Learn About Grammar PDF

Benson Benson-0658 126323 ENGLISH GRAMMAR FOR O-LEVEL STUDENTS
Greeting means to salute or to pay respect to someone.

Greetings depend on the time, age and social relationships between the people who exchange such a greeting.
HOW TO GREET PEOPLE

There are more than 17 useful English greetings that are used to great people. Some people tend to hug, bow,
shake their hands, collide their shoulders or fists. All these ways depends on the social relationship between the
people who exchange such a greeting. You probably know “Hello, Hi and How are you?” However, English
speakers do not always say “Hello, Hi, Good morning/evening/afternoon and how are you?” They also use
other greetings and expressions. Let us learn how to use formal and informal English greetings as well as fun
slang expressions that people around the world use to greet each other.
However, greetings can either be formal or informal depending on the social relationship between the people
who exchange such a greeting.
The formal greeting is used between;

 Teacher and students
 Doctor and patient
 Boss and client
 The president and people, etc.
The informal greeting is used between;

 Friends,
 Age mates,
 Dj and Dancers, etc
Formal greetings are mostly used in business, official situations and when you meet older people. The
followings are examples of formal greetings;
(i) Good morning, Good evening or Good after noon

These are formal ways of saying “Hello”, this greeting changes depending on the time of the day.
Keep in mind that “Good night” is not a greeting but a wish; it is only used as a goodbye/farewell. So,
if you meet someone late in the day, remember to greet them with “Good evening” rather than “Good
night”. Good morning can be made more casual by simply saying “Morning”, you can also say
“Afternoon or evening” as informal greetings, but these are less commonly used.
(ii) It’s nice to meet you or I’m pleased to meet you

These greetings are formal and polite. If you say this to someone when you meet him or her for the
first time, it will make you seem courteous. Remember to use these greetings ONLY the first time you
meet someone. Next time you meet the same person, you can show that you remember him/her by
saying “It is nice to see you again”.
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(iii) How have you been?

This greeting question is only used by the people who have already met. If someone asks you “How
have you been?” it means that they want to know if you have been well since the last time the two of
you met.
(iv) How do you do?

This greeting is VERY formal and quite uncommon, but it may still be used by some older people. The
proper response is “I’m doing well”.
(a) Hey, Hey man, or Hi

You can use “Hey or Hi” to greet someone instead of “Hello”. These two greetings are popularly used
by younger people. “Hi” is appropriate to use in any casual situation. “Hey’ is used by the people who
have already met. If you say “Hey” to a stranger, it might be confusing for that person because He or
She will try to remember when you met before. You can add “man” to the end of “hey” when greeting
males. Some people tend to use “Hey man” to greet younger women, but only do this if you know the
woman very well. Remember that “Hey” does not always mean “Hello”. “Hey” can also be used to
call for someone’s attention.
(b) How is it going, or How are you doing?

These are casual ways of asking “how are you?” If you are trying to be particular polite, stick with
“How are you?” otherwise you can use these expressions to greet almost anyone. The correct response
to these greetings is “It’s going well”, or “I’m doing well” depending on the question. Although it is
not grammatically correct, you may just answer saying “Good” just like when responding to “How are
you?”. You can also follow your answer by asking “and you?”
(c) What’s up? What’s new? Or What’s going on?

These are some other informal ways of asking “How are you?”, they are typically used to greet people
you met before. Most people answer with “nothing” or “not much”. But if you feel to make a small
talk, you could briefly describe anything new or interesting that is going on in your life, before asking
“what about you?” to continue the conversation.
(d) How is everything? How are things? Or How is life?

These are some other common ways of asking “How are you? They are often used to greet someone
you already know. You can answer “Good” or “not bad”. If small talk feels appropriate, you could also
briefly share any interesting news about your life, and then ask the person “What about you?”
(e) How is your day or How’s your day going?

These are questions mean “How is your day since morning?” This greeting question is regularly asked
in the afternoon or evening to someone you see regularly. The correct response is “It’s going well”, but
many people simply answer with “fine, good or alright”.
(f) Good to see you or Nice to see you

These greetings are commonly used by the friends of family members who have not seen in a while.
You may also use this greeting along with a hug or hand shaking depending on the social relationship
of the greeting exchangers.
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(g) Long time no see, It’s been a long time/while

This is a greeting used by people who have not seen for a long time/while, particularly if they meet
unexpectedly. Usually, these phrases are followed with a question like “How are you?” “How have
you been?” or “What’s new?”
EXERCISE
1. Make greetings orally with your teacher
2. Write the greetings conversation between you and your friend
3. Write the greetings conversation between you and your teacher.
Slang greetings are extremely informal, and should only be used with people that you know very well and you
feel very comfortable with. Keep in mind that many slangs are regional, for example; the slangs used in
America may look strange when are used in Australia. Therefore, you need to learn the local slangs wherever
you are, but these common examples will help you get started.
(i) Yo!
This greeting is common in America. It started in 1990’s as a Hip Hop greeting slang. These days it is
often used jokingly. This greeting should only be used with very close friends and never in a business
setting.
(ii) You alright? Are you OK? Or Alright mate?

This slang greeting is common in Britain. It is a casual way of asking “Hello” and “How are you?”
You can respond “Yeah, fine” or simply “Alright”.
(iii) Howdy!
This is an informal abbreviation of “How do you do?” It is very common in certain parts of Canada
and United States. Keep in mind that if you say “howdy” outside of these regions, you will sound like
a cowboy and it may make other people laugh at you.
(iv) Sup! Or Whazzup!

These greetings are abbreviations of “What’s up?” They are common greetings among teenagers. The
best responses to these greetings are “nothing or not much”
(v) G’day mate!

This is an Australian abbreviation of “good day”. Keep in mind that Australian greetings often use
“ya” instead of “you”. So “how are ya” is the same as “how are you”.
(vi) Hiya!
This is a short greeting for “how are you?” It is commonly used in certain parts of England. However,
you don’t need to answer this greeting; you can just say “Hey” right back.
NOTE:
A regular English textbook is not going to teach you the casual English you need to know. If you want
to be competent and fluent in English, you need to learn from the real English speakers in your daily
life.
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Self-introduction means to make people get to know you by giving out your personal profile or information
orally or in writings;
How to introduce yourself:
My name is ………………………………………….
I am coming from ………………………………….
I was born at …………………………….. In/on ………………………….
My father’s name is …………………………………..
My mother name is …………………………………..
I started primary school in …………………………….. At …………………….
Thereafter, I …………………………….
For Example:
My name is Kajala Masanja,

I am coming from Tabata Matumbi,
I was born at Muhimbili Hospital in Dar es Salaam in 1998
My father’s name is Ibrahim Masanja
My mother’s name is Khadija Mohamed,
I started primary school in 2005 at Tabata Pr. School
Thereafter, I completed my primary education in 2011,
In 2012 I joined form one at Temeke Secondary school, now I am a form
four student.
EXERCISE
 Introduce yourself orally and Write your own Self-Introduction (profile)
(Talk about yourself orally)
Autobiography is a piece of information about one’s own life. It includes the necessary information about you
and other information about your life.
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For example;
MY SURNAME ____________________________________________________________________
MY FIRST NAME __________________________________________________________________
MY MIDDLE NAME ________________________________________________________________
MY NATIONALITY _________________________________________________________________
MY AGE __________________________________________________________________________
MY FAVOURITE COLOUR __________________________________________________________
MY FAVOURITE SINGER ___________________________________________________________
MY FAVOURITE SPORTS ___________________________________________________________
MY FAVOURITE TV PROGRAMME ___________________________________________________
MY FAVOURITE JOB _______________________________________________________________
A TYPE OF A FRIEND I WANT _______________________________________________________
WHAT I HATE MOST _______________________________________________________________
WHAT I LOVE MOST _______________________________________________________________
MY FAVOURITE MOVIES ___________________________________________________________
MY FAVOURITE RADIO PRESENTER _________________________________________________
MY BEST FRIEND __________________________________________________________________
MY BEST DRINK ___________________________________________________________________
MY BEST FOOD ___________________________________________________________________
MY RELIGION _____________________________________________________________________
MY HOBIES _______________________________________________________________________
EXERCISE
 Fill in the blanks with your correct information to complete the above autobiography.
 Prepare your own autobiography
Family tree is a diagram showing a relationship between members of the family over a long period of time.
Family tree starts with the roots of the tree (great grandparents) to the leaves of the tree (grand children).
Family tree is sometimes known as a genealogical tree/chart. In this sub topic, we are going to study how to
introduce our family members and their occupations. Occupation refers to the job or profession of a certain
person in a family.
For example;
 Benny is my father, he is a policeman.
 Kulwa is my sister, she is a nurse.
The words “father” and “sister” are words which describe the relationship between the family
members while the words “policeman” and “nurse” are words which describe the
occupations/jobs of the described people.
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IMPORTANT TO KNOW;
(i) The parents of my grandparents are called great grandparents.
(ii) A mother of my grandmother/grandfather is called a great grandmother.
(iii) A father of my grandmother/grandfather is called a great grandfather.
(iv) The parents of my parents are called grandparents.
(v) A father of my mother/father is called a grandfather.
(vi) A mother of my mother/father is called a grandmother.
(vii) The parents of my mother/father call me a grandchild.
If I am a boy, they will call me a grandson and if I am a girl they will call me a granddaughter.
(viii) A young brother or elder brother of my mother/father is my uncle.
(ix) A young sister or elder sister of my mother/father is my aunt.
(x) If I am a boy, all my uncles and my aunts will call me a nephew.
(xi) If I am a girl, all my uncles and my aunts will call me a niece.
(xii) A husband of my sister is my brother-in-law.
(xiii) A wife of my brother is my sister-in-law.
(xiv) A son of my sister/ my brother/ my brother-in-law or sister-in-law is my nephew.
(xv) A daughter of my sister/ my brother/ my brother-in-law or sister-in-law is my niece.
(xvi) My husband’s or wife’s parents are my parents-in-law.
(xvii) My husband’s or wife’s mother is my mother-in-law.
(xviii) My husband’s or wife’s father is my father-in-law.
(xix) My wife’s parents will call me a son-in-law
(xx) My husband’s parents will call me a daughter-in-law.
(xxi) A person who I share the same parents is my sibling.
Siblings are the people who share the same parents, therefore, brothers and sisters of the same parents are
siblings.
(xxii) A son/daughter of my uncle or aunt is my cousin.
(xxiii) A child of my daughter or son is my grandchild.
If a child is female, she is my granddaughter, if a child is male, he is my grandson.
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EXERCISE; 1 (NECTA 2011)

Kitumburuju and his wife Nacha have two children. The boy child is called Tesua and the girl child is called
Echa. Tesua is married to Niza and they have two children, a boy is called Man and a girl is called Mndee.
Echa is married to Chika and they have two boys. The older one is Mgosi and the younger one is Semsi.
QUESTIONS
1. What does Semsi call Niza?
2. What does Kitumburuju call Mndee?
3. What does Chika call Nacha?
4. What does Mani call Mgosi?
EXERCISE; 2 (NECTA 2012)

Moshi’s family has two children who are Stela and Musa. Musa got married to Rose and Stela got married to
John. Musa and Rose have two children; Rasi and Hawa while John and Stela’s children are Abdu and Amina.
Abdu and Rasi are 30 years old while Amina and Hawa are 20 years old.
QUESTIONS
1. What is the relationship between Musa and Rose?
2. What is the relationship between John and Musa?
3. What is the relationship between Rasi and Stela?
4. Abdu, Amina, Rasi and Hawa are ____________of Mr. and Mrs. Moshi.
EXERCISE; 3a (NECTA 2015)
My name is Lilian. I live with my family in Tabora. My father is a secondary school teacher. My mother is an
accountant. My elder sister is a police woman. She works at the police headquarters. Uncle Thomas is my
father’s brother. He is a carpenter and a builder. He builds most of the primary schools in the ward. His wife is
a secretary. Their three sons; Paul, David and Michael are drivers, electrician and a plumber respectively.
Their two daughters Magreth and Rosemary work at the local hospital. Magreth is a Laboratory assistant and
Rosemary is a nurse. Uncle Peter is my mother’s brother. He is a professor at the university.
QUESTIONS
1. Lilian’s father occupation is a ___________
2. Uncle Thomas’ son who is a driver is called ________
3. Uncle Peter is _____ at the university.
4. The Laboratory assistant is _________
EXERCISE; 3b (NECTA 2015)

Match the expressions in LIST A with the correct word in LIST B
LIST A LIST B
(i) The son of your brother or sister A. Sibling
(ii) The child of your daughter or son B. Uncle
(iii) The child of your aunt or uncle C. Nephew
(iv) A brother or sister D. Grand child
(v) The brother of your father or mother E. Cousin
F. Grand father
G. Niece
H. Brother-in-law
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OTHER QUESTIONS
1. If you are a girl, then you are your mother’s/father’s ________
2. If you are a boy, then you are your mother’s/father’s _______
3. What do you call your father’s sister’s son _________
Requesting means to express the need or desire for something. We request when we need somebody to do
something for us. When we are requesting, we need to request politely. The following words can be used when
we request someone.
 Would
 Will
 Shall + please
 May
When we are requesting, we need to use polite words like “Please” may, shall, would or will”
For example;
 Please sir, may I come in?
 Please madam, may I go out?
 May you please write this? May you write this please?
 Would you like me to go?
 Please, may I take my money?
 Will you please take me to the market?
 Please, will you take me to the market?
 Shall you allow me to eat?
The word “PLEASE” is mobile; it can be at the beginning, middle or at the ending part of the sentence.
EXERCISE
Write five sentences by using “would, may and shall” to request for something
Offer is the proposal made by someone to be

accepted by another person. Offer can be a visible How to accept on offer
thing or invisible. When accepting an offer, you may say;
 Thank you very much/ Thanks
How to offer:  That will be nice
There are many words used to offer someone.  It’s well if you will do so
For example;  Oh, yes
 Would you like me to ____________
 Do you want me to ______________ How to refuse an offer
 Can I help you to _______________  No, thank you
 Can I give you _____________  Don’t mind. Thank you
 I have had plenty. Thank you
We normally use polite expressions when  Ooh, thank you for an offer
offering someone  I am satisfied
 Would you like a cup of coffee?  I am okay
 Would you like to come with me?
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More Examples  Write five sentences to offer someone and the

On accepting and refusing an offer; acceptance of an offer.
 Write five sentences to offer someone and the
a) Would you like a cup of tea? refusal of an offer
 Ooh, thank you  Write the conversations between accepting or
 No, thank you refusing an offering and other is either
accepting or refusing an offer.
b) Would you like to come with me?
 Oh, yes Practice the following example;
 Of course, I like it
 Oh, sorry, I am not ready this time Musa: Hello Kabadi, What a surprise!
 No, thank you. Come in my friend
Kabadi: Thank you Mussa.
c) Would you like some more drink? Musa: Can I put off my shoes before I come in?
 Oh, thank you, I have had enough Kabadi: Oh, no, come with them.
 Oh, thank you, I am satisfied The house is still dirty
 No, thank you, I’ m okay Musa : Ok, thank you.
Musa: Have a sit my friend.
d) Can you share with me a cigarette? Would you like something to drink?
 Oh, yes. Thank you. Whisky, Beer, Soda or tea?
Kabadi: Oh, yes, thank you
 No, thank you
Just help me some water, it’s hot to day
 Sorry, I don’t smoke cigarette
Musa : Of course. Today is very hot.
Here some water
Exercise:
Kabadi: Thank you.
 Write five sentences to offer someone for Musa : Can I give you something to eat?
something. Ugali, chapatti, rice or fruits?
Kabadi: Oh, No, nothing to eat. I am not hungry
There are many ways of wishing people.

(i) Have a good trip/journey----------(used when somebody is travelling)
(ii) Have a good time--------------------(used when someone is in vacation etc)
(iii) Good luck! --------------------------(used when someone is going to face difficult event)
(iv) Have a good holiday----------------(used in holidays)
(v) Have a nice day! --------------------(used when someone is leaving)
(vi) See you! ------------------------------(used when someone is leaving)
(vii) Let us call it a day! or let me call it a day! --- (used when someone is leaving)
(viii) Give my wishes to Benny
(ix) Send my best wishes to John
(x) Bon voyage = have a nice journey
(xi) Pass my greetings to Godfrey..
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We say “Excuse me” before interrupting or disturbing  Oh, Sorry, I will pay you back
somebody. Don’t mention.
We say “Sorry” after interrupting or disturbing  Sorry madam, I hit you unintentionally.
somebody. Take it easy.
For example; HOW TO REPLY AN EXCUSE BEFORE

(i) Before Interruption we need to say; DISTURBANCE
 Excuse me, can I get in? Example;
 Excuse me, is this Mr. Awadhi?  Excuse me, will you mind if I smoke my cigarette.
 Yes, of course
(ii) After Interruption/ Disturbance we need to say;  Oh, just feel free
 Oh, Sorry! It was not my intention  No, just go a head
 I am sorry! Did I tear up your paper?
 I am Sorry! I ate all your food  Excuse me marry, can you call my friend?
 Why not?
HOW TO REPLY AN EXCUSE AFTER  Yes, of course
DISTURBANCE  Oh, No marry, I am out of credit.
For example:  No problem
 Sorry, it was not my mistake.
Don’t mind
Time refers to duration which is measured in seconds, minutes, hours, In English language we say the time starting with minutes and finally
days, weeks, months etc. There is a need to know how to say and read the hours except when the time is O’clock. The short arrow shows
the time in digits. hours while the long arrow shows minutes. When long arrow is more
than 30 minutes, we need to say “It is ___ to___” But when the long
HOW DO WE ASK TIME?
We may say: arrow is below 30 minutes, we need to say “It is ___ past ___”
 What is the time?
 What time is it now? Study the following examples and then write your own answers in the
next watches;
It is one O’clock It is quarter past seven
It is quarter to one
Forty five minutes past twelve It is fifty five past three
It is five minutes to four
NOTE: p. m is used from 12:00 in the afternoon to 23:59 or 11:59 in the
a. m means after meridian, it is used to say the time before noon. night.
a. m is used from 00:00 or 12:00 in the night to 11:50 the morning. When a digital watch uses 24 hours digits, there is no need to put a.m
p. m means Prime Meridian; It is used in the afternoon. or p.m in 13,14,15,16 to 23:50. All digits more than 12 do not use a.m
and p.m
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English like other languages is composed of various grammatical elements. These grammatical element should
be put together to form a meaningful sentence. In grammar, we learn about these structural elements and the
rules which govern the arrangement of these structural elements; words, phrases, clauses and sentences.
A: WORD CLASS / PARTS OF SPEECH

There are 9 word classes in English.
1. Nouns (N)
2. Pronouns (Pron)
3. Verbs (V)
4. Adjective (Adj)
5. Adverbs (Adv)
6. Preposition (prep)
7. Conjunctions (conj)
8. Articles (art)
9. Interjections (interj)
These are words used to name people, places, things or animals. Nouns are grouped into six classes or types;
(a) Proper nouns and common nouns
(b) Countable nouns and uncountable nouns
(c) Concrete nouns and Abstract nouns.
Nouns
Proper nouns Common nouns
Countable Uncountable
Concrete Abstract Concrete Abstract
a) PROPER NOUNS
These are names of specific places and people. Proper noun specifies unique things or people. We
normally use a capital letter in the first letter of proper nouns.
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For example;
People’s names Places and things
- Benny - Magu
- Mariamu - Dar es salaam

- Ashura - Kilimanjaro
- Mussa - Lake Victoria
- Zuena - The sun
- Gloria - The Earth
- Kikwete, etc - Indian ocean, etc
b) COMMON NOUNS
These are names given to common things of the same kind or class. These names are ordinary. These
is no uniqueness in common nouns, we do not use capital letter at the first letter of the common noun
except when the common noun is used at the beginning of the sentence.
For example;
- Man, Woman, Boy, Girl, House, Bottle, Exercise book, etc.
NOTE:
Proper nouns do not accept the plural form by adding “_ies, _es and _s” since they are unique names.
For example, you cannot say Dar es salaams, Bensons, Mwanzas, etc. Common nouns accept the
plural form since they are common nouns.
c) COUNTABLE NOUNS
These are nouns which can be counted. Countable nouns allows plural form (ies, _es and _s)
For example;
o Book – Books
o House – Houses
o Car – Cars
o Chair – chairs
o Door – doors
d) UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS
These are name of thing which cannot be counted. Uncountable nouns are sometimes referred to as
Mass Nouns.
For example;
- Sand, Water, Oil, Air, etc
e) ABSTRACT NOUNS
These are name of immaterial thing or invisible thing.
For example; News/Information, Idea, love, Angry, Hatred, Advice, Concept, etc
f) CONCRETE NOUNS
These are the names of things which are visible or physically seen or tangible.
For example; Desk, chair, phone, tree, padlock, key, stone, door, etc.
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Both countable and uncountable nouns can be abstract or concrete

NOUNS
CONCRETE ABSTRACT
COUNTABLE UNCOUNTABLE COUNTABLE UNCOUNTABLE
Boy - Boys Water – Water Idea - Ideas Advice – Advice

Chair – Chairs Oil – Oil Concept - Concepts Information - Information
Door – Doors Sugar – Sugar Love - Loves News - News
Tree – Trees Salt – Salt
Pen – Pens Sand – Sand
Book – Books Soil – Soil
Baby - Babies Hair - Hair
EXERCISE
 Write five countable abstract nouns
 Write five uncountable abstract nouns
COLLECTIVE NOUNS /GROUP NOUNS

These are nouns / names of things, animals or people that are regarded as a single unit. It is one name given to
a group of things, animals or people. The collective names accept plural form.
For example; in steady of saying “A group of - A band of musicians

soldiers” we say “Army” - A brood of chickens
Therefore – Army is the group of soldiers - A kindle of kitten
- A chest of drawers - A bevy of beautiful girls / ladies
- A crowd of people - An anthology of poems
- A flock of sheep/birds - A fleet of ship /vessels/ canoes
- A gang of criminals /thieves / bandits - A stack of wood
- A galaxy of stars - A pencil of rays
- A constellation of stars - A set of tools/items
- A cluster of stars - A host of angles
- A board of directors - A nest of boxes /cases
- A choir of singers - A staff of teachers/ professors / doctors
- A plague of insects / locust - A stud of horses
- A school of whales - A team of players/ oxen/horses
- A bouquet of flowers - A troupe of dancers
- A bunch of keys /flowers / bananas - A forest of trees
- A swarm of bees - A horde of children
- A pride of lions - A lump of coal
- A troop of monkeys/ baboons/ chimpanzee/ - A bundle of firewood
soldiers - A mass of people (worshippers)
- A library of books - A class of students
- A herd of cattle - A jury of judges
- A crew of sailors - A shoal of fishes
- A pack of cards / wolves - A packet of biscuits /cigarette
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- A ream of papers  A group of people in a church----Mass or

- A bench of coaches congregation
- A litter of pigs  A group of sick people waiting for the
- A crew of sailors / pilots/ cap tens service in hospitals-----Patients
- A tuft of grasses  People appointed to do a special task----
- A loaf of bread Committee
 A group of people who are watching a Collective nouns can be subdivided into
football/netball/basketball match--- parts or pieces
spectators These pieces /parts which are countable
 A group of people who are watching a have got a name;
performance in a concert/ theater -- Example;
Audience - A bar of chocolate
 A group of people who attend a meeting--- - An acre/piece of land
Assembly - A slice of bread
Pronouns are words which are used in place of nouns and noun phrases. There are eight types of pronouns;
a) PERSONAL PRONOUNS
These are pronouns which help us to identify the subject (Speaker) and the object of the verb. Personal
pronouns are subdivided into 3 groups/ subtypes;
1st personal pronouns
2nd personal pronouns
3rd personal pronouns
Singular Plural SUBJECT OBJECT
I We Singular Plural Singular Plural

1st personal pronoun
You You I We Me Us 1stpersonal pronoun
2nd personal pronoun
You You You Them 2ndpersonal pronoun
He
They He They Him Them
She 3rdpersonal pronoun
It
She They Her Them 3rdpersonal pronoun
It They It Them
Examples of personal pronouns in subjective case;

(i) I read a book every day We read a book everyday
(ii) I like to watch movies We like to watch movies
(iii) You will not go to school You will not go to school
(iv) He likes to sing a song They like to sing a song.
(v) She is not my mother They are not my mothers.
(vi) It is moving very fast They are moving very fast
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Examples of personal pronouns in objective case;
(i) Can you hear me? – can you hear us?

(ii) A gift was given to me – A gift was given to us
(iii) Give him a key – give them a key
(iv) The food is ready for it – the food is ready for them
(v) Will you listen to her? – will you listen to them?
NOTE:
The word “them” is commonly used as the plural third personal pronoun used in objective case, but it can also
function as a singular third personal pronoun of unspecified gender. It can play a part of both male and female
when the gender is not specified or well known.
For example;
 If someone comes and asks for a bus ticket just give it to them.
 If one of my student comes here, please allow them to come in my offices.
EXERCISE
Complete the following tag questions with the correct personal pronouns;
 Her brother is very handsome, isn’t _____?

 Their children are going to school, aren’t ______?
 The sun was shining, wasn’t ______?
 His mother was cooking ugali, wasn’t _____?
b) RELATIVE PRONOUNS
These are pronouns which connect two sentences and refer back to the subject of the sentence. These
pronouns link the subject and the predicate.
Relative pronouns are “who, whose, which, what, when and that”
(i) WHO o A table which was painted black is Brocken

This is used to replace the names of people or o A thing which was lost is now found
their personal pronouns i.e “He, she and they” o This is the reason which led me to be here.
For example;
o A boy who was jailed is released (iii)WHOSE
o A man who talked about me is here Whose is used for ownership or possession to
o A woman who is lame is married the people animals and things. It makes a link
o The student who speaks fast has gone between the subject and the object of the verb.
o The men who likes football are coming For example;
o The woman who insulted me is dead o This is a house whose windows have no
o The people who laughed at me are here mirrors
o A woman whose head is big was killed
(ii) WHICH yesterday
This is used to refer things or animals both in o Mr. Benny whose son is intelligent is a teacher
singular and plural. “Which” is not used for o She is a girl whose lips are wide
people o A boy whose father is dead was not my friend
For example;
o A car which I bought was stolen (iv) WHAT
o The lion which ate my cow is killed This is the relative pronouns which is used in
o A dog which ran fast is here place of personal pronouns “It”. What stands
o This is the house which is very expensive for things;
o This is the phone which was blocked by TCRA
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For example; (vi)WHEN

o This is what I said. This is the relative pronoun which is used in
o What he said was not true place of time which is not described.
o I gave him what he wanted For example;
o This is what I mean o Since when do I need your permission?
o He forgot what he wanted to say o This is when I saw you
o Marijuana is what the government prohibited
(vii) WHOM
(v) THAT This is the relative pronoun which refers to the
This is the relative pronoun which is used in previous mention person or people. “Whom”
place of people and things. That is used in place uses a person as an object (a thing affected by
of who, which, whom and where. an action). It is used in steady of “him, her and
them”
For example;
For example;
o This is the story that I was telling you
o This is the boy whom I was talking to
o She is the one that killed your father
o She is the one whom I punished
o This is the woman that loved me
o This is the girl whom I visited
o Mary is the girl that helped me
o Majura is the whom I hate
o These are the people that talked nonsense
o Razaro is the one whom I need
o He is the teacher that taught us English
o To whom are you talking?
c) INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS
These are pronouns which are used to form questions. These pronouns are “Why, Which, Who,
What, Whose and Where”. These interrogative pronouns tend to appear at the initial/ beginning part
of the sentence
For Example;
o What is your name? o Whose book is this?
o What do you want? o Which pen do you want?
o Where do you live? o When will you come to my house?
o Who is your mother?
d) EMPHATIC PRONOUNS
These are compound pronouns which are used to emphasize the subject. These pronouns tend to use
suffix “___ self/selves”
For example;
o He himself answered the question
o They themselves explained the question
o She herself wanted to go
o It itself raised high
e) DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS
These are pronouns which are used to point out things or people to which they refer. Demonstrative
pronouns are “This, that, these, those”.
Singular Plural
This These
Close or Nearest
That Those Far or distant
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For example;
o This is my friend
o These are my books
o That is a chair
o Those are animals
f) INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.
These are pronouns which are used to refer things or people in a general way. They do not refer to any
person or thing particularly or specifically.
Examples;
o None but clever believed that
o Few remained in the bus
o One does not have to study hard to pass the exams
o She is the one I told you
o Some were left free
g) DISTRIBUTIVE PRONOUNS
These are pronouns that refer to people or things one at a time.
Example;
o Each of the boys was given a gift
o Either of the two was a teacher
o Neither of us is an engineer
h) RECIPROCAL PRONOUNS
These are pronouns which are used to express a “two-way relationship”.
“Each other” is used to speak of two things or people.
“One another” is used for more than two things.
Example;
o They kissed each other
o They loved one another
o The couple loved each other
i) POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS
These are pronouns which are used to express possession or ownership. The words like; my, mine,
her, hers, his, your, yours etc, shows the possession. The possessive pronouns appear in two forms as
shown below,
Example;
o She is your girl friend, a girl is yours
o That is his house, the house is his
o This is our school, the school is ours
o Don’t take their money, the money is theirs
o This is her book, the book is hers
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These are words which are placed before nouns or pronouns to show location/places, direction, means, time or a
relationship of meaning between two parts of a sentence. Prepositions are always related to nouns, pronouns or gerund.
There are different types of prepositions;
1) Preposition of time
We use “AT, IN, ON” to show the time.
 “AT” is used for the short or precise time;
- At 3:00 pm
- At dinner time
 “ON” is used for days and dates

- On Sunday
- On Tuesday
- On 6th march
- On 25th December
- On Independence day
 “IN” is used for the parts of the day, years, (iii) Months
months and long periods of time like century and - In December
millennium. - In January
(i) Parts of the days - In August
- In the morning
- In the evening (iv) Seasons
- In the after noon - In winter
- In springs
(ii) Years - In Autumn
- In 1999
- In 2016 (v) Centuries
- In 1993 - In 19th century
- In 17th century
- In 8th century
We also use “IN” mainly with towns and cities

- In Dar es salaam
- In New York
- In Mwanza
NOTE:
Anything considered or having a large floor space we tend to use “on” For example;
On a train, On a ship, on the shuttle, on the bus etc, when the platform or the floor has no walls we tend to use
“on”
For example;
- On a table - On a skate board
- On a horse - On a bike, etc
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Anything with a small floor space we tend to use “IN” especially those enclosed with walls.
For example;
- In a car - In a house
- In a rocket - In a balloon
Other prepositions of time

- I will go there after lunch - I was these since 1998
- They are behind the time - It rained throughout a day
- I will come on time (exactly) - I will be here around thirty.
- I will come in time (within /around) - She kissed me until she satisfied
- I lived in Italy for 10 years - We cooked till evening
2) Preposition of movement or direction
We use “to, towards, into, onto, across, through
For example;
- A thief ran across the road - The enemies moved towards us
- She passed through a window - The wind blew through the trees
- A lion ran into the bush - The bus went up the hill
- A cat baled onto the table
3) Preposition of agency/instrumentality/means
These prepositions are used to express the manner or means the action is completed;
For example;
- I traveled by bus - He hit me with a stick
- He was beaten by a snake - She took a picture with a camera
4) Preposition of cause /reason

For example;
- She is suffering from malaria - He died of hunger
- I will die for you
5) Preposition of possession
For example;
- A daughter of Mr. Mligo - A boy with a black car
- The son of God - A man with a blue pen
- A house of my father
6) Preposition of place /position

When we speak of places we use the following prepositions; at, in, on, between, above, in front of, under,
beneath, below, over, etc
Example;
- At school - At a parts
- At University - At a funeral
- At home - At a concert
- At college - At a wedding
- At the butcher
7) Preposition of contrast /concession

For example;
- After laughing me, they were punished
- After eating too much, he vomited
- With all advice he was given, he was jailed again
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- Despite the darkness we walked on

- After loving her for two years, he was betrayed
- In spite of the darkness we walked on
The prepositions “Despite and in spite of” are synonymous words to show/express the contrast between two
ideas. They precede nouns, pronouns and gerunds (nouns with –ing form). Although these two prepositions
have the same meaning (synonyms), they are used different structurally.
For example;
 In spite of the rain, we enjoyed our holiday
= Despite the rain, we enjoyed our holiday
= We enjoyed our holiday despite the rain
 Despite the pain in his left leg, he completed the marathon

= In spite of the pain in his left leg, he completed the marathon
= He completed the marathon in spite of the pain in his left leg
 Despite having all qualifications, they didn’t offer me a job

= In spite of having all qualifications, they didn’t offer me a job
= They didn’t offer me a job in spite of having all qualifications
 Despite being strong, he failed to carry me on his back

= In spite of being strong, he failed to carry me on his back
= He failed to carry me on his back in spite of being strong
 In spite of having sensitive teeth, she likes ice cream

= Despite having sensitive teeth, she likes ice cream
= She likes ice cream despite having sensitive teeth
“Despite and in spite of” cannot be followed by the subject with a verb unless the expression “the fact that”
is included; for example; it is not correct to say;
 Despite she was sick, she went to school
 In spite of they are hard workers, they failed the interview.
These two sentences are not correct until the expression “the fact that” proceeds the two prepositions;
“Despite and in spite of”. For example;
 Despite the fact that she was sick, she went to school
 In spite of the fact that they are hard workers, they failed the interview.
These are words which show the emotions and feelings of a person. The emotions and feelings expressed by a
person can be of sadness, angry, disgust, happiness etc
For example;
- Wow! You look great in that dress----admiration
- Ooh! What a lovely surprise-----surprise
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- Shit! I hate mice-----disgust

- Damn it! I have lost everything-----mistake
- Oops! I’ve just some spilt coffee----mistake
- Boo!----mistake
- Ouch! Oow! I just stepped on a pin-----pain
- Phew! I have finished that essay at last-----relief
- Yippee! We’re going to the beach----excitement
These are words which join together words. The followings are the types of conjunctions:
(a) Correlative Conjunctions (c) Coordinating Conjunctions
(b) Compound Conjunctions (d) Subordinating Conjunctions
a) Correlative Conjunctions
These are conjunctions which are used in pair, they depend each other;
o Either ------or o Though---------yet
o Neither -----nor o Such----------as
o Such--------that o Not only---------but also
o Both-------and o No sooner--------than
o As----------as
For example;
- Benny wants either sugar or salt
- My mother prefers tea to coffee
- Both Juma and Uledi are my brothers
- Whether you write notes or not, it’s up to you
- Not only Musa wanted Phd but also Mariamu.
- She can speak neither English nor Swahili.
- Though she studied hard yet she failed the exam
- Emiliana is as beautiful as her mother.
- I was so angry that I could fire the gun
- I was such a liar that nobody believed me.
- It was no sooner she started singing than a padre entered
- I had no sooner finished my studies than I got a job
b) Compound conjunctions
These are compound words which are used to join two sentences, compound conjunction are:-
o As if o In order that
o As though o On condition that
o As soon as o Even if
o So that o as well as
For example;
o She is a teacher as well as a business woman
o Find me as soon as you switch on your phone
o You contempt me as if I am not your father
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o He went to the market in order that he can buy some fruits

o I will lend you the money on condition that you return it next month
o Even if she is beautiful, I will not marry her
o I saved the money so that I might use it in the future.
o Kanumba appeared in public as though he was a superstar
c) Coordinating conjunctions
These are words which are used to join together other words or sentences of equal rank or status.
Coordinating conjunctions are:- but, And, Nor, Or, So, Still, Yet, For;
For example;
o She was punished but she did not cry
o I visited Magu and Arumeru last year.
o She is not my friend nor my relative
o You must begin the work now or you will not finish on time
o This is my father so I respect him
o He beats his wife yet he loves her
o You are a rich man still you need my money
d) Subordinating conjunctions
These are conjunctions which are used to join sentences of unequal rank. Subordinating conjunctions
join one sentence which is independent & another sentence which is dependant so as to make one
meaningful sentence. Subordinating Conjunctions are:
That, so, Although, Till, As, When, Where, While, If, Unless, Because, For;
Subordinating conjunctions are divided into the following divisions:-
i. Time Subordinators
The followings are the time subordinators “When, For, Before, Till, When, After”
For example;
o We were taking a meal when he vomited
o I was studying for a long time
o Work hard until you finish a work
o I haven’t seen Benny since he married
o Mwajuma started to sing after they had gone
o Mwandu went to school before I spoke to him
ii. Cause or reason subordinators

The followings are the cause or reason subordinators;“Because, since, for, as, from, of;
For example;
o This is all because of you
o I will punish you for your laziness
o Maua suffered from typhoid
o As she is my mother, I like her
o Since it is raining, take an umbrella.
iii. Purpose subordinators

The followings are the purpose subordinators “So, that, so that”
For example;
o We eat ugali so that we may live
o We eat that we may live
o We did so for the benefit of all
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iv. Concession
“Although, However”
o Although I have a lot of money, no woman likes me
o However hard he studied he failed the exams
v. Condition subordinators
“If, Unless, Otherwise, Provided”
o If you give me money I will go to school.
o She will not pass the exams unless she studies hard
o You can take a book provided you return it tomorrow.
A sentence with a condition subordinator is called a conditional sentence or a conditional clause.

CONDITIONAL SENTENCE is sometimes known as a conditional clause or If Clause. It is called “If
Clause” because it is made by “If subordinator/conjunction”. Conditional sentence is used to express that a
certain action [in the main clause] can/will take place if a certain condition [in the If Clause] is fulfilled. A
Conditional sentence is made by two parts;
(a) If Clause
If Clause contains a condition, It is a dependent clause, it does not stand alone to make the clause
meaningful. It depends on the main clause to implement/complete the meaning.
(b) Main clause

This is the second part of Conditional Clause. It is called the main clause because it can stand alone as
a complete sentence with the subject and a verb. Main clause is sometimes known as independent
clause.
There are three types of Conditional Sentences in English Language;
(i) Conditional sentence type one/Likely condition/Open condition

This is the conditional sentence which is used to express the situation in which the outcome is likely to
happen in the future (but not guaranteed) if a certain condition is fulfilled. In the condition type one,
the following structure is used;
 (Simple present tense in the If Clause) + (will/shall/can/may + infinitive verb form in the main
clause)
IF CLAUSE MAIN CLAUSE
Simple present tense Subject + will/shall/can/may + infinitive verb form
 If there is a problem my mother will handle it

 If you give me money I will not punish you
 If you ask me I will help you
 If she loves him she will marry him
 If you like me you will kiss me
 If they don’t want to go they will stay at home
 If the visitor does not leave the dog will keep on barking.
 If you don’t study hard you will fail your exams.
 If he does not invite me I will not go
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(ii) Conditional type two/Unlikely/Improbable condition

This is the conditional sentence which is used to express situation or outcomes that are completely
unrealistic/imaginary/will not happen in the future. In condition type two, we use the following structure;
 Simple past tense in the If Clause + modal auxiliary verb (would, could, might, should) in the main
Clause.
Simple past tense Subject + would/could/should + infinitive verb form
 If there was a problem my mother would handle it

 If you gave me money I would not punish you
 If you asked me I would help you
 If I were a bird I would fly high
 If she knew the language she would speak it correctly
 If he had money he could buy a new car
 If I were you I would not buy another house.
(iii) Condition type three/Impossibility condition/Unfulfilled condition

This is the conditional sentence which is used to express that the present circumstance would be different if
something different had happened in the past (it shows regret). It is a conditional sentence which expresses the
past possibilities. In this type, we use the following structure;
 Past perfect (had + past participle) in the If clause + modal auxiliary verbs (would/could/should +past
participle verb form) in the main clause.
Past perfect tense (had + past Subject + would/could/should + past participle verb form
participle)
 If you had told me early I would have given you a lift.

 If I had known you before I would have helped you
 If she had taken my money she would have bought some food
 If Benny had read this book he would have praised me.
NOTE:
a) Put a comma after If Clause when If Clause precedes the main clause.
For example; If I were you, I would marry her.
b) If the main clause precedes the If Clause, no comma is used.

For example; I would marry her if I were you.
“If” and “Unless” are all conditional subordinators/conjunctions. “Unless” means “If not”. When “unless” is
used in place of “if”, the conditional sentence will slightly change its structure but not its type and tense.
For example;
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Condition type one/Likely condition/Open condition
 If we don’t sleep well, we will become ill  If I find a job, I can help my mother
=Unless (if not) we sleep well, we will become ill. =Unless I find a job, I cannot help my mother
=We will become ill unless we sleep well. =I cannot help my mother unless I find a job.
 If she loves him, she will marry him  If he does not invite me, I won’t go there
=Unless she loves him, she will not marry him = Unless he invites me, I won’t go there
=She will not marry him unless she loves him = I won’t go there unless he invites me
 If the visitor does not leave, the dog will keep on barking
= Unless the visitor leaves, the dog will not keep on barking
= The dog will not keep on barking unless the visitor leaves
 If you don’t study hard, you will fail your exams.

= Unless you study hard, you will fail your exams.
= You will fail your exams unless you study hard.
Condition type two/Unlikely condition/Improbable condition
 If we did not sleep well, we would become ill

=Unless we sleep well, we would become ill
=We would become ill unless we sleep well
 If Nyerere were alive, Tanzanians would vote for him

=Unless Nyerere were alive, Tanzanians would not vote for him
=Tanzanians would not vote for him unless Nyerere were alive.
 If you paid him money, he would deliver all the goods.

=Unless you paid him money, he would not deliver all the goods.
= He would not deliver all the goods unless you paid him money
Condition type three/Impossibility condition/Unfulfilled condition
 If we had not slept well, we would have become ill

= Unless we had slept well, we would have become ill
= We would have become ill unless we had slept well
 If I had not married Ashura, I would have been happier.

= Unless I had married Ashura, I would have been happier.
= I would have been happier unless I had married Ashura.
 If I had known English, I could get a good job.

= Unless I had known English, I could not get a good job.
= I could not get a good job unless I had known English.
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Adverbs are words that modify the meaning (d) Adverbs of frequency
of a verb, an adjective on other adverbs Adverbs used to show how often an action is
Examples of adverbs; done. For example: - one, twice, often, always,
o Beautiful again, seldom
o Slowly o We went to school twice a day
o Happily o They never visited me
o They talked again
Types of Adverbs: o We always go to tuition
(a) Adverbs of time o She often talks with me
This is an adverb which is used to show the o He sometime like juices
time an action is done (When). Words like
“now, then, today, early, tomorrow” (e) Adverbs of Certainty
Examples; This is an adverb which is used to show
o We left school yesterday definiteness of the action. For example; -
o I will come at your house tomorrow certainly, Surely, Definitely, Obviously
o My sister is not at school now. o She is absolutely my friend
o They will come here soon o Obviously, this is an original phone
o She cooks food daily o I will certainly help you
o Formerly I was their president o He is surely a thief
o She is not my friend yet o I will definitely inform you
o Today is my birthday
(f) Adverbs of degree
(b) Adverbs of place An adverb used to show how much or what degree/
These are adverbs which are to show where extent an action is done.
(the place) an action is done words like “Here, For example; - “Very, fairly, quite, too, almost,
there, up, down, near” are some adverbs of fully, enough, so, any.
place o She plays netball very well
Examples; o It is too early to accept her
o He went away o Adamu is so drunk
o The students are here o I am feeling much better
o Just go there o We have eaten enough food.
o She stood near the gate o He is quite stupid,
o I am out o They are almost handsome,
o They are fully armed
(c) Adverbs of manner
These are adverbs which are used to show how
an action is done. Quickly, fast, Hard, Bravely
Examples;
o They lived happily
o She speak beautifully
o They walk badly
o Shake it vigorously
o I answered the question bravely
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(iii) Possessive adjective

This is an adjective which is used to talk
about ownership/ possession.
These are words which are used to express the For example:-
quality, quantity, number or pointing out or adding o My sister is a nurse
extra information to the people or things (nouns). o Our brother is not here
Adjectives are into two types of uses: o Her brother is Benny
o Your mouth is cracked
Kinds of adjectives: o Their school is closed
(i) Adjective of quality o Its tail is full of feathers
This is an adjective which is used to talk
about the quality of a person or a thing. (iv) Adjective of quantity
For example:- This is an adjective which is used to talk
o Adamu is a very slim teacher about the quantity or amount of the noun it
o Felista is a beautiful girl has used with. Adjectives of quantity are
o Mwajuma is a clever woman sometimes known as quantifiers because
o Tatyuku is a black girl they express the quantity of different things.
o The headmaster is the big man There are quantifiers for countable and for
o A room was very dark uncountable nouns; For example, the
o I met a man in a black suit following quantifiers are used with
o Dangote is a wealthy person. countable nouns;
For example:-
(ii) Adjective of number o Few people attended the meeting
This is an adjective which used to talk about o Little water is enough for me
the number of things /persons. o Some water was splashed
For example;- o All students will open the school in
o She prepared ten questions January
o I got first class in my studies o No table was broken
o Amani got fifty in chemistry
The words “Few, a few, some, little, a little, much, many” are called indefinite adjectives of quantity or
number of something which can either be countable or uncountable.
a) “Few” is used negatively to express the small number of countable nouns, a number which is not
satisfying or almost none. For example;
 There were few people in the church, so the padre postponed the mass.
 Few students attended the class, therefore, teacher Benny did not teach.
b) “A few” is used positively to express the small number of countable nouns, a small number which is
satisfying. For example;
 There were a few students in the class, so the class carried on.
 There were a few people in the mosque, so the sheikh started to preach.
c) “Little” is used negatively to express the dissatisfaction quantity of uncountable nouns. The quantity
expressed by the word “Little” is not satisfying or almost none. For example;
 We abandoned the project because we had little money left.
 The little diesel I had led me to postpone the journey.
 Sharifa has very little money, she cannot afford to buy Samsung Galaxy.
 The little food I have will not last long.
d) “A little” is used positively to express the satisfying quantity of uncountable nouns and some actions.
For example;
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 There was a little money left in my pocket, so were able to buy more drinks.
 A little cement we had enabled us to build two toilets.
 You have a little time before Monday, so you can finish well your work.
 A little shillings she has, can buy only two bananas.
 The door was opened a little, so I was able to peep them.
e) “Much” is used to express the large quantity of uncountable nouns. For example;
 I don’t have much time to discuss this issue.
 How much money do you want?
 How much is this pen? Is it one hundred or two?
 We don’t have much fruit juice.
f) “Many” is used to express the large number of plural countable nouns. For example;
 How many books do you want?
 Many students are coming from Japan.
 Many movie actors are my best friends.
 They asked many questions but few were answered.
g) “A lot of” is used with both countable and uncountable nouns to express the large number/quantity of
nouns. For example;
 A lot of people are waiting for TIGO FIESTA at CCM Kirumba.
 I have a lot of milk to drink.
 There was a lot of money in my wallet.
h) “A lot” is used to express the large amount or number of countable and uncountable nouns, it also
used to express duration and frequency of the action (verb). For example;
 Thanks a lot for listening to me ( = thank you very much)
 She likes swimming a lot ( = frequently or many times)
 Benny likes to sleep a lot ( = for a long time)
 We saw him a lot last year ( = several times )
 She paid me a lot for helping her ( = large amount )
 My mother likes pizza and burger a lot ( = very much )
NOTE:
(a) Since the words “little and Few” are used negatively in the sentences, the question tags of the
sentences with “little and Few” becomes positive. For example;
 Little amount is wasted, is it?
 Few people attended the meeting, did they?
(b) Since the words “a few and a little” are positively used in the sentences, the question tags of the
sentences with these adjectives become negative. For example;
 A little juice has been drunk by me, hasn’t it?
 The door was opened a little, so I was able to peep them, wasn’t it?
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Every adjective has three degree of comparison
I. Positive Degree
An adjective is used to talk about the quality of a person, place or a thing.
For example:- Good, Brave, Clever, Healthy, Big, Fat, Smooth, Soft, Handsome etc
II. Comparative Degree

An adjective which is used to compare two things or persons or the qualities
For example: Better, Falter, Cleverer, Healthier, Wealthier, Handsomer than, Higher, etc
III. Superlative degree

This is an adjective which is used to talk about comparison of two or more than two things, persons or
their qualities. For example; the best, the fattest, the heaviest, the cleverest, the bravest, the healthiest
NOTE: “Than” is only used in Comparative degree.

“The” is used in superlative degree.
Positive Comparative Superlative

- Tall - Taller - Tallest
- Small - Smaller - Smallest
- Brave - Braver - Bravest
- Wise - Wiser -Wisest
-Happy -Happier - Happiest
- Lazy - Lazier - Laziest
- Fat - Fatter - Fattest
- Hot -Hotter - Hottest
- Sad - Sadder - Saddest
- Beautiful - More beautiful - Most Beautiful
- Dangerous - More dangerous -Most Dangerous
Positive Comparative Superlative

- Good - Better - Best
- Bad - Worse -Worst
- Little - Less/lesser - Least
- Much - More - Most
- Many - more - Most
- Far - Farther - Farthest
- In -Inner - Inner most/in most
- Up - Upper - Upper most
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These are words which are normally preceding the noun or noun phrase. There are two types of articles:
(i) Definite article
(ii) Indefinite article
I. Definite article
This is an article which is used to refer or introduce a particular person or a thing. A word “the” is the
definite article.
II. Indefinite article

This is an article which does not refer to any particular person or things. For example: “a, an”
(i) “A” is used before singular and countable  I bought a car, the car is very
nouns that begin with a consonant sound. beautiful
For example:-
 A boy, (vi) “A/an” is used in front of common
 A European, abbreviations. For example;
 A table,  I have an M.A
 A school,  I have bought a V.W
 A union
 A dog, etc (vii) “A/an” is used when describing
someone’s nationality.
(ii) “A” is used before a noun/noun phrase For example;
beginning with a ‘w’ sound,  She is an American
For example;-  Musa is a Tanzanian
 A one legged sailor,  Benny is a European
 A one dollar note,
 A one way ticket. Article “the” is used in the following
circumstances:
(iii) “An” is used before singular and a. Public bodies & organization example;
countable nouns starting with a vowel  The police
sound (a, e, i, o, u). For example:-  The prime minister’s office
 An elephant  The OAU
 An egg  The EAC
 An hour
 An honor, etc b. Historical events, For example;
 The majimaji war
(iv) “A/an” is used to refer things which are  The Second World War
not clearly understood ( indefinite)
For example; c. Unique things, For example;
 A car (which one?)  The God
 A man (who?)  The Sun
 A school (which one?)  The earth
(v) “A/an” is used to introduce something or d. Before superlatives, For example;

a person for the first time.  The biggest
For example;  The most beautiful,
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 The highest  The United Republic of….

 The United Kingdom
e. Things mentioned for the second time
(definite), For example; k. It is used with the names of
 I bought a shirt and an umbrella, the mountains, group of islands, canal
shirt is now old. and the group of islands.
 The Indian Ocean
f. Used in singular nouns which represent  The Kilimanjaro Mt
the whole class or family, For example;-  The Suez Canal
 The elephant is the biggest animal
 The rose is the beautiful flower l. It is used with countries that have
 The teacher should know the plural names
psychology of the students  The Philippines
 The woman is an inferior creature  The Netherlands
g. In newspapers, magazines & well m. It is used with clauses or sentences

known books for example; introduced by the word “only”
 The Bible  The only day…
 The Quran  The only person…
 The daily news  The only drink…
h. In double comparatives. n. It is used to define, specify or identify

 The more I eat the more I get fat a particular person or object
 The more … the more………..  The man who wrote this….
 Look at the picture on the wall
i. It is used to introduce the  This is the doctor I came to see
Nationalities & communities.
 The Tanzanians o. It is used before the names of famous
 The Hindus buildings, monuments, hotels,
 The Muslims restaurant (unless they are people’s
 The Christians names)
 The Hilton Hotel
j. It is used with countries that include  The Golden Crest Hotel
the words “Republic, Kingdom or  The Guardian Tower
States”  The Majimaji Memorial
 The USA
This is the word which is used to indicate an action, a  The papers are spoiled
state of being, existence or possession
(i) A verb is used to express what a person (iii) A verb is used to express a state of being
or a thing does or existence
For example; For example;
 The Sun rises  She is a teacher
 The Earth rotates  They are in the classroom
 Salome writes rules
(ii) A verb is used to express what is done to (iv) A verb is used to express about
a person or a thing. possession,
For example; For example;
 Salome is punished - He has a blue shirt
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- I have a beautiful daughter
a. Main verb or lexical verbs

This is the verb which does not need any b. Helping verb/ Auxiliary verb
help to give the meaning of the clause or This is the verb which helps a main verb to
sentence. This verb is independent. For make a good grammatical meaning of the
example, the words; sentence. Examples of helping verbs;
 Go,  Is--- was,
 Dance,  am--- was,
 Do,  been--being,
 Cook,  will---would,
 Eat,  shall--should,
 Write,  have—has--had,
 Jump,  must—had to,
 See,  are--were,
 Walk,  can--could,
There are two kinds of helping or auxiliary verbs

a. Primary auxiliary verb
This is the verb which is used, both as helping verb and main verb. In primary auxiliary verbs, we have
verb to “Do, verb to “Have” and verb to “Be” with their forms;
 Do, does, did, done
 Have, has, had
 Be—is, was, am, are, were, been, being
is was
*Be are were
am was
being, been
For example;
- I was a singer - I have a pen
- I am a student - Have a drink
- She is aged - Do your work properly
- They are student - She did her work properly
b. Modal auxiliary verb

This is the verb which does not stand alone to give or to make the meaningful sentence. This verb
depends on the lexical or main verbs so as to make the meaningful sentence. Example;
- In must go now - May you come tomorrow?
- I will go to school - I used to sing a song
- He can work himself - She ought to go now
- I would like to close the door - We need to sing a song
Functions of auxiliary or helping verbs
32
(i) To express Order or command (Imperative mood)

- You must go now
- We have to/need to say the truth
(ii) Used in Requesting

- May I go out?
- Can you help me?
(iii) To mark tenses i.e time of an action/event

- I was going to school (past continuous tense)
- I have taken her (Present perfect tense)
- She will tell you ( Future tense)
(iv) To avoid redundancy of words or statement

- We like ugali, and Kabadi do so “and Kabadi do so” means Kabadi likes ugali too. The helping
verb “do” avoids repetition of some unnecessary words.
(v) To form questions or offering

- Is this your pen? - Were they cooking ugali?
- Are you a student? - Will you write note?
- Would you like coffee? - Can you speak English?
- Shall we come tomorrow?
(vi) To form question tags

Question tags are mini/short questions added at the end of the sentence when asking for agreement
or confirmation when we are talking. Question tags mean something like “is that right? Or do you
agree?” Some of the question tags are formed by helping/auxiliary verbs.
For example;
 This is my mother -Isn’t she?  Ester is going to school - Isn’t she?
 She cooks rice everyday -Doesn’t she?  She didn’t cook food - Did she?
 You will not come home - Will you?  We have not gone to school - Have we?
 We shall tell them - Shan’t we?  I will see you tomorrow - Won’t I?
 I am a teacher - Aren’t I?  She can cook Ugali - Can’t she?
There are RULES which guide formation of the question tags;

a) If the sentence is positive (affirmative) the question tag becomes negative
For example; You are my friend, aren’t you?
b) If the sentence is negative, the question tag becomes positive.

For example; She is not my sister, is she?
c) Question tags are formed depending on the tense of the sentence/statement.

For example;
Simple present tense
 I like music, don’t I?
 She sings very well, doesn’t she?
Present continuous tense

 We are going to school, aren’t we?
33
 He is talking too much, isn’t he?
d) Put a comma at the end of the sentence/statement before you write a tag question.
For example; Issa is my friend, isn’t he?
e) A question tag should start with a small letter.

For example; Enikunda was not cooking some food, wasn’t she? and not “Wasn’t she?”
f) When the voice of the speaker goes up in the question tag, the speaker is really asking the question
which needs an answer.
g) When the voice of the speaker goes down in the question tag, the speaker does not need any answer
from the question tag asked. Normally, when the voice of the speaker goes down, the speaker is in
negative feelings like disappointment, sorrow/sadness or disapproval.
h) We normally add negative tags to positive statements expecting the answer will be “YES”, this is
similarly to when we add positive tags to negative statements expecting the answer to be “NO”. For
example;
 They are very stupid, aren’t they?
Yes, they are stupid. They are always doing nonsense.
 You don’t remember me sister, do you?

Of course, I do not remember you.
 You have not clapped your hands to congratulate me, have you?
No, I haven’t. I am very sorry for this mistake.
HOWEVER, expectations are not always fulfilled. A person can reply differently from the normal formula we
used to hear. For example;
 You have not clapped your hands to congratulate me, have you?
Yes, I have. I clapped with all my strength.
 You don’t remember me sister, do you?

Actually, I remember you very well. It is not easy to forget you.
All these rules will help us to form the question tags correctly, basing on the attitude of the speaker,
tenses and the personal pronouns/subjects used in the statements.
1) Question tags with “I am”

Use “Aren’t I? or “am I not” to all positive statements/sentences with “I am…”
For example;
 I am a form four student, aren’t I? or “am I not?”
 I am here now, aren’t I?
 I am very late today, am I not? Or aren’t I?
Use “am I?” as the tag question to a negative statement/sentence with “I am not….”
 I am not your teacher, am I?
 I am not there now, am I?
 I am not interested in horror movies, am I?
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2) Question tags with indefinite pronouns/subject

Indefinite pronouns/subject is the word/phrase which does not directly say “who” or “what” the
subject/doer of an action is. For example, words like “somebody, everybody, anybody, someone”
etc, do not directly introduce/say who is doer of an action. The subject/doer is not directly recognized.
A. When the singular indefinite pronouns/subjects have been used in the sentences; “somebody,
everybody, anybody, no one..” etc, the question tags should use plural third pronoun “they”
even if the auxiliaries/helping verbs in the sentences are singular. For example;
 No one got hurt, did they?
 Somebody calls me, don’t they?
 Everyone insulted my mother, didn’t they?
 Someone is winking at me, aren’t they?
 Somebody was telling me a story, weren’t they?
 Somebody has taken my car, haven’t they?
NOTE:
“No one” is negatively used in the sentence; therefore, the question tag will be positive.
B. The following indefinite pronouns “something, everything, anything and nothing” do not
directly say what the subject/doer of an action is. The question tags of the sentences with these
indefinite pronouns use the pronoun “it”. For example;
 Anything is possible, isn’t it?
 Nothing went wrong, did it?
 Something is happening there, isn’t it?
 Nothing has been taken, wasn’t it?
 Everything was cooked, wasn’t it?
NOTE:
“Nothing” is negatively used in the sentences; therefore, the question tag will be positive.
C. The indefinite pronoun “few” and “a few” use the plural third pronoun “they” in their
question tags. Since the word “few” is negatively used in the sentences, the question tag
becomes positive. The word “a few” is positively used in the sentences, therefore, the question
tags become negative.
 Few remained in the bus, did they?
 A few people have gone away, haven’t they?
D. The subject “all of us, some of them, some of us, some of them, all of them, any of us, any
of them, and most of them” are used to denote positive and negative meaning in the
sentences. When these subjects are used in the sentences, change the object after the word
“of” to a subject and write it as the pronoun in the question tag.
For example;
 All of us are stupid.
Change the object “us” to a subject. The subject of “us” is “we”
Therefore, the question tag of the statement “All of us are stupid” is “aren’t we?”
35
SUBJECT OBJECT
Singular Plural Singular Plural
I We Me Us
You You You Them
He They Him Them
She They Her Them
It They It Them
More examples;
 Many of us here are not students, aren’t we?
 None of them is my best friend, are they?
 Most of them wanted me to go, didn’t they?
NOTE:
The word “none” is negatively used to mean “nothing/nobody”, since the word is negative by itself,
the question tag of the statement/sentence with the word “none” will be positive.
E. When the subject/pronoun “one” is used in the sentence, the pronoun to be used in the
question tag is the word “one” itself. For example;
 One must obey me, mustn’t one?
 One has the right to express oneself, hasn’t one?
3. Question tags with imperatives

All sentences expressing “a request, advice, warning, wish, order or suggestion” are known as
imperative sentences. The subject in the imperative sentences is always hidden expecting that it is well
known by the speaker and the listener. The subject of the imperative sentences is always the singular
second personal pronoun “you”. Question tags in imperative sentences are not standard, they
sometime depend on the attitude/intention of the speaker. The normal expectation of adding a negative
tag to the positive statement/sentence is the answer “yes” and vice versa.
For example;
If someone is angry or threatening you saying “Phone her if you dare”, this threat is vividly mean
“do not phone her”. If you are the one warned, will you phone her? Actually, in order to impress the
speaker, the answer is NO. Therefore, “will you?” becomes the question tag which needs negative
response.
However, there are only two question tags for imperative sentences; “will you? and “won’t you?”
depending on the sense/attitude of the imperative sentence;
a) Normal sense/attitude (polite)
In the normal sense/attitude, the question tag “will you?” is used for positive imperative
sentences/statements. The question tag “won’t you?” is used for a negative imperative
sentences. For example;
 Come here my friend, will you?
 Give me some water, will you?
 Call me at any time, will you?
b) Serious sense/attitude (angry, furious, hatred, etc)
36
In the serious sense, the question tag “won’t you?” is used for all positive imperatives while
“will you?” is used for the negative imperatives. For example;
 Stop laughing, will you?
 Don’t say nonsense, will you?
 Neel down, won’t you?
 Shut up, won’t you?
4. Question tags with demonstratives.

 Question tags with “there”
When the word “there” has been used as the demonstrative pronoun and the subject of the
sentence, the pronoun which is going to be used in the tag question is “there” itself.
For example;
 There is a lot of work to do today, isn’t there?
 There is nothing wrong with me, is there?
 There weren’t any students at the school, were there?
 Question tags with “this and that”

“This and that” are singular demonstrative pronouns which tend to refer/demonstrate/speak
about things, people or animals. When these demonstratives have been used in the sentences to
talk about a thing/animal, the pronoun “it” will be used. For example;
 This is an expensive watch, isn’t it?
 This is not my opinion, is it?
 That is not their dog, is it?
 This was a big problem, wasn’t it?
But when these two demonstratives have been used to talk about a person, the pronoun to be
used depends on the gender of that person talked about.
For example;
 This girl is my best friend, isn’t she?
 That man was jailed three times, wasn’t he?
 That is my beloved mother, isn’t she?
 Question tags with “these and those”

”These” and “those” are plural demonstrative pronouns which tend to refer/demonstrate/speak
about things, people or animals. When these two demonstrative pronouns have been used in
the sentences, the pronoun “they” will be used in the question tag because the pronoun “these
and those” are plural.
For example;
 These books are not mine, are they?
 These bottles will be taken soon, won’t they?
 Those teachers are not competent, are they?
 Those drinks were very strong, weren’t they?
5. Question tags with negative adverbs

The adverbs like “never, rarely, seldom, hardly, barely and scarcely” have a negative sense even
when they are used in the positive statements. Since the sentence with these negative adverbs are
regarded as negative, their question tags become positive.
For example;
 He never came back again, did he?
 We can rarely come here, can we?
 I barely know you, do I?
37
 She seldom comes here, does she?
EXERCISE
The question tags in the following sentences are provided. Fill in the blanks with the correct auxiliary
verb;
i. She…….watch the film last night, did she?
ii. It……..great to see each other, isn’t it?
iii. You……married, aren’t you?
iv. They……begin classes next month, won’t they?
v. You…….like chips, don’t you?
vi. She ……..my best friend, is she?
vii. Susan……lived here long, has she?
viii. You……invited to the party, were you?
ix. He…….go to church, doesn’t he?
x. They……..visited me, had they?
There are two forms of main verb or lexical verb;

a. Regular verbs
b. Irregular verbs
1) Regular verbs
These are verbs which change their verb form by adding ‘-ed’ in past and past participle tense.
For example;
Infinitive or Past tense Past participle

Base form
- Call -Called - Called
- Educate - Educated - Educated
- Play - Played - Played
- Display - Displayed - Displayed
2) Irregular verbs
These are verbs which change their verb form into different form in past tense and past
participle tense. Some of these verbs have the same verb form in all tenses.
For example;
Infinitive or Past tense Past Participle
Base form
- Teach - Taught -Taught
- Write - Wrote - Written
- Take - Took - Taken
- Cut - Cut - Cut
- Put - Put - Put
- Go - Went - Gone
- Rise - Rose - Risen
- Beat - Beat - Beaten
- Blow - Blew - Blown
- Build - Built - Built
- Break - Broke - Broken
- Bring - Brought - Brought
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Tense is the form of a verb which shows the time and the state of an action or event. The time of action or an
event can either be present, past or future; therefore in English we have three divisions or classes of tense;
A. Present tense
B. Past tense
C. Future tense
Personal Pronouns
This is the tense which is used to explain the
habitual actions or events that happen every Singular Plural
day, weekly, monthly, yearly and other events First personal
I We pronoun
or actions which happen at present time.
You You Second personal
For example; He pronoun
Events happening at present; She They Third personal
 I like music pronoun
It
 They are teachers
 We need our money Formula
 She speaks English very well In simple present tense, the verb is not added anything
when using “I, You, We, They”,
Events happening habitually In simple present tense, the verb is added
 She cooks food everyday “-es, -s, -ies” when using “He, She, It”
 We go to school daily
 The sun rises from east They
 He likes my music I
We go
In present tense, there are four divisions; You to school every day.
(a) Simple present tense
He
(b) Present continuous tense
She goes
(c) Present perfect tense
(d) Present perfect continuous tense It
(i) SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE (i) I go to school everyday

This is a verb form which is used to explain (ii) We go to school everyday
events or actions which happen at the present (iii) You go to school everyday
(iv) She goes to school everyday
time or habitually. In this tense, verb form
changes according to the personal pronoun  Negative form of simple present tense
used;
I
We
You do not
They
go to school everyday
He
She does
39
It not Subject +verb to be + verb +-ing form.
 They do not go to school everyday

 I do not go to school every day For example;
 We do not go to school everyday  She is going to school
 You do not go to school everyday  Ashura is singing a song
 He does not go to school everyday  Benny is teaching English
 She does not go to school everyday
 It does not go to school everyday I am speaking French very well
 Interrogative form of Simple present tense Subject

Verb - ing form
I
Verb to be
We
Do You
They Subj am/is/are verb +ing
go to school every day?
He ect
Does She I am writing a letter
It We are going to school
You are singing a song
 Do I go to school every day?
 Do we go to school every day? He is watching a movie
 Do you go to school every day?
She is studying geography
 Does he go to school every day?
 Does it go to school every day? It is raining heavily
They are running very fast
Negative interrogative of simple present tense
I  I am writing a letter
Don’t We  We are going to school
You  You are singing a school
 He is watching a movie
They go to school every day?
 She is studying geography
He
Doesn’t She Negative form of present continuous tense
It
Subject am/is/are not verb + ing
 Don’t I go to school every day?
 Don’t we go to school every day? I am not writing a letter
 Doesn’t he go to school every day? We are not going to school
 Doesn’t she go to school every day? You are not Singing a song
 Doesn’t it go to school every day? He is not watching a movie
She is not studying geography
(ii) PRESENT CONTINUOUS TENSE
This is a verb form which is used to express or It is not raining heavily
explain the event or action which is happening They are not running very fast
now and still in progress. The formula of
present continuous tense;  I am not writing a letter
40
 We are not going to school (iii) PRESENT PERFECT TENSE

 You are not singing a song This is the tense which is used to show that
 He is not watching a movie the action/ event has been Completed at the
 She is not studying geography moment of speaking.
 It is not raining heavily
The formula of this tense;
 They are not running very fast
Subject/ personal pronoun + has/ have + past
participle
Interrogative /question form of present Continuous
tense
Subject Has/have Past
participle
Am/are/is Subject I
Am I writing a letter? We
have
Are we going to school? You
gone to
They school
Are you singing a song?
He
She has
Is he watching a movie It
Is she studying geography?

Statement form
Are they running very fast?  I have gone to school
 We have gone to school
 You have gone to school
 Am I writing a letter?
 They have gone to school
 Are we going to school?
 He has gone to school
 Are you singing a song?  She has gone to school
 Is she watching a movie?  It has gone to school
 Is he studying geography?
 Is it raining heavily? NOTE:
 Are they running very fast? The subject /personal pronoun “I, We, You, and
They” tend to use “have” (I, we, you, they) + have
The subject/ personal pronoun “He, She, and It” tend
Negative interrogative form of pres. Cont. tense to used Has (He, She, It) + has
Interrogative /Question form of present perfect
 I am writing a letter tense
o Am I not writing a letter?
Have/Has Subject Past
 We are going to school.
Participle
o Are we not going to school?
I
o Aren’t we going to school? Have We
 You are singing a song. gone to school?
They
o Are you singing a song?
o Aren’t you singing a song? He
Has She
 He is studying geography.
o Is he not studying geography? It
o Isn’t he studying geography?
 Have I gone to school?
 Have we gone to school?
41
 Have you gone to school? The formula is;

 Have they gone to school? Subject/personal pronoun + has / have +
 Has she gone to school? been + verb +ing
 Has he gone to school?
Subject Has/have + verb +
 Has it gone to school?
been ing
Negative form of present perfect tense
I
Subject Has/have Not Past We
Participle You have been
They going to school
I
We He
have She has been
You
not gone to school
They
He Statement form of Pres. Perf. Cont. Tense
 I have been going to school
She has
 We have been going to school
It  You have been going to school
 They have been going to school
 I have not gone to school I haven’t gone to school  He has been going to school
 We have not gone to school We haven’t gone to  She has been going to school
school
 He has not gone to school He hasn’t gone to school Interrogative form of Pres. Perf. Cont. Tense
 She has not gone to school She hasn’t gone to school
 Have I been going to school?
Negative Interrogative form of Pres. Perf. Tense  Has she been going to school?
 Have you been going to school?
Hasn’t/Haven’t Subject Past  Have we been going to school?
Participle  Has he been going to school?
I  Have they been going to school?
Haven’t We
You Negative form of present perfect continuous
They gone to school? tense
He Subject Has/have not Verb +
Hasn’t been ing
She
I
It
We
You have not been
 Haven’t I gone to school? going to school
 Haven’t we gone to school? They
 Haven’t you gone to school? He
 Haven’t they gone to school? She has not been
 Hasn’t he gone school? It
 Hasn’t she gone to school?
 I have not been going to school
(iv) PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS  We have not been going to school
TENSE  You have not been going to school
This is the tense which is used to show that the  They have not been going to school
action or event has been taking place since a
point of time in the past and is in progress up to  He has not been going to school
now.  She has not been going to school
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Negative Interrogative form of Pres. Perf. Cont. Tense
Has/ Haven’t Subject Been Verb + ing

I
Haven’t We
You been going to school?
He
Hasn’t She
This is the tense which expresses or explains an action or event which was completed in the past. In past tense,
there are four divisions;
(a) Simple past tense (c) Past perfect tense
(b) Past continuous tense (d) Past perfect continuous tense
(i) Simple past tense

This is a verb form which explains an event/action which happened before now.
For example:
Dodid Gowent Pushpushed
In English language, verbs have three major forms or shapes;
1stform 2ndform 3rdform

Infinitive /Base/form Past tense form Past participle form
 Play  Played  Played
 Eat  Ate  Eaten
 Do  Did  Done
 Go  Went  Gone
 Jump  Jumped  Jumped
 Walk  Walked  Walked
 Rise  Rose  Risen
 Sleep  Slept  Slept
 Run  Ran  Ran
 Cook  Cooked  Cooked
From these three forms or shapes of a verb, we deal with “past tense form of a verb” which explains an
action or event which happened before now.
Examples of simple past tense sentences;
(i) I cooked ugali yesterday
(ii) I ate some food.
(iii) I kicked a ball
(iv) She kissed me
(v) They went to school
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In simple past tense, a verb is added –ed ( if it is a regular verb) and not added –ed ( if it is irregular verb)
Simple past tense formula is;
Subject + past tense verb form
Subject Past tense verb form

(Regular/irregular)
I went to school yesterday
We cooked ugali last month
You kissed my daughter last year
They ate all my pizza last year
He pushed me in the play ground
She rose up her hand in the class room
It slept on my bed yesterday
Interrogative form of simple past tense

When changing a simple past tense statement to a question form, a verb changes from past tense form to a base
form or infinitive form as replaced by the past tense helping verb (did).
Past tense helping Subject Infinitive /base form verb

verb (did)
I Cook ugali?
Did We Go to school?
She kiss me yesterday?
he Eat my Pizza?
 Did I cook Ugali yesterday?  Did she kiss me last time?

 Did we go to school last year?  Did he eat my pizza?
Negative form of Simple Past Tense Didn’t Malunguja kick a ball very hard?
 She punished her daughter yesterday  Kabadi did not /didn’t love his young brother
She did not punish her daughter yesterday Didn’t Kabadi love his young brother?
 We played football with Itumbili last months  Maua did not/didn’t go to the tuition in 2012
We did not play football with Itumbili last months. Didn’t Maua go to the tuition in 2012?
 Maua went to the tuition in 2012  We did not/didn’t play football with Itumbili
Maua did not go to the tuition in 2012 Didn’t we play football with Itumbili?
 Kabadi loved his young brother (ii) Past continuous tense

Kabadi did not love young brother This is the tense from which a verb form expresses
an action or event which was in progress or
 Malunguja kicked a ball verb hard incomplete in the past. The formula of this tense
Malunguja did not kick a ball very hard is;
Subject + was/were +(verb + ing)
Interrogative of negative simple past tense
Examples;
 Malunguja did not kick a ball very hard
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 I was playing football  They had built a beautiful house

 She was cooking ugali
 He was telling a story Interrogative form of past perfect tense
 It was running very fast  Had I sung a song?
 They were singing a song in the church  Had we taken our money?
 We were making some noise  Had you learnt English language?
 You were waiting for the president.  Had she written a letter?
 Had you spoken well?
Interrogative form of past continuous tense  Had they built a beautiful house?
 Was I playing football? Negative form of past perfect tense

 Was she telling a story?
 Was she cooking ugali?  I had not sung a song
 Was it running very fast?  We had not taken our money
 Were they singing a song in the church?  You had not learnt English Language
 Were we making some noise?  She had not written a letter
 Were you waiting for the president?
Interrogative of Negative past perfect tense
Negative form of past continuous tense
 Hadn’t I sung a song?
 I was not playing football  Hadn’t we taken our money?
 She was not cooking Ugali  Hadn’t you learnt English Language?
 It was not running very fast
 Hadn’t they built a beautiful house?
 He was not telling a story
 They were not singing a song in the church
 We were not making some noise (iv) Past perfect continuous tense.
This is the tense in which a verb form expresses an action
Interrogative of negative past continuous tense or event which had been in progress through a certain
period. The formula of this tense is;
 Wasn’t I playing football? Or, Was I not playing Subject + had + been + (verb + ing)
football?
 Wasn’t she cooking ugali? Or, Was she not cooking Examples;
ugali?  I had been reading a novel
 Weren’t they singing a song? Or, Were they not  We had been cooking Ugali
singing a song?  She had been talking to e
 Weren’t we making some noise? Or, Were we not  They had been telling me the lie
making some noise?  You had been speaking English
Interrogative form of past perfect Continuous tense

(iii) Past perfect tense
This is the tense in which a verb form explains an action
or event which had completed before another action or  Had I been reading a novel?
event began. The formula of this tense is;  Had we been cooking Ugali?
Subject + had + past participle.  Had she been talking to me?
 Had they been telling me the lie?
Examples;
 I had sung a song Negative form of past perfect continuous tense
 We had taken our money  I had not been reading a novel
 You had learnt English Language
 She had written a letter  She had not been talking to me
 You had spoken well  They had not been telling me the lie
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 You had not been speaking English  Hadn’t she been talking to me?
 We had not been cooking Ugali  Hadn’t they been telling me the lie?
Interrogative form of Negative past perfect continuous  Hadn’t you been speaking English?
tense  Hadn’t we been cooking Ugali?
 Hadn’t I been reading a morel?
This is the tense from which a verb form shows

that some action will take place in the future or in These personal pronouns and their auxiliary verbs
the coming time. There are four divisions in future are traditionally used so, but when it comes to
tense; express a certain mood; (questions, order,
(a) Simple future tense suggestion or promise) they are reversed or used
(b) Future continuous tense interchangeably;
(c) Future perfect tense
(d) Future perfect continuous tense. More examples of simple future tense;
(i) I shall take my car next week
A. Simple future tense (ii) I shall tell him the truth
This is the tense from which a verb form expresses (iii) I shall continue with my work next
an event which is expected to happen. The formula year
of the simple future tense; Subject /personal (iv) We shall open the school in January
pronoun + will/shall + infinitive verb (v) We shall come to tuition next week
Example; (vi) She will take me to Mwanza
 I shall go to school (vii) He will teach us English
 You will see me tomorrow (viii) They will cut a tree in three minutes.
 We shall wait for you (ix) It will rain soon
 She will give me a radio (x) You will see me tomorrow
NOTE: When “WILL” and “SHALL” are used

The auxiliary verb “SHALL” and “WILL” are interchangeably or reversed, they are used in the
used to express the future actions or events, but certain circumstances;
these auxiliaries are used by the special personal
pronouns. (a) To express promise.
 I will give you a gift on your birthday
First personal pronouns;  We will help you in this problem
I (b) To express command or obligation

We + SHALL  You shall not smoke cigarette in this
room’
 You shall obey me
Second and third personal pronouns;  He shall sign the document
You (c) Threat

He  You shall be fined if you exceed the
She + WILL speed limit
They  He shall be punished for breaking the
It laws
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 She shall be expelled from school for

her bad behavior B. Future continuous tense
(d) Permission This is a tense which shows or expresses the action
 Shall I past the letter? that will be in progress in the future. The formula
 Shall I read the book for you? of this tense is; Subject + will /shall be + (verb +
 Shall I open the window? ing)
(e) Suggestion Example;

 Shall I come tomorrow/  I shall be going to school
 Shall I go to the market this morning?  I shall be moving very fast
 We shall be singing a national anthem
Interrogative form of simple future tense  He will be learning English
 Shall I read a novel?  They will be speaking Sukuma
 Shall we go to school?
Interrogative form of future continuous tense
 Will you tell me the truth?  Shall I be going to school?
 Will he learn English Tomorrow?  Shall I be moving very fast?
 Will she give me a gift?  Will he be learning English?
 Will they build a house?  Shall we be singing a national anthem?
 Will they be speaking Sukuma?
Negative form of simple future tense
 I shall not read a novel
 We shall not go to school Negative form of future continuous tense
 We will not learn English tomorrow  I shall not be going to school
 You will not tell me the truth  I shall not be moving very fast
 They will not build a house  We shall not be singing a national anthem
 He will not be learning English
Interrogative of negative form of simple future  They will not be speaking Sukuma
tense
 Shan’t I read a novel? Interrogative of negative form of future
Shall I not read a novel? continuous tense
 Shall I not be going to school?
 Won’t we learn English tomorrow? Shan’t I be going to school?
Will we not learn English tomorrow?
 Shall we not be singing a national
 Shan’t we go to school? anthem?
Shall we not go to school? Shan’t we be singing a national anthem?
 Won’t he be learning English?
 Won’t they build a house? Will he not be learning English?
Will they not build a house?
 Will they not be speaking Sukuma?
“SHALL” is mostly used in British English than Won’t they be speaking Sukuma?
in American English
 “Going to” can also be used to express the C. Future perfect tense
future action or event. This is the tense which is used to show that
For example; some action or event will be finished in the
 Magufuli is going to expel all ghost future. The formula of this tense is; Subject +
workers shall /will have + past participle.
 Taifa stars is going to win this match
 Are you going to cheat me? Example;
 Students are going to perform the exams.  I shall have taken a book
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 We shall have seen a film

 You will have written the notes D. Future perfect continuous tense
 They will have built a house by 2017 This is the tense which is used to show that
 She will have written a letter the action will have been in progress in the
future. The formula of this tense is; Subject
Interrogative form of future perfect tense + shall / will have been + (Verb + ing)
 Shall I have taken a book?
 Shall we have seen a film? Example:
 Will you have written the notes?  I shall have been speaking English
 Will they have built a house?  We shall have been taking our money
 You will have been writing a letter
Negative form of future perfect tense  They will have been telling me a story
 I shall not have taken a book
 We shall not have seen a film  She will have been washing her
 They will not have built a house by 2017 clothes
 She will not have written a letter
 It will not have rained heavily Interrogative form of future perfect
continuous tense
Interrogative of the negative future perfect  Will she have been washing her
tense clothes?
 Shall I have not taken a book? Shan’t I  Will they have been telling me a story?
have taken a book?  Will you have been writing a letter?
 Shall we have not seen a film? Shan’t  Shall we have been taking our money?
we have seen film?  Shall I have been speaking English?
 Will she not written a letter? Won’t she
written a letter?
Negative form of future perfect continuous tense
 I shall not have been speaking English I shan’t have been speaking English
 We shall not have been taking our moneyWe shan’t have been taking our money
 They will not have been telling me a storyThey won’t have been telling me a story
 You will not have been writing a letterYou won’t have been writing a letter
Interrogative of the negative future perfect continuous tense
 Shall I not have been speaking English?  Will they not have been telling me a story?
Shan’t I have been speaking English? Won’t they not been telling me a story?
 Shall we not been taking our money?  Will you not have been writing a letter?
Shan’t we not been taking our money? Won’t you have been writing a letter?
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Sentence is any meaningful and grammatical unit of words. A sentence is made of different units; a word,
phrase, clause and eventually a sentence
Not all sentences are grammatically correct;
For example; -
 Students to football likes play
This sentence is not grammatically correct.
Other sentences are grammatically correct but are not meaningful.

For example:-
 A laughing house is dabbing
This sentence is grammatically correct but not semantically.
Structurally, Sentences are classified into four classes or types;

(a) Simple sentence (c) Complex sentence
(b) Compound sentence (d) Complex compound sentence
A. Simple sentence
This is the sentence which has only one subject and one predicate. This type of sentence has one
independent clause. There is no conjunction in this type of sentence.
Example: –
 Mligo is strong
 She danced music
 Man is a social animal
 The sun rises in the East
B. Compound sentence
This is the sentence that contains two or more independent clauses. These two or more independent
clauses are connected by the coordinating conjunctions like “and, but, nor, for or yet”
Example: -
 The film ended and the audience went away
 We knocked hard but no one came
 I like his money but I don’t like him
 I looked at Rose and she smiled at me
C. Complex sentence
This is the sentence that contains one independent clause and one or more dependent or subordinate
clause. These clauses which form one complex sentence are joined by subordinating conjunctions like
“if, when, although, since” etc.
Examples: -
 When I went there, I found that all students were still making some noise.
 Although I told you the truth but you didn’t believe it.
 Before signing the contract, Maua died
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D. Compound – complex sentence

This is the sentence that contains two or more independent clauses and at least one dependent or
subordinate clause.
Examples:-
 When the president went to Mbeya, the people laughed at him and throw the stones at him.
 I know that Devotha loves me but I do not have any idea whether she is interested in marriage.
 My friend believes that he can do anything if he has a lot of money, but I cannot agree with him.
 When I received my salary, I went to Mwanza were my girlfriend is living.
Apart from having four types of sentence, we have other four kinds of sentences according to the mood or
intention of the speaker or writer;
(i) Declarative or statement or Affirmative sentence
(ii) Interrogative or Question form sentence
(iii) Imperative or Command sentence
(iv) Exclamatory sentence.
A. Statement or Declarative Sentence

This is the sentences which assent or conveys certain information.
For example:-
 Dodoma is the Capital city of Tanzania
 This is my lovely daughter
 Computer is an expensive machine
B. Interrogative sentence.
This is the sentence which asks a question seeking for the certain information
For example”
 What do you want?
 Who are you?
 Are you a student?
 Is this your daughter?
C. Imperative sentence / command

This is the sentence that expresses an order or command.
For example:-
 Go there
 Clean the black board
 Come and see what you have done
 Try and see what will happen
D. Exclamatory sentence
This is the sentence that expresses the emotions or feeling of a person.
Example: -
 Wow! You look smart
 Gosh! How stupid!
 What a beauty!
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When we are speaking, we may start to speak starting with either the subject or the object depending on the
thematic meaning of the speaker (organization of the message). Therefore, organization of the message by
using the subject and the object is known as a voice. There are two kinds of voice;
(a) Active voice
(b) Passive voice
A. Active Voice
This is the sentence from which the verb form shows that the subject is the doer of an action.
For example:
 Ali kiba released a song
Subject Object
 The president addressed the audience

Subject Object
 Malunguja kissed his wife

Subject Object
 Kalunde cooked Ugali

Subject Object
B. Passive Voice
This is the sentence from which a verb form shows something has been done by the subject. In this
type of sentence, the object functions as the subject.
For example:-
 A song was released by Ali Kiba
 The audience was addressed by the president
 A wife was Kissed by Malunguja
 Ugali was cooked by Kalunde
NOTE:
Some tenses are impossible to turn into Passive voice including present and past perfect continuous tense,
future continuous and future perfect continuous tense. Sentences with Intransitive verbs are also
impossible to turn into passive voice.
In some sentence, the object of the verb is omitted because the attention is not paid to the fact but the
action itself. When this type of sentence happens, we need to find out the omitted object so as simplify its
changes.
For example;
 The thief was arrested (by the police)
 The place was hijacked yesterday (by some people)
1. Passive Voice in transitive verbs with two objects

 Tausi bought me a new car
i. A new car was bought for me by Tausi.
ii. I was bought a new car by Tausi
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 They gave him a gift

i. A gift was given to him by them
ii. He was given a gift by them
 The headmaster gave me an academic certificate

i. An academic certificate was given to me by the headmaster
ii. I was given an academic certificate by the headmaster
2. Passive Voice with Prepositions

 They laughed at the poor beggar.
The poor beggar was laughed at by them
 They looked after the girl
The girl was looked after by them.
 I sent for the doctor

The doctor was sent for by me
3. Passive Voice with Imperatives
Active Passive Voice

 Post this letter  You are ordered to post this letter
 Shut the door  You are ordered to shut the door
 Be careful of your health  You are advised to be careful of your health
 Apply for leave  You are advised to apply for leave
 Show mercy on the poor  You are begged to show mercy on
* Let this letter be posted
* Let this door be shut
* Let your health be cared
* Let your leave be applied
4. Passive Voice with Infinitives
Active Voice Passive Voice

 I want to write a letter  I want a letter to be written
 I have letter to write  I have letter to be written
 They have no money to spend  They have no money to be spent
 I have no problem to think about  I have no problem to be thought about
 She has a child to look after  She has a child to be looked after
 It is time to stop the work  It’s time for the work to be
 It is time to shut the doors  It’s time for the doors to be
5. Passive Voice with that clause. 6. Passive Voice with object complement
(i) We say that she is a teacher (i) We elected him president
It is said that she is a teacher He was elected president (by us)
(ii) They believe that he killed his wife (ii) We thought him a fool
It is believe that he killed his wife He was that a food
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(iii) I considered Mariamu very beautiful 8. Passive Voice with Prepositions

Mariamu was considered (to be) very (i) This bottle contains milk
beautiful Milk is contained in this bottle
(iv) They named her Beatrice (ii) This book interested me

She was named Beatrice (by them) I was interested in this book
7. Passive Voice with Interrogatives (iii) The snow covered the house
(i) Do you speak Sukuma? The house was covered with snow
Is Sukuma spoken by you?
(iv) People lined the road
(ii) Was she beating a child? The road was lined with people
Was the child being beaten by her?
(v) Her rudeness surprised me
(iii) Had he cooked the food? I was surprised at her rudeness
Had the food been cooked by him? (vi) Salome’s beauty pleased me
I was pleased with Salome’s beauty
(iv) Are they helping you?
Are you being helped by them? 9. Passive Voice with verbs like smell, feel,
Taste.
(v) Is Kabadi singing a Song? (i) This drug tastes sweet
Is a song being sung by Kabadi? This drug is sweet when it is tested
(vi) Do they sell mangoes here? (ii) The flower smells sweet
Are mangoes sold here by them? The flower is sweet when it is smelt
(vii) Do you know Benny? (iii) The syringe feel smooth

Is Benny known to you? The syringe is smooth when it is felt
How Active and Passive Voice Change the tense;
Tense Form
(i) Simple present Am/is/are + past participle
 He takes a book  A book is taken by him
(ii) Present continuous tense - Am/is/are + being + past participle
 She is cooking Ugali  Ugali is being cooked by her
(iii) Present perfect tense - Have /has + been + past participle
(iv) Simple past tense - Was / were + past participle
(v) Past continuous tense - Was/ were + being + past participle
(vi) Past perfect tense - Had + been + past participle
(vii) Simple future tense - Will /shall + be + past participle
(viii) Future perfect tense - Will/ shall + have been + past participle
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Speech means a talk or dialogue between two or more than two people. There are two types of speech;
(a) Direct speech
(b) Indirect speech
a) Direct Speech refers to the exactly or direct words spoken by someone.

For example:
 Maria Said, “ I am not your mother”
b) Indirect Speech refers to the reported or quoted words with few modifications.
For example:
 Maria Said that she was not my mother
NOTE:
(a) Direct speech should be placed in the inverted comma and begin with a capital letter.
Example:
 Maria said, “I am not your mother”
(b) No inverted comma and comma are used in the indirect speech
Example: Maria said that she was not my mother.
(c) A conjunction is used after the reporting verb in indirect speech

Example: Maria said that she was not my mother
(d) Tense, pronouns and words indicating nearness of time and positions are changed.
Example:
Benny said to me, “I waited for you here today”
Benny told me that he waited for me there that day.
(e) Reporting verb in the present or future tense remains unchanged.

Example
 Benny says “I will go to Mwanza”
 Benny says that he will go to Mwanza
(f) Tense changes in the reported speech
Direct Speech Indirect Speech

 Simple present - Simple past
 Present continuous - Past continuous
 Present perfect - Past perfect
 Present perfect continuous - Past perfect continuous
 Simple past - Past perfect
 Past continuous - Past perfect continuous
 Past perfect #
 Past perfect continuous #
 Simple future - Future conditional
 May - Might
54
 Can - Could
 Must - Had to
 Had better #
 Ought to #
 Used to #
(g) Pronouns, time and Position change in indirect speech
Indirect speech
Direct
speech Masculine Feminine Plural
I He She They
You He She They
You Him Her Them
Your His Her Their
Me Him Her Them
My His Her Their
Myself Himself herself Themselves
We They
Us Them
Our Their
Direct speech Indirect Speech

 This - That
 These - Those
 Now - Then
 Ago - Before
 Last night - The previous night /the night before
 Next day - The following day / the day after
 Today - That day
 Tonight - That night
 Yesterday - The previous day /the day before
 Tomorrow - The next day / the following day/ the day after
 The day before yesterday - The day before the previous day /two day before
 The day after tomorrow - The day after the next day or in two days
 Next week - The following week
 Just - Then
 Here - There
 Thus - So
 Come - Go
More examples about direct and indirect speech;

(i) Shisha said “I love you”
Shisha said that he loved me/him/her/them
(ii) “I am writing a letter to my sister”, Daudi said to me.

Daudi told me that he was writing a letter to his sister
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(iii) Janeth said to me, “I was waiting for my friend”

Janeth told me that she had been waiting for her friend
(iv) “You may go now”, said to Kabadi

I told Kabadi that he might go then.
(v) “You must return the book this evening”, he said to me.
He told me that I must (had to) return the book that evening.
(vi) My father said “Honesty is the best policy”

My father said that honesty is the best policy.
(vii) “The Earth moves round the Sun”, the teacher said
The teacher said that the Earth moves round the Sun
(viii) “I prefer hot soup”, Bariki said to me

Bariki told me that he prefers hot soup
(ix) “Tanzania got Independence in 1961”, Mwandu told us

Mwandu told us that Tanzania got Independence in 1961
(x) “My name is Benson. I teach English at Magu Secondary”, he said.

He said that his name was Benson and he taught English at Magu Secondary.
(xi) “Where do you want to go now?” He said to me.

He asked me where I wanted to go them
(xii) “Why do you waste your time?”, my friend said to me

My friend questioned me why I wasted my time
(xiii) “What do you expect from her?” he said

He wanted to know what I expected from her
(ix) “Do you have any idea of physics?” I asked Nyankali

I asked Nyankali whether he had any idea of physics
(x) “What are you thinking about?” I asked Daniel

I asked Daniel what he was thinking about.
(h) The conjunction “THAT” is not used with

who/whom/whose/what/which/when/why/where/and How (All
interrogatives).
(i) “Am I a mad woman?” she said to herself

She questioned herself if she was a mad woman
(ii) “Are you a medical student?” I asked Mwajuma

I asked Mwajuma if she was a medical student
(iii) “Who are you?” she asked me

She asked me who I was
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(iv) “Can you teach me English?” Rweyemamu asked me

Rweyemamu requested me to teach him English
(v) “If I were you, I would marry Esther,” I said to him

I advised him to marry Esther.
(vi) “Apply for the bank loan,” my sister told me

My sister proposed /advised me to apply for the bank loan
(vii) “Don’t waste your time ,” my mother said to me

My mother ordered me not to waste my time
(viii) “Please teach me how to use a computer,” I said to him

I requested him to teach me how to use a computer.
(ix) “I wish you a Happy New Year,” my father said to me

My father wished me a happy new year.
(x) “What a beautiful girl is this!” he said

He exclaimed with wonder that she was a beautiful girl
Letter refers to a hand written or printed mode of communication which is longer than a note and used
between persons. Generally, there are two types of letters;
(a) Formal letters /official letter/ Business letters

(b) Informal letters / unofficial letter / friendly letters
1. FORMAL or OFFICIAL LETTERS

This is a letter which is used in the official affairs like business, job application, request, permission, etc.
This kind of letter should always be complete, concise, logically planned, clearly, politely and expressed
grammatically and in Standard English. Official letters, regardless their purpose, consists of the following
parts;
(i) Writer’s address introduce the number of the letter for the
The writer’s address should be at the top storage and retrieval purpose.
right part of the paper/sheet.
(iv) Receiver’s address
(ii) Date Receiver’s address always starts with the
The date follows the address. It is bellow title of the receiver if any.
the address of the writer. Only one date is (v) Salutations / greetings
used in the letter. If you know the gender of the receiver you
may directly salute basing on the gender. If
(iii) Reference number ( if necessary) you do not know the gender of the receiver,
This is a number, mostly used by the you may use both polite expressions;
institute, organization or company to “Sir/madam”
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(vi) Heading receiver is known to the sender. In the

Heading depends on the purpose of the friendly letters, the ending phrase is more
letter; in case it is an application letter, friendly depending on the social
remember that the word “application” is relationship with the receiver. For example;
only used when requesting for assistance, your lovely daughter, your best friend, etc.
employment or admission to a certain (xi) Signature
education institution, and not otherwise. Signature is only used in the official letters.
It is the writer’s name which is abbreviated
(vii) Introduction or twisted in a unique way to approve that
Introduction is the first part of the letter he/she is the one wrote the letter and
which basically aiming at introducing the nobody else.
subject matter. In the friendly letters, this (xii) Name and title (if any)
part is used precisely to greet each other by This is the part following after the
telling the receiver how we are going on. In signature, it clearly explain the signature in
the official letters, this part is very elongated form. Two or three names are
precisely reminding the receiver/reader to written under the signature.
refer to the title of the letter and some few
words to introduce the letter. IMPORTANT;
Formal letters should be;
(viii) Main body (a) In the correct format
This is the central part which contains the (b) Short, clear and precise
main purposes of writing the letter. In (c) Free of any grammatical/spelling errors
friendly letters, this part can contain more (d) Use common and polite language even if
than four paragraphs depending on the you are complaining
subject matter. In official letters, this part (e) Well presented.
should be very precisely and logical basing
on the main objective of writing the letter.
(ix) End of letter Informal letters should be;

This is the ending part of the letter. It is (a) Less formal than formal letters,
used precisely to close the letter.  Grammatical/spelling errors may sometimes
happen.
(x) Ending phrase /words  It may include slangs or other jargons
There are two polite and common ending  It may use imperative language depending on
phrases in official letters; “Yours the subject matter
faithfully and Yours sincerely”. Yours (b) The length of the letter varies depending the
faithfully is used when the receiver’s name subject matter
is unknown to the sender while yours
sincerely is only used when the name of the
58
a) A REQUEST LETTER
JUMA MOHAMED,
P.O. BOX 2525,
DAR ES SALAAM.
01/10/2016.
THE COMPANY MANAGER,

JAMBO PLASTICS LTD,
P.O. BOX 4009,
DAR ES SALAAM.
Dear Sir,
RE: A REQUEST FOR THE PERMISSION TO ATTEND MY UNCLE’S FUNERAL
Refer to the heading of the letter above. I am a machine operator in plant 6 of this company.
I am writing this letter to request for a permission to attend the funeral and burial ceremony of
my lovely uncle called Joel Mussa who died yesterday.
The burial ceremony has been arranged to take place at Mbagala Mwisho Cemetery at 04:00
pm. Since he is my nearest relative (my mother’s brother), I would like to take three days of mourning
as we traditionally do in our family. I will be there with my all relatives for three days until the last
family meeting.
I hope my request will be considered,
Yours sincerely,
J. Mohamed
Juma Mohamed
Sometimes official letters use more than two addresses depending on the purpose of the letter. This
happens to the letters which ask for the permission to do something. Other addresses EXCEPT the
writer’s address and the receiver’s address need to be signed and forwarded to the senior one. This is
done to follow the protocol of those people who are in charge or have authority to allow/deny the
request before a letter reaches the destination. In case your letter needs to be signed by more than one
person (Under Forwarded Signature), the following example will give you a clue on how to write it;
59
LUMULI SECONDARY SCHOOL,

P.O BOX 205,
TANGA.
23rd NOV, 2018.
THE GENERAL MANAGER,

MOPROCO COMPANY LTD,
P.O BOX 23235,
MOROGORO.
U.F.S
THE HEAD MASTER,
LUMULI SEC. SCHOOL,
P.O BOX 205,
TANGA.
Dear Sir,
REF: A REQUEST TO VISIT YOUR FACTORY
Refer to the heading of the letter above. I am a form four B class monitor from Lumuli Secondary School. On behalf
of 70 Geography students, I would like to submit my request to you.
Would you kindly allow us to visit your factory on the 10/08/2018 to learn how washing soap is made? Our beloved
teacher, Sir Benson Mligo had taught us theoretically on the way washing soaps are made in the factories. He also told us that
your factory is one of the best factories in Tanzania which produces the best quality washing soaps. We as students, we want to
improve our theories by learning through observation method so as to use our knowledge practically. We want to do this for the
sake of our own benefits and to support our current country’s slogan (Tanzania ya viwanda). I think we will learn a lot about
washing soaps production if you will allow us to visit your company.
We hope you will let us come on the date we promised or any other date of your convenience.
Yours faithfully,
A. Matem
Adam Matem
Class Monitor.
b) APPLICATION LETTER (A)

BENSON MLIGO,
P.O.BOX 3333,
MWANZA.
24/12/2016.
THE HEAD MASTER,

MAGU SECONDARY SCHOOL,
P.O.BOX 186,
MAGU.
Dear Sir,
REF: APPLICATION FOR THE TEMPORARY TEACHING POST
The heading above is more concerned. I am a male Tanzanian aged 30 years old from Magu District in Mwanza
region. I am writing this letter to apply for the temporary teaching post as advertised in “MTANZANIA DAIMA” of November
11, 2016. The advertisement needed a Biology and Physics teacher with three years’ experience; the conditions which I fit. Your
need for an experienced and professional teacher is a good match for my five years of experience in teaching science subjects. I
am a physics, Chemistry and Biology teacher. I would like to work with you since I am the hard worker and experienced person.
I would like to attach all my vital credentials and my CV for more information about me.
I hope my request will be considered,
Yours faithfully,
B.Mligo
Benson Steven Mligo
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APPLICATION LETTER (B)
MANGI MNYALUKOLO,
P.O BOX 4007,
ARUSHA.
14/09/2018.
HUMAN RESOURCES MANAGER,

NATIONAL BANK OF COMMERCE,
P.O BOX 12345,
MTWARA.
Dear Sir,
REF: APPLICATION FOR THE EMPLOYMENT AS A BANK CLERK.
With reference to your advertisement on the “Mwananchi newspaper and Mtanzania Daima” of
September 30, 2018 which advertised five (05) posts of bank clerks in your branch, I would like to submit this
application.
I am a male Tanzanian aged 30 years old, healthy, confidence and courageous. I would like to apply for
the bank clerk post in your branch since I am a professional man with a bachelor degree in Accountancy and
Business Administration from the University of Dar Es salaam (UDSM). I have six years’ experience working
with NMB and CRDB as a Loan Officer.
I would like to attach my credentials and my Curriculum Vitae (CV) as a reference to my working ability,
experiences, academic performance and other necessary information about me.
It is my hope that my application will be considered.
Yours faithfully,
K. Shisha
Adam Shisha.
NOTE:
Application letters need to be attached or enclosed with a Curriculum Vitae (CV)/Resume. Most of the
employers want to get information about the applicants through their CVs before they employ them. Therefore,
it is necessary to attach copies of academic certificates (credentials) and a CV.
CURRICULUM VITAE (CV)

CV is an abbreviation of the words Curriculum Vitae. It is the document that gives one’s life account
academically, date of birth, working experience, etc. However, this document is attached to an application
letter when applying for the job, Visa and scholarship. In America, a CV is known as a resume. Therefore,
there is an American style of writing a CV and the British style of writing a CV. Apart from these two styles of
writing a CV, people tend to arrange the CV particulars/components in different styles, this is not important to
learn. The important particulars/components to write/include in a CV are the most things for us to know.
However, a CV owner has to update the information whenever there is new development in knowledge and
skills. A CV should also not exceed four pages. The following are the important parts of a CV;
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Part I: PERSONAL PARTICULARS

Surname: ……….……
First name:………..…..
Middle name: ……..….
Sex:………………….…
Age:……………………
Marital status:…………
Religion:……………….
Nationality:……………
Contact address:………
E-mail:…………………
Mobile:…………………
Part II: EDUCATION BACKGROUND
YEAR INSTITUITION AWARDS

2011-2014 University of Dar Es salaam Bachelor of Art with Education (BAED)
2009-2011 Lugalo Secondary school Advanced Certificate of Secondary
School (ACSEE)
2006-2009 Iringa Girls Secondary School Certificate of Secondary School
Education
2000-2006 Mabuti Primary School Certificate of Primary School Education
Part III: WORKING EXPERIENCE
YEAR INSTITUTION/COMPANY POSITION

2014-2015 Barakuda High School Academic Master
2015-2016 Jambo Plastics Limited Assistant Manager
Part IV: OTHER SKILLS

(a) Certificate of computer course in Microsoft word of 2007 and Microsoft Excel
(b) Driving license class D
Part V: AWARDS (if any)

(a) Certificate of good leadership.
(b) Certificate of smartness.
Part VI: HOBBIES AND INTEREST (if any)

(a) Reading novels and Plays
(b) Watching movies
Part VII: REFEREES

1. The Head Master, 2. Mr. Benson S. Mligo,
Maua Secondary School, Literature and Linguistics teacher,
Mr. Lamgambo Likilia, Magu Secondary School,
P.o Box 2067, P.o Box 186,
Morogoro. Magu.
Email: lamgamboL@gmail.com Email: bensonmligo@gmail.com
Mobile: 0677 123 456 Mobile: 0784126323.
62
Part VIII: DECLARATION

This part needs the CV owner to prove that the written document belongs to him/her and contains valid
information. After declaration, the CV owner should sign and write a date of the day a CV is signed.
________________________ ________________________
Signature Date
An Example of a well-designed CV
CURRICULUM VITAE
Profile
Currently I am a Linguistics and Literature teacher at Magu Secondary School. I am a professional teacher
with a degree in Bachelor of Arts with Education (BAED) honored by Dar Es salaam University College
of Education.
Personal particulars
First Name: BENSON Surname: MLIGO Country of birth : TANZANIA
Birth Date: 06/09/1988 District of birth : IRINGA Region: IRINGA
Citizenship :TANZANIAN Country of Residence : TANZANIA
Gender : MALE Marital status: MARRIED Religion: CHRISTIAN
Preferable Communication method: Mobile and Email
Language Information (Optional part)
Language Read Write Speak Understand
English Very good Very good Good Good
Swahili Very good Very good Very good Very good
63
Contact Information
Contact type Address Mobile
Magu Secondary School,

P.o Box 186, Magu. +255 658 126 323
Personal Mwanza. +255 763 126 323
Email: bensonmligo@yahoo.com +255 784 126 323
bensonmlg@gmail.com
Education background
Education Nameof From To Title of the Qualification

Level University/School Course
Degree Dar Es Salaam University October July 2014 Bachelor of Arts Degree
Collage of Education 2011 with Education
High School Nyerere High school March 15 February Advanced Certificate ACSSE
2009 2011 of Secondary
Education
Secondary Lumuli secondary School January October 2008 Certificate of CSSE
School 2005 Secondary Education
Primary Ifunda Primary school January September Certificate of CPSE
school 1997 2003 Primary Education
Working Experience and Practice
YEAR INSTITUTION/COMPANY POSITION

2012-2013 Kihesa Secondary School Assistant Academic Teacher
2014-2015 Jambo Plastics Limited Machine Operator
Abilities and Hobbies
 Team working
 Accepts challenges and advices
 Hard worker with excellent Interpersonal Skills
 Very good in writing and Verbal communication skills in both English and Swahili.
 Reading books, and learning new things.
64
Referees
Mr. Hudson Luhwago, Mr. Mohamed Manoj,

The Headmaster, Human Resources Manager,
Kihesa Secondary School, Jambo Plastics Limited,
P.O Box 214, P.o Box 45450,
Iringa. Dar Es Salaam.
Email:hudsonluh@yahoo.com. Email:mohdmanoj@hotmail.com
Mobile:+255 754 654 458 Mobile: +255655 638 292
Certification:
I, the undersigned certify to the best of my knowledge and belief; these data correctly describe qualifications
and my experience.
Signature Date
…………………………… …………………………………
c) A LETTER TO THE EDITOR

This is a letter written to the editor of either the magazine, news paper or any other media. The short letters
are much given priority than the longer letters. Thus, you better write a precise logical letter since it has a
great chance of being read and published.
How to write a letter to the editor;

i. Receiver’s address
This is the address of the specific media you are writing to. Receiver’s address should be written at the top
of your left hand side. Since you are writing to the editor, you need to start with the title “The Editor”
following the name of the media the editor works at.
ii. Salutation
This is the greeting part which does not need many words like friendly letters. In this part you only need to
greet by using either “Dear Sir, Dear madam” or both of them. If you know the sex of the editor, you may
directly salute basing on the sex. If you don’t know the editors sex, it is better to salute by using both “Dear
sir/madam”
iii. Title
This is the part which introduces the subject matter/topic of your letter. This part is introduced starting with
the abbreviated form of the word “Refer” which is “RE: or REF: ” followed by the precise underlined
subject matter/topic written in capital letters.
For example; REF: ROAD ACCIDENT.
iv. Introduction
This is the part where the writer needs to introduce the subject matter by either allowing the editor to refer to
the title of your letter or to introduce the topic with few words.
v. Main body
This is the part which contains central ideas which are presented precisely in paragraphs. Each paragraph
should contain evidence and examples to support the ideas presented. When writing a main body, the writer
should make a link to the next paragraph to make the work logical. Each paragraph should start with a
65
capital letter. However not all subjects matters need evidence and examples to support the idea. There are
subject matters which only need the logical order of ideas.
vi. The end of the letter

This is the ending part of the letter. It is used precisely to close the letter by summing up all the ideas of the
main body. However, the ending part may sometimes be the part of suggestion, opinion or generalization of
the ideas presented in the main body.
vii. Sender’s address

Different from other official letters, the sender’s address in the letter to the editor is written at the end of the
letter. The sender’s address is written at the down left hand side of the ending part of the letter.
EXAMPLE 01, A LETTER TO THE EDITOR;
THE EDITOR,
MWANANCHI NEWS PAPER,
P.O BOX 1020,
DAR ES SALAAM.
Dear editor,
REF: ROAD ACCIDENTS
For the last two or three months there has not been a single day when road accident
did not occur in Mwanza. Most of these road accidents were caused by the reckless
drivers. Truck drivers, bodaboda drivers and those drivers who drink and drive are
notorious for rash driving.
On 25 may I was horrified to witness a dreadful accident at Mabibo-Mwisho. A
young biker and his sister were crushed to death when a speeding truck that came from
behind ran without a brake over them. They died on the spot. I am sure that there are
several reasons behind all these accidents. Countless innocent lives are lost every day
on the road accidents.
The concern of reckless drivers is that they pose a significant risk to the people in
the surrounding areas as well as drivers. Reckless drivers could kill children, animals
and pedestrians. A car that spins out of control can harm other vehicles on the road. In
addition, these reckless drivers may also significant damage to properties like houses,
shops, etc.
As a well-wisher Tanzanian, I don’t need any more to see these road accidents, I
am now psychologically affected by the pictures of those people who died, broke and
injured in the accidents. I think one of the preventive measures is to stop people
smoking weed, drinking viroba and other alcoholic drinks before they drive. Traffic
police should also put much effort on examining and inspecting every vehicle’s driver
if they have taken any liquor.
Yours faithfully,
DAVID KILUMILE,
P.O BOX 1333,
TABATA,
DAR ES SALAAM.
06/02/2018.
PHONE: 0658126323
66
EXAMPLE 02, A LETTER TO THE EDITOR;
THE CHIEF EDITOR,

THE DAILY NEWS,
P.O BOX 1020,
DAR ES SALAAM.
Dear editor,
REF: INCREASED ENVIRONMENTAL DESTRUCTION AT IFUNDA
VILLAGE, IRINGA REGION.
Please, allow me to caution the Minister of Land and Housing, The Hon. William Lukuvi
about the environmental destruction problem at Ifunda village, Iringa. Environmental destruction
has been the great problem at Ifunda village in Iringa. This problem has affected many wards and
streets like Itengulinyi, Kivalali, Kibaoni, Kipera, Masumbo, Mkaa, Ulete and Kilimahewa. The
following are the major causes of environmental destruction at Ifunda;
Deforestation, cutting down of trees without planting other trees for replacement has been one
of the major causes of environmental destruction. People are cutting down trees for making
charcoal and getting firewood. Cutting down of trees for charcoal and firewood has been the
common issue at Ifunda before I was born until today. Firewood and charcoal have been the
source of power for a long period of time.
The use of chemicals in fishing, people nowadays are fishing in rivers by using dangerous and
toxic chemicals. All people along river Lyandembela depend on crops cultivation and fishing.
During fishing activity, people are using traditional chemical called “mdupa” and crops insecticide
called “feodan” in fishing. They use these chemicals to drunken and kill the fishes so as to get
their daily bread. This problem has led to the killing of small fishes which are not suitable to be
fished. Therefore, the biodiversity is killed.
Local mining activities, people are eagerly of getting rich through minerals. Mining activities
have been taking place at Itengulinyi ward for a long period of time. Many youths are digging
wherever they think that there are minerals. The land is now left with many pits and mounds of
soil which are useless. These pits and mounds of soil have destructed the biodiversity which was
living on the land before mining activities.
Being a resident of Ifunda village for more than 20 years now, I would like the Minister of
Land and Housing, The Hon. William Lukuvi to take measures so as to solve this problem. I tried
my best to educate people about the coming consequences of this environmental destruction
including global warming, famine, desertification, and drought. I educated these people through
village meetings and seminars but nobody was ready to adhere what I taught them. The Minister
of land and Housing and the Minister of Tourism and Natural resources are the major leaders who
are responsible for this problem. I would like them to take immediate measures toward this
problem.
Yours faithfully,
JEPEKA KAPINGA,
P.O BOX 36,
IFUNDA-IRINGA.
07/04/2018.
MOB: 0763126323
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2. INFORMAL /FRIENDLY LETTER

This is the letter which is used in unofficial affairs among the people who are closely/familiar or
friends. This kind of letter is written to inform, wish, greet etc. in a friendly or informal way. The
language used in this letter is not formal, it is informal language and sometimes ungrammatical.
Informal letters consists of the following parts;
(i) Writer’s address
(ii) Date
(iii) Salutation /greetings.
(iv) Introduction
(v) Main body
(vi) End of the letter
(vii) Ending phrase/words
(viii) Writer’s name.
Example:
MAGU SECONDARY SCHOOL,

P.O.BOX. 186,
MAGU.
11th Nov, 2017.
Dear Jokate,
How are you my friend? How about your family and other relatives at home? On my side we are all
fine and we keep on doing our daily activities.
The aim of writing this letter is to tell you how I am prepared well to celebrate the coming Christmas
and New Year 2019. I am planning to make a very big party at our home; many foods of all kinds, drinks and
music. I have invited all my friends to come and celebrate with me. You as my friend, I would also like to come
at this big party so as to celebrate together. Honestly, I won’t be happy without you my friend, you are one of
my best friends who always make me feel like every day is my birthday.
I hope you will come and have funny with us. Pass my greetings to all lovely friends; Benny, Issa,
Sharifa, Adam, Kaula and Danny. Tell them that after Christmas I will be there with them.
Your lovely friend,
Wastara Juma.
Card is a flat and rectangular piece of stiff paper which contains a piece of information about different issues.
Cards contain information which expresses our feelings, wishes and informing others. We tend to send cards to
our friends, parents or relatives. We use cards to inform and invite others about happy incidents like wedding
ceremony, kitchen party, graduation ceremony, birthday party etc. We also use cards to express our feelings
when somebody is sick, to express our condolences to the mourners when somebody is dead and we also send
68
cards to wish and congratulate others. Cards are very prices and clear. There are several kinds of cards;
business cards, invitation cards, greeting cards, post cards etc, but our major focus will be on the
INVITATION CARDS.
Invitation Cards are used to invite people to attend a certain function or incident. The invited person can
accept the invitation through attending the function or incident but other people may fail to attend. Therefore,
the invitation card allows those people who may fail to attend the function to reply their regret through a
contact address as provided in the card. There are important things to consider when writing an invitation card;
a) A place where a card is coming from

An invitation card may come from an individual, a certain family, institution, organization or a
company. For example; A family of Mr & Mrs. Dudu, Vodacom Tanzania….., etc.
b) A name of the invited one, starting with the title. For example; Mr. Koku, Mrs. Kaula
c) Purpose of invitation. For example; Wedding ceremony, Graduation party, Birthday party etc.
d) Date of the function/event. For example; Dec 20, 2018, 10/07/2018
e) Place and time the event will take place. For example; At Kilimanjaro Hotel, At CCM Hall-Magu, At
Mlimani City Hall etc.
Example of an invitation Card;
NOTE:
R.S.V.P is a short form of the French words “Repondez Sil Vous Plait” which means “Please Reply”. Under
R.S.V.P there is a contact address which can be used by the invited person to express regret when he/she has
failed to attend a function or an incident. But when the invited will attend the function, he/she has to reply with
the following format;
(a) ACCEPTING AN INVITATION;

2nd December, 2017
Dear Mr. & Mrs. Mligo,
Thank you very much for your invitation to your daughter’s
wedding ceremony on 5th Dec, 2017.
I want to assure you that I will attend this occasion.
Yours sincerely,
M.B. William.
69
(b) REGRET
In case the invited has failed to attend the function, he/she has to reply by using the provided address
by using the following format;
2nd December, 2017
Dear Mr. & Mrs. Mligo,

Thank you very much for your invitation to your daughter’s
wedding ceremony on 5th Dec, 2017.
I am very sorry that I will not be able to attend this wedding
ceremony as on the same day I will be going to Morogoro.
I hope that all things will go as scheduled.
Yours sincerely,
M.B. William.
(a) A TELEPHONE MESSAGE FOR ACCEPTANCE OR REGRET

In case the invited one wants to regret or accept an invitation with a telephone message, the following
is the format of the telephone message with the guide words.
Telephone message templates/examples;
TO:…………………………………………………………………………..
FROM:……………………………………………………………………..
COMPANY:……………………………………………………………….
TEL No:…………………… Email address:…………………………….
DATE:……………………... TIME:……………………………………..
MESSAGE: ……………………………………………………………….
SIGNATURE: ……………………………………
TO: Mr. & Mrs. Mligo,

FROM: Malima Boaz William
COMPANY: Vodacom Tanzania
TEL No: 0658126323 Email address: malimaboaz@yahoo.com
DATE: 03/12/2017 TIME: 15:20
MESSAGE: Thank you very much for your invitation, I am very sorry that I
will not be able to attend this wedding ceremony,
SIGNATURE: M.B. William.
70
Thank you chair Person, Secretary, Time keeper, opposing side, proposing side and all members of the
floor / audience. I am here strongly to oppose or propose the motion which states that “EDUCATION IS
BETTER THAN MONEY”. I am strongly opposing/proposing this motion with the following points;
Education gives people awareness about different issues, though education a person can get knowledge
about personal hygiene, balanced diet, how to escape from different diseases a few to mention, all this
knowledge will make a person more healthy and fit to his or her daily life, a weak or sick person cannot find
money, therefore, education is better than money.
Education provides knowledge which helps people to improve the science and technology, through
this knowledge people puts the knowledge into applications as resulting to the creation of different things like
mobile phones, computers, vehicles, motor bike etc. By doing so, communication and transport becomes so
fast around the world.
Education builds self-confidence, a person who is educated is confident to speak with everybody and
defending his or her views. A confident person is able to fight for his/her own rights because education gives
him/her the confidence of doing so. This cannot be done by money……………ssssssssssssssssssssssssss
Ssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssss
sssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssss
Education……………….sssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssss
ssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssss
Education………..ssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssss
sssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssss
Education………..ssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssss
ssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssss
Education……….sssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssss
Any relevant conclusion about the motion
71
Speech is the formal address (oral message) delivered to the audience usually by one person to inform, to
convince, to inspire, to instruct, to entertain or to talk anything related to the occasion you are going to address.
Therefore, the types of speech depend on the purpose of the speech writer/speaker. We may be needed to write
the speech to argue for or against the certain topic, to inform the audience about the certain issue/topic, to
entertain the audience or just to say anything related to the occasion we are. Therefore, we first need to know
the type of speeches depending on the purpose of the speech.
(a) Informative speech centers on talking about people, events, processes, places or things. The speaker
informs the audience about the certain issue. Informative speech needs factual information about the
subject/topic. For example, the speech writer can inform the audience about “HIV/AIDS”, this subject
needs factual information and not the speaker’s personal feelings/emotions.
(b) Persuasive/argumentative speech centers on convincing the audience to accept the points you are
arguing for or against the given topic/subject matter. For example, you may be needed to write the
speech to argue for or against the topic “Technology is dangerous” Here, the speech writer needs to
prepare the points either to argue for or against the topic.
(c) Special occasion speech is the one which is addressed to the audience of the certain ceremonial event.
This type of speech tends to praise a person, an institution, an event or thanks giving.
Things to consider when writing a speech

a) The title
Every speech should have a title to introduce what the speech is about. The title should be written
precisely in capital letters. For example, A SPEECH ABOUT MALARIA
b) Introduction
This is the initial part which may start either with the greeting to the audience following their
professional bureaucracy or with the big statement that will grab the attention of the audience.
For example, you may start with the following statement,
“Dear the Head master, vice head master, the academic master, all other teachers and the
students, good after noon… My name is Arthur Simkonda, a form four “A” student at this school. I am in
front of you today to thank our lovely Head Master, Mr. Sahan Bilaazah for the precious and beautiful
gift he gave me after performing well my mock examinations”
Introduction depends on the subject matter given. Some of the topics (especially the argumentative and
informative speech) are introduced by defining the key words of the subject matter. For example,
topics about “Malaria, Poverty, Early marriages, etc” need to be defined before going to the main
body. Some of the topics have no key words to define (especially the special occasion or entertainment
speeches), for example, topics about Journeys, Adventures, School life, etc, these topics need to be
introduced by just following the logical order of the topic.
c) Main body
This is the part which contains central ideas which are presented precisely in paragraphs. In
argumentative speeches or informative speeches, each paragraph should contain evidence and
examples to support the ideas presented, this is not necessarily in the special occasion or entertainment
speeches. Argumentative and informative speeches need the logical order of ideas. When writing the
main body, the writer should make a link between one paragraph and the next paragraph so as to make
the work logical. Each paragraph should start with a capital letter.
72
d) Conclusion
This is the final/ending part of the speech which sums up the subject matter/topic. The conclusion
should be very precise. Conclusion should be a brief summary of the subject matter/topic given.
NOTE:
 Use simple and grammatical language which can be understood by everyone.
 Make proper use of relative pronouns, nouns and other vocabularies’ spellings.
 Every paragraph should end or start with the transitional words like “apart from that, on top of that,
however, in addition to, all in all, furthermore, nonetheless, etc” these words are very useful
between points of the main body. They help to make the speech one cohesive work, not a series of
points or prose that work independently. Phrases like “in summary, in conclusion, to sum up,
however, generally, etc” are very useful in speeches because a speech is an oral presentation which
needs this kind of phrases.
Example 01
A SPEECH TO MY BELOVED PARENTS AFTER MY GRADUATION

23/07/2017
Dear parents, my brothers, my sisters, and other relatives in this beautiful occasion,
I hope that you are all fine. I would like to take this golden chance to thank God for
giving us a chance and life to attend this event of celebrating my graduation ceremony of
attaining my bachelor degree in Engineering.
Dear parents, you are the second people I would like to thank since you are the one
who 100% contributed to my today’s success. You gave birth of me, you brought me
well, you taught me to respect people without considering their age, sex, religion and
tribe. You educated me in schools, and today I am graduating my bachelor degree in
Engineering from University. I am proud of you parents.
My beloved parents, it is a long journey since I got consciousness that you are my
parents. All the time you ensured that I am physically and mentally healthy. Whenever
my brothers and sisters tried to bully me, you canned them. You punished them and
taught them to love and take care of me. These my brothers and sisters are now grown
up, two of them are doctors, one is an engineer just like me, and the other are teachers.
My beloved parents, throughout our past days, we sometimes made you angry by
ignoring what you instructed us. I was one of the troublesome children in our family. I
eventually realized that what I was doing was not correct. I disappointed you when I
performed badly in my exams, but through your efforts you changed my world, I started
being the first person in my studies at different educational levels.
Dear parents, I have nothing to give you as payments to what you did to me since I
was a child. The only thing I have is to respect you all the time. I will always pray to God
to give you a long life and health. You are the amazing couple. I would like you to be my
role model in everything good you do.
Thank you very much for listening to my speech, God bless all of you. Have a nice
evening.
Thank you.
73
Example 02
A SPEECH ABOUT CHORELA TO THE MAGU VILLAGERS

20th November, 2015
Dear the head of village, the secretary, and all other villagers, my name is Pilipili Kali from Magu
District Hospital. I am the doctor specialized in general health of the human body. Today, I would like to
address you my fellow villagers about cholera, the epidemic disease that erupted on January and keeps
on killing our beloved relatives. Before I go straight to the points, let me briefly introduce about this
disease;
My dear villagers, cholera is the disease which is caused by the micro-bacteria called plasmodium,
ssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssss
Now, the following are the causes of this epidemic disease;
Dear villagers, the first cause of cholera is ssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssss

Sssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssss
Another cause of cholera is when sssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssss

However, an infected person shows the following symptoms;
Dear villagers, the first symptom is frequent vomiting, ssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssss

Dehydration is another ssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssss

With those points my dear villagers, I am sure that all of you now know much about this
disease and you will take precautions on how to ssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssss
sssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssss
Thank you very much for listening.
74
This is a well presented piece of written work which is talking about a certain issue/topic to convince,
motivate, narrate or inform the readers. We can express our views or ideas through compositions. Therefore,
the composition must be clearly and logically presented. There are different types of compositions depending
on the purpose of the writer. There is narrative composition, expository composition, argumentative
composition and descriptive composition. Narrative composition and argumentative composition are going to
be our major focus since they are mostly used than the other.
(a) A narrative composition tells a story about something or a particular event as well as giving the
readers the sense of actually witnessing it. “I” sentences give readers a feeling of being part of the
story. When writing the narrative composition the following should be considered;
 Where did it happen?  Did you witness the event or you were just told?
 What happened?  Were you involved in the event?
 When did the event start?  How did the event end?
 How did you know about the event?
(b) Argumentative/persuasive composition, here the writer tries to convince/persuade the readers by
giving an argument that will challenge the readers’ reasons with regards to their opinions and thoughts
about the given topic. Argumentative composition is like a debate, the writer should provide the points
to support or oppose the topic with his/her points.
(c) Expository composition, this is a type of composition which usually analyzes a thing or a situation by
making it clearer to those who presumably do not understand. In expository composition, the writer
exposes some information to the readers. Expository compositions are based on the facts and not on
the personal feelings. Therefore, the writer may explain or define the topic, using facts, statistics and
vivid examples. Therefore, it presents a balanced analysis of a topic.
(d) Descriptive composition, this is a type of composition which attempts to describe a person, place or
object. Descriptive compositions tend to make the readers realize how the writer felt under the certain
circumstances. In here, the writer ties to describe what he/she saw and felt under the certain
circumstances. Therefore, it appeals to the readers emotions since the writer describes his/her feelings
with colorful words.
Things to consider when writing a composition
e) The title
Every composition should have a title to introduce what the composition is about. The title should be
written precisely in capital letters.
f) Introduction
This is the initial part which introduces the subject matter. Introduction depends on the subject matter
given. Some of the topics (especially the argumentative compositions) are introduced by defining the
key words of the subject matter. For example, topics about “Female Genital Mutilation, Corruption,
Poverty, Early marriages etc” need to be defined before going to the main body. Some of the topics
have no key words to define (especially the narrative compositions) , for example, topics about
Journeys, Adventures, School life, etc, these topics need to be introduced by following the logical
order of the topic.
75
g) Main body
argumentative compositions each paragraph should contain evidence and examples to support the
ideas presented, this is not necessarily in the narrative compositions. Narrative compositions only need
the logical order of ideas. When writing the main body, the writer should make a link between one
paragraph and the next paragraph so as to make the work logical. Each paragraph should start with a
capital letter.
h) Conclusion
This is the final/ending part of the composition which sums up the subject matter/topic. The
conclusion should be very precise. Avoid concluding by using phrases like “in summary, in
conclusion, to sum up, etc” these words are not useful in written form; they are useful in oral
presentations. Conclusion should be a brief summary of the subject matter/topic given.
NOTE:
EXAMPLE OF DESCRIPTIVE COMPOSITION
MY BEST FRIEND
Sadocki is my best friend. His father’s name is Mr. Severian and his mother’s name is Mrs. Dorothy
Severian. Sadock has three brothers and one sister. He is the eldest among all his brothers and sisters. Sadock’s
siblings are Benny, Jackie, Michael and Mwandu.
Sadock is seventeen years old; he is one year older than me. We are all studying in the same class; we
are both form three students. Sadock is a slim boy but very smart. He is not only intelligent boy but also a
hardworking. He always stands first or second in the class examinations. He is good at English and Kiswahili.
Being an intelligent and obedient boy, he has became a favorite student of all teachers at Magu Secondary
School.
His house is not far from mine. So after school-hours I go to his house and we do our homework
together. Whenever I have any difficulty, he helps me. My parents love Sadock very much. They become very
happy when they see us together either playing or studying. Sadock’s parents also love me very much. I
sometimes help Sadock to fetch some water or other house chores. I think this is what pleases Sadock’s
parents.
Last year, Sadock and I went to visit Ngorongoro National Park. It was during December holiday. Our
tour guide was called Mr. Malunguja. He was a very charming man who made our holiday awesome. Mr.
Malunguja recognized that Sadock and I are best friends. He liked to see the way we were happy all the time in
that holiday.
I real love Sadock, he is not like other boys who tend to bully others at school. Sadock is polite,
intelligent and ambitious boy just like me. I want God to make our friendship everlasting.
76
Essay is the piece of writing which is talking about a certain issue/topic to convince, motivate, narrate or
inform the readers. Just like compositions; there are four major types of essays depending on the writer’s goal.
There is argumentative essay, expository essay, narrative essay and descriptive essay.
(e) A narrative essay tells a story about something or a particular event as well as giving the readers the
sense of actually witnessing it. “I” sentences give readers a feeling of being part of the story. When
writing the narrative essay the following should be considered;
 Where did it happen?  Did you witness the event or you were just told?
 What happened?  Were you involved in the event?
 When did the event start?  How did the event end?
 How did you know about the event?
(f) Argumentative/persuasive essay, here the writer tries to convince/persuade the readers by giving an
argument that will challenge the readers’ reasons with regards to their opinions and thoughts about the
given topic. Argumentative/persuasive essay is like a debate, the writer should provide the points to
support or oppose the topic with his/her points. This essay explains the points in paragraphs to
support/oppose the topic. Only the first paragraph explains the topic. For example, you might be given
the task to argue for or against the topic, “Money is better than education” therefore, you need to
provide points to defend the topic on the side you have selected.
(g) Expository essay, this is a type of essay which usually analyzes a thing or a situation by making it
clearer to those who presumably do not understand. In expository essay, the writer exposes some
information to the readers. Expository essays are based on the facts and not on the personal feelings.
For example, you might be given the topic to write about “Female Genital Mutilation” In expository
essays, the whole composition explains the topic; that means the essay is like a discussion focusing on
the advantages and disadvantages of the topic in just one paragraph. Therefore, the writer may explain
or define the topic, using facts, statistics and vivid examples. Therefore, it presents a balanced analysis
of a topic.
(h) Descriptive essay, this is a type of essay which attempts to describe a person, place or object.
Descriptive essays tend to make the readers realize how the writer know or feel under the certain
circumstances/topic. In here, the writer ties to describe what he/she knows, sees or feels under the
certain circumstances/topic. For example, the writer might be given the topic to talk about “Tanzania”
Therefore, the writer needs to describe “Tanzania” the way he/she knows or feels with colorful
words. The writer’s descriptions tend to appeal to the readers’ emotions since the writer describes
his/her feelings or knowledge.
Things to consider when writing an essay
a. Introduction
This is the initial part which introduces the subject matter. Introduction depends on the subject matter
given. Some of the topics (especially the argumentative essays) are introduced by defining the key
words of the subject matter. For example, topics about “Female Genital Mutilation, Corruption,
Poverty, Early marriages etc” need to be defined before going to the main body. Some of the topics
have no key words to define (especially the narrative essays), for example, topics about Journeys,
77
Adventures, School life, etc, these topics need to be introduced by following the logical order of the
topic.
b. Main body
argumentative essays each paragraph should contain evidence and examples to support the ideas
presented, this is not necessarily in the narrative essays. Narrative essays only need the logical order of
ideas. When writing the main body, the writer should make a link between one paragraph and the next
paragraph so as to make the work logical. Each paragraph should start with a capital letter.
c. Conclusion
This is the final/ending part of the essay which sums up the subject matter/topic. The conclusion
should be very precise. Avoid concluding by using phrases like “in summary, in conclusion, to sum
up, etc” these words are not useful in written form; they are useful in oral presentations. Conclusion
should be a brief summary of the subject matter/topic given.
NOTE:
EXAMPLE OF AN ESSAY
QUESTION: Write an essay on the importance of studying literature.
Literature is the work of art which is expressed by using artistic or creatively language to reflect
social realities. There are two types of literature, oral literature which is expressed by a word of mouth and
written literature which is expressed in a written form. All these types with their genres have the following
functions;
Literature educates the society, a literary work gives people awareness and self-actualization by
giving them knowledge about different social realities. It makes people think reason and remember. For
example, Literature may educate people to abstain from drug abuse, corruption, early marriages a few to
mention, but it emphasizes people to be hard workers, obedient and responsible.
Literature entertains people/society, literary works make people get pleasure and enjoyment when
reading, watching and listening to the amusing words and actions of the characters. Words and actions of
the characters may eventually make people laugh and smile.
Literature criticizes the society, literature is the mirror of the society, it mirrors many issues. In the
societies we live, there are so many burning issues from which an author wants to make them clear or to
make people live in accordance. The issue of polygamy, FGM, Early Marriages and Bad governance are
some of the issues the literary works try to criticize aiming to transform the society.
Literature liberates people mentally and physically, liberation means to free someone from social,
economic or political restraints. People/the society is having negative mindset in many issues. An author
uses language to instruct, inform and educate people about many issues. From the education, instructions
78
and information provided literary, people’s mindsets change from negative to positive. The
awareness/consciousness which people get and change them from negative to positive is what we call
liberation.
Literature preserves, promotes and expresses the people’s culture, culture refers to all ways of life
of a certain society. Customs, traditions, beliefs, language, crafts and skills are some of the cultural
elements. Literature speaks about people’s life style and their habits. By doing so, it expresses the culture of
the certain society. When an author prepares a literary work, he/she expresses both; negative and positive
cultural elements. The positive cultural elements are promoted and sometimes copied by another society
since they are good and beneficial, but the negative cultural elements are discouraged and sometimes
criticized.
Literature develops language, literature uses language as its medium of communication. An author
may create/use new words, phrases, sayings, idioms or may mix a different language which was not known
before, by doing so, the language develops inside and outside the author’s society. The readers and audience
may also develop their language skills; listening, reading, speaking and also the writing skills when reading,
watching, writing or listening to the literary works.
Literature is used to influence the society, literary works have the power to affect, control or
manipulate people when reading, watching or listening to them. Sometimes an author uses language
creatively to influence to do something. People can be influenced either to do/act in the same way or to
react against those issues portrayed by the works of art. People can be influenced to change their behaviors
from negative to positive or from positive to negative. Staging revolutions, riots and boycotts are some of
the results of watching or reading a literary work.
Therefore, literature is very important in the society, by using its creative language and characters we get
different messages as intended by the author. Apart from those functions, literature becomes the source of
employment to the artists who compose literary works, as result, they may improve their living standards
through selling literary works particularly written literature.
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Benson Benson-0658 126323 ENGLISH GRAMMAR FOR O-LEVEL STUDENTS

Greeting means to salute or to pay respect to someone.

HOW TO GREET PEOPLE

The formal greeting is used between;

The informal greeting is used between;

(i) Good morning, Good evening or Good after noon

(ii) It’s nice to meet you or I’m pleased to meet you

(iii) How have you been?

(iv) How do you do?

(a) Hey, Hey man, or Hi

(b) How is it going, or How are you doing?

(c) What’s up? What’s new? Or What’s going on?

(d) How is everything? How are things? Or How is life?

(e) How is your day or How’s your day going?

(f) Good to see you or Nice to see you

(g) Long time no see, It’s been a long time/while

(ii) You alright? Are you OK? Or Alright mate?

(iv) Sup! Or Whazzup!

(v) G’day mate!

How to introduce yourself:

My name is Kajala Masanja,

(Talk about yourself orally)

EXERCISE; 1 (NECTA 2011)

EXERCISE; 2 (NECTA 2012)

EXERCISE; 3a (NECTA 2015)

EXERCISE; 3b (NECTA 2015)

Offer is the proposal made by someone to be

More Examples  Write five sentences to offer someone and the

There are many ways of wishing people.

For example; HOW TO REPLY AN EXCUSE BEFORE

It is one O’clock It is quarter past seven

A: WORD CLASS / PARTS OF SPEECH

Concrete Abstract Concrete Abstract

People’s names Places and things

- Mariamu - Dar es salaam

Both countable and uncountable nouns can be abstract or concrete

Boy - Boys Water – Water Idea - Ideas Advice – Advice

COLLECTIVE NOUNS /GROUP NOUNS

For example; in steady of saying “A group of - A band of musicians

- A ream of papers  A group of people in a church----Mass or

Singular Plural SUBJECT OBJECT

I We Singular Plural Singular Plural

Examples of personal pronouns in subjective case;

Examples of personal pronouns in objective case;

(i) Can you hear me? – can you hear us?

 Her brother is very handsome, isn’t _____?

(i) WHO o A table which was painted black is Brocken

For example; (vi)WHEN

 “ON” is used for days and dates

We also use “IN” mainly with towns and cities

Other prepositions of time

4) Preposition of cause /reason

6) Preposition of place /position

7) Preposition of contrast /concession

- Despite the darkness we walked on

 Despite the pain in his left leg, he completed the marathon

 Despite having all qualifications, they didn’t offer me a job

 Despite being strong, he failed to carry me on his back

 In spite of having sensitive teeth, she likes ice cream

- Shit! I hate mice-----disgust

o He went to the market in order that he can buy some fruits

Subordinating conjunctions are divided into the following divisions:-

ii. Cause or reason subordinators