INTERTESTAMENTAL PERIOD The name given to the historical period between the Old and

New Testaments (fifth century BC–first century AD). It is also known as the Second Temple period.

The first Jewish temple, completed by Solomon around 960 BC, was destroyed by the Babylonians in

587/586 BC. The second temple, completed by Zerubbabel in 516 BC (and expanded later by Herod

the Great), was eventually destroyed by the Romans in AD 70. The intertestamental period is roughly,

then, the period from the return of the Babylonian exile to the dawn of the Christian era.

The exile of the Israelites to Babylon marks a turning point in the history of redemption. Prior to

this experience God’s people were constantly tempted to worship other gods. During the exile the

majority appear to have abandoned their faith. Only a small remnant ever returned to the promised

land.

They rebuilt the city of Jerusalem. The Torah became their constitution, but the expectations of the

biblical prophets were not fulfilled. When the temple was opened, there is no mention of a return of

the visible presence of God. The rabbinic tradition would later observe that “after the later prophets,

Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi had died, the Holy Spirit departed from Israel” (b. Yoma 9b),

implying that God had fallen silent. Nevertheless, the Hebrew canon closes offering the hope of

forgiveness and restoration (cf. 2 Chron. 7:14).

During this period there were significant Jewish communities in Persia, Babylon, and Egypt. They

formed assemblies, or “synagogues,” as centers of Jewish community and faith. The Jews in Egypt

built a temple at Aswan, on the island of Elephantine. In their letters they claimed that this temple had

existed before the days of Cambyses (late sixth century BC).

They were particularly challenged by the worship of idols, the threat of persecution, and the

difficulties of observing the laws of separation, especially the food laws and the ban on mixed

marriages. We have very little extracanonical Jewish literature of the Persian period. We do have a

series of stories, difficult to date, that look back to the time of Jeremiah (Letter of Jeremiah) or Daniel

(Susanna; Bel and the Dragon; Prayer of Azariah; Song of the Three Young Men). See Apocrypha,
Old Testament.

GREEK RULE (333–63 BC)

After defeating the Persians at the Battle of Issus (333 BC), Alexander the Great swept through

Palestine on his way to Egypt. His early death (323 BC) led to a series of wars between his four

generals. Eventually, Seleucus controlled Babylon and ruled from Syria to India, while Ptolemy was

declared Pharaoh (301 BC) and ruled Palestine from Egypt.

The Ptolemies developed a strongly Greek culture in Egypt. Alexandria became a world center of

learning. Ptolemy II Philadelphus (r. 287–247 BC) sponsored the translation of the Torah into Greek.

This coincided with the gradual translation of the rest of the Hebrew Scriptures (the Septuagint).

Under the Ptolemies, the Jews colonized Galilee, bypassing Samaria and reclaiming the north for

“Israel.”

The Jews in Egypt struggled to win equality and respect for their traditions. Some simply

abandoned their Jewish distinctives. Others attempted to win respect through wise business

enterprises. Some Jews entered the academy and attempted to explain Jewish traditions by using the

categories and values of the Greek philosophers, minimizing the differences (Letter of Aristeas;

Sibylline Oracles, book 3). Others argued for the priority and superiority of the Jewish tradition,

claiming that Greek and Egyptian learning could be traced back to God’s revelation through Moses

and the patriarchs. Any attempt to rigorously maintain the distinctives of the Jewish faith and

observance of the law of Moses remained the agenda of a small minority (cf. 3 Maccabees; Additions

to Esther).

During the third century BC tensions between the Seleucids and the Ptolemies grew, and Jews in

Palestine became involved in these intrigues. The high priest Simon II (219–196 BC) used to pay the

provincial taxes to Ptolemy out of his own means.

Ben Sira (died 175 BC) ran a school in Jerusalem. He pointed his students to the wisdom of the

Jewish Scriptures rather than Greek philosophy. Some time after 117 BC his grandson translated his
work into Greek (the book of Sirach).

The family of Tobijah, who opposed Nehemiah, had become rich and powerful and married into

the family of the high priest. When Simon’s son Onias became high priest, he refused to pay

Ptolemy’s tax. So Joseph Tobiad, Onias’s nephew, paid the tax and won the contract to collect the

taxes of Judah. His youngest son, Hyrcanus, outbid his father and so started a family feud. Joseph

worked for the Seleucids, while Hyrcanus remained loyal to Ptolemy.

After a series of wars the Seleucids defeated the Ptolemies (198 BC). A steady flow of Jews

migrated to Egypt. Initially, Antiochus III (r. 221–187 BC) issued a decree granting certain privileges

to the Jews and funded the repairs to Jerusalem necessitated by the wars. Following his defeat by the

Romans (190 BC), his son Antiochus became a Roman hostage, and he was required to pay a huge

tribute. He decided to loot the temple in Jerusalem. He died in Babylon while looting the temple of

Bel. Seleucus IV (r. 187–175 BC) sent his son to Rome in exchange for his brother Antiochus and

made another raid on the Jerusalem temple for funds. In 175 BC Antiochus overthrew his brother and

took the throne as Antiochus IV Epiphanes (“God made visible”).

Somewhere during this period works started to appear claiming to be the writings of Enoch and

Noah. According to these works, Gentile nations were empowered by demons operating through

idols. Gentile religion and culture arose from their deceptions. God had revealed to Enoch and Noah

the secrets needed to counter these deceptions. This involved the adoption of a distinctive 364-day

calendar. As this tradition developed, other works appeared that incorporated these ideas into a

rereading of the Scriptures. Both the book of Jubilees (c. 168–150 BC), which cites the writings of

Enoch and Noah as authentic, and the Temple Scroll claim to be a second revelation given to Moses

on Mount Sinai—a revelation for the chosen righteous of the last days. Other books had been passed

on to Abraham, Jacob, and eventually Levi. While Israel had failed to keep “the first law,” this body

of revelation claimed to enable the elect to rightly interpret the law, survive the coming judgment, and

gain possession of the whole earth.

At about this time also we hear of the rise of the “pious ones” (Hasidim) indicating a widespread

stirring of heart and a seeking after God (1 Macc. 2:42; 7:12–18). The additional stories contained in

1 Esdras may reflect some of the concerns of this time. The difficulty was to know the right way back

among so many competing voices.