 170.28 248.16 131.35 20.71 67.00 154.56 192.55 466.23 670.31
Overall As average (ppm) 79.08
Maximum Ba (ppm) 340 370 100 110 150 770 80 60 80 80 470 120 320 90
Minimum Ba (ppm) 5 1 5 5 5 5 3 5 5 5 5 5 4 1
Average Ba (ppm) 38.41 8.32 16.64 19.66 16.16 14.04 21.40 12.62 33.13 15.00 20.22 41.48 13.79 13.88
Ba Standard deviation 29.12 11.30 12.24 15.70 18.48 28.80 24.47 11.63 16.74 13.66 47.59 25.36 16.95 11.88
Overall Ba average (ppm) 20.34
Maximum Bi (ppm) 84 56 522 86 16 178 74 74 14 64 58 14 2940 250
139
Appendices
Minimum Bi (ppm) 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Average Bi (ppm) 2.26 2.39 7.74 4.77 2.21 2.67 15.54 5.27 1.90 7.88 3.75 2.17 36.31 12.78
Bi Standard deviation 6.01 3.34 17.79 8.51 2.64 5.78 22.61 10.48 2.43 10.54 6.23 2.76 115.76 18.68
Overall Bi average (ppm) 7.69
Maximum Ca (%) 9.09 14.15 10.30 9.93 5.29 11.50 6.71 7.76 7.06 7.88 14.10 14.10 14.70 14.85
Minimum Ca (%) 1.15 0.32 0.10 0.19 1.10 0.01 0.84 1.52 0.76 1.33 1.83 0.01 0.03 0.10
Average Ca (%) 3.15 5.74 2.60 3.67 2.23 5.01 4.21 4.57 2.28 4.01 7.23 3.99 3.27 3.49
Ca Standard deviation 1.20 1.56 1.45 1.28 0.69 1.48 1.67 1.34 1.17 1.21 2.69 3.29 2.51 2.41
Overall Ca average (%) 3.96
Maximum Cd (ppm) 1.5 22.5 42.5 53.5 6.0 5.0 5.5 5.5 0.5 12.0 18.0 0.5 35.5 18.5
Minimum Cd (ppm) 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.07 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25
Average Cd (ppm) 0.29 0.94 0.72 0.58 0.69 0.68 1.00 1.11 0.27 1.12 0.98 0.25 0.87 0.76
Cd Standard deviation 0.18 1.22 1.59 2.48 0.95 0.77 1.50 1.42 0.07 1.59 1.89 0.03 2.00 1.41
Overall Cd average (ppm) 0.73
Maximum Co (ppm) 53 221 439 139 58 170 156 144 51 225 129 34 577 379
Minimum Co (ppm) 3 4 4 2 11 3 4 6 4 8 1 1 1 6
Average Co (ppm) 14 39 43 25 37 39 49 28 12 40 29 7 78 59
Co Standard deviation 10 9 30 16 7 10 52 19 10 24 15 6 64 41
Overall Co average (ppm) 36
Maximum Cr (ppm) 203 1460 879 628 874 1505 285 117 285 178 271 141 1000 557
Minimum Cr (ppm) 6 9 4 4 36 6 8 8 9 6 24 10 8 9
Average Cr (ppm) 54 107 60 66 185 102 89 69 60 61 97 65 99 76
Cr Standard deviation 28 70 47 45 138 134 92 28 30 25 44 30 73 52
Overall Cr average (ppm) 85
Maximum Fe (%) 11.40 14.95 14.90 14.60 8.77 14.70 14.65 14.65 9.31 14.95 12.60 7.22 19.60 15.60
Minimum Fe (%) 0.94 1.17 1.05 0.43 2.98 0.01 0.98 2.19 0.98 1.56 1.01 0.09 0.46 1.49
Average Fe (%) 2.89 6.83 4.26 4.15 4.20 6.57 5.96 7.73 2.24 8.31 5.52 1.68 8.14 6.62
140
Appendices
Fe Standard deviation 1.80 1.88 2.27 2.29 1.38 1.65 4.61 3.71 1.72 3.70 2.44 1.03 3.60 2.86
Overall Fe average (%) 5.36
Maximum K (%) 0.39 1.20 0.82 0.71 0.29 1.72 0.34 0.33 0.34 0.83 0.45 0.64 1.04 0.69
Minimum K (%) 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.04 0.01 0.01
Average K (%) 0.17 0.05 0.16 0.15 0.11 0.14 0.12 0.10 0.16 0.13 0.08 0.22 0.12 0.13
K Standard deviation 0.08 0.06 0.08 0.08 0.05 0.22 0.11 0.07 0.07 0.11 0.07 0.13 0.08 0.08
Overall K average (%) 0.13
Maximum Mg (%) 4.02 6.03 5.07 7.30 10.25 10.25 6.22 3.57 3.66 3.34 3.49 2.80 5.64 4.12
Minimum Mg (%) 0.29 0.22 0.05 0.13 1.31 1.31 0.01 0.81 0.12 0.10 0.20 0.01 0.02 0.04
Average Mg (%) 1.02 2.62 0.80 1.53 3.84 3.84 2.87 1.98 0.72 1.64 1.94 0.54 1.01 1.23
Mg Standard deviation 0.62 0.71 0.52 0.70 1.32 1.32 0.74 0.67 0.60 0.59 0.78 0.50 0.79 0.95
Overall Mg average (%) 1.83
Maximum Mn (ppm) 3420 9670 9350 7520 2200 6250 8650 8650 2840 9150 7080 1190 9930 9520
Minimum Mn (ppm) 225 155 40 155 305 15 155 575 155 365 345 20 40 90
Average Mn (ppm) 934 1730 642 1162 787 1280 1758 3011 540 2366 1862 491 1387 1264
Mn Standard deviation 557 972 571 706 355 422 2386 2079 475 1644 1188 214 1365 1366
Overall Mn average (ppm) 1372
Maximum Ni (ppm) 145 432 533 345 325 426 149 81 149 113 141 68 266 322
Minimum Ni (ppm) 7 8 8 5 5 0.5 8 24 8 14 3 1 4 8
Average Ni (ppm) 23.39 64.84 62.36 51.29 238.25 59.78 50.93 47.81 23.65 52.78 48.19 10.97 63.47 69.25
Ni Standard deviation 21.31 24.64 37.76 25.14 55.55 44.74 42.49 13.86 21.50 16.74 24.03 11.99 34.11 34.17
Overall Ni average (ppm) 61.93
Maximum P (ppm) 770 1120 1230 1070 2230 1820 740 740 690 690 1120 1040 1950 930
Minimum P (ppm) 0 0 0 0 0 5 0 140 140 0 0 30 0 0
Average P (ppm) 456 280 431 423 279 315 298 374 457 357 247 435 306 375
P Standard deviation 98 102 152 131 320 153 241 112 92 114 171 210 159 155
Overall P average (ppm) 3607
141
Appendices
Maximum Pb (ppm) 244 934 1080 452 298 250 80 30 80 136 140 54 1955 404
Minimum Pb (ppm) 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Average Pb (ppm) 4.91 2.64 22.93 10.27 9.00 2.05 19.32 5.02 3.77 16.63 6.49 5.76 37.84 22.67
Pb Standard deviation 15.37 16.59 39.94 29.73 34.32 8.77 23.36 6.70 8.21 19.95 19.04 8.72 111.66 34.87
Overall Pb average (ppm) 12.09
Maximum S (%) 6.14 8.75 9.85 8.54 0.96 9.89 9.93 7.07 6.29 9.99 4.77 2.32 9.99 9.91
Minimum S (%) 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.04 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.04 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01
Average S (%) 0.40 0.30 2.66 1.14 0.18 0.22 3.33 1.47 0.41 4.33 0.58 0.29 4.30 3.40
S Standard deviation 0.63 0.57 1.80 1.57 0.14 0.57 3.30 1.50 0.81 2.84 0.79 0.38 2.94 2.71
Overall S average (%) 1.64
Maximum Sc (ppm) 23 45 41 35 32 49 24 24 20 29 41 21 37 39
Minimum Sc (ppm) 0.25 0.50 0.25 0.50 1.00 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.25 0.25
Average Sc (ppm) 2.24 17.19 1.76 3.04 8.04 18.78 6.37 7.82 1.62 6.28 11.72 1.52 4.02 5.29
Sc Standard deviation 3.33 9.99 3.29 4.67 7.62 12.36 7.80 6.81 3.48 6.13 8.77 3.26 5.68 8.06
Overall Sc average (ppm) 6.83
Maximum Sr (ppm) 9560 2170 766 470 314 294 501.00 410 501 573 7170 231 1745 291
Minimum Sr (ppm) 14.0 0.5 7.0 17.0 34.8 0.5 21.7 38.0 33.0 17.0 7.0 2.0 0.5 7.0
Average Sr (ppm) 201 58 52 89 75 44 132 126 107 112 157 66 66 58
Sr Standard deviation 588 57 38 44 39 27 156 67 76 68 685 48 116 44
Overall Sr average (ppm) 95
Maximum V (ppm) 204 507 538 255 255 716 184.00 173 184 190 259 166 426 407
Minimum V (ppm) 1.0 3.0 0.5 0.5 47.0 0.5 1.0 3.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.5 0.5 0.5
Average V (ppm) 20 151 13 26 91 174 48 52 16 43 95 13 30 44
V Standard deviation 29 59 28 37 40 91 63 46 32 39 65 27 47 67
Overall V average (ppm) 58
Maximum Zn (ppm) 414 7900 4840 8860 994 872 870 870 686 444 422 116 9080 5220
142
Appendices
Minimum Zn (ppm) 1 1 1 1 14 10 10 12 10 2 1 1 1 1
Average Zn (ppm) 37 86 244 81 95 69 186 81 57 57 51 18 140 99
Zn Standard deviation 39 188 501 435 190 42 283 110 83 48 50 19 402 265
Overall Zn average (ppm) 93
Maximum Au assay (ppm) 25.220 46.270 77.170 43.650 4.675 40.140 0.270 24.940 3.130 10.790 34.120 5.483 619.590 145.690
Minimum Au assay (ppm) 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.005
Average Au assay (ppm) 0.263 0.143 0.835 0.592 0.080 0.308 0.019 1.366 0.074 0.645 1.374 0.320 14.044 3.450
Au assay Standard deviation 1.563 1.100 3.042 2.582 0.526 1.671 0.055 3.849 0.340 1.402 3.986 0.806 42.650 10.105
Overall Au assay average (ppm) 1.680
Maximum Cu (ppm) 3870 8160 9950 7500 3620 9190 325 4410 957 4000 15000 3490 39900 18600
Minimum Cu (ppm) 1 1 12 1 9 1 8 5 5 1 1 4 1 15
Average Cu (ppm) 68 165 685 267 159 276 93 348 45 236 711 194 3315 1455
Cu Standard deviation 256 372 1173 663 436 757 73 726 98 396 1821 545 4421 2143
Overall Cu average (ppm) 573
143
Appendices
APPENDIX 5. ELEMENTAL ICP DATA DESCRIPTIONS.

(CD ROM attached)
144
Appendices
APPENDIX 6A & 6B. AVERAGE COMPOSITIONS OF THE LEAST ALTERED REEF 1 FOOTWALL MAFIC METAVOLCANIC ROCKS.
Appendix 6a. Average composition of the least altered Reef 1 mafic metavolcanic rocks for the host rock only (determined by XRF)
SiO2 (%) TiO2 (%) Al2O3 (%) Fe2O3 (%) MnO (%) MgO (%) CaO (%) Na2O (%) K2O (%) P2O5 (%) LOI (%)
Average 48.79 1.13 13.30 13.25 0.30 5.72 7.88 2.22 0.20 0.09 6.76
Maximum 54.28 1.48 14.52 18.57 0.45 9.37 10.68 4.01 0.62 0.13 9.41
Minimum 40.64 0.91 11.80 10.35 0.22 4.38 4.56 0.00 0.01 0.06 2.16
Standard deviation 3.16 0.19 0.80 2.78 0.07 1.24 1.72 1.16 0.16 0.02 2.05
Appendix 6b. Average composition of the least altered Reef 1 mafic metavolcanic rocks for the host rock and veins samples (determined by XRF)
SiO2 (%) TiO2 (%) Al2O3 (%) Fe2O3 (%) MnO (%) MgO (%) CaO (%) Na2O (%) K2O (%) P2O5 (%) LOI (%)
Average 46.81 0.88 12.29 12.72 0.26 5.28 10.17 2.07 0.32 0.08 8.31
Maximum 68.97 1.24 16.20 16.27 0.59 7.97 16.89 4.24 2.81 0.11 16.51
Minimum 33.10 0.29 9.25 2.20 0.03 0.81 1.83 0.00 0.01 0.05 2.24
Standard deviation 7.24 0.25 1.96 3.28 0.12 1.61 3.29 1.16 0.65 0.02 3.95
145
Appendices
APPENDIX 7. LECO ANALYSIS RESULTS OF THE REEF 1 FOOTWALL MAFIC METAVOLCANIC ROCKS.
Appendix 7. Leco analysis results for the Reef 1 footwall metavolcanic rocks.
Sulphur Sulphur
Sample Sulphur Rep Sulphur Rep TOEC TOEC Tcarb Tcarb Rep Carbonate
(Calculated
total total sulphide sulphide organic/elemental organic/elemental total total )
% % % % % % % % % CO3
AU 54486 0.04 0.02 0.07 0.07 <0.01
AU 54487 0.01 0.01 0.05 2.32 11.4
AU 54488 0.03 0.12 0.04 0.23 0.95
AU 54489 0.07 0.09 0.18 2.83 13.3
AU 54490 <0.01 0.04 0.06 0.67 3.05
AU 54491 0.02 <0.01 0.05 0.04 1.65 8
AU 54434 0.96 0.84 0.04 1.74 8.5
AU 54435 0.14 <0.01 0.04 1.92 9.4
AU 54436 1.51 1.4 0.05 2.6 12.8
AU 54437 0.06 0.01 0.05 1.98 9.65
AU 54438 0.06 0.02 0.05 1.81 8.8
AU 54439 0.03 0.03 0.06 0.7 3.2
AU 54440 0.03 0.02 0.08 1.3 6.1
AU 54441 0.01 <0.01 0.06 2.67 13.1
AU 54442 0.03 <0.01 0.04 0.04 0.1 0.3
AU 54443 0.01 <0.01 0.13 1.62 7.45
AU 54444 1.26 1.79 0.07 1.64 7.85
AU 54445 0.04 0.01 0.08 1.66 7.9
AU 54446 2.7 2.37 0.06 1.81 8.75
AU 54447 0.05 <0.01 0.09 1.56 7.35
AU 54448 0.01 0.18 0.05 1.46 7.05
AU 54449 <0.01 0.01 0.05 0.9 4.25
AU 54450 0.03 0.01 0.17 0.09 0.73 0.72 3.2
146
Appendices
AU 54451 <0.01 <0.01 0.05 1.38 6.65

AU 54452 0.01 <0.01 0.06 1.53 7.35
AU 54453 <0.01 0.02 0.04 2.14 10.5
AU 54454 0.01 0.06 0.04 0.43 1.95
AU 54455 <0.01 0.06 0.05 1.79 8.7
AU 54456 0.02 <0.01 0.02 1.72 8.5
AU 54457 <0.01 <0.01 0.04 0.34 1.5
AU 54458 <0.01 0.02 0.04 1.16 5.6
AU 54459 0.01 0.02 0.03 1.62 7.95
AU 54460 0.04 0.09 0.06 0.07 0.05 0.06 3.45 7
AU 54461 0.17 0.09 0.04 1.48 7.2
AU 54462 0.01 <0.01 0.05 1.09 5.2
AU 54463 0.01 <0.01 0.03 1.99 9.8
AU 54464 0.13 0.04 0.05 1.95 9.5
AU 54465 0.02 <0.01 0.06 0.06 2.5 12.2
AU 54466 <0.01 0.02 0.02 0.02 2.5 12.4
147
Appendices
APPENDIX 8. ICP ANALYSES FOR THE REEF 1 FOOTWALL MAFIC METAVOLCANIC ROCKS.
Drill
SAMPLE Hole Ag Al As B Ba Be Bi Ca Cd Co Cr Cu Fe Ga Hg K La
DESCRIPTION Depth (m) ppm % ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm % ppm ppm ppm ppm % ppm ppm % ppm
EX 4549/006
PM012 1.84 <0.2 1.7 <2 <10 <10 <0.5 <2 0.59 <0.5 21 108 180 2.55 <10 <1 0.01 <10
PM013 29.76 <0.2 4.09 27 <10 <10 <0.5 <2 7.41 1.7 40 168 86 5.68 <10 <1 0.01 <10
PM014 42.16 <0.2 2.29 <2 <10 <10 <0.5 <2 1.09 <0.5 27 43 61 4.27 <10 <1 0.01 <10
PM015 60.28 <0.2 5.03 <2 <10 <10 <0.5 <2 8.89 3.4 29 91 28 9.72 20 <1 <0.01 <10
PM016 75.93 <0.2 3.98 <2 <10 <10 <0.5 <2 2.39 1 42 42 315 6.89 <10 <1 0.01 <10
PM017 111.92 <0.2 3.76 <2 <10 <10 0.5 <2 5.46 2.3 42 12 61 9.84 20 <1 0.08 <10
KMC-0812
PM060 548.05 2.4 2.05 5830 <10 <10 <0.5 <2 3.95 1.5 34 119 1335 5.56 <10 <1 0.09 <10
PM061 554.08 <0.2 4.01 16 <10 <10 <0.5 <2 5.96 1.6 46 122 134 6.09 10 <1 0.04 <10
PM062 560.00 <0.2 2.13 <2 <10 10 <0.5 <2 4.39 0.9 39 81 110 6.51 <10 <1 0.1 <10
PM063 566.76 <0.2 3.47 62 <10 10 <0.5 <2 6.23 0.9 45 103 128 5.53 10 <1 0.06 <10
PM064 572.96 <0.2 3.9 <2 <10 <10 <0.5 <2 5.85 1.8 43 111 143 6.51 10 <1 0.01 <10
PM065 578.81 <0.2 3.85 <2 <10 <10 <0.5 <2 2.3 1.2 42 126 126 6.38 10 <1 <0.01 <10
PM066 586.33 <0.2 4.43 6 <10 10 <0.5 <2 4.04 1.9 42 119 106 7.37 10 <1 0.03 <10
PM067 592.25 <0.2 5 <2 <10 <10 <0.5 <2 8.85 3.5 29 92 27 9.71 20 <1 <0.01 <10
PM068 598.35 <0.2 4.92 <2 <10 <10 <0.5 <2 0.5 1.4 54 119 112 7.91 10 <1 <0.01 <10
PM069 605.30 <0.2 4.18 <2 <10 <10 <0.5 2 5.37 1.7 44 119 118 7.02 10 <1 <0.01 <10
PM070 612.02 <0.2 4.66 <2 <10 <10 <0.5 <2 5.28 3.6 109 116 218 9.92 20 <1 <0.01 <10
KMC-0657
PM071 1254.88 <0.2 6.21 16 <10 <10 <0.5 <2 4.41 4.8 44 111 226 12.5 20 <1 <0.01 <10
PM072 1262.90 <0.2 4.68 8 <10 <10 <0.5 <2 5.82 3.1 59 103 145 8.88 10 3 0.04 <10
PM073 1270.89 <0.2 4.23 <2 <10 <10 <0.5 <2 5.09 1.4 34 107 112 6.75 10 <1 0.01 <10
PM074 1278.41 <0.2 4.76 <2 <10 <10 <0.5 <2 4.45 2.7 41 132 397 8.33 10 <1 0.01 <10
PM075 1286.31 <0.2 4.34 <2 <10 <10 <0.5 <2 3.09 2.3 43 42 142 8.22 10 <1 0.01 <10
148
Appendices
PM076 1294.55 <0.2 5.21 38 <10 <10 <0.5 <2 2.4 3.4 96 22 1230 10.3 10 1 0.01 <10
PM077 1302.00 <0.2 4.26 <2 <10 <10 <0.5 <2 4.63 1.8 39 19 170 8.47 10 <1 0.01 <10
PM078 1310.64 <0.2 3.36 <2 <10 <10 <0.5 <2 5.16 1.8 37 20 56 6.64 10 <1 0.01 <10
PM079 1318.22 <0.2 3.51 3 <10 <10 <0.5 <2 4.78 1.2 42 17 144 7.22 10 2 0.03 <10
PM080 1325.10 <0.2 3.2 <2 <10 <10 <0.5 <2 7.03 1.7 34 19 44 6.48 10 <1 0.01 <10
PM081 1334.05 <0.2 2.68 <2 <10 <10 <0.5 <2 1.63 0.9 29 12 24 5.52 10 <1 0.01 <10
UX 4580/014
PM082 1.62 <0.2 3.12 <2 <10 <10 <0.5 5 5.83 2.4 37 19 116 8.5 10 <1 0.02 <10
PM083 10.80 <0.2 3.13 <2 <10 10 <0.5 2 5.58 2.4 36 22 98 8.03 20 <1 0.2 <10
PM084 16.25 <0.2 0.4 2 <10 30 <0.5 <2 1.16 <0.5 3 56 5 0.73 <10 <1 0.11 10
PM085 30.70 <0.2 3.71 <2 <10 <10 <0.5 6 4.14 1.8 38 62 151 7.36 10 <1 0.02 <10
PM086 42.06 <0.2 3.86 2 <10 <10 <0.5 2 5.35 1.2 41 125 126 6.6 20 <1 <0.01 <10
PM087 51.73 <0.2 4.72 3 <10 <10 <0.5 5 10.49 3.7 35 96 133 9.57 20 <1 <0.01 <10
PM088 62.95 <0.2 3.48 <2 <10 <10 <0.5 3 4.93 1.2 39 127 123 6.59 10 <1 <0.01 <10
PM089 73.53 <0.2 3.85 <2 <10 <10 <0.5 <2 3.61 1.4 44 129 134 7.07 20 <1 <0.01 <10
PM090 82.45 <0.2 4.81 17 <10 <10 <0.5 4 6.22 2.6 40 107 102 8.19 20 <1 0.03 <10
PM091 93.31 <0.2 2.86 6 <10 <10 <0.5 <2 6.24 1.2 40 124 123 4.76 10 <1 0.01 <10
PM092 101.78 <0.2 3.53 49 <10 <10 <0.5 <2 7.59 1.5 38 98 102 5.79 10 <1 0.06 <10
Average 2.40 3.78 405.67 14.00 0.50 3.63 4.83 2.03 41.46 83.59 184.38 7.18 13.13 2.00 0.04 10.00
149
Appendices
APPENDIX 8 CONT.
Drill
SAMPLE Hole Mg Mn Mo Na Ni P Pb S Sb Sc Sr Ti Tl U V W Zn
DESCRIPTION Depth (m) % ppm ppm % ppm ppm ppm % ppm ppm ppm % ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm
EX 4549/006
AU 54486 1.84 1.38 302 <1 0.02 47 150 <2 0.02 5 1 9 0.1 <10 <10 37 <10 46
AU 54487 29.76 3.64 1020 <1 <0.01 74 60 6 <0.01 <2 10 2 0.08 <10 10 149 20 69
AU 54488 42.16 1.7 637 <1 0.03 44 330 <2 0.17 <2 1 <1 0.16 <10 <10 51 10 75
AU 54489 60.28 2.82 3040 <1 <0.01 56 <10 14 0.11 <2 15 24 0.15 <10 10 187 30 91
AU 54490 75.93 2.98 1090 <1 0.01 44 130 3 0.02 3 3 <1 0.16 <10 10 150 20 82
AU 54491 111.92 1.97 1390 <1 0.02 19 290 13 <0.01 7 17 14 0.19 <10 10 356 30 83
KMC-0812
AU 54434 548.05 1.82 1450 2 0.01 40 30 15 1.05 6 9 49 <0.01 <10 10 78 20 173
AU 54435 554.08 2.9 2000 <1 0.02 69 140 <2 0.02 4 17 49 0.01 <10 10 187 20 85
AU 54436 560.00 3.07 1335 <1 0.03 64 110 8 1.75 6 12 83 <0.01 <10 10 98 20 70
AU 54437 566.76 2.68 1905 <1 0.01 63 130 7 0.02 <2 13 84 0.01 <10 10 153 20 81
AU 54438 572.96 2.98 2040 <1 0.01 58 140 9 0.09 <2 27 44 0.13 <10 <10 221 20 82
AU 54439 578.81 3.09 1865 <1 0.02 56 150 <2 <0.01 <2 8 4 0.12 <10 10 185 20 98
AU 54440 586.33 3.02 2060 <1 0.01 69 120 9 <0.01 <2 26 16 0.14 <10 10 212 30 95
AU 54441 592.25 2.82 3020 <1 <0.01 56 <10 9 0.11 <2 16 24 0.15 <10 10 187 30 93
AU 54442 598.35 4.02 1955 <1 0.01 78 150 2 <0.01 <2 5 <1 0.13 <10 <10 198 30 108
AU 54443 605.30 3.23 2220 <1 0.02 69 110 7 <0.01 <2 8 12 0.19 <10 10 206 20 96
AU 54444 612.02 3.14 2620 <1 0.01 73 30 19 2.03 <2 11 6 0.13 <10 10 223 30 112
KMC-0657
AU 54445 1254.88 3.55 2830 <1 <0.01 60 <10 25 <0.01 <2 33 48 0.04 <10 10 240 30 107
AU 54446 1262.90 3.75 1725 <1 <0.01 77 40 22 3.03 21 19 88 0.01 <10 10 179 30 63
AU 54447 1270.89 3.37 1295 <1 <0.01 47 110 <2 0.12 <2 29 56 0.04 <10 10 205 20 132
AU 54448 1278.41 3.48 1495 <1 <0.01 54 160 11 0.24 <2 34 29 0.09 <10 10 254 30 371
AU 54449 1286.31 3.01 1385 <1 0.01 39 270 4 <0.01 <2 12 12 0.15 <10 10 221 30 151
150
Appendices
AU 54450 1294.55 3.45 1855 <1 <0.01 61 80 11 0.14 2 8 <1 0.09 <10 10 237 30 133
AU 54451 1302.00 2.72 1660 <1 <0.01 31 230 2 <0.01 9 6 4 0.12 <10 10 207 30 119
AU 54452 1310.64 2.2 1460 <1 0.02 25 240 6 <0.01 4 4 13 0.17 <10 10 204 20 80
AU 54453 1318.22 2.15 1550 <1 0.01 33 200 6 0.02 6 5 11 0.16 <10 10 209 20 107
AU 54454 1325.10 1.92 1185 <1 <0.01 24 140 <2 0.15 <2 6 23 0.16 <10 10 140 20 65
AU 54455 1334.05 1.88 829 <1 0.01 18 410 3 0.1 <2 2 11 0.17 <10 <10 118 10 55
UX 4580/014
AU 54456 1.62 2.19 1475 1 <0.01 23 380 4 0.02 4 7 42 0.17 <10 10 225 10 107
AU 54457 10.80 2.42 1485 <1 <0.01 28 310 <2 0.01 <2 19 61 0.15 <10 10 220 10 105
AU 54458 16.25 0.19 131 2 0.02 5 420 <2 0.04 <2 <1 28 0.01 <10 <10 3 <10 22
AU 54459 30.70 2.85 1290 1 0.01 39 450 <2 0.07 <2 14 39 0.16 <10 10 212 10 105
AU 54460 42.06 3.27 1310 <1 <0.01 60 280 <2 0.13 <2 29 40 0.11 <10 10 233 10 94
AU 54461 51.73 3.08 3640 <1 <0.01 42 240 2 0.22 <2 33 110 0.1 <10 10 222 10 81
AU 54462 62.95 2.65 1590 1 0.02 58 290 5 0.03 <2 26 38 0.11 <10 10 215 10 84
AU 54463 73.53 2.99 1825 <1 0.01 60 280 2 0.08 <2 21 26 0.13 <10 10 226 <10 84
AU 54464 82.45 3.5 2420 <1 <0.01 54 260 11 0.19 <2 23 62 0.08 <10 10 184 10 108
AU 54465 93.31 2.08 1580 1 0.01 52 280 <2 0.02 <2 19 45 0.11 <10 10 197 <10 56
AU 54466 101.78 2.39 2240 <1 <0.01 51 270 6 0.15 <2 11 117 0.01 <10 10 113 <10 45
Average 2.73 1697.54 1.33 0.02 49.23 205.83 8.61 0.35 6.42 14.71 37.80 0.11 10.00 183.13 20.88 97.77
151
Appendices
APPENDIX 9A. ELEMENTS CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS IN THE AGGLOMERATE.
AGLM
AUassay AGassay CUassay Ag Al As Ba Bi Ca Cd Co Cr Cu Fe K Mg Mn Ni P Pb S Sc Sr V Zn
AUassay 1.00
AGassay 0.35 1.00
CUassay 0.25 0.86 1.00
Ag 0.40 0.90 0.89 1.00
Al 0.06 -0.01 0.03 0.00 1.00
As 0.10 0.08 0.10 0.13 0.12 1.00
Ba -0.03 -0.04 -0.06 -0.06 -0.27 -0.14 1.00
Bi 0.23 0.79 0.78 0.83 -0.04 0.04 -0.06 1.00
Ca 0.09 -0.05 -0.04 -0.02 0.53 0.23 -0.18 -0.12 1.00
Cd -0.02 0.02 0.03 0.05 0.36 0.21 -0.14 -0.01 0.22 1.00
Co 0.18 0.25 0.26 0.28 0.79 0.32 -0.31 0.16 0.56 0.37 1.00
Cr -0.01 0.02 0.00 0.04 0.46 0.15 -0.21 -0.02 0.16 0.22 0.40 1.00
Cu 0.25 0.85 1.00 0.88 0.03 0.10 -0.06 0.78 -0.05 0.03 0.25 0.00 1.00
Fe 0.18 0.22 0.25 0.25 0.80 0.21 -0.34 0.16 0.57 0.37 0.85 0.25 0.25 1.00
K -0.02 0.04 0.02 0.06 -0.44 -0.11 0.53 0.04 -0.26 -0.20 -0.40 -0.35 0.02 -0.40 1.00
Mg 0.07 -0.02 0.01 -0.01 0.87 0.21 -0.33 -0.07 0.51 0.34 0.80 0.58 0.01 0.72 -0.49 1.00
Mn 0.13 0.07 0.05 0.07 0.54 0.06 -0.30 0.01 0.65 0.30 0.64 0.04 0.05 0.78 -0.28 0.53 1.00
Ni 0.02 -0.02 0.02 0.02 0.77 0.31 -0.25 -0.05 0.45 0.35 0.77 0.68 0.03 0.58 -0.42 0.90 0.31 1.00
P 0.03 -0.04 -0.02 -0.04 -0.42 -0.10 0.20 0.00 -0.33 -0.35 -0.41 -0.47 -0.02 -0.33 0.25 -0.51 -0.23 -0.52 1.00
Pb 0.10 0.27 0.14 0.24 -0.02 0.01 0.02 0.16 0.02 0.05 0.09 -0.03 0.14 0.07 0.11 0.02 0.10 -0.02 0.02 1.00
S 0.30 0.56 0.55 0.59 0.10 0.19 -0.12 0.44 0.21 0.09 0.45 -0.05 0.55 0.57 -0.04 0.12 0.39 0.11 -0.05 0.22 1.00
Sc 0.07 -0.01 0.02 0.02 0.84 0.09 -0.31 -0.02 0.46 0.41 0.74 0.43 0.02 0.78 -0.45 0.76 0.57 0.63 -0.39 -0.01 0.14 1.00
Sr 0.01 -0.02 -0.01 -0.02 -0.03 -0.01 0.63 -0.03 0.19 -0.01 -0.03 -0.07 -0.01 -0.03 -0.02 -0.05 0.02 -0.05 0.02 -0.02 0.02 -0.01 1.00
V 0.08 0.00 0.02 0.03 0.90 0.09 -0.31 -0.03 0.47 0.42 0.79 0.50 0.02 0.77 -0.48 0.84 0.55 0.72 -0.43 0.00 0.10 0.97 0.00 1.00
Zn 0.08 0.07 0.07 0.12 0.58 0.51 -0.23 -0.03 0.36 0.41 0.56 0.29 0.07 0.58 -0.35 0.50 0.30 0.51 -0.19 0.19 0.18 0.53 0.00 0.54 1.00
152
Appendices
APPENDIX 9B. ELEMENTS CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS IN THE BASALT.
BSLT
AUassay AGassay CUassay Ag Al As Ba Bi Ca Cd Co Cr Cu Fe K Mg Mn Ni P Pb S Sc Sr Zn
AUassay 1.00
AGassay 0.25 1.00
CUassay 0.23 0.91 1.00
Ag 0.21 0.93 0.92 1.00
Al -0.07 -0.13 -0.11 -0.13 1.00
As 0.12 0.10 0.11 0.10 -0.10 1.00
Ba 0.06 0.04 0.05 0.04 -0.16 0.09 1.00
Bi 0.18 0.14 0.17 0.14 -0.04 0.07 0.01 1.00
Ca 0.00 -0.02 -0.03 0.00 0.12 0.00 -0.01 -0.04 1.00
Cd 0.02 0.05 0.02 0.07 0.12 0.07 -0.03 0.20 -0.05 1.00
Co 0.15 0.19 0.20 0.21 0.11 0.14 -0.01 0.11 0.00 0.05 1.00
Cr -0.02 -0.04 -0.03 -0.03 0.21 0.03 0.01 -0.01 -0.03 -0.01 0.13 1.00
Cu 0.33 0.70 0.99 0.77 -0.08 0.14 0.09 0.21 -0.02 0.04 0.15 -0.02 1.00
Fe 0.05 0.10 0.10 0.13 0.60 -0.01 -0.09 0.11 0.13 0.22 0.19 -0.09 0.09 1.00
K 0.08 0.09 0.12 0.11 -0.34 0.16 0.46 0.07 0.12 -0.09 0.05 -0.09 0.20 -0.14 1.00
Mg -0.03 -0.05 -0.05 -0.04 0.51 -0.02 -0.06 0.01 -0.06 -0.04 0.08 0.31 -0.02 0.28 -0.09 1.00
Mn 0.05 0.09 0.07 0.11 0.18 0.08 0.00 0.14 0.23 0.22 0.01 -0.15 0.11 0.72 0.05 0.16 1.00
Ni -0.01 0.02 0.03 0.05 0.13 0.09 0.06 -0.05 0.01 0.02 0.36 0.74 0.02 -0.03 0.02 0.12 -0.20 1.00
P 0.04 -0.03 0.01 -0.01 0.01 0.03 0.02 -0.06 -0.13 -0.12 0.10 -0.22 0.02 0.06 0.08 -0.18 -0.14 -0.11 1.00
Pb 0.10 0.07 0.04 0.07 -0.01 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.00 0.05 0.06 0.00 0.05 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 -0.01 -0.03 1.00
S 0.24 0.41 0.37 0.43 -0.14 0.16 0.05 0.25 0.03 0.21 0.27 -0.07 0.35 0.40 0.10 -0.03 0.45 0.04 0.03 0.11 1.00
Sc -0.02 -0.04 -0.04 -0.04 0.64 -0.09 -0.14 -0.01 0.19 0.03 0.10 0.07 -0.03 0.50 -0.29 0.44 0.23 -0.06 0.05 -0.01 -0.01 1.00
Sr 0.06 0.06 0.03 0.05 0.04 0.12 0.14 0.06 0.25 0.06 0.04 -0.01 0.04 0.14 0.13 0.06 0.29 -0.06 -0.01 0.04 0.17 0.16 1.00
V -0.06 -0.09 -0.09 -0.10 0.65 -0.18 -0.19 -0.08 0.04 0.03 0.14 0.00 -0.08 0.46 -0.46 0.37 0.07 -0.08 0.11 -0.03 -0.15 0.82 0.00
Zn -0.01 0.04 0.01 0.04 0.03 0.02 0.00 -0.01 -0.04 0.45 0.23 0.07 0.02 0.12 -0.02 -0.05 0.06 0.20 0.10 0.08 0.23 0.02 0.03 1.00
153
Appendices
APPENDIX 9C. ELEMENTS CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS IN THE ARGILLITE.
ARGL
AUassay 1.00
AGassay 0.14 1.00
CUassay 0.37 0.19 1.00
Ag 0.56 0.87 0.80 1.00
Al -0.08 -0.05 -0.11 -0.17 1.00
As 0.18 0.05 0.12 0.28 -0.09 1.00
Ba -0.05 -0.02 -0.04 -0.07 -0.01 -0.08 1.00
Bi 0.32 0.07 0.17 0.33 -0.09 0.16 -0.11 1.00
Ca -0.10 -0.04 -0.14 -0.21 0.53 -0.07 -0.13 -0.17 1.00
Cd 0.00 -0.01 -0.02 0.01 0.06 0.05 -0.07 -0.04 0.14 1.00
Co 0.38 0.10 0.24 0.42 -0.09 0.40 -0.17 0.42 -0.16 0.18 1.00
Cr 0.09 0.02 0.09 0.10 0.34 0.06 0.00 0.04 0.15 0.10 0.24 1.00
Cu 0.34 0.15 0.97 0.82 -0.10 0.19 -0.05 0.20 -0.15 -0.01 0.29 0.09 1.00
Fe 0.24 0.06 0.19 0.30 0.32 0.31 -0.22 0.20 0.16 0.27 0.64 0.33 0.23 1.00
K -0.01 0.02 0.05 0.02 -0.27 -0.03 0.74 0.00 -0.33 -0.17 -0.10 -0.06 0.04 -0.28 1.00
Mg -0.10 -0.04 -0.06 -0.15 0.71 -0.09 -0.05 -0.10 0.42 0.01 -0.13 0.32 -0.07 0.18 -0.23 1.00
Mn -0.03 -0.02 -0.04 -0.09 0.43 0.09 -0.12 -0.03 0.60 0.13 0.01 0.13 -0.04 0.44 -0.28 0.49 1.00
Ni 0.03 0.03 0.04 0.06 0.26 0.18 -0.14 0.07 0.16 0.30 0.51 0.50 0.06 0.58 -0.26 0.19 0.22 1.00
P -0.09 -0.01 -0.05 -0.08 0.02 -0.02 -0.06 0.06 -0.08 -0.04 -0.04 -0.18 -0.04 -0.10 0.02 -0.03 -0.11 0.07 1.00
Pb 0.15 0.05 0.07 0.22 -0.21 0.15 -0.07 0.20 -0.14 0.21 0.24 0.04 0.10 0.16 0.01 -0.16 -0.09 0.08 -0.10 1.00
S 0.28 0.11 0.25 0.41 -0.43 0.36 -0.19 0.31 -0.29 0.05 0.67 0.04 0.30 0.57 0.03 -0.35 -0.03 0.27 -0.04 0.33 1.00
Sc -0.04 0.08 -0.04 -0.08 0.73 -0.03 -0.10 -0.05 0.42 0.06 0.00 0.42 -0.04 0.36 -0.28 0.61 0.47 0.26 -0.07 -0.09 -0.18 1.00
Sr -0.04 0.02 0.00 -0.01 0.07 0.01 -0.04 -0.06 0.45 0.17 0.00 0.08 0.01 0.09 -0.11 0.14 0.28 0.06 -0.17 0.06 0.07 0.13 1.00
V -0.02 -0.02 -0.06 -0.07 0.69 0.00 -0.10 -0.04 0.45 0.09 0.03 0.37 -0.06 0.34 -0.30 0.55 0.39 0.26 -0.07 -0.11 -0.22 0.77 0.15 1.00
Zn -0.07 0.00 -0.06 -0.04 -0.04 0.03 -0.09 -0.08 0.08 0.88 0.19 0.07 -0.06 0.25 -0.19 -0.07 0.04 0.37 0.04 0.22 0.07 -0.01 0.09 -0.01 1.00
154
Appendices
APPENDIX 9D. ELEMENTS CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS IN THE ASH TUFF.
ASTF
AUassay 1.00
AGassay 0.78 1.00
CUassay 0.48 0.80 1.00
Ag 0.64 0.83 0.77 1.00
Al -0.09 -0.11 -0.10 -0.16 1.00
As 0.05 0.10 0.06 0.14 -0.07 1.00
Ba 0.07 0.07 0.04 0.05 -0.29 -0.04 1.00
Bi 0.47 0.42 0.28 0.46 -0.13 0.13 0.02 1.00
Ca -0.04 -0.02 0.01 -0.05 0.30 -0.02 -0.19 -0.10 1.00
Cd 0.01 0.05 0.03 0.07 0.04 0.03 -0.03 -0.02 0.09 1.00
Co 0.09 0.21 0.20 0.29 0.19 0.17 -0.22 0.23 0.31 0.14 1.00
Cr -0.04 -0.08 -0.10 -0.07 0.49 -0.06 -0.14 -0.04 -0.03 0.02 0.18 1.00
Cu 0.46 0.75 0.93 0.81 -0.13 0.10 0.03 0.35 -0.03 0.04 0.28 -0.06 1.00
Fe 0.09 0.19 0.18 0.20 0.46 0.08 -0.28 0.16 0.44 0.19 0.60 0.12 0.19 1.00
K 0.16 0.17 0.13 0.17 -0.46 0.03 0.75 0.15 -0.09 -0.03 -0.13 -0.34 0.13 -0.19 1.00
Mg -0.06 -0.07 -0.03 -0.10 0.62 -0.05 -0.33 -0.11 0.29 0.02 0.34 0.50 -0.07 0.40 -0.34 1.00
Mn 0.07 0.10 0.10 0.08 0.23 0.10 -0.15 0.11 0.56 0.06 0.28 -0.07 0.08 0.63 -0.04 0.33 1.00
Ni -0.04 0.00 0.01 -0.01 0.34 0.01 -0.22 -0.02 0.29 0.08 0.44 0.64 0.02 0.31 -0.20 0.60 0.13 1.00
P -0.01 -0.17 -0.08 -0.09 -0.15 0.01 0.08 0.11 -0.22 -0.09 -0.29 -0.10 -0.07 -0.27 0.09 -0.16 -0.18 -0.20 1.00
Pb 0.15 0.29 0.15 0.29 -0.14 0.11 0.03 0.21 0.02 0.21 0.12 -0.05 0.16 0.10 0.10 -0.15 0.02 0.04 -0.02 1.00
S 0.13 0.25 0.26 0.34 -0.07 0.14 -0.12 0.27 0.09 0.10 0.57 -0.06 0.33 0.68 0.07 0.03 0.17 0.19 -0.14 0.17 1.00
Sc -0.05 -0.05 -0.05 -0.08 0.72 -0.03 -0.28 -0.07 0.41 0.05 0.36 0.45 -0.06 0.43 -0.34 0.59 0.31 0.36 -0.24 -0.06 -0.02 1.00
Sr -0.01 0.01 0.06 -0.03 0.24 -0.07 0.01 -0.08 0.46 0.04 -0.02 0.12 0.01 0.28 -0.08 0.07 0.29 0.11 -0.08 -0.02 0.05 0.20 1.00
V -0.06 -0.06 -0.07 -0.10 0.75 -0.04 -0.26 -0.10 0.33 0.06 0.36 0.45 -0.08 0.38 -0.38 0.58 0.23 0.29 -0.24 -0.07 -0.07 0.96 0.12 1.00
Zn -0.01 0.02 0.02 0.06 0.05 0.03 -0.04 -0.03 0.08 0.98 0.14 0.04 0.03 0.17 -0.04 0.01 0.02 0.10 -0.06 0.20 0.10 0.05 0.04 0.05 1.00
155
Appendices
APPENDIX 9E. ELEMENTS CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS IN THE DIABASE.
DIAB
AUassay 1.00
AGassay 0.48 1.00
CUassay 0.42 0.95 1.00
Ag 0.42 0.86 0.84 1.00
Al -0.11 -0.18 -0.16 -0.23 1.00
As 0.03 0.06 0.04 0.08 -0.04 1.00
Ba 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.04 -0.03 -0.01 1.00
Bi 0.15 0.33 0.30 0.38 -0.05 0.12 0.05 1.00
Ca 0.03 0.02 0.03 0.00 0.23 -0.01 -0.05 0.02 1.00
Cd 0.02 0.14 0.17 0.14 0.08 -0.01 0.02 0.16 0.01 1.00
Co 0.12 0.12 0.15 0.21 0.29 0.07 -0.01 0.11 0.08 0.04 1.00
Cr -0.06 -0.07 -0.08 -0.07 0.18 -0.01 0.00 -0.06 -0.09 0.00 0.04 1.00
Cu 0.42 0.85 0.93 0.88 -0.17 0.07 0.03 0.30 0.04 0.05 0.15 -0.10 1.00
Fe 0.08 0.11 0.12 0.14 0.50 0.06 -0.01 0.08 0.20 0.06 0.53 -0.28 0.13 1.00
K 0.08 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.10 -0.01 0.38 0.12 0.11 0.04 0.16 -0.25 0.10 0.28 1.00
Mg -0.08 -0.10 -0.08 -0.14 0.63 -0.05 0.01 -0.05 0.12 -0.03 0.22 0.49 -0.11 0.10 0.04 1.00
Mn 0.14 0.13 0.14 0.14 0.12 0.09 -0.03 0.07 0.38 0.00 0.27 -0.19 0.20 0.54 0.17 0.02 1.00
Ni -0.09 -0.07 -0.07 -0.06 0.18 0.00 0.06 -0.06 -0.10 -0.02 0.11 0.87 -0.12 -0.29 -0.28 0.54 -0.17 1.00
P 0.01 0.02 0.06 0.02 0.00 0.02 0.08 -0.03 -0.08 -0.03 0.05 -0.21 0.01 0.30 -0.02 -0.28 0.05 -0.23 1.00
Pb 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.11 -0.09 0.06 0.02 0.07 -0.01 0.09 0.09 0.01 0.06 0.00 0.01 -0.09 0.00 0.01 0.00 1.00
S 0.24 0.34 0.35 0.52 -0.22 0.21 0.03 0.22 0.02 0.02 0.37 -0.08 0.39 0.31 0.06 -0.20 0.24 -0.03 0.06 0.18 1.00
Sc -0.01 -0.04 -0.03 -0.06 0.57 -0.02 0.07 0.00 0.32 0.02 0.29 -0.19 -0.01 0.65 0.38 0.27 0.27 -0.28 0.11 -0.04 -0.03 1.00
Sr 0.03 0.04 0.04 0.06 0.02 0.01 0.33 0.03 0.38 -0.03 0.07 -0.11 0.08 0.19 0.15 0.00 0.29 -0.04 0.22 0.02 0.14 0.31 1.00
V -0.04 -0.06 -0.05 -0.09 0.52 -0.03 0.07 -0.01 0.18 0.08 0.35 -0.24 -0.04 0.70 0.33 0.14 0.19 -0.33 0.15 -0.04 -0.09 0.82 0.15 1.00
Zn 0.05 0.22 0.25 0.27 0.11 0.01 -0.05 0.10 -0.03 0.20 0.28 -0.05 0.10 0.31 -0.05 -0.06 0.03 0.00 0.22 0.14 0.33 0.09 0.04 0.15 1.00
156
Appendices
APPENDIX 9F. ELEMENTS CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS IN THE PYRITE ZONE.
PYZN
AUassay 1.00
AGassay 0.51 1.00
CUassay 0.25 0.61 1.00
Ag 0.48 0.72 0.54 1.00
Al -0.07 -0.14 -0.15 -0.07 1.00
As 0.31 0.47 0.26 0.41 -0.11 1.00
Ba -0.09 -0.12 -0.07 -0.12 -0.29 -0.11 1.00
Bi 0.38 0.45 0.29 0.55 0.02 0.45 -0.14 1.00
Ca 0.06 -0.03 -0.07 0.01 0.35 -0.02 -0.24 -0.01 1.00
Cd 0.10 0.10 -0.07 0.18 0.49 0.05 -0.05 0.13 0.23 1.00
Co 0.34 0.55 0.44 0.49 -0.05 0.42 -0.28 0.47 -0.03 -0.01 1.00
Cr 0.01 -0.02 -0.03 0.04 0.40 -0.14 -0.09 -0.02 -0.07 0.13 -0.03 1.00
Cu 0.25 0.60 0.99 0.54 -0.17 0.28 -0.07 0.30 -0.06 -0.08 0.44 -0.03 1.00
Fe 0.15 0.35 0.13 0.42 0.46 0.17 -0.49 0.24 0.27 0.38 0.55 0.14 0.13 1.00
K 0.00 -0.02 0.05 0.03 -0.29 0.07 0.69 0.03 -0.11 -0.02 -0.14 -0.20 0.05 -0.37 1.00
Mg -0.12 -0.17 -0.12 -0.14 0.61 -0.12 -0.28 -0.06 0.28 0.24 0.02 0.29 -0.12 0.30 -0.19 1.00
Mn -0.01 -0.05 -0.10 0.01 0.65 0.01 -0.14 0.16 0.42 0.45 -0.05 0.08 -0.11 0.51 -0.05 0.47 1.00
Ni 0.03 0.14 0.13 0.13 -0.03 0.11 -0.39 0.06 0.06 -0.11 0.39 0.15 0.15 0.41 -0.18 0.34 -0.09 1.00
P -0.02 -0.27 0.01 -0.23 -0.28 0.02 -0.01 0.01 -0.15 -0.37 -0.08 -0.16 0.04 -0.39 0.09 -0.12 -0.26 0.06 1.00
Pb 0.16 0.44 0.13 0.26 -0.15 0.43 -0.19 0.28 -0.10 -0.05 0.45 -0.11 0.16 0.32 -0.10 -0.20 -0.09 0.27 0.21 1.00
S 0.20 0.35 0.16 0.39 0.14 0.26 -0.39 0.30 0.03 0.11 0.66 0.09 0.17 0.72 -0.16 0.24 0.15 0.42 -0.31 0.48 1.00
Sc -0.03 -0.04 -0.12 0.00 0.81 -0.03 -0.43 0.09 0.40 0.30 0.12 0.32 -0.13 0.53 -0.45 0.55 0.60 0.08 -0.24 0.01 0.30 1.00
Sr -0.14 -0.16 -0.14 -0.12 0.35 -0.19 0.01 -0.16 0.43 0.03 -0.17 0.23 -0.14 0.14 -0.06 0.14 0.30 -0.11 -0.14 -0.14 -0.06 0.35 1.00
V -0.06 -0.03 -0.14 -0.01 0.81 -0.07 -0.42 0.01 0.35 0.32 0.12 0.34 -0.15 0.49 -0.45 0.58 0.51 0.10 -0.27 0.03 0.32 0.95 0.36 1.00
Zn -0.03 0.00 -0.04 0.10 0.51 -0.08 -0.25 0.08 0.17 0.33 0.04 0.26 -0.04 0.33 -0.23 0.45 0.33 0.16 -0.20 -0.15 0.19 0.52 0.16 0.53 1.00
157
Appendices
APPENDIX 9G. ELEMENTS CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS IN QUARTZ VEIN.
QZVN
AUassay AGassay CUassay Ag Al As Ba Bi Ca Cd Co Cr Cu Fe K Mg Mn Ni P Pb S Sc Sr V
AUassay 1.00
AGassay 0.74 1.00
CUassay 0.37 0.78 1.00
Ag 0.61 0.92 0.80 1.00
Al -0.17 -0.32 -0.28 -0.34 1.00
As 0.07 0.21 0.18 0.25 -0.18 1.00
Ba -0.08 -0.09 -0.10 -0.09 -0.02 -0.07 1.00
Bi 0.45 0.34 0.17 0.33 -0.11 0.13 -0.07 1.00
Ca -0.18 -0.36 -0.36 -0.40 0.50 -0.20 0.00 -0.14 1.00
Cd 0.09 0.16 0.16 0.05 0.07 0.01 -0.03 0.00 0.05 1.00
Co 0.18 0.25 0.27 0.29 -0.29 0.31 -0.18 0.18 -0.39 0.05 1.00
Cr 0.06 0.08 0.07 0.09 0.05 -0.01 -0.01 0.02 -0.09 -0.05 0.10 1.00
Cu 0.37 0.69 0.97 0.73 -0.21 0.18 -0.06 0.25 -0.33 0.07 0.36 0.00 1.00
Fe 0.24 0.37 0.36 0.40 -0.07 0.27 -0.26 0.27 -0.29 0.19 0.61 -0.04 0.34 1.00
K -0.06 -0.01 -0.01 0.02 -0.23 0.01 0.39 -0.06 -0.23 -0.08 -0.05 -0.10 0.07 -0.06 1.00
Mg -0.17 -0.35 -0.33 -0.39 0.76 -0.18 -0.04 -0.13 0.65 0.05 -0.34 0.01 -0.29 -0.10 -0.19 1.00
Mn -0.08 -0.20 -0.20 -0.23 0.37 -0.02 -0.07 0.00 0.45 0.13 -0.16 -0.18 -0.15 0.22 -0.13 0.58 1.00
Ni 0.09 0.11 0.16 0.12 -0.02 0.13 -0.15 0.06 -0.17 0.09 0.46 0.17 0.20 0.47 -0.02 0.02 0.03 1.00
P -0.08 -0.09 -0.09 -0.06 -0.09 -0.05 0.05 -0.07 -0.12 -0.17 -0.04 -0.20 -0.03 -0.09 0.38 -0.10 -0.19 0.11 1.00
Pb 0.13 0.20 0.10 0.20 -0.15 0.29 0.00 0.30 -0.15 0.03 0.07 -0.05 0.11 0.09 0.02 -0.18 -0.11 -0.07 0.00 1.00
S 0.23 0.44 0.43 0.47 -0.45 0.25 -0.20 0.18 -0.49 0.09 0.61 -0.07 0.38 0.73 0.11 -0.45 -0.10 0.39 0.06 0.14 1.00
Sc -0.11 -0.22 -0.20 -0.25 0.83 -0.15 -0.07 -0.07 0.51 0.08 -0.23 0.05 -0.17 0.01 -0.22 0.74 0.44 -0.04 -0.17 -0.14 -0.38 1.00
Sr -0.03 -0.05 -0.11 -0.06 0.01 -0.09 0.22 -0.05 0.26 0.00 -0.16 -0.06 -0.16 -0.16 0.00 0.06 0.12 -0.17 0.00 -0.02 -0.14 0.01 1.00
V -0.11 -0.21 -0.19 -0.23 0.81 -0.15 -0.03 -0.07 0.46 0.10 -0.22 0.04 -0.16 -0.03 -0.18 0.66 0.31 -0.05 -0.13 -0.13 -0.40 0.89 0.00 1.00
Zn 0.10 0.19 0.21 0.14 -0.03 0.02 -0.05 0.02 -0.04 0.76 0.06 -0.03 0.09 0.09 -0.06 -0.09 -0.06 0.13 -0.03 0.05 0.14 -0.02 -0.03 0.00
158
Appendices
APPENDIX 9H. ELEMENTS CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS IN STRINGERS.
STRS
AUassay AGassay CUassay Ag Al As Ba Bi Ca Cd Co Cr Cu Fe K Mg Mn Ni P Pb S Sc Sr V
AUassay 1.00
AGassay 0.63 1.00
CUassay 0.37 0.84 1.00
Ag 0.64 0.92 0.87 1.00
Al -0.16 -0.31 -0.27 -0.34 1.00
As 0.05 0.08 0.04 0.09 -0.14 1.00
Ba 0.02 0.02 0.06 0.06 -0.09 0.05 1.00
Bi 0.33 0.30 0.24 0.34 -0.31 0.08 0.05 1.00
Ca -0.16 -0.32 -0.28 -0.34 0.60 -0.04 -0.15 -0.37 1.00
Cd -0.01 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.28 0.23 0.09 0.00 0.16 1.00
Co 0.25 0.34 0.26 0.35 -0.32 0.32 -0.03 0.59 -0.42 0.04 1.00
Cr 0.09 0.10 0.08 0.10 0.18 -0.06 0.05 0.03 0.03 0.06 0.10 1.00
Cu 0.41 0.80 0.99 0.84 -0.28 0.04 -0.01 0.28 -0.27 0.09 0.30 0.01 1.00
Fe 0.18 0.26 0.24 0.27 0.19 0.21 -0.06 0.26 0.00 0.30 0.51 0.00 0.23 1.00
K 0.11 0.23 0.23 0.27 -0.42 0.04 0.58 0.24 -0.38 -0.09 0.16 -0.11 0.18 -0.05 1.00
Mg -0.17 -0.31 -0.26 -0.33 0.85 -0.10 -0.11 -0.36 0.67 0.26 -0.40 0.15 -0.26 0.14 -0.39 1.00
Mn -0.10 -0.19 -0.16 -0.20 0.49 0.09 -0.05 -0.22 0.51 0.44 -0.19 -0.09 -0.14 0.49 -0.28 0.57 1.00
Ni 0.07 0.19 0.19 0.20 -0.24 0.23 0.03 0.23 -0.27 -0.01 0.58 0.26 0.13 0.30 0.09 -0.22 -0.13 1.00
P 0.02 0.04 0.00 0.05 -0.40 -0.08 0.04 0.11 -0.42 -0.29 0.06 -0.21 0.02 -0.27 0.21 -0.47 -0.45 0.15 1.00
Pb 0.14 0.23 0.15 0.22 -0.40 0.06 -0.07 0.31 -0.31 -0.08 0.31 -0.08 0.18 0.07 0.14 -0.40 -0.25 0.15 0.18 1.00
S 0.25 0.43 0.37 0.47 -0.60 0.45 -0.09 0.47 -0.54 -0.10 0.71 -0.10 0.38 0.45 0.25 -0.59 -0.18 0.45 0.16 0.41 1.00
Sc -0.02 -0.19 -0.18 -0.20 0.84 -0.09 -0.12 -0.25 0.53 0.27 -0.21 0.11 -0.20 0.29 -0.31 0.75 0.51 -0.22 -0.37 -0.30 -0.45 1.00
Sr -0.07 -0.17 -0.17 -0.17 0.06 0.04 0.02 -0.18 0.45 0.12 -0.20 -0.10 -0.15 0.02 -0.08 0.14 0.35 -0.13 -0.10 -0.01 -0.15 0.06 1.00
V -0.12 -0.26 -0.24 -0.29 0.82 -0.11 -0.07 -0.25 0.52 0.23 -0.19 0.14 -0.24 0.21 -0.32 0.71 0.41 -0.19 -0.30 -0.26 -0.52 0.85 0.09 1.00
Zn 0.05 0.11 0.13 0.15 -0.07 -0.02 -0.03 0.00 -0.06 0.55 -0.02 -0.03 0.17 -0.06 -0.03 -0.07 -0.06 -0.01 0.09 0.06 0.02 -0.05 -0.03 -0.0
159
Appendices
APPENDIX 10. MICROPROBE RAW DATA FOR IRON-TITANIUM OXIDE IN THE REEF 1 FOOTWALL MAFIC METAVOLCANIC ROCKS.
Appendix 10. Microprobe data for the Reef 1 footwall basalt (sample no. 54396).
Location with a mineral SiO2 TiO2 Al2O3 FeO MnO MgO CaO Na2O K2O Cl NiO Cr2O3 CuO S O3 P2O5 TOTAL
473- light phase 0.85 17.19 0.28 71.28 2.42 -0.01 0.44 -0.04 0.04 -0.03 0 0.09 -0.08 0.05 -0.01 92.48
474- darker phase 9.92 23.49 0.1 7.22 1.44 -0.02 34.19 -0.11 0.02 0.04 -0.1 0.01 -0.31 -0.1 -0.01 75.8
475- lighter phase 0.29 13.58 0.26 74.46 1.88 0.1 0.26 -0.06 -0.01 0.06 -0.15 0.28 -0.2 0.09 -0.01 90.82
476- light lamella 0.06 49.42 -0.04 40.95 6.57 0 0.2 0.07 -0.06 -0.02 -0.02 0.05 0.02 -0.03 0.04 97.21
477- dark lamella 23.2 29.66 0.49 21.25 0.2 0.05 21.4 -0.01 0.03 -0.04 0.13 0.22 -0.12 -0.08 -0.08 96.29
478- darkest phase 5.71 2.94 3.24 6.78 0.36 2.28 41.16 0.04 -0.07 0.02 0.03 0.09 -0.29 -0.09 0.01 62.22
479- banded phase 0.25 17.91 0.12 71.68 2.49 -0.06 0.09 -0.03 0.02 -0.03 -0.11 0.12 -0.05 0.02 -0.04 92.41
480- standard magnetite 0.04 0.12 0.09 89.78 0.11 -0.02 0.07 -0.04 -0.03 -0.06 0.08 0.2 -0.05 -0.02 -0.01 90.25
160
Appendices
161
Appendices
162
Appendices
163

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Mineralogy and Geochemistry of the

Reef 1 Footwall Basalt at the

Bulyanhulu Orogenic Lode-Gold

Paul William Mbuya

Thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements

in question. He must be prepared to work long hours, to

life and limb (though not without consideration of the

advantage to be gained). He should allow no difficulty that

can be overcome to stop him. Streams must be forded,

precipices climbed, tent and clothes and food swagged many

miles up and down stream, through bush, up mountain sides,

“Instructions to Field Officers”

enclosed in sulfide grains.

Alteration in the footwall basalt is characterised by extensive chloritisation,

mineral assemblage hornblende-pyroxene-albite-chlorite-iron-titanium oxide-epidote-quartz is

gradually replaced by the assemblage calcite-chlorite-quartz-pyrite-muscovite+ chalcopyrite+

siderite at about 60 to 70 m from Reef 1.

method is preferred to test for geochemical indicators of alteration halos.

regarding mineral deposits.

LIST OF FIGURES............................................................................................................................... VIII

LIST OF TABLES .................................................................................................................................. IX

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................... 1

1.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................................... 1

1.2 Gold in Tanzania: Background ...................................................................................................................... 3

1.3 Bulyanhulu Gold Deposit................................................................................................................................ 4

CHAPTER 2 REGIONAL AND LOCAL GEOLOGY ......................................................................... 7

2.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................................... 7

2.2 Geological setting of Tanzania........................................................................................................................ 7

2.4 The Sukumaland greenstone belt................................................................................................................... 9

2.5 Bulyanhulu gold deposit................................................................................................................................ 11

CHAPTER 3 SAMPLING AND ANALYTICAL METHODS............................................................. 15

3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................................... 15

3.2 Sampling techniques...................................................................................................................................... 15

3.3 Analytical methods ........................................................................................................................................ 15

4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................................... 19

4.2 Previous studies ............................................................................................................................................. 20

4.3 Mineralogy ..................................................................................................................................................... 20

4.4 Mineral associations and assemblages ......................................................................................................... 31

4.5 Discussion and conclusions ........................................................................................................................... 33

5.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................................... 36

5.2 Inductively Coupled Plasma Geochemistry ................................................................................................ 36

5.3 X-ray fluorescence abundance versus depth trends ................................................................................... 55

5.4 Comparison of ICP and XRF data............................................................................................................... 59

5.6 Discussion ....................................................................................................................................................... 65

5.7 Conclusions .................................................................................................................................................... 69

CHAPTER 6 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS ......................................................................... 71

6.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................................... 71

6.2 Alteration ....................................................................................................................................................... 74

6.3 Pathfinder elements....................................................................................................................................... 79

6.4 Elements concentration trends in the Reef 1 footwall basalt ..................................................................... 83

6.5 Correlation matrices ..................................................................................................................................... 86

6.6 Sampling and analytical methods ................................................................................................................ 88

6.7 Summary ........................................................................................................................................................ 92

6.8 Recommendations and future work............................................................................................................. 93

APPENDIX 1 SAMPLE DESCRIPTIONS........................................................................................... 101

APPENDIX 2A X-RAY FLUORESCENCE MAJOR ELEMENTS CONCENTRATIONS ................... 110

APPENDIX 2B X-RAY FLUORESCENCE TRACE ELEMENTS CONCENTRATIONS.................... 113

APPENDIX 3 PETROGRAPHIC DESCRIPTIONS............................................................................. 116

1. Transmitted light petrography..................................................................................................................... 116

2. Reflected light petrography .......................................................................................................................... 136

APPENDIX 4 INDUCTIVELY COUPLED PLASMA ANALYSES- BASIC STATISTICS................... 139

APPENDIX 5. ELEMENTAL ICP DATA DESCRIPTIONS................................................................ 144